question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
who won americas got talent season 12 2017 | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted the show for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Brown and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
|
who believed that high culture was very important to democracy | Social democracy - Wikipedia
Social democracy is a political, social and economic ideology that supports economic and social interventions to promote social justice within the framework of a capitalist economy, as well as a policy regime involving a commitment to representative democracy, measures for income redistribution and regulation of the economy in the general interest and welfare state provisions. Social democracy thus aims to create the conditions for capitalism to lead to greater democratic, egalitarian and solidaristic outcomes; and is often associated with the set of socioeconomic policies that became prominent in Northern and Western Europe -- particularly the Nordic model in the Nordic countries -- during the latter half of the 20th century.
Social democracy originated as a political ideology that advocated an evolutionary and peaceful transition from capitalism to socialism using established political processes in contrast to the revolutionary approach to transition associated with orthodox Marxism. In the early post-war era in Western Europe, social democratic parties rejected the Stalinist political and economic model then current in the Soviet Union, committing themselves either to an alternate path to socialism or to a compromise between capitalism and socialism. In this period, social democrats embraced a mixed economy based on the predominance of private property, with only a minority of essential utilities and public services under public ownership. As a result, social democracy became associated with Keynesian economics, state interventionism and the welfare state, while abandoning the prior goal of replacing the capitalist system (factor markets, private property and wage labor) with a qualitatively different socialist economic system.
Modern social democracy is characterized by a commitment to policies aimed at curbing inequality, oppression of underprivileged groups and poverty, including support for universally accessible public services like care for the elderly, child care, education, health care and workers ' compensation. The social democratic movement also has strong connections with the labour movement and trade unions and is supportive of collective bargaining rights for workers as well as measures to extend democratic decision - making beyond politics into the economic sphere in the form of co-determination for employees and other economic stakeholders.
The Third Way, which ostensibly aims to fuse right - wing economics with social democratic welfare policies, is an ideology that developed in the 1990s and is sometimes associated with social democratic parties, but some analysts have instead characterized the Third Way as an effectively neoliberal movement.
During late 19th and early 20th centuries, social democracy was a movement that aimed to replace private ownership with social ownership of the means of production, taking influences from both Marxism and the supporters of Ferdinand Lassalle. By 1868 -- 1869, Marxism had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, the Social Democratic Workers ' Party of Germany (SDAP).
In the early 20th century, the German Social democratic politician Eduard Bernstein rejected the revolutionary and materialist foundations of classical and orthodox Marxism and advanced the position that socialism should be grounded in ethical and moral arguments and was to be achieved through gradual legislative reform. Influenced by Bernstein, following the split between reformists and revolutionary socialists in the Second International, social democratic parties rejected revolutionary politics in favor of parliamentary reform while remaining committed to socialization. In this period, social democracy became associated with reformist socialism. Under the influence of politicians like Carlo Rosselli in Italy, social democrats began disassociating themselves from Marxism altogether and embraced liberal socialism, appealing to morality instead of any consistent systematic, scientific or materialist worldview. Social democracy made appeals to communitarian, corporatist and sometimes nationalist sentiments while rejecting the economic and technological determinism generally characteristic of both Marxism and economic liberalism. By the post-World War II period, most social democrats in Europe had abandoned their ideological connection to Marxism and shifted their emphasis toward social policy reform in place of transition from capitalism to socialism.
The origins of social democracy have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major working - class party in Europe, the General German Workers ' Association (ADAV) founded by Ferdinand Lassalle. 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmen 's Association, also known as the First International. It brought together socialists of various stances and initially occasioned a conflict between Karl Marx and the anarchists led by Mikhail Bakunin over the role of the state in socialism, with Bakunin rejecting any role for the state. Another issue in the First International was the role of reformism.
Although Lassalle was not a Marxist, he was influenced by the theories of Marx and Friedrich Engels and he accepted the existence and importance of class struggle. However, unlike Marx 's and Engels 's The Communist Manifesto, Lassalle promoted class struggle in a more moderate form. While Marx viewed the state negatively as an instrument of class rule that should only exist temporarily upon the rise to power of the proletariat and then dismantled, Lassalle accepted the state. Lassalle viewed the state as a means through which workers could enhance their interests and even transform the society to create an economy based on worker - run cooperatives. Lassalle 's strategy was primarily electoral and reformist, with Lassalleans contending that the working class needed a political party that fought above all for universal adult male suffrage.
The ADAV 's party newspaper was called Der Sozialdemokrat ("The Social Democrat ''). Marx and Engels responded to the title "Sozialdemocrat '' with distaste, Engels once writing: "But what a title: Sozialdemokrat!... Why do n't they simply call it The Proletarian ''. Marx agreed with Engels that "Sozialdemokrat '' was a bad title. Although the origins of the name "Sozialdemokrat '' actually traced back to Marx 's German translation in 1848 of the French political party known as the Partie Democrat - Socialist into Partei der Sozialdemokratie, Marx did not like this French party because he viewed it as dominated by the middle class and associated the word "Sozialdemokrat '' with that party. There was a Marxist faction within the ADAV represented by Wilhelm Liebknecht who became one of the editors of the Die Sozialdemokrat.
Faced with opposition from liberal capitalists to his socialist policies, Lassalle controversially attempted to forge a tactical alliance with the conservative aristocratic Junkers due to their anti-bourgeois attitudes, as well as with Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Friction in the ADAV arose over Lassalle 's policy of a friendly approach to Bismarck that had assumed incorrectly that Bismarck in turn would be friendly towards them. This approach was opposed by the party 's Marxists, including Liebknecht. Opposition in the ADAV to Lassalle 's friendly approach to Bismarck 's government resulted in Liebknecht resigning from his position as editor of Die Sozialdemokrat and leaving the ADAV in 1865. In 1869, Liebknecht, along with Marxist August Bebel, founded the SDAP, which was founded as a merger of three groups: the petit - bourgeois Saxon People 's Party (SVP), a faction of the ADAV; and members of the League of German Workers ' Associations (VDA).
Though the SDAP was not officially Marxist, it was the first major working - class organization to be led by Marxists and Marx and Engels had direct association with the party. The party adopted stances similar to those adopted by Marx at the First International. There was intense rivalry and antagonism between the SDAP and the ADAV, with the SDAP being highly hostile to the Prussian government while the ADAV pursued a reformist and more cooperative approach. This rivalry reached its height involving the two parties ' stances on the Franco - Prussian War, with the SDAP refusing to support Prussia 's war effort by claiming it was an imperialist war pursued by Bismarck, while the ADAV supported the war.
In the aftermath of the defeat of France in the Franco - Prussian War, revolution broke out in France, with revolutionary army members along with working - class revolutionaries founding the Paris Commune. The Paris Commune appealed both to the citizens of Paris regardless of class, as well as to the working class who were a major base of support for the government by appealing to them via militant rhetoric. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, the Commune also received substantial support from the middle - class bourgeoisie of Paris, including shopkeepers and merchants. The Commune, in part due to its sizable number neo-Proudhonians and neo-Jacobins in the Central Committee, declared that the Commune was not opposed to private property, but rather hoped to create the widest distribution of it. The political composition of the Commune included twenty - five neo-Jacobins, fifteen to twenty neo-Proudhonians and protosyndicalists, nine or ten Blanquists, a variety of radical republicans and a few Internationalists influenced by Marx.
In the aftermath of the collapse of the Paris Commune in 1871, Marx praised the Paris Commune in his work The Civil War in France (1871) for its achievements in spite of its pro-bourgeois influences and called it an excellent model of the dictatorship of the proletariat in practice, as it had dismantled the apparatus of the bourgeois state, including its huge bureaucracy; military; and its executive, judicial and legislative institutions; and replaced it with a working - class state with broad popular support. However, the collapse of the Commune and the persecution of its anarchist supporters had the effect of weakening the influence of the Bakuninist anarchists in the First International, which resulted in Marx expelling the weakened rival Bakuninists from the International a year later.
In Britain, the achievement of legalisation of trade unions under the Trade Union Act 1871 drew British trade unionists to believe that working conditions could be improved through parliamentary means. At the Hague Congress of 1872, Marx made a remark, admitting that while there are countries "where the workers can attain their goal by peaceful means '' in most countries on the Continent "the lever of our revolution must be force ''.
You know that the institutions, mores, and traditions of various countries must be taken into consideration, and we do not deny that there are countries -- such as America, England, and if I were more familiar with your institutions, I would perhaps also add Holland -- where the workers can attain their goal by peaceful means. This being the case, we must also recognize the fact that in most countries on the Continent the lever of our revolution must be force; it is force to which we must someday appeal in order to erect the rule of labor.
In 1875, Marx attacked the Gotha Program that became the program of Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP) in the same year in his Critique of the Gotha Program. Marx was not optimistic that Germany at the time was not open to a peaceful means to achieve socialism, especially after German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had enacted Anti-Socialist Laws in 1878. At the time of the Anti-Socialist Laws beginning to be drafted but not yet published in 1878, Marx spoke of the possibilities of legislative reforms by an elected government composed of working - class legislative members, but also of the willingness to use force should force be used against the working class:
If in England, for instance, or the United States, the working class were to gain a majority in Parliament or Congress, they could, by lawful means, rid themselves of such laws and institutions as impeded their development, though they could only do insofar as society had reached a sufficiently mature development. However, the "peaceful '' movement might be transformed into a "forcible '' one by resistance on the part of those interested in restoring the former state of affairs; if (as in the American Civil War and French Revolution) they are put down by force, it is as rebels against "lawful '' force.
In his study England in 1845 and in 1885 (1885), Engels wrote a study that analysed the changes in the British class system from 1845 to 1885, in which he commended the Chartist movement for being responsible for the achievement of major breakthroughs for the working class. Engels stated that during this time Britain 's industrial bourgeoisie had learned "that the middle class can never obtain full social and political power over the nation except by the help of the working class ''. In addition, he noticed "a gradual change over the relations between the two classes ''. This change he described was manifested in the change of laws in Britain that granted political changes in favour of the working class that the Chartist movement had demanded for years:
The ' Abolition of the Property Qualification ' and ' Vote by Ballot ' are now the law of the land. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 make a near approach to ' universal suffrage, ' at least such as it now exists in Germany.
A major non-Marxian influence on social democracy came from the British Fabian Society founded in 1884 by Frank Podmore that emphasised the need for a gradualist evolutionary and reformist approach to the achievement of socialism. The Fabian Society was founded as a splinter group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism. Unlike Marxism, Fabianism did not promote itself as a working - class - led movement and it largely had middle - class members. The Fabian Society published the Fabian Essays on Socialism (1889) that was substantially written by George Bernard Shaw. Shaw referred to Fabians as "all Social Democrats, with a common confiction (sic) of the necessity of vesting the organization of industry and the material of production in a State identified with the whole people by complete Democracy ''. Other important early Fabians included Sidney Webb, who from 1887 to 1891 wrote the bulk of the Society 's official policies. Fabianism would become a major influence on the British labour movement.
The modern social democratic movement came into being through a division within the socialist movement: this division can be described as a parting of ways between those who insisted upon political revolution as a precondition for the achievement of socialist goals and those who maintained that a gradual or evolutionary path to socialism was both possible and desirable.
The influence of the Fabian Society in Britain grew in the British socialist movement in the 1890s, especially within the Independent Labour Party (ILP) founded in 1893. Important ILP members were affiliated with the Fabian Society, including Keir Hardie and Ramsay MacDonald -- the future British Prime Minister. Fabian influence in British government affairs also emerged, such as Fabian member Sidney Webb being chosen to take part in writing what became the Minority Report of the Royal Commission on Labour. While Hardie was nominally a member of the Fabian Society, as leader of the ILP he had close relations with certain Fabians, such as Shaw, while he was antagonistic to others such as the Webbs. As ILP leader, Hardie rejected revolutionary politics while declaring that he believed the party 's tactics should be "as constitutional as the Fabians ''.
Another important Fabian figure who joined the ILP was Robert Blatchford who wrote the work Merrie England (1894) that endorsed municipal socialism. Merrie England was a major publication that sold 750,000 copies within one year. In Merrie England, Blatchford distinguished two types of socialism: an "ideal socialism '' and a "practical socialism ''. Blatchford 's practical socialism was a state socialism that identified existing state enterprise such as the Post Office run by the municipalities as a demonstration of practical socialism in action, he claimed that practical socialism should involve the extension of state enterprise to the means of production as common property of the people. While endorsing state socialism, Blatchford 's Merrie England and his other writings were influenced by anarchist communist William Morris -- as Blatchford himself attested to -- and Morris ' anarchist communist themes are present in Merrie England.
Shaw published the Report on Fabian Policy (1896) that declared: "The Fabian Society does not suggest that the State should monopolize industry as against private enterprise or individual initiative ''.
Major developments in social democracy as a whole emerged with the ascendance of Eduard Bernstein as a proponent of reformist socialism and an adherent of Marxism. Bernstein had resided in Britain in the 1880s at the time when Fabianism was arising and is believed to have been strongly influenced by Fabianism. However, he publicly denied having strong Fabian influences on his thought. Bernstein did acknowledge that he was influenced by Kantian epistemological skepticism while he rejected Hegelianism. He and his supporters urged the Social Democratic Party of Germany to merge Kantian ethics with Marxian political economy. On the role of Kantian criticism within socialism, Bernstein said:
The method of this great philosopher (Kant) can serve as a pointer to the satisfying solution to our problem. Of course we do n't have to slavishly adhere to Kant 's form, but we must match his method to the nature of our own subject (socialism), displaying the same critical spirit. Our critique must be direct against both a scepticism that undermines all theoretical thought, and a dogmatism that relies on ready - made formulas.
The term "revisionist '' was applied to Bernstein by his critics who referred to themselves as "orthodox '' Marxists, even though Bernstein claimed that his principles were consistent with Marx 's and Engels ' stances, especially in their later years when they advocated that socialism should be achieved through parliamentary democratic means wherever possible. Bernstein and his faction of revisionists criticized orthodox Marxism and particularly its founder Karl Kautsky for having disregarded Marx 's view of the necessity of evolution of capitalism to achieve socialism by replacing it with an "either / or '' polarization between capitalism and socialism, claiming that Kautsky disregarded Marx 's emphasis on the role of parliamentary democracy in achieving socialism, as well as criticizing Kautsky for his idealisation of state socialism. However, Kautsky did not deny a role for democracy in the achievement of socialism, as he claimed that Marx 's dictatorship of the proletariat was not a form of government that rejected democracy as critics had claimed it was, but a state of affairs that Marx expected would arise should the proletariat gain power and be faced with fighting a violent reactionary opposition.
Bernstein had held close association to Marx and Engels, but he saw flaws in Marxian thinking and began such criticism when he investigated and challenged the Marxian materialist theory of history. He rejected significant parts of Marxian theory that were based upon Hegelian metaphysics and he also rejected the Hegelian dialectical perspective. Bernstein distinguished between early Marxism as being its immature form: as exemplified by The Communist Manifesto written by Marx and Engels in their youth, that he opposed for what he regarded as its violent Blanquist tendencies; and later Marxism as being its mature form that he supported.
Bernstein declared that the massive and homogeneous working class claimed in the Communist Manifesto did not exist and that -- contrary to claims of a proletarian majority emerging -- the middle class was growing under capitalism and not disappearing as Marx had claimed. Bernstein noted that the working class was not homogeneous but heterogeneous, with divisions and factions within it, including socialist and non-socialist trade unions. In his work Theories of Surplus Value, Marx himself later in his life acknowledged that the middle class was not disappearing, but due to the popularity of the Communist Manifesto and the obscurity of Theories of Surplus Value Marx 's acknowledgement of this error is not well known.
Bernstein criticized Marxism 's concept of "irreconciliable class conflicts '' and Marxism 's hostility to liberalism. He challenged Marx 's position on liberalism by claiming that liberal democrats and social democrats held common grounds that he claimed could be utilized to create a "socialist republic ''. He believed that economic class disparities between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would gradually be eliminated through legal reforms and economic redistribution programs. Bernstein rejected the Marxian principle of dictatorship of the proletariat, claiming that gradualist democratic reforms will improve the rights of the working class. According to Bernstein -- unlike orthodox Marxism -- social democracy did not seek to create a socialism separate from bourgeois society, but instead sought to create a common development based on Western humanism. The development of socialism under social democracy does not seek to rupture existing society and its cultural traditions, but to act as an enterprise of extension and growth. Furthermore, he believed that class cooperation was a preferable course to achieve socialism, rather than class conflict.
Bernstein responded to critics that he was not destroying Marxism, but claimed that he was "modernizing Marxism '' that was required "to separate the vital parts of (Marx 's) theory from its outdated accessories ''. He asserted his support for the Marxian conception of a "scientifically based '' socialist movement and said that such a movement 's goals must be determined in accordance with "knowledge capable of objective proof, that is, knowledge which refers to, and conforms with, nothing but empirical knowledge and logic ''. As such, Bernstein was strongly opposed to dogmatism within the Marxist movement. Despite embracing a mixed economy, Bernstein was skeptical and critical of welfare state policies, believing them to be helpful, but ultimately secondary to the main social democratic goal of replacing capitalism with socialism, fearing that state aid to the unemployed might lead to the sanctioning of a new form of pauperism.
Representing revolutionary socialism, Rosa Luxemburg staunchly condemned Bernstein 's revisionism and reformism for being based on "opportunism in social democracy ''. She likened Bernstein 's policies to that of the dispute between Marxists and the opportunistic Praktiker ("Pragmatists ''). She denounced Bernstein 's evolutionary socialism for being a "petty - bourgeois vulgarization of Marxism ''. She claimed that Bernstein 's years of exile in Britain had made him lose familiarity with the situation in Germany where he was promoting evolutionary socialism. Luxemburg sought to maintain social democracy as a revolutionary Marxist creed, saying:
(T) here could be no socialism -- at least in Germany -- outside of Marxist socialism, and there could be no socialist class struggle outside of social democracy. From then on (the emergence of Marx 's theory), socialism and Marxism, the proletarian struggle for emancipation, and social democracy were identical.
Both Kautsky and Luxemburg condemned Bernstein for his "flawed '' philosophy of science for having abandoned Hegelian dialectics for Kantian philosophical dualism. Russian Marxist George Plekhanov joined Kautsky and Luxemburg in condemning Bernstein for having a neo-Kantian philosophy. Kautsky and Luxemburg contended that Bernstein 's empiricist viewpoints depersonalized and dehistoricized the social observer and reducing objects down to "facts ''. Luxemburg associated Bernstein with "ethical socialists '' who she identified as being associated with the bourgeoisie and Kantian liberalism.
In his introduction to the 1895 edition of Marx 's The Class Struggles in France, Engels attempted to resolve the division between gradualist reformists and revolutionaries in the Marxist movement by declaring that he was in favour of short - term tactics of electoral politics that included gradualist and evolutionary socialist measures while maintaining his belief that revolutionary seizure of power by the proletariat should remain a goal. In spite of this attempt by Engels to merge gradualism and revolution, his effort only diluted the distinction of gradualism and revolution and had the effect of strengthening the position of the revisionists. Engels ' statements in the French newspaper Le Figaro, in which he stated that "revolution '' and the "so - called socialist society '' was not a fixed concept, but was a constantly changing social phenomenon and said that this made "us (socialists) all evolutionists '', increased the public perception that Engels was gravitating towards evolutionary socialism. Engels also said that it would be "suicidal '' to talk about a revolutionary seizure of power at a time when the historical circumstances favoured a parliamentary road to power that he predicted could bring "social democracy into power as early as 1898 ''. Engels ' stance of openly accepting gradualist, evolutionary and parliamentary tactics while claiming that the historical circumstances did not favour revolution caused confusion. Bernstein interpreted this as indicating that Engels was moving towards accepting parliamentary reformist and gradualist stances, but he ignored that Engels ' stances were tactical as a response to the particular circumstances and that Engels was still committed to revolutionary socialism.
In 1897, after Bernstein delivered a lecture in Britain to the Fabian Society titled "On What Marx Really Taught '', Bernstein wrote a letter to the orthodox Marxist Bebel in which he revealed that he felt conflicted with what he had said at the lecture as well as revealing his intentions regarding revision of Marxism:
(A) s I was reading the lecture, the thought shot through my head that I was doing Marx an injustice, that it was not Marx I was presenting... I told myself secretly that this could not go on. It is idle to reconcile the irreconcilable. The vital thing is to be clear as to where Marx is still right and where he is not.
What Bernstein meant was that he believed that Marx was wrong in assuming that the capitalist economy would collapse as a result of its internal contradictions, as by the mid-1890s there was little evidence of such internal contradictions causing this to capitalism.
The dispute over policies in favour of reform or revolution dominated discussions at the 1899 Hanover Party Conference of the Socialist Workers ' Party of Germany (SAPD). This issue had become especially prominent with the Millerand Affair in France in which Alexandre Millerand of the Independent Socialists joined the non-socialist government of France 's liberal Prime Minister Waldeck - Rousseau without seeking support from his party 's leadership. Millerand 's actions provoked outrage amongst revolutionary socialists within the Second International, including the anarchist left and Jules Guesde 's revolutionary Marxists. In response to these disputes over reform or revolution, the 1900 Paris Congress of the Second International declared a resolution to the dispute, in which Guesde 's demands were partially accepted in a resolution drafted by Kautsky that declared that overall socialists should not take part in a non-socialist government, but provided exceptions to this rule where necessary to provide the "protection of the achievements of the working class ''.
Another prominent figure who influenced social democracy was French revisionist Marxist and reformist socialist Jean Jaurès. During the 1904 Congress of the Second International, Jaurès challenged orthodox Marxist August Bebel, the mentor of Kautsky, over his promotion of monolithic socialist tactics. Jaurès claimed that no coherent socialist platform could be equally applicable to different countries and regions due to different political systems in them; noting that Bebel 's homeland of Germany at the time was very authoritarian and had limited parliamentary democracy. He compared the limited political influence of socialism in government in Germany to the substantial influence that socialism had gained in France due to its stronger parliamentary democracy. He claimed that the example of the political differences between Germany and France demonstrated that monolithic socialist tactics were impossible, given the political differences of various countries.
As tensions between Europe 's Great Powers escalated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Bernstein feared that Germany 's arms race with other powers was threatening the possibility of a major war. Bernstein 's fears were realised with the outbreak of World War I.
Immediately after the outbreak of World War I, Bernstein travelled from Germany to Britain to meet with British Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald. Bernstein regarded the outbreak of the war with great dismay, but even though the two countries were at war with one another he honoured Bernstein at the meeting. In spite of Bernstein 's and other social democrats ' attempts to secure the unity of the Second International, with national tensions increasing between the countries at war, the Second International collapsed in 1914. Anti-war members of the SPD refused to support finances being given to the German government to support the war. However, a nationalist - revisionist faction of SPD members led by Friedrich Ebert, Gustav Noske and Philipp Scheidemann supported the war, arguing that Germany had the "right to its territorial defense '' from the "destruction of Tsarist despotism ''. The SPD 's decision to support the war, including Bernstein 's decision to support it, was heavily influenced by the fact that the German government lied to the German people, as it claimed that the only reason Germany had declared war on Russia was because Russia was preparing to invade East Prussia, when in fact this was not the case. Jaurès opposed France 's intervention in the war and took a pacifist stance, but was soon assassinated in 1914.
Bernstein soon resented the war and by October 1914 was convinced of the German government 's war guilt and contacted the orthodox Marxists of the SPD to unite to push the SPD to take an anti-war stance. Kautsky attempted to put aside his differences with Bernstein and join forces in opposing the war and Kautsky praised him for becoming a firm anti-war proponent, saying that although Bernstein had previously supported "civic '' and "liberal '' forms of nationalism, his committed anti-war position made him the "standard - bearer of the internationalist idea of social democracy ''. The nationalist position by the SPD leadership under Ebert refused to rescind.
In Britain, the British Labour Party became divided on the war. Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald was one of a handful of British MPs who had denounced Britain 's declaration of war on Germany. MacDonald was denounced by the pro-war press on accusations that he was "pro-German '' and a pacifist, both charges that he denied. In response to pro-war sentiments in the Labour Party, MacDonald resigned from being its leader and associated himself with the Independent Labour Party. Arthur Henderson became the new leader of the Labour Party and served as a cabinet minister in Prime Minister Asquith 's war government. After the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia (not to be confused with the October Revolution) in which the Tsarist regime in Russia was overthrown, MacDonald visited the Russian Provisional Government in June 1917, seeking to persuade Russia to oppose the war and seek peace. His efforts to unite the Russian Provisional Government against the war failed after Russia fell back into political violence resulting in the October Revolution in which the Bolsheviks led Vladimir Lenin 's rise to power. Though MacDonald critically responded to the Bolsheviks ' political violence and rise to power by warning of "the danger of anarchy in Russia '', he gave political support to the Bolshevik regime until the end of the war because he then thought that a democratic internationalism could be revived. The British Labour Party 's trade union affiliated membership soared during World War I. With the assistance of Sidney Webb, Henderson designed a new constitution for the British Labour Party, in which it adopted a strongly left - wing platform in 1918 to ensure that it would not lose support to the new Communist Party, exemplified by Clause IV of the constitution.
The overthrow of the Tsarist regime in Russia in February 1917 impacted politics in Germany, as it ended the legitimation used by Ebert and other pro-war SPD members that Germany was in the war against a reactionary Russian government. With the overthrow of the Tsar and revolutionary socialist agitation increased in Russia, such events influenced socialists in Germany. With rising bread shortages in Germany amid war rationing, mass strikes occurred beginning in April 1917 with 300,000 strikers taking part in a strike in Berlin. The strikers demanded bread, freedom, peace and the formation of workers ' councils as was being done in Russia. Amidst the German public 's uproar, the SPD alongside the Progressives and the Catholic labour movement in the Reichstag put forward the "Peace Resolution '' on 19 July 1917 that called for a compromise peace to end the war, which was passed by a majority of members of the Reichstag. The German High Command opposed the Peace Resolution, but it did seek to end the war with Russia and presented the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk to the Bolshevik regime in 1918 that agreed to the terms and the Reichstag passed the treaty, which included the support of the SPD, the Progressives and the Catholic political movement.
By late 1918, the war situation for Germany had become hopeless and Kaiser Wilhelm II was pressured to make peace. Wilhelm II appointed a new cabinet that included SPD members. At the same time, the Imperial Naval Command was determined to make a heroic last stand against the British Royal Navy and on 24 October 1918 it issued orders for the German Navy to depart to confront while the sailors refused, resulting in the Kiel Mutiny. The Kiel Mutiny resulted in the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919. Faced with military failure and revolution the Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden resigned, giving SPD leader Ebert the position of Chancellor, Wihelm II abdicated the German throne immediately afterwards and the German High Command officials Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff resigned whilst refusing to end the war to save face, leaving the Ebert government and the SPD - majority Reichstag to be forced to make the inevitable peace with the Allies and take the blame for having lost the war. With the abdication of Wilhelm II, Ebert declared Germany to be a republic and signed the armistice that ended World War I on 11 November 1918.
The new social democratic government in Germany faced political violence in Berlin by a movement of communist revolutionaries known as the Spartacist League who sought to repeat the feat of Lenin and the Bolsheviks in Russia by overthrowing the German government. Tensions between the governing "Majority '' Social Democrats (led by Ebert) versus the strongly left - wing elements of the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) and communists over Ebert 's refusal to immediately reform the German Army, resulted in the "January rising '' by the newly formed Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the USPD, resulting in communists mobilizing a large workers ' demonstration. The SPD responded by holding a counter-demonstration that was effective in demonstrating support for the government, and the USPD soon withdrew its support for the rising. However, the communists continued to revolt and between 12 to 28 January 1919 communist forces had seized control of several government buildings in Berlin. Ebert responded by requesting that Defense Minister Gustav Noske take charge of loyal soldiers to fight the communists and secure the government. Ebert was furious with the communists ' intransigence and said that he wished "to teach the radicals a lesson they would never forget ''. Noske was able to rally groups of mostly reactionary ex soldiers, known as the Freikorps, who were eager to fight the communists. The situation soon went completely out of control when the recruited Freikorps went on a violent rampage against workers and murdered the communist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. The atrocities by the government - recruited Freikorps against the communist revolutionaries badly tarnished the reputation of the SPD and strengthened the confidence of reactionary forces. In spite of this, the SPD was able to win the largest number of seats in the parliamentary election held on 19 January 1919 and Ebert was elected President of Germany, but the USPD in response to the atrocities committed by the government - recruited Freikorps, refused to support the SPD government.
Due to the unrest in Berlin, the drafting of the constitution of the new German republic was undertaken in the city of Weimar and the following political era is referred to as the Weimar Republic. Upon founding the new government, President Ebert cooperated with liberal members of his coalition government to create the constitution and sought to begin a program of nationalization of some parts of the economy. Political unrest and violence continued and the government 's continued reliance on the help of the Freikorps counterrevolutionaries to fight the communist revolutionaries continued to alienate potential left - wing support for the SPD. The SPD coalition government 's acceptance of the harsh peace conditions of the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919, infuriated the right, including the Freikorps that had previously been willing to cooperate with the government to fight the communists. In the German parliamentary election of June 1919, the SPD share of the vote declined significantly. In March 1920, a group of right - wing militarists led by Wolfgang Kapp and former German military chief - of - staff Erich Ludendorff initiated a briefly successful putsch against the German government in what became known as the Kapp Putsch, but the putsch ultimately failed and the government was restored.
At a global level, after World War I several attempts were made to re-found the Second International that collapsed amidst national divisions in the war. The Vienna International formed in 1921 attempted to end the rift between reformist socialists, including social democrats; and revolutionary socialists, including communists, particularly the Mensheviks. However, a crisis soon erupted that involved the new country of Georgia led by a social democratic government led by President Noe Zhordania that had declared itself independent from Russia in 1918 whose government had been endorsed by multiple social democratic parties. At founding meeting of the Vienna International, the discussions were interrupted by the arrival of a telegram from Zhordania who said that Georgia was being invaded by Bolshevik Russia. Delegates attending the International 's founding meeting were stunned, particularly the Bolshevik representative from Russia, Mecheslav Bronsky, who refused to believe this and left the meeting to seek confirmation of this, but upon confirmation Bronsky did not return to the meeting. The overall response from the Vienna International was divided, the Mensheviks demanded that the International immediately condemn Russia 's aggression against Georgia, but the majority as represented by German delegate Alfred Henke sought to exercise caution and said that the delegates should wait for confirmation. Russia 's invasion of Georgia completely violated the non-aggression treaty signed between Lenin and Zhordania, as well as violating Georgia 's sovereignty by annexing Georgia directly into the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Tensions between Bolsheviks and social democrats worsened with the Kronstadt rebellion. This was caused by unrest among leftists against the Bolshevik government in Russia: Russian social democrats distributed leaflets calling for a general strike against the Bolshevik regime and the Bolsheviks responded by forcefully repressing the rebels.
Relations between the social democratic movement and Bolshevik Russia descended into complete antagonism in response to the Russian famine of 1921 and the Bolsheviks ' violent repression of opposition to their government. Multiple social democratic parties were disgusted with Russia 's Bolshevik regime, particularly Germany 's SPD and the Netherlands ' Social Democratic Workers ' Party (SDAP) that denounced the Bolsheviks for defiling socialism and declared that the Bolsheviks had "driven out the best of our comrades, thrown them into prison and put them to death ''.
In May 1923, social democrats united to found their own international, the Labour and Socialist International (LSI), founded in Hamburg, Germany. The LSI declared that all its affiliated political parties would retain autonomy to make their own decisions regarding internal affairs of their countries, but that international affairs would be addressed by the LSI. The LSI addressed the issue of the rise of fascism by declaring the LSI to be anti-fascist. In response to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 between the democratically elected Republican government versus the authoritarian right - wing Nationalists led by Francisco Franco with the support of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, the Executive Committee of the LSI declared not only its support for the Spanish Republic but also that it supported the Spanish government having the right to purchase arms to fight Franco 's Nationalist forces. LSI - affiliated parties, including the British Labour Party, declared their support for the Spanish Republic. However, the LSI was criticised on the left for failing to put its anti-fascist rhetoric into action.
The stock market crash of 1929 that began an economic crisis in the United States that globally spread and became the Great Depression profoundly affected economic policy - making. The collapse of the gold standard and the emergence of mass unemployment resulted in multiple governments recognising the need for state macroeconomic intervention to reduce unemployment as well as economic intervention to stabilise prices, a proto - Keynesianism that John Maynard Keynes himself would soon publicly endorse. Multiple social democratic parties declared the need for substantial investment in economic infrastructure projects to respond to unemployment, and creating social control over money flow. Furthermore, social democratic parties declared that the Great Depression demonstrated the need for substantial macroeconomic planning while their pro-property rights opponents staunchly opposed this. However, attempts by social democratic governments to achieve this were unsuccessful due to the ensuing political instability in their countries from the depression, the British Labour Party became internally split over the policies while Germany 's SPD government did not have the time to implement such policies as Germany 's politics turned to violent civil unrest in which the Nazis rose to power in 1933 and dismantled parliamentary democracy.
A major development for social democracy was the victories of several social democratic parties in Scandinavia, particularly the Swedish Social Democratic Party (SAP) in the 1920 Swedish election. The SAP was elected to a minority government. It created a Socialisation Committee that declared support for a mixed economy that combined the best of private initiative with social ownership or control, supporting a substantial socialisation "of all necessary natural resources, industrial enterprises, credit institutions, transportation and communication routes '' that would be gradually transferred to the state. It permitted private ownership outside of these areas.
In 1922, Ramsay MacDonald returned to the leadership of the Labour Party from the Independent Labour Party. In the 1924 British election, the Labour Party won a plurality of seats and was elected as a minority government, but required assistance from the Liberal Party to achieve a majority in parliament. Opponents of the Labour Party accused the party of communist sympathies. Prime Minister MacDonald responded to these allegations by stressing the party 's commitment to reformist gradualism and openly opposing the radical wing in the party. MacDonald emphasized that the Labour minority government 's first and foremost commitment was to uphold democratic responsible government over all other policies. MacDonald emphasized this because he knew that any attempt to pass major socialist legislation in a minority government status would endanger the new government, because it would be opposed and blocked by the Conservatives and the Liberals who together held a majority of seats. The Labour Party had risen to power in the aftermath of Britain 's severe recession of 1921 -- 1922: with the economy beginning to recover, British trade unions demanded that their wages be restored from the cuts they took in the recession. The trade unions soon became deeply dissatisfied with the MacDonald government and labour unrest and threat of strikes arose in transportation sector, including docks and railways. MacDonald viewed the situation as a crisis, consulting the unions in advance to warn them that his government would have to use strikebreakers if the situation continued. The anticipated clash between the government and the unions was averted, but the situation alienated the unions from the MacDonald government. MacDonald 's most controversial action was having Britain recognize the government of the Soviet Union in February 1924. The British Conservative press, including the Daily Mail, used this to promote a red scare by claiming that the Labour government 's recognition of the Soviet Union proved that Labour held pro-Bolshevik sympathies.
The Labour Party lost the 1924 election and a Conservative government was elected. Though MacDonald faced multiple challenges to his leadership of the party, the party stabilized by 1927 as a capable opposition to the Conservative government. MacDonald released a new political programme for the party titled Labour and the Nation (1928). The Labour Party returned to government in 1929, but soon faced the economic catastrophe of the stock market crash of 1929.
In the 1920s, SPD policymaker and Marxist Rudolf Hilferding proposed substantial policy changes in the SPD as well as influencing social democratic and socialist theory. Hilferding was an influential Marxian socialist both inside the social democratic movement and outside it, such as his pamphlet titled Imperialism which influenced Lenin 's own conception of imperialism in the 1910s. Prior to the 1920s Hilferding declared that capitalism had evolved beyond what had been laissez - faire capitalism into what he called "organized capitalism ''. Organized capitalism was based upon trusts and cartels controlled by financial institutions that could no longer make money within their countries ' national boundaries and thus needed to export to survive, resulting in support for imperialism. Hilferding described that while early capitalism promoted itself as peaceful and based on free trade, the era of organized capitalism was aggressive and said that "in the place of humanity there came the idea of the strength and power of the state ''. He said that this had the consequence of creating effective collectivization within capitalism and had prepared the way for socialism.
Originally, Hilferding 's vision of a socialism replacing organized capitalism was highly Kautskyan in assuming an either / or perspective and expecting a catastrophic clash between organized capitalism versus socialism. However, by the 1920s Hilferding became an adherent to promoting a gradualist evolution of capitalism into socialism. He then praised organized capitalism for being a step towards socialism, saying at the SPD congress in 1927 that "organized capitalism '' is nothing less than "the replacement of the capitalist principle of free competition by the socialist principle of planned production ''. He went on to say that "the problem is posed to our generation: with the help of the state, with the help of conscious social direction, to transform the economy organized and led by capitalists into an economy directed by the democratic state ''.
In the 1930s, the SPD began to transition away from revisionist Marxism towards liberal socialism beginning in the 1930s. After the party was banned by the Nazis in 1933, the SPD acted in exile through Sopade. In 1934, the Sopade began to publish material that indicated that the SPD was turning towards liberal socialism. Curt Geyer, who was a prominent proponent of liberal socialism within the Sopade, declared that Sopade represented the tradition of Weimar Republic social democracy, liberal democratic socialism and stated that the Sopade had held true to its mandate of traditional liberal principles combined with the political realism of socialism.
The only social democratic governments in Europe that remained by the early 1930s were in Scandinavia. In the 1930s, several Swedish social democratic leadership figures, including former Swedish Prime Minister Rickard Sandler -- the secretary and chairman of the Socialization Committee -- and Nils Karleby, rejected earlier SAP socialization policies pursued in the 1920s for being too extreme. Karleby and Sandler developed a new conception of social democracy, the Nordic model, which called for gradual socialization and redistribution of purchasing power, provision of educational opportunity and support of property rights. The Nordic model would permit private enterprise on the condition that it adheres to the principle that the resources it disposes are in reality public means and would create of a broad category of social welfare rights. The new SAP government of 1932 replaced the previous government 's universal commitment to a balanced budget with a Keynesian - like commitment, which in turn was replaced with a balanced budget within a business cycle. Whereas the 1921 -- 1923 SAP governments had run large deficits, after a strong increase in state expenditure in 1933 the new SAP government reduced Sweden 's budget deficit. The government had planned to eliminate Sweden 's budget deficit in seven years, but it took only three years to eliminate the deficit and Sweden had a budget surplus from 1936 to 1938. However, this policy was criticized because -- although the budget deficit had been eliminated -- major unemployment still remained a problem in Sweden.
In the Americas from the 1920s to 1930s, social democracy was rising as a major political force. In Mexico, several social democratic governments and presidents were elected from the 1920s to the 1930s. The most important Mexican social democratic government of this time was that led by President Lázaro Cárdenas and the Party of the Mexican Revolution whose government initiated agrarian reform that broke up vast aristocratic estates and redistributed property to peasants. Cárdenas was deeply committed to social democracy, but was criticized by his left - wing opponents for being pro-capitalist due to his personal association with a wealthy family and for being corrupt due to his government 's exemption from agrarian reform of the estate held by former Mexican President Alvaro Obregón. Political violence in Mexico had become serious in the 1920s with the Cristero War in which right - wing reactionary clericals fought against the left - wing government that was attempting to institute secularization of Mexico. Furthermore, Cardenas ' government openly supported Spain 's Republican government while opposing Francisco Franco 's Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War. During the Spanish Civil War, Cárdenas staunchly asserted that Mexico was progressive and socialist, working with socialists of various types -- including communists -- and accepting refugees from Spain, as well as accepting communist dissident Leon Trotsky as a refugee after Joseph Stalin expelled Trotsky and sought to have him killed. Cárdenas strengthened the rights of Mexico 's labour movement, nationalized foreign oil companies and controversially supported peasants in their struggle against landlords by allowing them to form militias to fight the private armies of landlords in the country. Cárdenas ' actions deeply aggravated right - wing reactionaries and there was fear that Mexico would succumb to civil war. Cardenas stepped down as Mexican President and supported a compromise presidential candidate who held support from business interests in order to avoid further antagonizing the right - wing.
After World War II, a new international organization to represent social democracy and democratic socialism, the Socialist International in 1951. In the founding Frankfurt Declaration, the Socialist International denounced both capitalism and Bolshevik communism -- criticizing the latter in articles 7, 8, 9 and 10 -- saying:
The rise of Keynesianism in the Western world during the Cold War influenced the development of social democracy. The attitude of social democrats towards capitalism changed as a result of the rise of Keynesianism. Capitalism was acceptable to social democrats only if capitalism 's typical crises could be prevented and if mass unemployment could be averted: Keynesianism was believed to be able to provide this. Social democrats came to accept the market for reasons of efficiency and endorsed Keynesianism as that was expected to reconcile democracy and capitalism.
After the 1945 British election, a Labour government was formed by Clement Attlee (later known as Earl Attlee). Attlee immediately began a program of major nationalizations of the economy. From 1945 to 1951, the Labour government nationalized the Bank of England, civil aviation, cable and wireless, coal, transport, electricity, gas and iron and steel. This policy of major nationalizations gained support from the left faction within the Labour Party that saw the nationalizations as achieving the transformation of Britain from a capitalist to socialist economy. However, the Labour government 's nationalizations were staunchly condemned by the opposition Conservative Party. The Conservatives defended private enterprise and accused the Labour government of intending to create a Soviet - style centrally planned socialist state. However, accusation by the Conservatives of the nationalizations being inspired by Soviet - style central planning was not the case, as the Labour government 's three Chancellors of the Exchequer, Hugh Dalton, Stafford Cripps and Hugh Gaitskell, all opposed Soviet - style central planning. Initially there were strong direct controls by the state in the economy that had already been implemented by the British government during World War II, but after the war these controls gradually loosened under the Labour government and were eventually phased out and replaced by Keynesian demand management. In spite of opposition by the Conservatives to the nationalizations, all of the nationalizations except for the nationalization of coal and iron soon became accepted in a national consensus on the economy that lasted until the Thatcher era when the national consensus turned towards support of privatization. The Labour Party lost the 1951 election and a Conservative government was formed.
There were early major critics of the nationalization policy within the Labour Party in the 1950s. In The Future of Socialism (1956), British social democratic theorist Anthony Crosland argued that socialism should be about the reforming of capitalism from within. Crosland claimed that the traditional socialist programme of abolishing capitalism on the basis of capitalism inherently causing immiseration had been rendered obsolete by the fact that the post-war Keynesian capitalism had led to the expansion of affluence for all, including full employment and a welfare state. Crosland claimed that the rise of such an affluent society had resulted in class identity fading and as a consequence socialism in its traditional conception as then supported by the British Labour Party was no longer attracting support. He claimed that the Labour Party was associated in the public 's mind as having "a sectional, traditional, class appeal '' that was reinforced by bickering over nationalization. Crosland argued that in order for the Labour Party to become electable again it had to drop its commitment to nationalization and to stop equating nationalization with socialism. Instead of this, he claimed that a socialist programme should be about support of social welfare, redistribution of wealth and "the proper dividing line between the public and private spheres of responsibility ''.
The SPD in West Germany in 1945 endorsed a similar policy on nationalizations to that of the British Labour government. SPD leader Kurt Schumacher declared that the SPD was in favour of nationalizations of key industrial sectors of the economy, such as banking and credit, insurance, mining, coal, iron, steel, metal - working and all other sectors that were identified as monopolistic or cartelized.
Upon becoming a sovereign state in 1947, India elected the social democratic Indian National Congress to government with its leader Jawaharlal Nehru becoming Indian Prime Minister. Nehru declared: "In Europe, we see many countries have advanced very far on the road to socialism. I am not referring to the communist countries but to those which may be called parliamentary, social democratic countries ''. In power, Nehru 's government emphasized state - guided national development of India and took inspiration from social democracy, though India 's newly formed Planning Commission also took inspiration from post-1949 China 's agricultural policies.
The new sovereign state of Israel elected the socialist Mapai party that sought the creation of a socialist economy based on cooperative ownership of the means of production via the kibbutz system while it rejected nationalization of the means of production. The kibbutz are producer cooperatives that with government assistance have flourished in Israel.
In 1959, the SPD instituted a major policy review with the Godesberg Program. The Godesberg Program eliminated the party 's remaining Marxist - aligned policies and the SPD became based upon freiheitlicher Sozialismus (liberal socialism). With the adoption of the Godsberg Program, the SPD renounced Marxist determinism and classism and replaced it with an ethical socialism based on humanism and emphasized that the party was democratic, pragmatic and reformist. The most controversial decision of the Godesberg Program was its declaration saying: "Private ownership of the means of production can claim protection by society as long as it does not hinder the establishment of social justice ''. This policy meant the endorsement of Keynesian economic management, social welfare and a degree of economic planning, as well as an abandonment of the classical conception of socialism as involving the replacement of capitalist economic system. It declared that the SPD "no longer considered nationalization the major principle of a socialist economy but only one of several (and then only the last) means of controlling economic concentration of power of key industries '', while also committing the SPD to an economic stance to promote "as much competition as possible, as much planning as necessary ''. This decision to abandon this traditional policy angered many in the SPD who had supported it.
With these changes, the SPD enacted the two major pillars of what would become the modern social democratic program: making the party a people 's party rather than a party solely representing the working class and abandoning remaining Marxist policies aimed at destroying capitalism and replacing them with policies aimed at reforming capitalism. The Godesberg Program divorced its conception of socialism from Marxism, declaring that democratic socialism in Europe was "rooted in Christian ethics, humanism, and classical philosophy ''. The Godesberg Program has been seen as involving the final prevailing of the reformist agenda of Bernstein over the orthodox Marxist agenda of Kautsky.
The Godesberg Program was a major revision of the SPD 's policies and gained attention from beyond Germany. At the time of its adoption, in neighbouring France the stance of the French Section of the Workers ' International (SFIO) was divided on the Godesberg Program while the Autonomous Socialist Party (PSA) denounced the Godesberg Program as "a renunciation of Socialism '' and opportunistic reaction to the SPD 's electoral defeats.
The economic crisis in the Western world during the mid to late 1970s resulted in the rise of neoliberalism and politicians elected on neoliberal platforms such as British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and U.S. President Ronald Reagan. The rise in support for neoliberalism raised questions over the political viability of social democracy, such as sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf predicting the "end of the social democratic century ''.
In 1985, an agreement was made between several social democratic parties in the Western bloc countries of Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands; and with the communist parties of the Eastern Bloc countries of Bulgaria, East Germany and Hungary; to have multilateral discussions on trade, nuclear disarmament and other issues.
In 1989, the Socialist International adopted its present Declaration of Principles. The Declaration of Principles addressed issues concerning the "internationalization of the economy ''. The Declaration of Principles defined its interpretation of the nature of socialism. It stated that socialist values and vision include "a peaceful and democratic world society combining freedom, justice and solidarity ''. It defined the rights and freedoms it supported, stating: "Socialists protect the inalienable right to life and to physical safety, to freedom of belief and free expression of opinion, to freedom of association and to protection from torture and degradation. Socialists are committed to achieve freedom from hunger and want, genuine social security, and the right to work ''. However, it also clarified that it did not promote any fixed and permanent definition for socialism, stating: "Socialists do not claim to possess the blueprint for some final and fixed society which can not be changed, reformed or further developed. In a movement committed to democratic self - determination there will always be room for creativity since each people and every generation must set its own goals ''.
The 1989 Socialist International congress was politically significant in that members of Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the reformist leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev attended the congress. The Socialist International 's new Declaration of Principles abandoned previous statements made in the Frankfurt Declaration of 1951 against Soviet - style communism. After the congress, the Soviet state newspaper Pravda noted that thanks to dialogue between the Soviet Communist Party and the SI since 1979 that "the positions of the CPSU and the Socialist International on nuclear disarmament issues today virtually coincide ''.
The collapse of the Marxist -- Leninist regimes in Eastern Europe after the end of the Cold War and the creation of multiparty democracy in many many of those countries resulted in the creation of multiple social democratic parties. Though many of these parties did not achieve initial electoral success, they became a significant part of the political landscape of Eastern Europe. In Western Europe, the prominent Italian Communist Party transformed itself into the post-communist Democratic Party of the Left in 1991.
A highly controversial development in social democracy occurred in the 1990s with the development of Third Way politics and social democratic adherents of it. The social democratic variant of the Third Way has been advocated by its proponents as an alternative to both capitalism and what it regards as the traditional forms of socialism -- including Marxist socialism and state socialism -- which Third Way social democrats reject. It officially advocates ethical socialism, reformism and gradualism, which includes advocating a humanized version of capitalism, a mixed economy, political pluralism and liberal democracy. Left - wing opponents of Third Way social democracy claim that it is not a form of socialism and claim that it represents social democrats who responded to the New Right by accepting capitalism. The Third Way has been strongly criticized within the social democratic movement. Supporters of Third Way ideals argue that they merely represent a necessary or pragmatic adaptation of social democracy to the realities of the modern world, noting that traditional social democracy thrived during the prevailing international climate of the post-war Bretton Woods consensus, which collapsed in the 1970s.
When he was a British Labour Party MP, Third Way supporter and former British Prime Minister Tony Blair wrote in a Fabian pamphlet in 1994 about the existence of two prominent variants of socialism: one is based on a Marxist economic determinist and collectivist tradition that he rejected and the other is an "ethical socialism '' that he supported which was based on values of "social justice, the equal worth of each citizen, equality of opportunity, community ''.
Prominent Third Way proponent Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens views conventional socialism as essentially having become obsolete. However, Giddens claims that a viable form of socialism was advocated by Anthony Crosland in his major work The Future of Socialism (1956). He has complimented Crosland as well as Thomas Humphrey Marshall for promoting a viable socialism. Giddens views what he considers the conventional form of socialism that defines socialism as a theory of economic management -- state socialism -- as no longer viable. He rejects what he considers top - down socialism as well as rejecting neoliberalism and criticizes conventional socialism for its common advocacy that socialization of production as achieved by central planning can overcome the irrationalities of capitalism. Giddens claims that this claim "can no longer be defended ''. He says that with the collapse of legitimacy of centrally planned socialization of production, "(w) ith its dissolution, the radical hopes for by socialism are as dead as the Old Conservatism that opposed them ''. Giddens says that although there have been proponents of market socialism who have rejected such central planned socialism as well as being resistant to capitalism, "(t) here are good reasons, in my view, to argue that market socialism is n't a realistic possibility ''. Giddens makes clear that the Third Way, as he envisions it, is not market socialist, arguing that "(t) here is no Third Way of this sort, and with this realization the history of socialism as the avant - garde of political theory comes to a close ''. Giddens contends that Third Way is connected to the legacy of reformist revisionist socialism, saying: "Third way politics stands in the traditions of social democratic revisionism that stretch back to Eduard Bernstein and Karl Kautsky ''.
Giddens commends Crosland 's A Future of Socialism for recognizing that socialism can not be defined merely in terms of a rejection of capitalism because if capitalism did end and was replaced with socialism, then socialism would have no purpose with the absence of capitalism. From Crosland 's analysis, Giddens proposes a description of socialism:
The only common characteristic of socialist doctrines is their ethical content. Socialism is the pursuit of ideas of social cooperation, universal welfare, and equality -- ideas brought together by a condemnation of the evils and injustices of capitalism. It is based on the critique of individualism and depends on a ' belief in group action and "participation '', and collective responsibility for social welfare '.
Paul Cammack has condemned the Third Way as conceived by Lord Giddens as being a complete attack upon the foundations of social democracy and socialism, in which Giddens has sought to replace them with capitalism. Cammack claims that Giddens devotes a lot of energy into criticizing conventional social democracy and conventional socialism -- such as Giddens ' claim that conventional socialism has "died '' because Marx 's vision of a new economy with wealth spread in an equitable way is not possible -- while at the same time making no criticism of capitalism. As such, Cammack condemns Giddens and his Third Way for being anti-social - democratic, anti-socialist and pro-capitalist that Giddens disguises in rhetoric to make appealing within social democracy.
British political theorist Robert Corfe who was in the past a social democratic proponent of a new socialism free of class - based prejudices, criticized both Marxist classists and Third Way proponents within the Labour Party. Corfe has denounced the Third Way as developed by Giddens for "intellectual emptiness and ideological poverty ''. Corfe has despondently noted and agreed with former long - term British Labour Party MP Alice Mahon 's statement in which she said "Labour is the party of bankers, not workers. The party has lost its soul, and what has replace it is harsh, American style politics ''. Corfe claims that the failure to develop a new socialism has resulted in what he considers the "death of socialism '' that left social capitalism as only feasible alternative.
Former SPD chairman Oskar Lafontaine condemned then - SPD leader and German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder for his Third Way policies, saying that the SPD under Schröder had adopted "a radical change of direction towards a policy of neoliberalism ''. After resigning from the SPD, Lafontaine co-founded The Left in 2007. The Left was founded out of a merger of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and Labour and Social Justice -- The Electoral Alternative (WASG), a breakaway faction from the SPD. The Left has been controversial because as a direct successor to the PDS it is also a direct successor of former East Germany 's ruling Marxist -- Leninist Socialist Unity Party (SED) that transformed into the PDS after the end of the Cold War. However, the PDS did not continue the SED 's policies as the PDS adopted policies to appeal to democratic socialists, greens, feminists and pacifists. Lafontaine said in an interview that he supports the type of social democracy pursued by Willy Brandt, but claims that the creation of The Left was necessary because "formerly socialist and social democratic parties '' had effectively accepted neoliberalism. The Left grew in strength and in the 2009 German parliamentary election gained 11 percent of the vote while the SPD gained 23 percent of the vote.
Lafontaine has noted that the founding of The Left in Germany has resulted in emulation in other countries, with several Left parties being founded in Greece, Portugal, Netherlands and Syria. Lafontaine claims that a de facto British Left movement exists, identifying the Green Party of England and Wales MEP Caroline Lucas as holding similar values.
Others have claimed that social democracy needs to move past the Third Way, such as Olaf Cramme and Patrick Diamond in their book After the Third Way: The Future of Social Democracy in Europe (2012). Cramme and Diamond recognize that the Third Way arose as an attempt to break down the traditional dichotomy within social democracy between state intervention and markets in the economy, but they contend that the global financial crisis of the late 2000s requires that social democracy must rethink its political economy. Cramme and Diamond note that belief in economic planning amongst socialists was strong in the early to mid-twentieth century, but declined with the rise of the neoliberal right that both attacked economic planning and associated the left with economic planning. They claim that this formed the foundation of the "Right 's moral trap '' in which the neoliberal right attacks on economic planning policies by the left, that provokes a defense of such planning by the left as being morally necessary and ends with the right then rebuking such policies as being inherently economically incompetent while presenting itself as the champion of economic competence. Cramme and Diamond state that social democracy has five different strategies both to address the economic crisis in global markets at present that it could adopt in response: market conforming, market complimenting, market resisting, market substituting and market transforming.
Cramme and Diamond identify market conforming as being equivalent to British Labour Party politician and former Chancellor of the Exchequer Philip Snowden 's desire for a very moderate socialist agenda based above all upon fiscal prudence, as Snowden insisted that socialism had to build upon fiscal prudence or else it would not be achieved.
In the 2010s, the social democratic parties that had dominated some of the post-World War II political landscape in Western Europe were under pressure in some countries to the extent that a commentator in Foreign Affairs called it an "implosion of the centre - left ''. The first country that saw this development was Greece in the aftermath of the Great Recession and the ongoing Greek government - debt crisis. Support for the Greek social democrat party PASOK declined from 43.9 % in the 2009 Hellenic parliament election to 4.68 % in the January 2015 election. The decline subsequently proved to not be isolated to Greece as it spread to a number of countries in Western Europe:
However, in other countries such as Denmark, Portugal and Romania support for social democratic parties was relatively strong in polls as of 2017. Moreover, in some countries the decline of the social democratic parties was accompanied by a surge in the support for other centre - left or left - wing parties, such as Syriza in Greece, Unidos Podemos in Spain and the Left - Green Movement in Iceland.
Several explanations for the European decline have been proposed. Some commentators highlight that the Social Democrat support of national fragmentation and labour market deregulation had become less popular among potential voters. For instance, French political scientist Pierre Manent emphasised the need for social democrats to rehabilitate and reinvigorate the idea of nationhood. After the Norwegian Labour Party 's loss in the 2017 election, commentators such as the editor of Avisenes Nyhetsbyrå highlighted that the party had ignored a strong surge in discontent with immigration among potential voters.
A 2017 article in The Political Quarterly explains the decline in Germany with electoral disillusionment with Third Way politics, or more specifically Gerhard Schröder 's embracement of the Hartz plan, which recommended welfare state retrenchment and labour market deregulation. The article claims that the SPD subsequently lost half of its former electoral coalition, namely blue - collar voters and socially disadvantaged groups, while efforts to gain access to centrist and middle - class voters failed to produce any compensating gains. Furthermore, the article concludes that the only possible remedy is for the SPD to make efforts to regain former voters by offering credible social welfare and redistributive policies. A research article in Socio - Economic Review found that the longer - term electoral effects of the Hartz plan and Agenda 2010 on relevant voter groups were limited, but that it had helped to entrench The Left as a permanent political force to the left of SPD.
From a purely socialist point of view, social democratic reform is a failure since it serves to devise new means to strengthen the capitalist system, which conflicts with the socialist goal of replacing capitalism with a socialist system.
Socialist critics often criticize social democracy on the grounds that it fails to address the systemic issues inherent to capitalism, arguing that ameliorative social programs and interventionism generate issues and contradictions of their own, thus limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system. The American democratic socialist philosopher David Schweickart contrasts social democracy with democratic socialism by defining the former as an attempt to strengthen the welfare state and the latter as an alternative economic system to capitalism. According to Schweickart, the democratic socialist critique of social democracy is that capitalism can never be sufficiently "humanized '' and that any attempt to suppress its economic contradictions will only cause them to emerge elsewhere. For example, attempts to reduce unemployment too much would result in inflation and too much job security would erode labour discipline. In contrast to social democracy, democratic socialists advocate a post-capitalist economic system based on either market socialism combined with workers self - management or on some form of participatory - economic planning.
Marxian socialists argue that social democratic welfare policies can not resolve the fundamental structural issues of capitalism, such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate living conditions in capitalism -- such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits -- creates further contradictions by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system via reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production. The welfare state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative and contradiction - laden system of capitalism to society 's detriment. Critics of contemporary social democracy, such as Jonas Hinnfors, argue that when social democracy abandoned Marxism it also abandoned socialism and has become a liberal capitalist movement, effectively making social democrats similar to non-socialist parties like the U.S. Democratic Party.
Market socialism is also critical of social democratic welfare states. While one common goal of both concepts is to achieve greater social and economic equality, market socialism does so by changes in enterprise ownership and management, whereas social democracy attempts to do so by subsidies and taxes on privately owned enterprises to finance welfare programs. Frank Roosevelt and David Belkin criticize social democracy for maintaining a property - owning capitalist class which has an active interest in reversing social democratic welfare policies and a disproportionate amount of power as a class to influence government policy. The economists John Roemer and Pranab Bardhan point out that social democracy requires a strong labour movement to sustain its heavy redistribution through taxes and that it is idealistic to think such redistribution can be accomplished in other countries with weaker labour movements. They note that even in Scandinavian countries social democracy has been in decline as the labour movement weakened.
Joseph Stalin was a vocal critic of reformist social democracy, later coining the term "social fascism '' to describe social democracy in the 1930s because in this period social democracy embraced a similar corporatist economic model to the model supported by fascism. This view was adopted by the Communist International.
There are critics that claim that social democracy abandoned socialism in the 1930s by endorsing Keynesian welfare capitalism. The democratic socialist political theorist Michael Harrington argues that social democracy historically supported Keynesianism as part of a "social democratic compromise '' between capitalism and socialism. This compromise created welfare states and thus Harrington contends that although this compromise did not allow for the immediate creation of socialism, it "recognized noncapitalist, and even anticapitalist, principles of human need over and above the imperatives of profit ''. More recently, social democrats in favour of the Third Way have been accused of having endorsed capitalism, including by anti-Third Way social democrats who have accused Third Way proponents such as Lord Giddens of being anti-social democratic and anti-socialist in practice.
|
who sang bare necessities in jungle book 2016 | The Bare Necessities - wikipedia
"The Bare Necessities '' is a song, written by Terry Gilkyson, from the animated 1967 Disney film The Jungle Book, sung by Phil Harris as Baloo and Bruce Reitherman as Mowgli. Originally, it was written for an earlier draft of the movie that was never produced. The Sherman Brothers, who wrote the other songs of the film, kept this as the only song used from the previous version. A reprise of the song was sung by Sebastian Cabot as Bagheera and Phil Harris as Baloo at the end of the film. Van Dyke Parks worked on the arrangement, which was his first paid gig after moving to California. The song was also sung by Louis Armstrong. In 1967, "The Bare Necessities '' was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. A hip - hop version of the song performed by Lou Rawls was used as the theme song for Jungle Cubs.
It has been suggested that the original trumpet solo was played by Cappy Lewis.
|
who is opening for sam smith thrill of it all tour | The Thrill of It All tour - wikipedia
The Thrill of It All Tour is the second concert tour by English singer Sam Smith, in support of his second album The Thrill of It All (2017). The tour is set to begin on 20 March 2018 in Sheffield, and is set to conclude on 20 November 2018 in Perth.
On 6 October 2017, Smith announced he is releasing his second album The Thrill of It All on 3 November 2017, and plans to embark on a tour in support of it.
|
was there ever a female prime minister in canada | Kim Campbell - wikipedia
Avril Phaedra Douglas "Kim '' Campbell PC CC OBC QC (born March 10, 1947) is a Canadian politician, diplomat, lawyer and writer who served as the 19th Prime Minister of Canada, from June 25, 1993, to November 4, 1993. Campbell was the first, and to date, only female prime minister of Canada, the first baby boomer to hold that office, and the only prime minister born in British Columbia. She currently is the chairperson for Canada 's Supreme Court Advisory Board.
Campbell was born in Port Alberni, British Columbia, the daughter of Phyllis "Lissa '' Margaret (née Cook; 1923 -- 2013) and George Thomas Campbell (1920 -- 2002), a barrister who had served with The Seaforth Highlanders of Canada in Italy. Her father was born in Montreal, to Scottish parents, from Glasgow. Her mother left the family when Campbell was 12, leaving Kim and her sister Alix to be raised by their father. As a teenager, Campbell permanently nicknamed herself Kim.
While in her pre-teens, Campbell was a host and reporter on the CBC children 's program Junior Television Club.
Campbell and her family moved to Vancouver, where she attended Prince of Wales Secondary School and was a top student. She became the school 's first female student president, and graduated in 1964.
She earned an honours bachelor 's degree in political science from the University of British Columbia, graduating in 1969. She was active in the student government and served as the school 's first female president of the freshman class. She then completed a year of graduate study at that school, to qualify for doctoral - level studies. Campbell entered the London School of Economics in 1970 to study towards her doctorate in Soviet Government, and spent three months touring the Soviet Union, from April to June 1972. She had spent several years studying the Russian language, and was nearly fluent. Campbell ultimately left her doctoral studies, returning to live in Vancouver after marrying Nathan Divinsky, her longtime partner, in 1972. She earned, in 1983, an LL. B. from the University of British Columbia. She was called to the British Columbia Bar in 1984, and practised law in Vancouver until 1986.
During her marriage to Divinsky, Campbell lectured part - time in political science at the University of British Columbia and at Vancouver Community College. While still attending law school, she entered politics as a trustee on the Vancouver School Board, becoming, in 1983, the chair of that board and serving in 1984 as its vice-chair. She once claimed to have told the board to "back off '' although others alleged that she said "fuck off ''. In total, she was a trustee there from 1980 to 1984. Campbell and Divinsky were divorced in 1983, and Campbell married Howard Eddy in 1986, a marriage that lasted until shortly before she became prime minister. Campbell is the second prime minister of Canada to have been divorced, after Pierre Trudeau.
She briefly dated Gregory Lekhtman, the inventor of Exerlopers, during her term as prime minister, but the relationship was relatively private and she did not involve him in the 1993 election campaign. She is currently married to Hershey Felder, an actor, playwright, composer, and concert pianist. She remains close to Nathan Divinsky 's daughter Pamelea.
Campbell was the unsuccessful British Columbia Social Credit Party (Socred) candidate in Vancouver Centre for a seat in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia in 1983, receiving 12,740 votes (19.3 % in a double member riding). Campbell ran unsuccessfully for the leadership of the BC Social Credit Party in the summer of 1986 (placing last with 14 votes from delegates), but was elected in October 1986 to the British Columbia Legislative Assembly as a Socred member for Vancouver - Point Grey, getting 19,716 votes (23.2 %, also in a double member riding). Consigned to the backbenches, she became disenchanted with Premier Bill Vander Zalm 's leadership and broke with him and Social Credit over the issue of abortion, which Vander Zalm was opposed to. Campbell decided to leave provincial politics and enter federal politics.
Campbell was elected in the 1988 federal election as the member of parliament (MP) from Vancouver Centre. She won the party nomination after the incumbent, Pat Carney, declined to stand for re-nomination. In 1989 she was appointed to the cabinet as Minister of State (Indian Affairs and Northern Development). From 1990 -- 1993 she held the post of Minister of Justice and Attorney General where she oversaw notable amendments to the Criminal Code in the areas of firearms control and sexual assault. In 1990, following the Supreme Court 's decision invalidating the country 's abortion law, Campbell was responsible for introducing Bill C - 43 to govern abortions in Canada. Although it passed the House of Commons, it failed to pass the Senate, and as of 2017 there is no national law governing abortions.
In 1993 Campbell was transferred to the posts of Minister of National Defence and Minister of Veterans Affairs. Notable events during her tenure included dealing with the controversial issue of replacing shipborne helicopters for the navy and for search and rescue units. The actions by Canadian Airborne Regiment in the military scandal known as the Somalia Affair also first emerged while Campbell was minister. When the Liberal Party of Canada took power, the incident became the subject of a lengthy public inquiry, continuing to focus attention on Campbell and the PCs.
In February 1993, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney announced his retirement from politics, to take effect June 25, 1993. Campbell entered the party leadership race to succeed Mulroney. Campbell had served in four cabinet portfolios prior to running for the party leadership, including three years as Minister of Justice, and garnered support of more than half the PC caucus when she declared for the leadership.
She defeated Jean Charest at the Progressive Conservative leadership convention that June, and Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn appointed her Prime Minister on June 25. As a concession to Charest, Campbell appointed him to the posts of Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Industry, Science and Technology -- the first largely symbolic, and the second a significant cabinet portfolio position.
After becoming party leader and Prime Minister, Campbell set about reorganizing the cabinet. She cut it from 35 ministers to 23 ministers; she consolidated ministries by creating three new ministries: Health, Canadian Heritage, and Public Security. Campbell extensively campaigned during the summer, touring the nation and attending barbecues and other events. In August 1993, a Gallup Canada poll showed Campbell as having a 51 percent approval rating, which placed her as Canada 's most popular prime minister in 30 years. By the end of the summer, her personal popularity had increased greatly, far surpassing that of Liberal Party leader Jean Chrétien. Support for the Progressive Conservative Party had also increased to within a few points of the Liberals, while the Reform Party had been reduced to single digits.
Campbell was the only Canadian prime minister not to have resided at 24 Sussex Drive since that address became the official home of the Prime Minister of Canada in 1951. Campbell 's predecessor Mulroney remained at 24 Sussex while renovations on his new home in Montreal were being completed. Campbell instead took up residence at Harrington Lake, the PM 's summer and weekend retreat, located in rural Quebec, north of Ottawa, and she did not move into 24 Sussex after Mulroney left. Like Charles Tupper and John Turner, Campbell never sat in Parliament as Prime Minister, as her term was filled by the summer break and the election campaign.
Campbell entered office facing a statutory general election. She waited as long as she could before asking Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn to dissolve Parliament on September 8, only weeks before Parliament was due to expire. The election was scheduled for October 25, the latest date it could be legally held under Section 4 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
The Tories were optimistic that they would be able to remain in power and, if not, would at least be a strong opposition to a Liberal minority government.
Campbell 's initial popularity declined after the writ was dropped. When she was running for the party leadership, Campbell 's frank honesty was seen as an important asset and a sharp contrast from Mulroney 's highly polished style. However, this backfired when she told reporters at a Rideau Hall event that it was unlikely that the deficit or unemployment would be much reduced before the "end of the century ''. During the election campaign, she further stated that discussing a complete overhaul of Canada 's social policies in all their complexities could not be done in just 47 days; this statement was reduced to her having stated that an election is no time to discuss important issues.
Progressive Conservative support tailed off as the campaign progressed. By October, polls showed the Liberals were well on their way to at least a minority government, and would probably win a majority without dramatic measures. Even at this point, Campbell was still considerably more popular than Liberal leader Jean Chrétien. In hopes of stemming the tide, the Progressive Conservative campaign team put together a series of ads attacking the Liberal leader. The second ad appeared to mock Chrétien 's Bell 's Palsy facial paralysis, and generated a severe backlash from the media, with some Tory candidates calling for the ad to be pulled from broadcasts. Campbell claims to have not been directly responsible for the ad, and to have ordered it off the air over her staff 's objections.
It was to no avail. Tory support plummeted into the teens in the aftermath of the ad, all but assuring that the Liberals would win a majority government.
On election night, October 25, the Progressive Conservatives were swept from power in a Liberal landslide. Campbell herself was defeated in Vancouver Centre by rookie Liberal Hedy Fry. She conceded defeat with the remark, "Gee, I 'm glad I did n't sell my car. ''
It was only the third time in Canadian history that a prime minister was unseated at the same time that his or her party lost an election. All Progressive Conservatives running for re-election lost their seats, with the lone exception of Jean Charest, who was also the only surviving member of Campbell 's cabinet. The Tories ' previous support in Western Canada moved to Reform and the Liberals, while the Bloc Québécois inherited most soft - nationalist Tory support in Quebec. In some cases, the Bloc pushed Cabinet ministers from Quebec into third place.
The Tories still finished with over two million votes, taking third place in the popular vote, and falling only two percentage points short of Reform for second place. However, as a consequence of the first past the post system, Tory support was not concentrated in enough areas to translate into victories in individual ridings. As a result, the Tories won only two seats, compared to Reform 's 52 and the Bloc 's 54. It was the worst defeat in party history, and the worst defeat ever suffered by a Canadian governing party at the federal level.
Some have pointed to gender inequality as a major contributing factor to her historic loss. University of New Brunswick professor Joanna Everitt writes that while media simply reported the facts about rival male leaders such as Jean Chrétien, Campbell 's actions were usually interpreted as having some motive (drawing up support, appealing to a group, etc.)
Additionally, Mulroney left office as one of the most (and according to Campbell, the most) unpopular prime ministers since opinion polling began in the 1940s. He considerably hampered his own party 's campaign effort by staging a very lavish international farewell tour at taxpayer expense, and by delaying his retirement until there were only two - and - a-half months left in the Tories ' five - year mandate.
Canadian humourist Will Ferguson suggested that Campbell should receive "some of the blame '' for her party 's losses, but that "taking over the party leadership from Brian (Mulroney) was a lot like taking over the controls of a 747 just before it plunges into the Rockies. ''
On December 13, 1993, Campbell resigned as party leader; Jean Charest succeeded her.
Despite her dramatic loss in the election, the Canadian women 's magazine Chatelaine named Campbell as its Woman of the Year for 1993. She published an autobiography, Time and Chance, (ISBN 0 - 770 - 42738 - 3) in 1996. The book became a Canadian bestseller, and is in its third edition from the University of Alberta Bookstore Press (ISBN 000010132X).
It was briefly rumoured that she was to be sent to Moscow as the ambassador to Russia. However, in 1996, Campbell was appointed consul general to Los Angeles by the Chrétien government, a post in which she remained until 2000. While she was there, she collaborated with her husband, composer, playwright and actor Hershey Felder, on the production of a musical, Noah 's Ark.
From 1999 to 2003, she chaired the Council of Women World Leaders, a network of women who hold or have held the office of president or prime minister. She was succeeded by former Irish President Mary Robinson. From 2003 until 2005 she served as President of the International Women 's Forum, a global organization of women of prominent achievement, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. From 2001 to 2004, she was with the at the Center for Public Leadership and lectured at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. She has served as a director of several publicly traded companies in high technology and biotechnology, and currently sits on the board of Athenex, a biopharmaceutical companty that had its IPO June 14, 2017 and trades under the ticker symbol "ATNX ''.
Campbell chaired the steering committee of the World Movement for Democracy from 2008 - 2015. She served on the board of the International Crisis Group, an NGO that aims to prevent and resolve deadly conflicts. She served on the board of the Forum of Federations, the EastWest Institute, and is a founding trustee of The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence at King 's College London. She was a founding member of the Club de Madrid, an independent organization whose main purpose is to strengthen democracy in the world. Its membership is by invitation only, and consists of former Heads of State and Government. At different times Campbell has served as its Interim President, Vice President and from 2004 2006 its Secretary General. Campbell was the founding Chair of the International Advisory Board of the Ukrainian Foundation for Effective Governance, an NGO formed in September 2007 with the aid of businessman Rinat Akhmetov.
During the 2006 election campaign, Campbell endorsed the candidacy of Tony Fogarassy, the Conservative candidate in Campbell 's former riding of Vancouver Centre. Campbell also clarified to reporters that she is a supporter of the new Conservative Party. Fogarassy lost the election, placing a distant third.
While testifying in April 2009 at the Mulroney - Schreiber Airbus inquiry, Campbell said she still follows Canadian politics "intermittently. ''
In April 2014, Campbell was appointed the founding principal of the new Peter Lougheed Leadership College at the University of Alberta.
She has appeared on the CBC Television program Canada 's Next Great Prime Minister, a show which profiles and selects young prospective leaders, and has also been an occasional panelist on Real Time with Bill Maher.
On August 2, 2016, it was announced by Liberal Prime Minister Justin Trudeau that Campbell had agreed to chair a seven - person committee to prepare a shortlist of candidates to succeed Thomas Cromwell on the Supreme Court of Canada. In mid-October 2016, the committee announced that it would recommend the appointment of Malcolm Rowe to the court, and he was sworn in on October 31 as the first Supreme Court justice to hail from Newfoundland and Labrador.
As Justice Minister, Campbell brought about a new rape law that clarified sexual assault and whose passage firmly entrenched that in cases involving sexual assault, "no means no ''. She also introduced the rape shield law, legislation that protects a person 's sexual past from being explored during trial. Her legacy of supporting sexual victims has been confirmed through her work with the Peter Lougheed Leadership College at the University of Alberta, where the inaugural cohort of scholars proposed that the college immediately implement mandatory education regarding sexual assault for students, which Campbell readily accepted.
Since Parliament never sat during Campbell 's four months as a prime minister, she was unable to bring forth new legislation, which must be formally introduced there. However, she did implement radical changes to the structure of the Canadian government. Under her tenure, the federal cabinet 's size was cut from over 35 cabinet ministers and ministers of state to 23. This included the redesign of 8 ministries and the abolition or merging of 15 others. The Chrétien government retained these new ministries when it took office. The number of cabinet committees was reduced from 11 to 5. Her successors have continued to keep the size of the federal Cabinet to approximately 30 members. She was also the first prime minister to convene a First Ministers ' conference for consultation prior to representing Canada at the G7 Summit. Due to her brief time in office, Campbell holds a unique spot among Canadian prime ministers in that she made no Senate appointments.
Campbell harshly criticized Mulroney for not allowing her to succeed him before June 1993. In her view, when she became prime minister, she had very little time or chance to make up ground on the Liberals once her initial popularity faded. In her memoirs, Time and Chance, and in her response to The Secret Mulroney Tapes, Campbell suggested that Mulroney knew the Tories would be defeated in the upcoming election, and wanted a "scapegoat who would bear the burden of his unpopularity '' rather than a viable successor. The cause of the 1993 debacle remains disputed, with some arguing that the election results were a vote against Mulroney rather than a rejection of Campbell, and others suggesting that the poorly run Campbell campaign was the key factor in the result.
Although the Progressive Conservatives survived as a distinct political party for another decade after the 1993 debacle, they never recovered their previous standing. During that period they were led by Jean Charest (1993 -- 1998), Elsie Wayne (1998) and then, for the second time, by Joe Clark (1998 -- 2003) (who had been Opposition Leader and briefly Prime Minister 20 years earlier). By 2003, the party under new leader Peter MacKay had voted to merge with the Canadian Alliance to form the Conservative Party of Canada, thus ceasing to exist, despite MacKay having promised not to pursue a merger. Joe Clark continued to sit as a "Progressive Conservative '' into 2004. The new generation of right - leaning Conservatives gained power in the election of 2006, ensuring the "Tory '' nickname 's survival in the federal politics of Canada. A PC "rump '' caucus continued to exist in the Senate of Canada (consisting of certain Clark, Mulroney and Paul Martin appointees), but as of 2012 only one senator, Elaine McCoy of Alberta, sits as a Progressive Conservative.
Campbell remains one of the youngest women to have ever assumed the office of Prime Minister in any country, and thus also one of the youngest to have left the office.
Campbell was ranked No. 20 out of the first 20 Prime Ministers of Canada (through Jean Chrétien) by a survey of 26 Canadian historians used by J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer in their 1997 book Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada 's Leaders. A follow - up article co-authored by Hillmer in 2011 for Maclean 's Magazine broadened the number of historians surveyed; in this new survey of over 100 Canadian historians, Campbell again finished dead last, this time coming at # 22 out of Canada 's first 22 Prime Ministers (through Stephen Harper).
In 2004, she was included in the list of 50 most important political leaders in history in the Almanac of World History compiled by the National Geographic Society. She was cited for her status as the only woman head of government of a North American country (defined variously), but controversy ensued among academics in Canada over the merit of this honour, since her brief term in office was marked by very few, if any, major political accomplishments.
On November 30, 2004, Campbell 's official portrait for the parliamentary Prime Minister 's gallery was unveiled. The painting was created by Victoria, British Columbia artist David Goatley. Campbell said she was "deeply honoured '' to be the only woman to have her picture in the Prime Ministers ' corridor, stating: "I really look forward to the day when there are many other female faces. '' The painting shows a pensive Campbell sitting on a chair with richly coloured Haida capes and robes in the background, symbolizing her time as a cabinet minister and as an academic.
Campbell courted controversy on Twitter by claiming that female newscasters who expose their ' arms ' on TV are taken less seriously. despite having posed nude herself.
According to Canadian protocol, as a former Prime Minister, she is styled "The Right Honourable '' for life.
Bold indicates parties with members elected to the House of Commons.
|
a nerve impulse triggers the release of what chemical at a neuromuscular junction | Neuromuscular junction - wikipedia
A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse formed by the contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It is at the neuromuscular junction that a motor neuron is able to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction.
Muscles require innervation to function -- and even just to maintain muscle tone, avoiding atrophy. Synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction begins when an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal of a motor neuron, which activates voltage - dependent calcium channels to allow calcium ions to enter the neuron. Calcium ions bind to sensor proteins (synaptotagmin) on synaptic vesicles, triggering vesicle fusion with the cell membrane and subsequent neurotransmitter release from the motor neuron into the synaptic cleft. In vertebrates, motor neurons release acetylcholine (ACh), a small molecule neurotransmitter, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on the cell membrane of the muscle fiber, also known as the sarcolemma. nAChRs are ionotropic receptors, meaning they serve as ligand - gated ion channels. The binding of ACh to the receptor can depolarize the muscle fiber, causing a cascade that eventually results in muscle contraction.
Neuromuscular junction diseases can be of genetic and autoimmune origin. Genetic disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, can arise from mutated structural proteins that comprise the neuromuscular junction, whereas autoimmune diseases, such as myasthenia gravis, occur when antibodies are produced against nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the sarcolemma.
The neuromuscular junction differs from chemical synapses between neurons. Presynaptic motor axons stop 30 nanometers from the sarcolemma, the cell membrane of a muscle cell. This 30 - nanometer space forms the synaptic cleft through which signalling molecules are released. The sarcolemma has invaginations called postjunctional folds, which increase the surface area of the membrane exposed to the synaptic cleft. These postjunctional folds form what is referred to as the motor endplate, which possess nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at a density of 10,000 receptors / micrometer in skeletal muscle. The presynaptic axons form bulges called terminal boutons (or presynaptic terminals) that project into the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. The presynaptic terminals have active zones that contain vesicles, also called quanta, full of acetylcholine molecules. These vesicles can fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release ACh molecules into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis after depolarization. AChRs are localized opposite the presynaptic terminals by protein scaffolds at the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. Dystrophin, a structural protein, connects the sarcomere, sarcolemma, and extracellular matrix components. Rapsyn is another protein that docks AChRs and structural proteins to the cytoskeleton. Also present is the receptor tyrosine kinase protein MuSK, a signaling protein involved in the development of the neuromuscular junction, which is also held in place by rapsyn.
The neuromuscular junction is where a neuron activates a muscle to contract. Upon the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic neuron terminal, voltage - dependent calcium channels open and Ca ions flow from the extracellular fluid into the presynaptic neuron 's cytosol. This influx of Ca causes neurotransmitter - containing vesicles to dock and fuse to the presynaptic neuron 's cell membrane through SNARE proteins. Fusion of the vesicular membrane with the presynaptic cell membrane results in the emptying of the vesicle 's contents (acetylcholine) into the synaptic cleft, a process known as exocytosis. Acetylcholine diffuses into the synaptic cleft and can bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the motor endplate.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter synthesized from dietary choline and acetyl - CoA (ACoA), and is involved in the stimulation of muscle tissue in vertebrates as well as in some invertebrate animals. In vertebrate animals, the acetylcholine receptor subtype that is found at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscles is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a ligand - gated ion channel. Each subunit of this receptor has a characteristic "cys - loop, '' which is composed of a cysteine residue followed by 13 amino acid residues and another cysteine residue. The two cysteine residues form a disulfide linkage which results in the "cys - loop '' receptor that is capable of binding acetylcholine and other ligands. These cys - loop receptors are found only in eukaryotes, but prokaryotes possess ACh receptors with similar properties. Not all species use a cholinergic neuromuscular junction; e.g. crayfish and fruit flies have a glutamatergic neuromuscular junction.
AChRs at the skeletal neuromuscular junction form heteropentamers composed of two α, one β, one ɛ, and one δ subunits. When a single ACh ligand binds to one of the α subunits of the ACh receptor it induces a conformational change at the interface with the second AChR α subunit. This conformational change results in the increased affinity of the second α subunit for a second ACh ligand. AChRs therefore exhibit a sigmoidal dissociation curve due to this cooperative binding. The presence of the inactive, intermediate receptor structure with a single - bound ligand keeps ACh in the synapse that might otherwise be lost by cholinesterase hydrolysis or diffusion. The persistence of these ACh ligands in the synapse can cause a prolonged post-synaptic response.
The development of the neuromuscular junction requires signaling from both the motor neuron 's terminal and the muscle cell 's central region, During development, muscle cells produce acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and express them in the central regions in a process called prepatterning. Agrin, a heparin proteoglycan, and MuSK kinase are thought to help stabilize the accumulation of AChR in the central regions of the myocyte. MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase -- meaning that it induces cellular signaling by binding phosphate molecules to self regions like tyrosines, and to other targets in the cytoplasm. Upon activation by its ligand agrin, MuSK signals via two proteins called "Dok - 7 '' and "rapsyn '', to induce "clustering '' of acetylcholine receptors. ACh release by developing motor neurons produces postsynaptic potentials in the muscle cell that positively reinforces the localization and stabilization of the developing neuromuscular junction.
These findings were demonstrated in part by mouse "knockout '' studies. In mice which are deficient for either agrin or MuSK, the neuromuscular junction does not form. Further, mice deficient in Dok - 7 did not form either acetylcholine receptor clusters or neuromuscular synapses.
The development of neuromuscular junctions is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015 an all - human neuromuscular junction has been created in vitro using human embryonic stem cells and somatic muscle stem cells. In this model presynaptic motor neurons are activated by optogenetics and in response synaptically connected muscle fibers twitch upon light stimulation.
José del Castillo and Bernard Katz used ionophoresis to determine the location and density of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at the neuromuscular junction. With this technique, a microelectrode was placed inside the motor endplate of the muscle fiber, and a micropipette filled with acetylcholine (ACh) is placed directly in front of the endplate in the synaptic cleft. A positive voltage was applied to the tip of the micropipette, which caused a burst of positively charged ACh molecules to be released from the pipette. These ligands flowed into the space representing the synaptic cleft and bound to AChRs. The intracellular microelectrode monitored the amplitude of the depolarization of the motor endplate in response to ACh binding to nicotinic (ionotropic) receptors. Katz and del Castillo showed that the amplitude of the depolarization (excitatory postsynaptic potential) depended on the proximity of the micropipette releasing the ACh ions to the endplate. The farther the micropipette was from the motor endplate, the smaller the depolarization was in the muscle fiber. This allowed the researchers to determine that the nicotinic receptors were localized to the motor endplate in high density.
Toxins are also used to determine the location of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. α - Bungarotoxin is a toxin found in the snake species Bungarus multicinctus that acts as an ACh antagonist and binds to AChRs irreversibly. By coupling assayable enzymes such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the α - bungarotoxin, AChRs can be visualized and quantified.
Nerve gases and liquor damage this area.
Botulinum toxin (aka botulinum neurotoxin, BoNT, and sold under the trade name Botox) inhibits the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction by interfering with SNARE proteins. This toxin crosses into the nerve terminal through the process of endocytosis and subsequently interferes with SNARE proteins, which are necessary for ACh release. By doing so, it induces a transient flaccid paralysis and chemical denervation localized to the striated muscle that it has affected. The inhibition of the ACh release does not set in until approximately two weeks after the injection is made. Three months after the inhibition occurs, neuronal activity begins to regain partial function, and six months, complete neuronal function is regained.
Tetanus toxin, also known as tetanospasmin is a potent neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani and causes the disease state, tetanus. The LD of this toxin has been measured to be approximately 1 ng / kg, making it second only to Botulinum toxin D as the deadliest toxin in the world. It functions very similarly to botunlinum neurotoxin (BoNT) by attaching and endocytosing into the presynaptic nerve terminal and interfering with SNARE protein complexes. It differs from BoNT in a few ways, most apparently in its end state, wherein tetanospasmin demonstrates a rigid / spastic paralysis as opposed to the flaccid paralysis demonstrated with BoNT.
Latrotoxin (α - Latrotoxin) found in venom of widow spiders also affects the neuromuscular junction by causing the release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic cell. Mechanisms of action include binding to receptors on the presynaptic cell activating the IP3 / DAG pathway and release of calcium from intracellular stores and pore formation resulting in influx of calcium ions directly. Either mechanism causes increased calcium in presynaptic cell, which then leads to release of synaptic vesicles of acetylcholine. Latrotoxin causes pain, muscle contraction and if untreated potentially paralysis and death.
Snake venoms act as toxins at the neuromuscular junction and can induce weakness and paralysis. Venoms can act as both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins.
Presynaptic neurotoxins, commonly known as β - neurotoxins, affect the presynaptic regions of the neuromuscular junction. The majority of these neurotoxins act by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse between neurons. However, some of these toxins have also been known to enhance neurotransmitter release. Those that inhibit neurotransmitter release create a neuromuscular blockade that prevents signaling molecules from reaching their postsynaptic target receptors. In doing so, the victim of these snake bite suffer from profound weakness. Such neurotoxins do not respond well to anti-venoms. After one hour of inoculation of these toxins, including notexin and taipoxin, many of the affected nerve terminals show signs of irreversible physical damage, leaving them devoid of any synaptic vesicles.
Postsynaptic neurotoxins, otherwise known as α - neurotoxins, act oppositely to the presynaptic neurotoxins by binding to the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors. This prevents interaction between the acetylcholine released by the presynaptic terminal and the receptors on the postsynaptic cell. In effect, the opening of sodium channels associated with these acetylcholine receptors is prohibited, resulting in a neuromuscular blockade, similar to the effects seen due to presynaptic neurotoxins. This causes paralysis in the muscles involved in the affected junctions. Unlike presynaptic neurotoxins, postsynaptic toxins are more easily affected by anti-venoms, which accelerate the dissociation of the toxin from the receptors, ultimately causing a reversal of paralysis. These neurotoxins experimentally and qualitatively aid in the study of acetylcholine receptor density and turnover, as well as in studies observing the direction of antibodies toward the affected acetylcholine receptors in patients diagnosed with myasthenia gravis.
Any disorder that compromises the synaptic transmission between a motor neuron and a muscle cell is categorized under the umbrella term of neuromuscular diseases. These disorders can be inherited or acquired and can vary in their severity and mortality. In general, most of these disorders tend to be caused by mutations or autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune disorders, in the case of neuromuscular diseases, tend to be humoral mediated, B cell mediated, and result in an antibody improperly created against a motor neuron or muscle fiber protein that interferes with synaptic transmission or signaling.
Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder where the body makes antibodies against either the acetylcholine receptor (AchR) (in 80 % of cases), or against postsynaptic muscle - specific kinase (MuSK) (0 -- 10 % of cases). In seronegative myasthenia gravis low density lipoprotein receptor - related protein 4 is targeted by IgG1, which acts as a competitive inhibitor of its ligand, preventing the ligand from binding its receptor. It is not known if seronegative myasthenia gravis will respond to standard therapies.
Neonatal MG is an autoimmune disorder that affects 1 in 8 children born to mothers who have been diagnosed with Myasthenia gravis (MG). MG can be transferred from the mother to the fetus by the movement of AChR antibodies through the placenta. Signs of this disease at birth include weakness, which responds to anticholinesterase medications, as well as fetal akinesia, or the lack of fetal movement. This form of the disease is transient, lasting for about three months. However, in some cases, neonatal MG can lead to other health effects, such as arthrogryposis and even fetal death. These conditions are thought to be initiated when maternal AChR antibodies are directed to the fetal AChR and can last until the 33rd week of gestation, when the γ subunit of AChR is replaced by the ε subunit.
Lambert - Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the presynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction. This rare disease can be marked by a unique triad of symptoms: proximal muscle weakness, autonomic dysfunction, and areflexia. Proximal muscle weakness is a product of pathogenic autoantibodies directed against P / Q - type voltage - gated calcium channels, which in turn leads to a reduction of acetylcholine release from motor nerve terminals on the presynaptic cell. Examples of autonomic dysfunction caused by LEMS include erectile dysfunction in men, constipation, and, most commonly, dry mouth. Less common dysfunctions include dry eyes and altered perspiration. Areflexia is a condition in which tendon reflexes are reduced and it may subside temporarily after a period of exercise.
50 -- 60 % of the patients that are diagnosed with LEMS also have present an associated tumor, which is typically small - cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). This type of tumor also expresses voltage - gated calcium channels. Oftentimes, LEMS also occurs alongside myasthenia gravis.
Treatment for LEMS consists of using 3, 4 - diaminopyridine as a first measure, which serves to increase the compound muscle action potential as well as muscle strength by lengthening the time that voltage - gated calcium channels remain open after blocking voltage - gated potassium channels. In the US, treatment with 3, 4 - diaminopyridine for eligible LEMS patients is available at no cost under an expanded access program. Further treatment includes the use of prednisone and azathioprine in the event that 3, 4 - diaminopyridine does not aid in treatment.
Neuromyotonia (NMT), otherwise known as Isaac 's syndrome, is unlike many other diseases present at the neuromuscular junction. Rather than causing muscle weakness, NMT leads to the hyperexcitation of motor nerves. NMT causes this hyperexcitation by producing longer depolarizations by down - regulating voltage - gated potassium channels, which causes greater neurotransmitter release and repetitive firing. This increase in rate of firing leads to more active transmission and as a result, greater muscular activity in the affected individual. NMT is also believed to be of autoimmune origin due to its associations with autoimmune symptoms in the individual affected.
Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are very similar to both MG and LEMS in their functions, but the primary difference between CMS and those diseases is that CMS is of genetic origins. Specifically, these syndromes are diseases incurred due to mutations, typically recessive, in 1 of at least 10 genes that affect presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic proteins in the neuromuscular junction. Such mutations usually arise in the ε - subunit of AChR, thereby affecting the kinetics and expression of the receptor itself. Single nucleotide substitutions or deletions may cause loss of function in the subunit. Other mutations, such as those affecting acetylcholinesterase and acetyltransferase, can also cause the expression of CMS, with the latter being associated specifically with episodic apnea. These syndromes can present themselves at different times within the life of an individual. They may arise during the fetal phase, causing fetal akinesia, or the perinatal period, during which certain conditions, such as arthrogryposis, ptosis, hypotonia, ophthalmoplegia, and feeding or breathing difficulties, may be observed. They could also activate during adolescence or adult years, causing the individual to develop slow - channel syndrome.
Treatment for particular subtypes of CMS (postsynaptic fast - channel CMS) is similar to treatment for other neuromuscular disorders. 3, 4 - Diaminopyridine, the first - line treatment for LEMS, is under development as an orphan drug for CMS in the US, and available to eligible patients under an expanded access program at no cost.
Bulbospinal muscular atrophy, also known as Kennedy 's disease, is a rare recessive trinucleotide, polyglutamine disorder that is linked to the X chromosome. Because of its linkage to the X chromosome, it is typically transmitted through females. However, Kennedy 's disease is only present in adult males and the onset of the disease is typically later in life. This disease is specifically caused by the expansion of a CAG - tandem repeat in exon 1 found on the androgen - receptor (AR) gene on chromosome Xq 11 - 12. Poly - Q - expanded AR accumulates in the nuclei of cells, where it begins to fragment. After fragmentation, degradation of the cell begins, leading to a loss of both motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia.
Symptoms of Kennedy 's disease include weakness and wasting of the facial bulbar and extremity muscles, as well as sensory and endocrinological disturbances, such as gynecomastia and reduced fertility. Other symptoms include elevated testosterone and other sexual hormone levels, development of hyper - CK - emia, abnormal conduction through motor and sensory nerves, and neuropathic or in rare cases myopathic alterations on biopsies of muscle cells.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an X-linked genetic disorder that results in the absence of the structural protein dystrophin at the neuromuscular junction. It affects 1 in 3,600 -- 6,000 males and frequently causes death by the age of 30. The absence of dystrophin causes muscle degeneration, and patients present with the following symptoms: abnormal gait, hypertrophy in the calf muscles, and elevated creatine kinase. If left untreated, patients may suffer from respiratory distress, which can lead to death.
|
when did the first samsung note 7 explode | Samsung Galaxy Note 7 - Wikipedia
2G GSM / GPRS / EDGE -- 850, 900, 1800, 1900 96 % are still in distribution
2G CDMA 1xRTT -- 800, 850, 1900 MHz 3G TD - SCDMA -- 1900, 2000 MHz 3G UMTS / HSDPA / HSUPA / HSPA+ -- 850, 900, AWS (1700), 1900, 2000, 2100 MHz
2.3 GHz Mongoose & 1.6 GHz Cortex - A53 Octa - core
The Samsung Galaxy Note 7 (marketed as Samsung Galaxy Note7) is a now - discontinued Android phablet smartphone that was produced and marketed by Samsung Electronics. Unveiled on 2 August 2016, it was officially released on 19 August 2016 as a successor to the Galaxy Note 5. It was Samsung 's first phone with a symmetrical connector and the last phone in the Galaxy Note Series to have a home button. Although it is the sixth main device in the Galaxy Note series, Samsung branded its series number as "7 '' instead of "6 '', so that consumers would not perceive it as being inferior to the flagship Samsung Galaxy S7.
The Galaxy Note 7 is an evolution of the Galaxy Note 5 that inherited hardware components and improvements from the Galaxy S7, including the restoration of expandable storage and IP68 water resistance, and new features such as a dual - sided curved display, support for high - dynamic - range (HDR) color, improvements to the bundled stylus and new software features which utilize it, an iris recognition system, and a USB - C port. Demand for the Galaxy Note 7 on - launch was high, breaking pre-order records in South Korea and causing international releases to be delayed in some markets due to supply shortages. The Galaxy Note 7 also received positive reviews from critics, praising the quality of its construction, HDR support, as well as its streamlined user interface, although it was panned for its high price and increasing similarities in overall specifications to the main Galaxy S series phones.
On 2 September 2016, Samsung suspended sales of the Galaxy Note 7 and announced an informal recall, after it was found that a manufacturing defect in the phones ' batteries had caused some of them to generate excessive heat, resulting in fires. A formal U.S. recall was announced on 15 September 2016. Samsung exchanged the affected phones for a new revision, which utilized batteries sourced from a different supplier. However, after reports emerged of incidents where these replacement phones also caught fire, Samsung recalled the Galaxy Note 7 worldwide on 10 October 2016, and permanently ceased production of the device on 11 October. Due to the recalls, Samsung has issued software updates in some markets that are intended to "eliminate their ability to work as mobile devices '', including restricting battery capacity, and blocking their ability to connect to wireless networks. Samsung has stated that it intends to recycle reusable silicon and components from the recalled models, and release refurbished models "where applicable ''.
The recall had a major impact on Samsung 's business in the third quarter of 2016, with the company projecting that its operating profits would be down by 33 % in comparison to the previous quarter. Credit Suisse analysts estimated that Samsung would lose at least US $17 billion in revenue from the production and recall of the Galaxy Note 7. The Note 7 had the shortest life span of any Samsung phone.
In July 2017, 9 months after the Note7 recall, Samsung released a refurbished version of the Galaxy Note 7 called Galaxy Note Fan Edition (marketed as Samsung Galaxy Note FE). It has a smaller battery of 3200 mAh and is supplied with Android Nougat with Samsung Experience UI, the operating system of the Galaxy S8. The successor to the Galaxy Note 7, the Galaxy Note 8, was announced on 23 August 2017 and released almost a month later.
The Galaxy Note 7 's hardware is similar in overall specifications and design to the Galaxy S7, with a metal and glass chassis, IP68 water resistance, and a microSD card slot. The Note 7 is equipped with an octa - core Exynos 8890 system - on - chip in most markets, and 4 GB of RAM. In China, Japan, and the United States, the Note 7 uses the quad - core Qualcomm Snapdragon 820 instead (which supports older CDMA networks that are extensively used by wireless carriers in these markets), Unlike the S7, which uses Exynos chips in this market, Canadian models of the Note 7 also use the Snapdragon 820. The Note 7 uses a USB Type - C port -- marking Samsung 's first mobile phone with the symmetrical connector.
The Galaxy Note 7 features a 5.7 inches (140 mm) 1440p Super AMOLED display. Similarly to the "Edge '' models of the S6 and S7, the display curves over the side bezels of the device; the curvature allows the Note 7 to be 2.2 millimetres (0.087 in) narrower than the Galaxy Note 5. The display supports high - dynamic - range video, and is coated in Gorilla Glass 5. As with all Galaxy Note models, the device is supplied with an active stylus branded as "S Pen ''. The Note 7 stylus supports 4,096 levels of pressure sensitivity and is water resistant. The Note 7 features the same 12 - megapixel rear - facing camera as the S7, with a "Dual Pixel '' image sensor and f / 1.7 aperture lens.
The Galaxy Note 7 also offers an iris recognition system, using a front - facing camera and infrared illumination. The iris scanner can be used for unlocking, and as authentication for other features of the device (such as Samsung Pay and Secure Folder). A fingerprint reader is also embedded in the home button.
The Galaxy Note 7 is supplied with Android 6.0 "Marshmallow '' and an updated version of Samsung 's proprietary TouchWiz user interface and software suite codenamed "Project Grace ''. It features an "always - on display '' mode, which can display a clock and notifications on - screen when the device is not in use; different clock styles and support for notifications from third - party apps were added for the "Grace '' version. The Screen off memo feature also leverages this mode, allowing users to write notes on the always - on display. The OS also features several new tools supporting the S Pen stylus, including translation, a screen magnifier, and a GIF recording tool. The previous suite of note - taking apps were also consolidated into a single Samsung Notes app.
The Galaxy Note 7 introduces a security feature known as "Secure Folder ''; it allows users to create a private workspace, protected by an authentication method, with separate user data and apps that are sandboxed from the main system. Installed apps can be cloned into Secure Folder, and users can designate whether notifications generated by apps in the Secure Folder are displayed from outside it. Secure Folder is based on the Samsung Knox 2.7 technology, which also added the ability for enterprises to control the distribution of system updates, and improvements to mobile device management and Microsoft Exchange Server integration.
The device also introduces Samsung Pass, a platform allowing apps to provide biometric authentication using its iris scanner. Samsung reached partnerships with several major U.S. banks to explore the integration of Samsung Pass into their mobile apps.
Pre-orders for the Galaxy Note 7 opened the day following its unveiling, with a U.S. release on 19 August 2016. Samsung skipped the numbering of the Galaxy Note series directly from "5 '' to "7 '' to synchronize it with the flagship Galaxy S series, and the Galaxy S7 line. The company stated that consumers may have perceived the Galaxy Note models to be inferior in technology to Galaxy S models because the numbering in their names were one digit lower.
Pre-orders in South Korea already broke records with 200,000 plus units pre-ordered within 2 days. Samsung Canada stated that pre-orders in Canada were "outstanding ''. The demand also forced countries like Malaysia, Netherlands, Russia and Ukraine to delay their releases to September due to shortage in supply.
TechRadar complimented that the Galaxy Note 7 's "rich - looking, glass - and - metal - fused design '' would "really wow people who are upgrading from those old, plastic - clad Note 4 and Note 3 handsets '', but noted that the curved edges of the screen infrequently caused minor issues when using the stylus. The display was considered to be vibrant and well - suited for multimedia, especially due to its HDR support. Aspects of the software were also praised, including the continued trimming of Samsung 's TouchWiz suite and its streamlined settings interface, and that it already included features introduced to the stock operating system as of Android "Nougat '' (although still being initially supplied with Android "Marshmallow ''). Of the device 's new stylus - oriented features, the consolidated S Notes app, GIF recorder, and always - on display functionality were commended, but the translation tool was considered to be inferior to Google Translate. The Galaxy Note 7 's battery was judged as being capable of one - and - a-half days of normal use, and it was noted that the software also featured numerous estimation and power - saving features. Techradar concluded that "If you 're going to get out of the stylus, the Note 7 is an obvious choice. The iris scanner does n't make it a convincing enough buy on its own. Otherwise, save your money and stick with the S7 Edge. ''
Ars Technica was critical of the Note 7 due to its many similarities to the Galaxy S7. The Note 7 's refreshed design was commended for being smoother and more ergonomic than previous Samsung devices with curved screens, although the company was panned for using glass on the rear panel rather than metal. The S Pen was also criticized for feeling "cheap '', describing it as a "hollow plastic tube that would feel more at home in a 100 - pack of disposable Bic pens than in an ultra-premium $850 smartphone ''. The iris scanner 's implementation was panned for adding additional steps to the process of unlocking the phone in comparison to the fingerprint reader, and that it does not integrate into Android 's integrated authentication platforms (making it proprietary to Samsung components). Warnings regarding looking at the sensor for too long were also considered to be "just a little scary ''. TouchWiz on the Note 7 was panned for consisting mainly of "' different for the sake of being different ' changes that do n't add much to the software experience '', and make the interface less consistent with third - party software by removing elements of Material design language. In conclusion, Ars Technica doubted whether the Galaxy Note series was even necessary anymore due to its increasing similarities to the main Galaxy S line, and felt that the device was priced too high, citing Chinese vendors capable of undercutting the prices of major brands while still producing phones of similar specifications.
Battery defects caused many Note 7 units to overheat and combust or explode. On 10 October 2016, Samsung permanently discontinued the Galaxy Note 7 due to these repeated incidents.
In the original run of devices, the battery, produced by Samsung SDI, contained a design flaw that made electrodes on the top - right of the battery susceptible to bending. This weakened separation between positive and negative tabs of the battery, thus resulting in thermal runaway and short circuits.
Following an official recall on 12 September 2016, the Galaxy Note 7 was re-versioned using batteries from China - based Contemporary Amperex Technology (CATL or ATL), which also supplies batteries to the IPhone. Samsung stated on 23 January 2017 that these batteries had suffered from a manufacturing defect in the welding process, which pushed electrodes up and caused damage to the separation between the positive and negative tabs. Some batteries were also missing insulation tape entirely. Samsung reported that these oversights resulted from the vendor 's push to ramp up production of batteries for the replacement phones in order to meet demand.
Due to the battery defects, the device is considered a hazmat product, and is prohibited from being taken on - board at any airline or bus station, even if powered off.
On 31 August 2016, it was reported that Samsung was delaying shipments of the Galaxy Note 7 in some regions to perform "additional tests being conducted for product quality ''; this came alongside user reports of batteries exploding while charging. On 1 September 2016, South Korea 's Yonhap News Agency reported that Samsung was preparing to recall the device worldwide due to these battery issues. On 2 September 2016, Samsung suspended sales of the Galaxy Note 7 and announced an informal recall, after it was found that a manufacturing defect in the phones ' batteries had caused some of them to generate excessive heat, resulting in fires and explosions. A formal U.S. recall was announced on 15 September 2016. Samsung exchanged the affected phones for a new revision, which utilized batteries sourced from a different supplier. However, after reports emerged of incidents where these replacement phones also caught fire, Samsung recalled the Galaxy Note 7 worldwide on 10 October 2016, and permanently ceased production of the device on 11 October. Due to the recalls, Samsung has issued software updates in some markets that are intended to "eliminate their ability to work as mobile devices '', including restricting battery capacity, and blocking their ability to connect to wireless networks.
A company spokesperson stated that it had received 35 reports of battery failure, which "account for less than 0.1 percent of the entire volume sold ''. Samsung stated that the hazard was limited to a small fraction of phones manufactured, and released a tool on its website on 19 September to identify affected units by their unique IMEI numbers.
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued an advisory on 8 September 2016, that passengers should not turn on or charge these devices on board aircraft. The European Aviation Safety Agency made a similar statement on 9 September, stating that "passengers are reminded of the need to inform the cabin crew when a device is damaged, hot, produces smoke, is lost, or falls into the seat structure. ''
On 12 September 2016, the Galaxy Note 7 was officially recalled in the U.S. by the Consumer Product Safety Commission, who advised all owners to shut down and cease all usage of the device, and return them in exchange for a replacement. On 13 September 2016, Samsung announced in newspaper advertisements that it would release a software patch to the affected Galaxy Note 7 devices in South Korea, which prevents the device from being charged beyond 60 % capacity to reduce the risk of combustion.
The Galaxy Note 7 was subsequently re-issued with batteries supplied by the Chinese company Amperex Technology Limited (which also serves as the main battery supplier for the iPhone line). These replacement models, which Samsung purportedly classified as being safe, had a prominent marking on their packaging to distinguish them from the first wave of recalled units, and render all software battery indicators with green icons. Samsung was granted special permission by Google to allow this change, as it would normally violate the requirements of the Android Compatibility Definition Document (which must be met to license Google Mobile Services software and Android trademarks) for all status bar icons to only be rendered in white. Following the announcement of the recall, Verizon Wireless released a software update to Galaxy Note 7 units purchased from the carrier, which displays the aforementioned green icons on safe devices, and an embedded recall notice on affected devices when the device is plugged in. Unlike the South Korean update, it does not include a charging cut - off.
Samsung reported that 80 % of devices had been replaced in South Korea, and roughly 50 % in Europe and North America. Only 10 % of devices in the U.S. were returned, and about 50,000 devices were traded for a different model. However, Samsung stated that 95 % of users chose to maintain their loyalty to the company.
In October 2016, several incidents occurred in which replacement Galaxy Note 7 phones still suffered from battery failure and combustion. A Galaxy Note 7 owner in Kentucky was hospitalized with acute bronchitis due to smoke inhalation, after his replacement device caught fire in the early morning of 4 October. The owner told a local television station that he had received a text message not meant for him from a Samsung customer service representative, which read "Just now got this. I can try and slow him down if we think it will matter, or we just let him do what he keeps threatening to do and see if he does it ''.
On 5 October 2016, a flight preparing to depart from Louisville was evacuated prior to takeoff when a passenger 's replacement Galaxy Note 7, obtained from an AT&T retail outlet, began smoking and popping as they were turning it off. Samsung stated that they were working with Southwest Airlines to investigate the incident, but stated that they would be unable to confirm whether the device was a replacement model until it was recovered.
On 7 October 2016, a third replacement phone in Minnesota had reportedly caught fire in a similar manner.
In response to these incidents involving replacement phones, the United States ' five major wireless carriers (AT&T Mobility and T - Mobile US on 9 October, along with Sprint Corporation, Verizon Wireless, and U.S. Cellular on 10 October) subsequently announced that they would suspend sales of the Galaxy Note 7 until further notice, pending an investigation.
On 10 October 2016, Samsung officially announced that it had "(asked) all carrier and retail partners globally to stop sales and exchanges '' of the Galaxy Note 7, and urged all owners to power them off and "take advantage of the remedies available, including a refund at their place of purchase ''. On 11 October 2016, Samsung announced that it would permanently cease production of the Galaxy Note 7 in the interest of customer safety. Samsung began issuing special kits to package the devices for returns; they consist of an antistatic bag that the phone is to be inserted into, and three layers of boxes -- the last of which is lined with ceramic fibre paper for fire protection. The shipping box also contains instructions explicitly stating that they are not to be shipped by air. Samsung stated to Vice 's Motherboard that it would not repair or refurbish any of the returned phones, and that the company would "safely dispose '' of them.
Following Samsung 's actions, the Rwanda Utilities and Regulatory Authority and the United States ' Consumer Product Safety Commission issued official recalls of all units of the Galaxy Note 7. These recalls ban the sale and distribution of any Galaxy Note 7 phone within these countries. The British Royal Mail and British courier company Parcelforce announced that they would not accept or deliver any parcels containing a Galaxy Note 7. Online marketplaces eBay and Gumtree also began to pull listings selling Galaxy Note 7 devices. After the suspension of sales, Oculus VR issued an update to its software for the Samsung Gear VR virtual reality headset, which blocks its use with the Galaxy Note 7 for safety reasons. The headset had been included with some units of the phone as a promotional offer.
On 14 October 2016, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of Transportation 's Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration banned the Note 7 from being taken aboard any airline flight, even if powered off. Qantas, Virgin Australia and Singapore Airlines issued similar bans, while Transport Canada issued a notice stating that the Galaxy Note 7 was banned from flights under Special Provision 137 prohibitions, banning the carriage of damaged or defective lithium - ion batteries onto flights. In response to these air travel bans, Samsung announced that it would set up dedicated kiosks at selected airports, to allow travelers to exchange or receive a refund for their Galaxy Note 7 on - site before they depart, rather than having their phone confiscated by security or airport staff.
In December 2016, a Virgin America flight from San Francisco to Boston was nearly diverted mid flight after it was discovered that a passenger on the plane had been operating a Wi - Fi hotspot with the SSID "Samsung Galaxy Note7_1097 ''. However, it was later discovered that the hotspot was a hoax, and that no passenger had actually brought a Galaxy Note 7 on board.
On 4 November 2016, the New Zealand Telecommunications Forum announced that all Galaxy Note 7 phones would be banned from use on local mobile networks (Vodafone NZ, Spark NZ, 2degrees and around a dozen MVNO 's) beginning 18 November, enforced via IMEI blacklist. On 30 November 2016, Samsung announced that Galaxy Note 7 devices would be banned from Australian wireless networks effective 15 December 2016.
In December 2016, Samsung announced its intent to cripple the functionality of unreturned Galaxy Note 7 phones in Canada and the United States via software updates. In Canada, an update restricted charge capacity, and blocked the phone from connecting to any wireless networks, nor use Wi - Fi or Bluetooth. In the United States, the update blocked the devices from being recharged in order to "eliminate their ability to work as mobile devices ''.
Verizon announced that it would refuse to distribute this update due to the "added risk this could pose to Galaxy Note 7 users that do not have another device to switch to '' because it would "make it impossible to contact family, first responders or medical professionals in an emergency situation '', especially during the holiday season. On 18 December 2016, Verizon announced that they would be distributing the update on 5 January 2017. Sprint also stated that it would not distribute this update until January 2017. Verizon later announced that it would redirect all outgoing calls (excluding emergency calls) made on unreturned Galaxy Note 7 devices to a service hotline demanding that they be returned, and threatened to charge customers a fee equaling the total retail cost of the phone if they refused to comply.
On 9 January 2017, Samsung released another update in South Korea, blocking the device from being charged beyond 15 %.
On 24 March 2017, Samsung released yet another update for South Korea users, barring charging of the Galaxy Note 7.
The Verge criticized Samsung 's overall handling of the battery faults and recall, arguing that the company had initially delivered unclear messaging over whether the devices were still safe to use, as well as its slow communication with the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, which had the capacity to issue an official recall in the U.S. The arguments were based on data released on 13 September 2016 by the research firm Apteligent, which stated that Galaxy Note 7 usage had been "almost exactly the same '' since the announcement of the exchange program. The Verge also noted that the U.S. government 's ban on taking Galaxy Note 7 phones aboard airline flights was "perhaps unprecedented '', acknowledging that only the ban of hoverboards by individual airlines for similar reasons -- an entire class of products (albeit one that was "admittedly fire - prone because of cheap materials '') -- came close to a legal ban for a single consumer product in terms of overall magnitude. Kyle Weins of Wired.com felt that Samsung switched to non-removable batteries in order to imitate the industrial design of Apple, after having used removable batteries on many of its past models (such as the Galaxy Note 4). He argued that this design decision exacerbated the battery faults of the Note 7, by requiring users to replace the entire phone as opposed to just the battery. He suggested that in the future, Samsung could "lead the pack '' by switching back to removable batteries, as with other "responsible '' OEMs such as HP Inc. and LG Electronics.
Analysts argued that the recall had hurt Samsung 's brand, and would likely cause the company to lose its market share to competitors, including Apple and Google (which had recently unveiled their iPhone 7 and Pixel models), and other Android vendors. Credit Suisse analysts predicted that the recall and discontinuation would cause Samsung to lose nearly US $17 billion in revenue. On 12 October 2016, Samsung revised its earnings forecast for the third quarter of 2016, estimating a 33 % drop in operating profits in comparison to the second quarter of 2016, and revenue expectations cut by ₩ 2 trillion to ₩ 47 trillion (US $41.8 billion).
On 18 October 2016, McCuneWright LLP sued Samsung and filed a proposed class - action lawsuit over its handling of the recall, stating that the company had "failed to reimburse consumers for monthly costs associated with owning an unusable Note 7 ''. Samsung was also criticized by customers affected by the exploding phones, who alleged that the company was refusing to compensate them for property damage caused by the explosions.
In the wake of the recall, Samsung, as well as UL LLC, Exponent, and TÜV Rheinland performed internal testing and analysis to determine the exact causes of the defects. Samsung released its official findings on 23 January 2017. Concurrently, the company announced that all of its future battery - operated products would become subject to an "enhanced '' eight - point inspection and testing protocol, including stricter visual inspections, as well as charge and discharge tests, Total Volatile Organic Compound tests, and accelerated usage tests. An advisory board of academics was also formed.
Concerns were also raised over the creation of electronic waste resulting from Samsung 's announced plan to destroy all returned phones, rather than recycle and refurbish them into new products. In February 2017, Korea Economic Daily reported that Samsung had been considering refurbishing the Galaxy Note 7 into a modified version with lower battery capacity, and targeted toward markets such as Vietnam. A representative of Samsung India denied these reports. Greenpeace disrupted a press conference by Samsung at Mobile World Congress to protest the company 's unclear plans for the recalled devices. On 27 March 2017, Samsung announced that it now intends to extract reusable parts such as metal, semiconductors, and cameras from the recalled devices, and market refurbished devices "where applicable ''.
After the discontinuation of the Note 7, some features in the device (such as Samsung Pass, Secure Folder, S Pen related features, and Grace UX) were eventually made available in Marshmallow (e.g. Galaxy A8 (2016), Galaxy A (2017) series and Galaxy Tab A 10.1 (2016)) and Nougat (e.g. Galaxy Note 5 (via software update), Galaxy S8 / S8+ and Galaxy C Pro series)
In June 2017, the Wall Street Journal reported on Samsung 's plan to refurbish its inventory of recalled phones and release them with a new model designation of Galaxy Note FE, with the "FE '' referencing "Fan Edition. '' The phone was also rumored to be named as the Note 7R, with the R referencing "refurbished ''. This phone was released on the 7th of July in South Korea, with limited availability in other countries to follow, and a price of $610; being a $255 discount from the price of the Note 7.
The Fan Edition has a smaller battery of 3200 mAh and multiple safety features. It has a "Fan Edition '' logo on the back. The software is identical to that of the S8. It has a similar UI and includes Bixby home and reminders but not the whole Bixby assistant. Samsung introduced an eight - point battery check after the Note7 to make sure all of their batteries are safe for new and current devices in production. There have been no reported incidents of an S8 / S8+ catching fire after their release as the first new flagship device to go through the eight - point battery check. There have been no reported incidents of the successor Note 8 catching fire either.
After the Fan Edition was released in South Korea, the Galaxy Note FE was also released in select countries in Asia starting in October 2017.
|
when did the north american fur trade start | North American fur trade - wikipedia
The North American fur trade was the industry and activities related to the acquisition, trade, exchange, and sale of animal furs in North America. Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Native Americans in the United States of different regions traded among themselves in the Pre-Columbian Era, but Europeans participated in the trade beginning from the time of their arrival in the New World and extended its reach to Europe. The French started trading in the 16th century, the English established trading posts on Hudson Bay in present - day Canada in the 17th century, and the Dutch had trade by the same time in New Netherland. The 19th - century North American fur trade, when the industry was at its peak of economic importance, involved the development of elaborate trade networks.
The fur trade became one of the main economic ventures in North America attracting competition among the French, British, Dutch, Spanish, and Russians. Indeed, in the early history of the United States, capitalizing on this trade, and removing the British stranglehold over it, was seen as a major economic objective. Many Native American societies across the continent came to depend on the fur trade as their primary source of income. By the mid-1800s, however, changing fashions in Europe brought about a collapse in fur prices. The American Fur Company and some other companies failed. Many Native communities were plunged into long - term poverty and consequently lost much of the political influence they once had.
French explorer Jacques Cartier in his three voyages into the Gulf of St. Lawrence in the 1530s and 1540s conducted some of the earliest fur trading between European and First Nations peoples associated with sixteenth century and later explorations in North America. Cartier attempted limited fur trading with the First Nations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along the St. Lawrence River. He concentrated on trading for furs used as trimming and adornment. He overlooked the fur that would become the driving force of the fur trade in the north, the beaver pelt, which would become fashionable in Europe.
The earliest European trading for beaver pelts dated to the growing cod fishing industry that spread to the Grand Banks of the North Atlantic in the 16th century. The new preservation technique of drying fish allowed the mainly Basque fishermen to fish near the Newfoundland coast and transport fish back to Europe for sale. Drying fish enabled gathering greater yields, which justified the economic cost and time of long voyages across the Atlantic. The fisherman sought suitable harbors with ample lumber to dry large quantities of cod. This generated their earliest contact with local Aboriginal peoples, with whom the fisherman began simple trading.
The fishermen traded metal items for beaver robes made of sewn - together, native - tanned, beaver pelts. They used the robes to keep warm on the long, cold return voyages across the Atlantic. These castor gras in French (or "beaver coat '' in English) became prized by European hat makers in the second half of the 16th century, as they converted the pelts to fur felt. The discovery of the superior felting qualities of beaver fur, along with the rapidly increasing popularity of beaver felt hats in fashion, transformed the incidental trading of fishermen in the sixteenth century into a growing trade in the French and later English territories in the next century.
The transition from a seasonal coastal trade into a permanent interior fur trade was formally marked with the foundation of Quebec on the St. Lawrence River in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain. This settlement marked the beginning of the westward movement of French traders from the first permanent settlement of Tadoussac at the mouth of the Saguenay River on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, up the St. Lawrence River and into the pays d'en haut (or "upper country '') around the Great Lakes. What followed in the first half of the 17th century were strategic moves by both the French and the indigenous groups to further their own economic and geopolitical ambitions.
Samuel de Champlain led the expansion while centralizing the French efforts. As native peoples had the primary role of suppliers in the fur trade, Champlain quickly created alliances with the Algonquin, Montagnais (who were located in the territory around Tadoussac), and most importantly, the Huron to the west. The latter, an Iroquoian - speaking people, served as middlemen between the French on the St. Lawrence and nations in the pays d'en haut. Champlain supported the northern groups in their preexisting military struggle with the Iroquois Confederacy to the south. He secured the Ottawa River route to Georgian Bay, greatly expanding the trade. Champlain also sent young French men to live and work among the natives, most notably Étienne Brûlé, to learn the land, language, and customs, as well as to promote trade.
Champlain reformed the business of the trade, creating the first informal trust in 1613 in response to increasing losses due to competition. The trust was later formalized with a royal charter, leading to a series of trade monopolies during the term of New France. The most notable monopoly was the Company of One Hundred Associates, with occasional concessions, such as to habitants in the 1640s and 1650s, permitting them limited trading. While the monopolies dominated the trade, their charters also required payment of annual returns to the national government, military expenditures, and expectations that they would encourage settlement for the sparsely populated New France.
The vast wealth in the fur trade created enforcement problems for the monopoly. Unlicensed independent traders, known as coureurs des bois (or "runners of the woods ''), began to do business in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Over time, many Métis were drawn to the independent trade; they were the descendants of French trappers and native women. The increasing use of currency, as well as the importance of personal contacts and experience in the fur trade, gave an edge to independent traders over the more bureaucratic monopolies. The newly established English colonies to the south quickly joined the lucrative trade, raiding the St. Lawrence River valley and capturing and controlling Quebec from 1629 to 1632.
While bringing wealth to a few select French traders and the French regime, the fur trade also brought profound changes to the indigenous groups living along the St. Lawrence. European wares, such as iron axe heads, brass kettles, cloth, and firearms were bought with beaver pelts and other furs. The widespread practice of trading furs for rum and whiskey led to problems associated with inebriation and alcohol abuse. The subsequent destruction of beaver populations along the St. Lawrence heightened the fierce competition between the Iroquois and Huron for access to the rich fur - bearing lands of the Canadian Shield. The competition for hunting is believed to have contributed to the earlier destruction of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians in the valley by 1600, likely by the Iroquois Mohawk tribe, who were located closest to them, were more powerful than the Huron, and had the most to gain by controlling this part of the valley.
Iroquois access to firearms through Dutch and later English traders along the Hudson River increased the casualties in the warfare. This greater bloodshed, previously unseen in Iroquoian warfare, increased the practice of "Mourning Wars ''. The Iroquois raided neighboring groups to take captives, who were ritually adopted to replace the dead Iroquois; thus a cycle of violence and warfare escalated. More significantly, new infectious diseases brought by the French decimated native groups and broke up their communities. Combined with warfare, disease led to the near destruction of the Huron by 1650.
During the 1640s and 1650s, the Beaver Wars initiated by the Iroquois forced a massive demographic shift as the western neighbors of the Haudenosaunee (better known as the Iroquois) fled the violence. They sought refuge west and north of Lake Michigan. The Five Nations of the Haudenosaunee, who had a predatory attitude towards their neighbors even at the best of times, constantly raiding neighboring peoples in "mourning wars '' in search of captives who would become Iroquois, were determined to be the only middlemen between the Europeans and the other Indians who lived in the West, and quite consciously set about eliminating any rivals as such as the Wendat (Huron). By the 1620s, the Iroquois had become dependent upon iron implements, which they obtained by trading fur with the Dutch at Fort Nassau (modern Albany, New York). Between 1624 -- 1628, the Iroquois drove out their neighbors, the Mahican, to allow themselves to be the one people in the Hudson river valley able to trade with the Dutch. By 1640, the Five Nations had exhausted the supply of beavers in Kanienkeh ("the land of the flint '' - the Iroquois name for their homeland in what is now upstate New York), and moreover Kanienkeh lacked the beavers with the thick pelts that the Europeans favored and would pay the best price for, which were to be found further north in what is now northern Canada.
The Five Nations launched the "Beaver Wars '' to take control of the fur trade by allowing themselves to be only middlemen who would deal with the Europeans. The Wendat homeland, Wendake, lies in what is now southern Ontario being bordered on three sides by Lake Ontario, Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay, and it was through Wendake that the Ojibwa and Cree who lived further north traded with the French. In 1649, the Iroquois made a series of raids into Wendake that were intended to destroy the Wendat as a people with thousands of Wendat taken to be adopted by Iroquois families with the rest being killed. However, it should be noted that the war against the Wendat was at least just as much a "mourning war '' as a "beaver war '' as the Iroquois obsessively raided Wendake for ten years after their great raids of 1649 to take single Wendat back to Kanienkeh, even though they did not possess much in the way of beaver pelts. The Iroquois 's population had been devastated by losses due to European diseases like smallpox which they had no immunity to, and it is notable that when the Iroquois finally made peace with the French in 1667, one of the terms was the French had to hand over all of the Wendat who had fled to New France over to them.
The Iroquois had already clashed with the French in 1609, 1610 and 1615, but the "beaver wars '' caused a lengthy struggle with the French who had no intention of allowing the Five Nations to set themselves up as the only middlemen in the fur trade. The French did not fare well at first, with the Iroquois inflicting more casualties then they suffered, French settlements frequently cut off, canoes bringing fur to Montreal intercepted and sometimes the Iroquois blockaded the St. Lawrence. New France was a proprietary colony run by the Compagnie des Cent - Associés who went bankrupt in 1663 because of the Iroquois attacks which made the fur trade unprofitable for the French. After the Compagnie des Cent - Associés went bankrupt, New France was taken over by the French Crown. King Louis XIV wanted his new Crown colony to turn a profit and dispatched the Carignan - Salières Regiment to defend it. In 1666, the Carignan - Salières Regiment made a devastating raid upon Kanienkeh, which led the Five Nations to sue for peace in 1667. The era from roughly 1660 through 1763 saw a fierce rivalry grow between France and Great Britain as each European power struggled to expand their fur - trading territories. The two imperial powers and their native allies competed in conflicts that culminated in the French and Indian War, a part of the Seven Years ' War in Europe.
The 1659 -- 1660 voyage of French traders Pierre - Esprit Radisson and Médard Chouart des Groseilliers into the country north and west of Lake Superior symbolically opened this new era of expansion. Their trading voyage proved extremely lucrative in furs. More importantly, they learned of a frozen sea to the north that provided easy access to the fur - bearing interior. Upon their return, French officials confiscated the furs of these unlicensed coureurs des bois. Radisson and Groseilliers went to Boston and then to London to secure funding and two ships to explore the Hudson Bay. Their success led to England 's chartering of the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1670, a major player in the fur trade for the next two centuries.
French exploration and expansion westward continued with men such as La Salle and Marquette exploring and claiming the Great Lakes as well as the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. To bolster these territorial claims, the French constructed a series of small fortifications, beginning with Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario in 1673. Together with the construction of Le Griffon in 1679, the first full - sized sailing ship on the Great Lakes, the forts opened the upper Great Lakes to French navigation.
More native groups learned about European wares and became trading middlemen, most notably the Ottawa. The competitive impact of the new English Hudson 's Bay Company trade was felt as early as 1671, with diminished returns for the French and the role of the native middlemen. This new competition directly stimulated French expansion into the North West to win back native customers. What followed was a continual expansion north and west of Lake Superior. The French used diplomatic negotiations with natives to win back trade and an aggressive military policy to temporarily eliminate the Hudson 's Bay Company competition. At the same time, the English presence in New England grew stronger, while the French were occupied with trying to combat the coureurs de bois and allied Indians from smuggling furs to the English for often higher prices and higher quality goods than they could offer.
In 1675, the Iroquois made peace with the Machian while finally defeating the Susquenhannock. In the late 1670s and early 1680s, the Five Nations started to raid what is now the Midwest, battling the Miami and the Illinois while alternatively fighting against and attempting to make an alliance with the Ottawa. One Onondaga chief, Otreouti, whom the French called La Grande Gueule ("the big mouth ''), announced in a speech in 1684 that the wars against the Illinois and Miami were justified because "They came to hunt beavers on our lands... ''. Initially, the French took an ambivalent attitude towards the Iroquois push west. On one hand, having the Five Nations at war with other nations prevented those nations from trading with the English at Albany while on the other hand, the French did not want to the Iroquois become the only middlemen in the fur trade. But as the Iroquois continued to win against the other nations, prevented French and Algonquin fur traders from entering the Mississippi river valley, and the Ottawa showed signs of finally making an alliance with the Five Nations, in 1684 the French declared war on the Iroquois. Otreouti in an appeal for help correctly noted: "The French will have all the beavers and are angry with us for bringing you any ''. Starting in 1684, the French repeatedly raided Kanienkeh, burning crops and villages as Louis gave orders to "humble '' the Five Nations once and for all, and to teach them to respect the "grandeur '' of France. The repeated French raids took their toll with the Mohawk who could field about 300 warriors in the 1670s to able to field only 170 warriors in the summer of 1691. The Iroquois struck back by making raids into New France with the most successful being a raid on Lachine in 1689 that killed 24 Frenchmen while taking 80 captives, but the superior resources of the French state proceeded to grind them down until they finally made peace in 1701.
The settlement of native refugees from the Iroquois Wars in the western and northern Great Lakes combined with the decline of the Ottawa middlemen to create vast new markets for French traders. Resurgent Iroquoian warfare in the 1680s also stimulated the fur trade as native French allies bought weapons. The new more distant markets and fierce English competition stifled direct trade from the North West with Montreal. The old system of native middlemen and coureurs de bois traveling to trade fairs in Montreal or illegally to English markets was replaced by an increasingly complex and labor - intensive trade network. Licensed voyageurs, allied with Montreal merchants, used water routes to reach the far - flung corners of the North West with canoe loads of trade goods. These risky ventures required large initial investments and had a very slow return. The first revenues from fur sales in Europe did not arrive until four or more years after the initial investment. These economic factors concentrated the fur trade in the hands of a few large Montreal merchants who had available capital. This trend expanded in the eighteenth century, and reached its zenith with the great fur - trading companies of the nineteenth century.
The effect on beaver stocks of competition between the English and the French was disastrous. The status of beavers changed dramatically as it went from being a source of food and clothing for the Aboriginals to a vital good for exchange with the Europeans. The French were constantly in search of cheaper fur and trying to cut off the Aboriginal middleman which led them to explore the interior all the way to Lake Winnipeg and the Central Plains. While some historians dispute the claims that the competition was predominantly responsible for over-exploitation of stocks, others have used empirical analysis to emphasize the changing economic incentives for Aboriginals and role of the Europeans in the matter. Innis holds that the population of beavers decreased dramatically even before the rivalry in the 1700s and stocks in far - flung western areas were increasingly being tapped before there was any serious competition between the English and the French. However, there is widespread agreement on the matter in ethnohistory literature that Aboriginals depleted the resource. Calvin Martin holds that there was a breakdown of the relationship between man and animal in the values of the Aboriginals which made them drastically accelerate the exploitation of reserves.
The English and French had very different trading hierarchical structures. The Hudson 's Bay Company had a technical monopoly of the beaver trade within the drainage basin of Hudson Bay while the Compagnie d'Occident was given a monopoly of the beaver trade farther south. The English organized their trade on strictly hierarchical lines while the French used licenses to lease the use of their posts. This meant that the French incentivized the extension of trade, and French traders did indeed infiltrate much of the Great Lakes region. The French established posts on Lake Winnipeg, Lac des Praires and Lake Nipigon which represented a serious threat to flow of furs to the York Factory. The increasing penetration near English ports now meant that the Aboriginals had more than one place to sell their goods.
As competition increased between the English and French in the 1700s, the fur was still predominantly caught by Aboriginal tribes which acted as the middleman. The response to increased competition led to a severe over-harvesting of beavers. Data from three of the trading posts of the Hudson 's Bay Company show this trend. The simulation of beaver populations around trading posts are done by taking into account the beaver returns from each trading post, biological evidence on beaver population dynamics and contemporary estimates of beaver densities. While the view that increased competition between the English and the French led to over-exploitation of beaver stocks by the Aboriginals does not receive uncritical support, most believe that Aboriginals were the primary actors in depleting animal stocks. However, there has been a lack of critical discussion on other factors such as beaver population dynamics, the number of animals harvested, nature of property rights, prices, role of the English and the French in the matter.
The primary effect of increased French competition was that the English raised the prices they paid to the Aboriginals to harvest fur. The result of this was greater incentive for Aboriginals to increase harvests. Increased price will lead to a gap between demand and supply and to a higher equilibrium in terms of supply. Data from the trading posts show that the supply of beavers from the Aboriginals was price - elastic and therefore traders responded with increased harvests as prices rose. The harvests were further increased due to the fact that no tribe had an absolute monopoly near any trade and most of them were competing against each other to derive the maximum benefit from the presence of the English and the French.
Additionally, the problem of the commons is also glaringly visible in this matter. Open access to resources leads to no incentive to conserve stocks, and actors which try to conserve lose out compared to the others when it comes to maximizing economic output. Therefore, there appeared to be a lack of concern by tribes of the First Nations about the sustainability of the fur trade. The problem of over-exploitation is not helped by the fact that the efforts by the French to remove the middlemen such as the Huron who increasingly resented their influence meant that stocks were put under more pressure. All these factors contributed to an unsustainable trade pattern in furs which depleted beaver stocks very fast.
An empirical study done by Ann M. Carlos and Frank D. Lewis shows that apart from the settling to a lower level of stable population, further declines were caused by over-harvesting in two of the three English trading posts (Albany and York). The data from the third trading post are also very interesting in that the post did not come under French pressure and was therefore shielded from the kind of over-exploitation of stocks which resulted at the other trading posts. At Fort Churchill, the stocks of beaver adjusted to the maximum sustained yield level. The data from Churchill further reinforce the case of over-exploitation of stocks caused by the French - English competition.
It was a common practice on the part of the Indian women to offer marriage and sometimes just sex in exchange for fur traders not trading with their rivals. Radisson described visiting one Ojibwa village in the spring of 1660 where during the welcoming ceremony: "The women throw themselves backwards on the ground, thinking to give us tokens of friendship and wellcome (welcome) ''. Radisson was initially confused by this gesture, but as the women started to engage in more overtly sexual behavior, he realized what was being offered. Radisson was informed by the village elders that he could have sex with any unmarried women in the village provided that he did not trade with the Dakota (Sioux), who were the enemies of the Ojibwa at the time. Likewise, the fur trader Alexander Henry in visiting an Ojibwa village in what is now Manitoba in 1775 described the "facility with which the women abandoned themselves to my Canadiens '' to such an extent that he believed it would cause violence as the Ojibwa men would become jealous, causing him to order his party to leave at once, though it is likely that the women were in fact acting with the approval of their menfolk. Henry claimed that he had leave at once out of the fear of violence from jealous Ojibwa men, but it seemed more likely that he was afraid that his French - Canadian voyageurs might enjoy themselves too much with the Ojibwa women at this one village and would not want to travel further west. The American historian Bruce White described the way in which the Ojibwa and the other Indian peoples sought to "use sexual relations as a means of establishing long - term relationships between themselves and people from another society was a rational strategy, one that has been described in many parts of the world ''. One fur trader who married an Ojibwa woman himself described how the Ojibwa would initially shun a fur trader until they could give gauge his honesty and provided he proved himself an honest man, "the chiefs would take together take their marriageable girls to his trading house and he was given the choice of the lot ''. If the fur trader married, the Ojibwa would trade with him as he became part of the community and if he refused to marry, then the Ojibwa would not trade with him as Ojibwa only traded with a man who "took one of their women for his wife ''.
Virtually all Indian communities encouraged fur traders to take an Indian wife in order to build a long - term relationship that would ensure the continual supply of European goods to their communities and discourage fur traders from dealing with other Indian tribes. The fur trade did not involve barter in the way that most people presuppose, but were a credit / debit relationship when a fur trader would arrive in a community in the summer or fall, hand out various goods to the Indians who would pay him back in the spring with the furs from the animals they had killed over the winter; in the interim, there much further exchanges, which often involved both Indian men and women. Indian men were the trappers who killed the animals for their furs, but normally it was the women who were in charge of the furs that their menfolk had collected, making women into important players in the fur trade. Indian women normally harvested the rice and made the maple sugar that were such important parts of the traders ' diets, for which they were usually paid with alcohol. Henry mentioned how at one Ojibwa village, the men only wanted alcohol in exchange for furs while the women demanded a wide variety of European goods in exchange for rice. Manufacturing canoes was work done by both Indian men and women, and accounts of fur traders often mentioned bartering goods with women in exchange for canoes. One French - Canadian voyageur named Michel Curot listed in his journal how in the course of one expedition, he traded goods for furs with Ojibwa men 19 times, with Ojibwa women 22 times, and another 23 times in which he did not list the gender of the people he was trading with. As women held a very low status in French - Canada (Quebec did not grant women the right to vote until 1940 because French - Canadian women were considered too stupid to understand the issues), White argued it is likely that the majority of the anonymous Indians that Curot traded with were women whose names were not considered important enough to write down.
For the Indians, dreams were viewed as messages from the world of the spirits, which was seen as a vastly more powerful and important world than the one inhabited by them. Gender roles were not fixed in Indian communities, and it was possible for a woman who had dreams of herself performing a masculine role being able to persuade her community on the basis of her dreams to be allowed to take part in work that was normally performed by men, since this was evidently what the spirits wanted. Ojibwa women in their teenage years embarked upon "vision quests '' to find out what fate the spirits wanted for them. The Indians who lived around the Great Lakes believed that when a girl started to menstruate (regarded as giving women a special spiritual power) that whatever her dreams she might have were messages from the spirits, and many fur traders mentioned how women who were regarded as being especially favored with their dream - messages from the world of the spirits played important roles as decision - makers within their communities. Netnokwa, a charismatic Ojibwa matron living in the Red River region whose dreams were considered to be especially powerful messages from the spirits, traded directly with fur traders. John Tanner, her adopted son, noted she received "ten gallons of spirits '' for free every year from the fur traders as it considered to be wise to stay in her good graces and whenever she visited Fort Mackinac "she was saluted by a gun from the fort ''. As menstrual blood was seen as sign of women 's spiritual power, it was understood that men must never touch it. When Ojibwa girls entered puberty, they embarked upon fasting and ceremonies that marked the beginning of their "vision quests '' to establish a relationship with the spirits with their dreams being seen as messages from the spirit world. Sometimes, Ojibwa girls would consume hallucinogenic mushrooms during their ceremonies to receive further messages from the world of the spirits. Having established a relationship with a particular spirit at puberty, women would go on further vision quests throughout their lives with more ceremonies and dreams to continue the relationship.
Fur traders found that marrying the daughters of chiefs would ensure the co-operation of an entire community. Marriage alliances were also made between Indian tribes. In September 1679, the French diplomat and soldier Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, called a peace conference at Fond du Lac (modern Duluth, Minnesota) of all the "nations of the north '' which was attended by Ojibwa, Dakota, and Assiniboine leaders, where it was agreed that the daughters and sons of the various chiefs would marry each other to promote peace and ensure the flow of French goods into the region. The French fur trader Claude - Charles Le Roy wrote that the Dakota had decided to make peace with their traditional enemies, the Ojibwa, in order to obtain French goods that the Ojibwa were blocking them from receiving. Le Roy wrote the Dakota "could obtain French merchandise only through the agency of the Sauteurs (Ojibwa) '' so they made "a treaty of peace by which they were mutually bound to give their daughters in marriage on both sides ''. Indian marriages usually involved a simple ceremony involving the exchange of valuable gifts from the parents of the bride and groom, and unlike European marriages, could be dissolved at anytime by one partner choosing to walk out.
The Indians were organized into kinship and clan networks, and marrying a woman from one of these kinship networks would make a fur trader into a member of these networks, thereby ensuring that Indians belonging to whatever clan the trader had married into were more likely to deal only with him. Furthermore, the fur traders discovered that the Indians were more likely to share food, especially during the hard months of winter, to those fur traders who were regarded as part of their communities. One fur trader who married a 18 - year old Ojibwa girl described in his diary his "secret satisfaction at being compelled to marry for my safety ''. The converse of such marriages was that a fur trader was expected to favor whatever clan / kinship network that he had married into with European goods, and a fur trader who did not would ruin his reputation. For the Ojibwa, like the other Indians, saw all life in this world being based upon reciprocal relationships, with Ojibwa women leaving behind "gifts '' of tobacco when harvesting plants to thank nature for providing the plants while when a bear was killed, a ceremony was held to thank the bear for "giving '' up its life to them. The Ojibwa believed if the plants and animals were not thanked for "giving '' themselves to them, then the plants and animals would be less "giving '' the next year, and the same principle applied to their relations with other peoples such as the fur traders. The Ojibwa, like other First Nations, always believed that animals willingly allowed themselves to be killed, and that if a hunter failed to give thanks to the animal world, then the animals would be less "giving '' the next time around. As the fur traders were predominately male and heterosexual while there were few white women beyond the frontier, the Indians were well aware of the sexual attraction felt by the fur traders towards their women, who were seen as having a special power over white men. From the Ojibwa viewpoint, if one of their women gave herself to a fur trader, it created the reciprocal obligation for the fur trader to give back. Fur - trading companies encouraged their employees to take Indian wives, not only to built long - term relationships that were good for business, but also because an employee with a wife would have to buy more supplies from his employer, with the money for the purchases usually subtracted from his wages. White decried the tendency of many historians to see these women as simply "passive '' objects that were bartered for by fur traders and Indian tribal elders, writing that these women had "exert influence and be active communicators of information '' to effective as the wife of a fur trader, and that many of the women who married fur traders "embraced '' these marriages to achieve "useful purposes for themselves and for the communities that they lived in ''. One study of the Ojibwa women who married French fur traders maintained that the majority of the brides were "exceptional '' women with "unusual ambitions, influenced by dreams and visions - like the women who become hunters, traders, healers and warriors in Ruth Landes 's account of Ojibwa women ''. Out of these relationships emerged the Métis people whose culture was a fusion of French and Indian elements.
One Ojibwa woman from the far western end of Lake Superior, Oshahgushkodanaqua, who married in 1793 John Johnston, a British fur trader based in Sault St. Marie working for the North West Company, later gave an account in her old age of how she came to be married to a British writer named Anna Brownell Jameson. According to Jameson 's 1838 book Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada, Oshahgushkodanaqua told her when she was 13, she embarked on her "vision quest '' to find her guardian spirit by fasting alone in a lodge painted black on a high hill. During Oshahgushkodanaqua 's "vision quest '':
"She dreamed continually of a white man, who approached her with a cup in his hand, saying "Poor thing! Why are you punishing yourself? Why do you fast? Here is food for you! '' He was always accompanied by a dog, who looked up at her like he knew her. Also, she dreamed of being on a high hill, which was surrounded by water, and from which she beheld many canoes full of Indians, coming to her and paying her homage; after this, she felt as if she was being carried up into the heavens, and as she looked down on the earth, she perceived it was on fire and said to herself, "All my relations will be burned! '', but a voice answered and said, "No, they will not be destroyed, they will be saved! '', and she knew it was a spirit, because the voice was not human. She fasted for ten days, during which time her grandmother brought her at intervals some water. When satisfied that she had obtained a guardian spirit in the white stranger who haunted her dreams, she returned to her father 's lodge ".
About five years later, Oshahgushkodanaqua first met Johnston, who asked to marry her, but was refused permission by her father who did not think he wanted a long - term relationship. When Johnston returned the next year and again asked to marry Oshahgushkodanaqua, her father granted permission, but she herself declined, saying she disliked the implications of being married until death, but ultimately married under strong pressure from her father. Oshahgushkodanaqua came to embrace her marriage when she decided that Johnston was the white stranger she saw in her dreams during her vision quest. The couple stayed married for 36 years with the marriage ending with Johnston 's death, and Oshahgushkodanaqua played an important role in her husband 's business career. Jameson also noted Oshahgushkodanaqua was considered to be a strong woman among the Ojibwa, writing "in her youth she hunted and was accounted the surest eye and fleetest foot among the women of her tribe ''.
White argued that the traditional "imperial adventure '' historiography where the fur trade was the work of a few courageous white men who ventured into the wildness was flawed as it ignored the contributions of the Indians. The American anthropologist Ruth Landes in her 1937 book Ojibwa Women described Ojibwa society in the 1930s as based on "male supremacy '', and she assumed this was how Ojibwa society had always been, a conclusion that has been widely followed. However, Landes did note that the women she interviewed told her stories about Ojibwa women who in centuries past inspired by their dream visions had played prominent roles as warriors, hunters, healers, traders and leaders. In 1978, the American anthropologist Eleanor Leacock who writing from a Marxist perspective in her article "Women 's Status In Egalitarian Society '' challenged Landes by arguing that Ojibwa society had in fact been egalitarian, but the fur trade had changed the dynamics of Ojibwa society from a simple barter economy to one where men could become powerful by having access to European goods, and this had led to the marginalization of Ojibwa women. More recently, the American anthropologist Carol Devens in her 1992 book Countering Colonization: Native American Women and the Great Lakes Missions 1630 -- 1900 followed Leacock by arguing that exposure to the patriarchal values of ancien regime France together with the ability to collect "surplus goods '' made possible by the fur trade had turned the egalitarian Ojibwa society into unequal society where women did not count for much. White wrote that an examination of the contemporary sources would suggest the fur trade had in fact empowered and strengthened the role of Ojibwa women who played a very important role in the fur trade, and it was the decline of the fur trade which had led to the decline of status of Ojibwa women.
By contrast, the fur trade seems to have weakened the status of Indian women in the Canadian sub-arctic in what is now the North West Territories, the Yukon, and the northern parts of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. The harsh terrain imposed a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle on the people living there as to stay in one place for long would quickly exhaust the food supply. The Indians living in the sub-arctic had only small dogs incapable of carrying heavy loads with one fur trader in 1867 calling Gwich'in dogs "miserable creatures no smaller than foxes '' while another noted with the Slavey "dogs were scare and burdens were supported by people 's backs ''. The absence of navigable rivers made riparian transport impossible, so everything had to be carried on the backs of the women. There was a belief among the Northern Athabaskan peoples that weapons could be only handled by men, and that for a weapon to be used by a woman would cause it to lose its effectiveness; as relations between the various bands were hostile, the men when traveling were always armed while the women carried all of the baggage. All of the Indian men living in the sub-arctic had an acute horror of menstrual blood, seen as an unclean substance that no men could ever touch, and as a symbol of a threatening femininity. The American anthropologist Richard J. Perry suggested that under the impact of the fur trade that certain misogynistic tendencies that were already long established among the Northern Athabaskan peoples became significantly worse. Owing to the harsh terrain of the subarctic and the limited food supplies, the First Nations peoples living there had long practiced infanticide to limit their band sizes, as a large population would stave. One fur trader in the 19th century noted with the Gwich'in, newly born girls were far more likely to be victims of infanticide than boys owing to the low status of women, adding that female infanticide was practiced to such an extent there was a shortage of women in their society.
The Chipewyan began trading fur in exchange for metal tools and instruments with the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1717, which caused a drastic change in their lifestyle, going from a people engage in daily subsidence activities to a people engaging in far - reaching trade as the Chipewyan become the middlemen between the Hudson 's Bay Company and the other Indians living further inland. The Chipewyan guarded their right to trade with the Hudson 's Bay Company with considerable jealousy and prevented peoples living further inland like the Tłı̨chǫ and Yellowknives from crossing their territory to trade directly with the Hudson 's Bay Company for the entire 18th century. For the Chipewyan, who still living in the Stone Age, metal implements were greatly valued as it took hours to heat up a stone pot, but only minutes to heat up a metal pot while an animal could be skinned far more efficiently and quickly with a metal knife than with a stone knife. For many Chipewyan bands, involvement with the fur trade eroded their self - sufficiency as they killed animals for the fur trade, not food, which forced them into dependency on other bands for food, thus leading to a cycle where many Chipewyan bands came to depend trading furs for European goods, which were traded for food, and which caused them to make very long trips across the subarctic to Hudson 's Bay and back. To make these trips, the Chipewyan traveled though barren terrain that was so devoid of life that starvation was a real threat, during which the women had to carry all of the supplies. Samuel Hearne of the Hudson 's Bay Company who was sent inland in 1768 to establish contact with the "Far Indians '' as the company called them, wrote about the Chipewyan:
"Their annual haunts, in the quest for furrs (furs), is so remote from European settlement, as to render them the greatest travelers in the known world; and as they have neither horse nor water carriage, every good hunter is under necessity of having several people to assist in carrying his furs to the company 's Fort, as well as carrying back the European goods which he received in exchange for them. No persons in this country are so proper for this work as the women, because they are inured to carry and haul heavy loads from their childhood and to do all manner of drudgery ''.
Hearne 's chief guide Matonabbee told him that women had to carry everything with them on their long trips across the sub-arctic because "... when all the men are heavy laden, they can neither hunt nor travel any considerable distance ''. Perry cautioned that when Hearne traveled though the sub-arctic in 1768 -- 1772, the Chipewyan had been trading with the Hudson 's Bay Company directly since 1717, and indirectly via the Cree for at least the last 90 years, so the life - styles he observed among the Chipewyan had been altered by the fur trade, and in no way can be considered a pre-contact life style. However, Perry argued that the arduous nature of these trips across the sub-arctic together with the burden of carrying everything suggests that the Chipewyan women did not voluntarily submit to this regime, which would suggest that even in the pre-contact period that Chipewyan women had a low status.
When fur traders first contacted the Gwich'in in 1810 when they founded Fort Good Hope on the Mackenzie river, accounts describe a more or less egalitarian society, but the impact of the fur trade lowered the status of Gwich'in women. Accounts by the fur traders in the 1860s describe Gwich'in women as essentially slaves, carrying the baggage on their long journeys across the sub-arctic. One fur trader wrote about the Gwich'in women that they were "little better than slaves '' while another fur trader wrote about the "brutal treatment '' that Gwich'in women suffered at the hands of their men. Gwich'in band leaders who became rich by First Nations standards by engaging in the fur trade tended to have several wives, indeed tended to monopolize the women in their bands, which caused serious social tensions as Gwich'in young men found it impossible to have a mate, as their leaders took all of the women for themselves. Significantly, the establishment of fur trading posts inland by the Hudson 's Bay Company in the late 19th century led to an improvement in the status of Gwich'in women as anyone could obtain European goods by trading at the local HBC post, ending the ability of Gwich'in leaders to monopolize the distribution of European goods while the introduction of dogs capable of carrying sleds meant their women no longer had to carry everything on their long trips.
Perry argued that the crucial difference between the Northern Athabaskan peoples living in the sub-arctic vs. those living further south like the Cree and Ojibwa was the existence of waterways that canoes could traverse in the case of the latter. In the 18th century, Cree and Ojibwa men could and did travel hundreds of miles to HBC posts on Hudson 's Bay via canoe to sell fur and bring back European goods, and in the interim, their women were in largely in charge of their communities. At York Factory in the 18th century, the factors reported that flotillas of up to 200 canoes would arrive at a time bearing Indian men coming to barter their fur for HBC 's goods. Normally, the trip to York Factory was made by the Cree and Ojibwa men while their womenfolk stayed behind in their villages. Until 1774, the Hudson 's Bay Company was content to operate its posts on the shores of Hudson 's Bay, and only competition from the rival North West Company based in Montreal forced the Hudson 's Bay Company to assert its claim to Rupert 's Land. By contrast, the absence of waterways flowing into Hudson 's Bay (the major river in the subarctic, the Mackenzie, flows into the Arctic Ocean) forced the Northern Athabaskan peoples to travel by foot with the women as baggage carriers. In this way, the fur trade empowered Cree and Ojibwa women while reducing the Northern Athabaskan women down to a slave - like existence.
By the end of the 18th century the four major British fur trading outposts were Fort Niagara in modern New York, Fort Detroit and Fort Michilimackinac in modern Michigan, and Grand Portage in modern Minnesota, all located in the Great Lakes region. The American Revolution and the resulting resolution of national borders forced the British to re-locate their trading centers northward. The newly formed United States began its own attempts to capitalize on the fur trade, initially with some success. However, by the 1830s the fur trade had begun a steep decline. Fur was never again the lucrative enterprise it had once been.
On the Pacific coast of North America, the fur trade mainly pursued seal and sea otter. In northern areas, this trade was established first by the Russian - American Company, with later participation by Spanish / Mexican, British, and U.S. hunters / traders. Non-Russians extended fur - hunting areas south as far as the Baja California Peninsula.
Starting in the mid-16th century, Europeans traded weapons and household goods in exchange for furs with Native Americans in southeast America. The trade originally tried to mimic the fur trade in the north, with large quantities of wildcats, bears, beavers, and other fur bearing animals being traded. The trade in fur coat animals decreased in the early 18th century, curtailed by the rising popularity of trade in deerskins. The deerskin trade went onto dominate the relationships between the Native Americans of the southeast and the European settlers there. Deerskin was a highly valued commodity due to the deer shortage in Europe, and the British leather industry needed deerskins to produce goods. The bulk of deerskins were exported to Great Britain during the peak of the deerskin trade.
Native American -- specifically the Creek 's -- beliefs revolved around respecting the environment. The Creek believed they had a unique relationship with the animals they hunted. The Creek had several rules surround how a hunt could occur, particularly prohibiting needless killing of deer. There were specific taboos against taking the skins of unhealthy deer. However, the lucrative deerskin trade prompted hunters to act past the point of restraint they had operated under before. The hunting economy collapsed due to the scarcity of deer as they were over-hunted and lost their lands to white settlers. Due to the decline of deer populations, and the governmental pressure to switch to the colonists ' way of life, animal husbandry replaced deer hunting both as an income and in the diet.
Rum was first introduced in the early 1700s as a trading item, and quickly became an inelastic good. While Native Americans were for the most part acted conservatively in trading deals, they consumed a surplus of alcohol. Traders used rum to help form partnerships. Rum had a significant effect on the social behavior of Native Americans. Under the influence of rum, the younger generation did not obey the elders of the tribe, and became involved with more skirmishes with other tribes and white settlers. Rum also disrupted the amount of time the younger generation of males spent on labor. Alcohol was one of the goods provided on credit, and led to a debt trap for many Native Americans. Native Americans did not know how to distill alcohol, and thus were driven to trade for it.
Native Americans had become dependent on manufactured goods such as guns and domesticated animals, and lost much of their traditional practices. With the new cattle herds roaming the hunting lands, and a greater emphasis on farming due to the invention of the Cotton Gin, Native Americans struggled to maintain their place in the economy. An inequality gap had appeared in the tribes, as some hunters were more successful than others. Still, the creditors treated and individual 's debt as debt of the whole tribe, and used several strategies to keep the Native Americans in debt. Traders would rig the weighing system that determined the value of the deerskins in their favor, cut measurement tools to devalue the deerskin, and would tamper with the manufactured goods to decrease their worth, such as watering down the alcohol they traded. To satisfy the need for deerskins, many males of the tribes abandoned their traditional seasonal roles and became full - time traders. When the deerskin trade collapsed, Native Americans found themselves dependent on manufactured goods, and could not return to the old ways due to lost knowledge.
Spanish exploratory parties in the 1500s had violent encounters with the powerful chiefdoms, which led to the decentralization of the indigenous people in the southeast. Almost a century passed between the original Spanish exploration and the next wave of European immigration, which allowed the survivors of the European diseases to organize into new tribes. Most Spanish trade was limited with Indians on the coast until expeditions inland in the beginning of the 17th century. By 1639, substantial trade between the Spanish in Florida and the Native Americans for deerskins developed, with more interior tribes incorporated into the system by 1647. Many tribes throughout the southeast began to send trading parties to meet with the Spanish in Florida, or used other tribes as middlemen to obtain manufactured goods. The Apalachees used the Apalachiola people to collect deerskins, and in return the Apalachees would give them silver, guns, or horses.
As the English and French colonizers ventured into the southeast, the deerskin trade experienced a boom going into the 18th century. Many of the English colonists who settled in the Carolinas in the late 1600s came from Virginia, where trading patterns of European goods in exchange for beaver furs already had started. The white - tailed deer herds that roamed south of Virginia were a more profitable resource. The French and the English struggled for control over Southern Appalachia and the Mississippi Valley, and needed alliances with the Indians there to maintain dominance. The European colonizers used the trade of deerskins for manufactured goods to secure trade relationships, and therefore power.
At the beginning of the 18th century, more organized violence than in previous decades occurred between the Native Americans involved in the deerskin trade and white settlers, most famously the Yamasee War. This uprising of Indians against fur traders almost wiped out the European colonists in the southeast. The British promoted competition between tribes, and sold guns to both Creeks and Cherokees. This competition sprang out of the slave demand in the southeast -- tribes would raid each other and sell prisoners into the slave trade of the colonizers. France tried to outlaw these raids because their allies, the Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Yazoos, bore the brunt of the slave trade. Guns and other modern weapons were essential trading items for the Native Americans to protect themselves from slave raids; motivation which drove the intensity of the deerksin trade. The need for Indian slaves decreased as African slaves began to be imported in larger quantities, and the focus returned to deerskins. The drive for Indian slaves also was diminished after the Yamasee War to avoid future uprisings.
The Yamasees had collected extensive debt in the first decade of the 1700s due to buying manufactured goods on credit from traders, and then not being able to produce enough deerskins to pay the debt later in the year. Indians who were not able to pay their debt were often enslaved. The practice of enslavement extended to the wives and children of the Yamasees in debt as well. This process frustrated the Yamasees and other tribes, who lodged complaints against the deceitful credit - loaning scheme traders had enforced, along with methods of cheating or trade. The Yamasees were a coastal tribe in the area that is now known as South Carolina, and most of the white - tailed deer herds had moved inland for the better environment. The Yamasees rose up against the English in South Carolina, and soon other tribes joined them, creating combatants from almost every nation in the South. The British were able to defeat the Indian coalition with help from the Cherokees, cementing a pre-existing trade partnership.
After the uprisings, the Native Americans returned to making alliances with the European powers, using political savvy to get the best deals by playing the three nations off each other. The Creeks were particularly good at manipulation -- they had begun trading with South Carolina in the last years of the 17th century and became a trusted deerskin provider. The Creeks were already a wealthy tribe due to their control over the most valuable hunting lands, especially when compared to the impoverished Cherokees. Due to allying with the British during the Yamasee War, the Cherokees lacked Indian trading partners and could not break with Britain to negotiate with France or Spain.
From their bases in the Great Lakes area, the French steadily pushed their way down the Mississippi river valley to the Gulf of Mexico from 1682 onward. Initially, French relations with the Natchez Indians were friendly and in 1716 the French were allowed to establish Fort Rosalie (modern Natchez, Mississippi) on the Natchez territory. In 1729, following several cases of French land fraud, the Natchez burned down Fort Rosalie and killed about 200 French settlers. In response, the French together with their allies, the Choctaw, waged a near - genocidal campaign against the Natchez as French and Choctaw set out to eliminate the Natchez as a people with the French often burning alive all of the Natchez they captured. Following the French victory over the Natchez in 1731 which resulted in the destruction of the Natchez people, the French were able to begin fur trading down the Arkansas river and greatly expanded the Arkansas Post to take advantage of the fur trade.
Deerskin trade was at its most profitable in the mid-18th century. The Creeks rose up as the largest deerskin supplier, and the increase in supply only intensified European demand for deerskins. Native Americans continued to negotiate the most lucrative trade deals by forcing England, France, and Spain to compete for their supply of deerskins. In the 1750s and 1760s, the Seven Years ' War disrupted France 's ability to provide manufactures goods to its allies, the Choctaws and Chickasaw. The French and Indian War further disrupted trade, as the British blockaded French goods. The Cherokees allied themselves with France, who were driven out from the southeast in accordance with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The British were now the dominant trading power in the southeast.
While both the Cherokee and the Creek were the main trading partners of the British, their relationships with the British were different. The Creeks adapted to the new economic trade system, and managed to hold onto their old social structures. Originally Cherokee land was divided into five districts; however, the number soon grew to thirteen districts with 200 hunters assigned per district due to deerskin demand.
Charleston and Savannah were the main trading ports for the export of deerskins. Deerskins became the most popular export, and monetarily supported the colonies with the revenue produced by taxes on deerskins. Charleston 's trade was regulated by the Indian Trade Commission, composed of traders who monopolized the market and profited off the sale of deerskins. From the beginning of the 18th century to mid-century, the deerskin exports of Charleston more than doubled in exports. Charleston received tobacco and sugar from the West Indies and rum from the North in exchange for deerskins. In return for deerskins, Great Britain sent woolens, guns, ammunition, iron tools, clothing, and other manufactured goods that were traded to the Native Americans.
The Revolutionary War disrupted the deerskin trade, as the import of British manufactured goods with cut off. The deerskin trade had already begun to decline due to over-hunting of deer. The lack of trade caused the Native Americans to run out of items, such as guns, on which they depended. Some Indians, such as the Creeks, tried to reestablish trade with the Spanish in Florida, where some loyalists were hiding as well. When the war ended with the British retreating, many tribes who had fought on their side were now left unprotected and now had to make peace and new trading deals with the new country. Many Native Americans were subject to violence from the new Americans who sought to settle their territory. The new American government negotiated treaties that recognized prewar borders, such as those with the Choctaw and Chickasaw, and allowed open trade.
In the two decades following the Revolutionary War, the United States ' government established new treaties with the Native Americans the provided hunting grounds and terms of trade. However, the value of deerskins dropped as domesticated cattle took over the market, and many tribes soon found themselves in debt. The Creeks began to sell their land to the government to try and pay their debts, and infighting among the Indians made it easy for white settles to encroach upon their lands. The government also sought to encourage Native Americans to give up their old ways of subsistence hunting, and turn to farming and domesticated cattle for trade.
The fur trade and its actors has played a certain role in films and popular culture. It was the topic of various books and films, from James Fenimore Cooper via Irving Pichels Hudson 's Bay of 1941, the popular Canadian musical My Fur Lady (music by Galt MacDermot) of 1957, till Nicolas Vaniers documentaries. However, in contrast to "the huddy buddy narration of Canada as Hudson 's country '', propagated either in popular culture as well in elitist circles as the Beaver Club, founded 1785 in Montreal the often male - centered scholarly description of the fur business does not fully describe the history. Chantal Nadeau, a communication scientist in Montreal 's Concordia University refers to the "country wives '' and "country marriages '' between Indian women and European trappers and the Filles du Roy of the 18th century. Nadeau says that women have been described as a sort of commodity, "skin for skin '', and they were essential to the sustainable prolongation of the fur trade.
Nadeau describes fur as an essential, "the fabric '' of Canadian symbolism and nationhood. She notes the controversies around the Canadian seal hunt, with Brigitte Bardot as a leading figure. Bardot, a famous actress, had been a model in the 1971 "Legend '' campaign of the US mink label Blackglama, for which she posed nude in fur coats. Her involvement in anti-fur campaigns shortly afterward was in response to a request by the noted author Marguerite Yourcenar, who asked Bardot to use her celebrity status to help the anti-sealing movement. Bardot had successes as an anti-fur activist and changed from sex symbol to the grown - up mama of "white seal babies ''. Nadeau related this to her later involvement in French right - wing politics. The anti-fur movement in Canada was intertwined with the nation 's exploration of history during and after the Quiet Revolution in Quebec, until the roll back of the anti-fur movement in the late 1990s. Finally, the PETA celebrity campaign: "I 'd rather go naked than wear fur '', turned around the "skin for skin '' motto and symbology against fur and the fur trade.
As men from the old fur trade in the Northeast made the trek west in the early nineteenth century, they sought to recreate the economic system from which they had profited in the Northeast. Some men went alone but others relied on companies like the Hudson Bay Company and the Missouri Fur Company. Marriage and kinship with native women would play an important role in the western fur trade. White traders who moved west needed to establish themselves in the kinship networks of the tribes, and they often did this by marrying a prominent Indian woman. This practice was called a "country '' marriage and allowed the trader to network with the adult male members of the woman 's band, who were necessary allies for trade. The children of these unions, who were known as Métis, were an integral part of the fur trade system.
The Métis label defined these children as a marginal people with a fluid identity. Early on in the fur trade, Métis were not defined by their racial category, but rather by the way of life they chose. These children were generally the offspring of white men and Native mothers and were often raised to follow the mother 's lifestyle. The father could influence the enculturation process and prevent the child from being classified as Métis in the early years of the western fur trade. Fur families often included displaced native women who lived near forts and formed networks among themselves. These networks helped to create kinship between tribes which benefitted the traders. Catholics tried their best to validate these unions through marriages. But missionaries and priests often had trouble categorizing the women, especially when establishing tribal identity.
Métis were among the first groups of fur traders who came from the Northeast. These men were mostly of a mixed race identity, largely Iroquois, as well as other tribes from the Ohio country. Rather than one tribal identity, many of these Métis had multiple Indian heritages. Lewis and Clark, who opened up the market on the fur trade in the Upper Missouri, brought with them many Métis to serve as engagés. These same Métis would become involved in the early western fur trade. Many of them settled on the Missouri River and married into the tribes there before setting up their trade networks. The first generation of Métis born in the West grew up out of the old fur trade and provided a bridge to the new western empire. These Métis possessed both native and European skills, spoke multiple languages, and had the important kinship networks required for trade. In addition, many spoke the Michif Métis dialect. In an effort to distinguish themselves from natives, many Métis strongly associated with Roman Catholic beliefs and avoided participating in native ceremonies.
By the 1820s, the fur trade had expanded into the Rocky Mountains where American and British interests begin to compete for control of the lucrative trade. The Métis would play a key role in this competition. The early Métis congregated around trading posts where they were employed as packers, laborers, or boatmen. Through their efforts they helped to create a new order centered on the trading posts. Other Métis traveled with the trapping brigades in a loose business arrangement where authority was taken lightly and independence was encouraged. By the 1830s Canadians and Americans were venturing into the West to secure a new fur supply. Companies like the NWC and the HBC provided employment opportunities for Métis. By the end of the 19th century, many companies considered the Métis to be Indian in their identity. As a result, many Métis left the companies in order to pursue freelance work.
After 1815 the demand for bison robes began to rise gradually, although the beaver still remained the primary trade item. The 1840s saw a rise in the bison trade as the beaver trade begin to decline. Many Métis adapted to this new economic opportunity. This change of trade item made it harder for Métis to operate within companies like the HBC, but this made them welcome allies of the Americans who wanted to push the British to the Canada -- US border. Although the Métis would initially operate on both sides of the border, by the 1850s they were forced to pick an identity and settle either north or south of the border. The period of the 1850s was thus one of migration for the Métis, many of whom drifted and established new communities or settled within existing Canadian, American or Indian communities.
A group of Métis who identified with the Chippewa moved to the Pembina in 1819 and then to the Red River area in 1820, which was located near St. François Xavier in Manitoba. In this region they would establish several prominent fur trading communities. These communities had ties to one another through the NWC. This relationship dated back to between 1804 and 1821 when Métis men had served as low level voyageurs, guides, interpreters, and contre - maitres, or foremen. It was from these communities that Métis buffalo hunters operating in the robe trade arose.
The Métis would establish a whole economic system around the bison trade. Whole Métis families were involved in the production of robes, which was the driving force of the winter hunt. In addition, they sold pemmican at the posts. Unlike Indians, the Métis were dependent on the fur trade system and subject to the market. The international prices of bison robes were directly influential on the well - being of Métis communities. By contrast, the local Indians had a more diverse resource base and were less dependent on Americans and Europeans at this time.
By the 1850s the fur trade had expanded across the Great Plains, and the bison robe trade began to decline. The Métis had a role in the depopulation of the bison. Like the Indians, the Métis had a preference for cows, which meant that the bison had trouble maintaining their herds. In addition, flood, drought, early frost, and the environmental impact of settlement posed further threats to the herds. Traders, trappers, and hunters all depended on the bison to sustain their way of life. The Métis tried to maintain their lifestyle through a variety of means. For instance, they often used two wheel carts made from local materials, which meant that they were more mobile than Indians and thus were not dependent on following seasonal hunting patterns.
The 1870s brought an end to the bison presence in the Red River area. Métis communities like those at Red River or Turtle Mountain were forced to relocate to Canada and Montana. An area of resettlement was the Judith Basin in Montana, which still had a population of bison surviving in the early 1880s. By the end of decade, however, the bison were gone and Métis hunters relocated back to tribal lands. They wanted to take part in treaty negotiations in the 1880s, but they had questionable status with tribes such as the Chippewa. Many former Métis bison hunters tried to get land claims during the treaty negotiations in 1879 -- 1880. They were reduced to squatting on Indian land during this time and collecting bison bones for $15 -- 20 a ton in order to purchase supplies for the winter. The reservation system did not ensure that the Métis were protected and accepted as Indians. To further complicate matters, Métis had a questionable status as citizens and were often deemed incompetent to give court testimonies and denied the right to vote. The end of the bison robe trade was the end of the fur trade for many Métis. This meant that they had to reestablish their identity and adapt to a new economic world.
Modern fur trapping and trading in North America is part of a wider $15 billion global fur industry where wild animal pelts make up only 15 percent of total fur output.
In 2008, the global recession hit the fur industry and trappers especially hard with greatly depressed fur prices thanks to a drop in the sale of expensive fur coats and hats. Such a drop in fur prices reflects trends of previous economic downturns.
In 2013, the North American Fur Industry Communications group (NAFIC) was established as a cooperative public educational program for the fur industry in Canada and the USA. NAFIC disseminates information via the Internet under the brand name "Truth About Fur ''.
Members of NAFIC are: the auction houses American Legend Cooperative in Seattle, North American Fur Auctions in Toronto, and Fur Harvesters Auction in North Bay, Ontario; the American Mink Council, representing US mink producers; the mink farmers ' associations Canada Mink Breeders Association and Fur Commission USA; the trade associations Fur Council of Canada and Fur Information Council of America; the Fur Institute of Canada, leader of the country 's trap research and testing program; Fur wRaps The Hill, the political and legislative arm of the North American fur industry; and the International Fur Federation, based in London, UK.
|
is a german shepherd considered a wolf hybrid | Wolfdog - wikipedia
A wolfdog is a canine produced by the mating of a domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) with a gray wolf (Canis lupus), or by mating a domestic dog with either the eastern timber wolf (Canis lycaon), red wolf (Canis rufus), or ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) to produce a hybrid.
Admixture between domestic dogs and other subspecies of gray wolves are the most common wolfdogs since dogs and gray wolves are considered the same species, are genetically very close, and have shared vast portions of their ranges for millennia. Such admixture in the wild have been detected in many populations scattered throughout Europe and North America, usually occurring in areas where wolf populations have declined from human impacts and persecutions. At the same time, wolfdogs are also often bred in captivity for various purposes. Admixture of dogs and two other North American wolf species have also occurred historically in the wild, although it is often difficult for biologists to discriminate the dog genes in the eastern timber and red wolves from the gray wolf genes also present in these wolf species due to their historical overlaps with North American gray wolves as well as with coyotes, both of which have introgressed into the eastern timber and red wolf gene pools. At the same time, because many isolated populations of the three wolf species in North America have also mixed with coyotes in the wild, it has been speculated by some biologists that some of the coywolf hybrids in the northeastern third of the continent may also have both coydogs and wolfdogs in their gene pool. Hybrids between dogs and Ethiopian wolves discovered in the Ethiopian Highlands likely originated from past interactions between free - roaming feral dogs and Ethiopian wolves living in isolated areas.
The term "wolfdog '' is preferred by most of the animals ' proponents and breeders because the domestic dog was taxonomically recategorized in 1993 as a subspecies of Canis lupus. Recognized wolfdog breeds by FCI are the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog and the Saarloos Wolfdog.
One of the issues that many researchers and wolfdog communities are faced with is identifying wolfdogs from pure dogs and gray wolf subspecies. The most common method used by various wolfdog communities is phenotyping, a method that involves observing the animal 's physical features. This method is often favoured for many in determining the degree of wolf and northern spitz - type dog that is in a wolfdog. However, a lot of criticisms have been made by opponents within some communities who tend to point out that phenotyping can not always determine the wolf - contents accurately. Another challenge involves determining exactly the domestic breeds and wolf subspecies involved in the admixture due to the fact that dogs are known to come in various breeds while gray wolves in turn come in various subspecies with many different regional ecotypes hence have different physical features depending on the subspecies used in the breeding. Although wolves are often mixed with spitz types such as Siberian Huskies, Alaskan Malamutes, and German Shepherds, admixture between wolves with non-Spitz type dogs such as Poodles, Pit bulls, and Great Pyrenees also exist, the latter wolfdogs often having less lupine features.
A 1982 study of canine skulls from Wyoming dating back 10,000 years ago identified some that match the morphology of wolfdogs. This study was rebutted as not providing convincing evidence four years later. Fossil evidence in Europe points to their use in hunting mammoths.
In 2010, archeologists announced that they had found the remains of wolf - dogs that had been kept by the warrior class of the Teotihuacan civilization in Mexico 's central valley about two thousand years ago, and that, in light of this finding, certain animals commonly depicted in the art of that culture, which had been thought to be strange dogs or coyotes, are being re-examined.
In the United States, over 100,000 wolf - dogs exist. In first - generation wolfdogs, gray wolves are most often crossed with wolf - like dogs (such as German Shepherds, Siberian Huskies, and Alaskan Malamutes) for an appearance most appealing to owners desiring an exotic pet.
The first record of wolfdog breeding in Great Britain comes from the year 1766 when what is thought was a male wolf mated with a dog identified in the language of the day as a "Pomeranian '', although it may have differed from the modern Pomeranian breed. The union resulted in a litter of nine pups. Wolfdogs were occasionally purchased by English noblemen, who viewed them as a scientific curiosity. Wolfdogs were popular exhibits in British menageries and zoos.
Currently, at least seven breeds of dog exist that acknowledge a significant amount of recent wolf - dog admixture in their creation. One breed is the "wolamute '', aka "malawolf '', a cross between an Alaskan Malamute and a timber wolf. Four breeds were the result of intentional crosses with German Shepherds (one of the original intentionally bred wolf - dog crossbreeds), and have distinguishing characteristics of appearance that may reflect the varying subspecies of wolf that contributed to their foundation stock. Other, more unusual crosses have occurred; recent experiments in Germany were conducted in the crossing of wolves and Poodles. The intent behind creating the breeds has ranged widely from simply the desire for a recognizable companion high - content wolfdog to professional military working dogs. Typical examples include:
Among the dogs used in the development of the German Shepherd, at least four were either wolfdogs or partly descended from wolfdogs. In 1899, Max von Stephanitz, an ex-cavalry captain and former student of the Berlin Veterinary College, was attending a dog show when he was shown a dog named Hektor Linksrhein, who was allegedly one - quarter wolf. Renamed Horand von Grafrath, the dog and his progeny were used to create the German Shepherd. Horand became the centre - point of the breeding programs and was bred with dogs belonging to other society members that displayed desirable traits. Although fathering many pups, Horand 's most successful was Hektor von Schwaben. Hektor was line bred with another of Horand 's offspring and produced Beowulf, who later fathered a total of eighty - four pups, mostly through being line bred with Hektor 's other offspring. In the original German Shepherd studbook, Zuchtbuch für Deutsche Schäferhunde (SZ), within the two pages of entries from SZ No. 41 to SZ No. 76, there are four wolf crosses. This is the first documented use of pure wolf genes to create a domestic dog breed, the German Shepherd, which is historically thought to be the first documented intentionally - bred wolfdog.
In 1932, Dutch breeder Leendert Saarloos crossed a male German Shepherd dog with a female European wolf. He then bred the female offspring back with the male German Shepherd, creating the Saarloos wolfdog. The breed was created to be a hardy, self reliant companion and housedog. The Dutch Kennel Club recognized the breed in 1975. To honor its creator they changed the name to "Saarloos Wolfdog ''. In 1981 the breed was recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI). Some Saarloos Wolfdogs have been trained as guide dogs for the blind and as rescue dogs.
In the 1950s, the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog was also created to work on border patrol in the countries now known as Slovakia and the Czech Republic. It is recognized by the Foundation Stock Service of the American Kennel Club, the United Kennel Club, and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, and today is used in agility, obedience, search and rescue, police work, therapy work, and herding in Europe and the United States.
The Lupo Italiano was created in 1966 by crossing a wild wolf from northern Lazio with a German Shepherd. Its maternal genetics and gestation was from the wild wolf.
Currently, the breed is protected by presidential decree stipulating that this ' State ' dog can not be commercialized nor bred outside the officially recognized agency, the Etli, Ente Tutela del Lupo Italiano (Agency for the protection of the Lupo Italiano).
The Hierran Wolfdog originated in the Island of El Hierro, in the Canary Islands (Spain). Although its origin is still uncertain, in the 15th century dogs similar to wolves already existed in the Canary Islands, called cancha by Aboriginals. At the arrival of the Spanish conquest, the chaplains accompanying the Conquistadors wrote about the presence of "wild dogs like wolves, but they are small ''. It is known that the Hierran Wolfdog has been present in the last two centuries and could have probably come up with the first settlers of the island. This species of dog has achieved its preference among the shepherds of the island.
The Kunming wolfdog (Chinese: 昆明 狼狗; pinyin: Kūnmíng lánggǒu), also commonly known as the Kunming dog (Chinese: 昆明 犬; pinyin: Kūnmíng quǎn) is an established breed of wolfdog originated in China. Unlike most other wolfdog crosses, Kunming dogs are suitable as guard dogs and working dogs due to their German Shepherd ancestry. They have been trained as military assistant dogs to perform a variety of tasks such as detecting mines. Some are also trained to be fire dogs and rescue dogs. Today they are commonly kept as family companions by many pet owners in China.
A 2014 study found that 20 % of wolves and 37 % of dogs shared the same mitochondrial haplotypes in Georgia. More than 13 % of the studied wolves had detectable dog ancestry and more than 10 % of the dogs had detectable wolf ancestry. The results of the study suggest that admixture between wolves and dogs is a common event in the areas where large livestock guardian dogs are held in a traditional way, and that gene flow between dogs and gray wolves was an important force influencing gene pool of dogs for millennia since early domestication events.
Genetic research from the Stanford University School of Medicine and the University of California, Los Angeles revealed that wolves with black pelts owe their distinctive coloration to a mutation that entered the wolf population through admixture with the dog. Adolph Murie was among the first wolf biologists to speculate that the wide color variation in wolves was due to interbreeding with dogs;
"I suppose that some of the variability exhibited in these wolves could have resulted from crossings in the wild with dogs. Such crosses in the wild have been reported and the wolf in captivity crosses readily with dogs. Some years ago at Circle, Alaska, a wolf hung around the settlement for some time and some of the dogs were seen with it. The people thought that the wolf was a female attracted to the dogs during the breeding period. However, considerable variability is probably inherent in the species, enough perhaps to account for the variations noted in the park and in skins examined. The amount of crossing with dogs has probably not been sufficient to alter much the genetic composition of the wolf population. ''
In 2008, Dr. Gregory S. Barsh, a professor of genetics and pediatrics at the Stanford University School of Medicine used molecular genetic techniques to analyze DNA sequences from 150 wolves, half of them black, in Yellowstone National Park, which covers parts of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. It was discovered that a gene mutation responsible for the protein beta - defensin 3 is responsible for the black coat color in dogs. After finding that the same mutation was responsible for black wolves in North America and the Italian Apennines, he set out to discover the origin of the mutation. Barsh and his colleagues concluded that the mutation arose in dogs 13,000 to 120,000 years ago, with a preferred date of 47,000 years ago after comparing large sections of wolf, dog, and coyote genomes. At the University of California, Los Angeles, Robert K. Wayne, a canine evolutionary biologist, stated that he believed that dogs were the first to have the mutation. He further stated that even if it originally arose in Eurasian wolves, it was passed on to dogs who, soon after their arrival, brought it to the New World and then passed it to wolves and coyotes. Black wolves with recent dog ancestry tend to retain black pigment longer as they age.
Cases of accidental breeding of wolfdogs are known (though this is very rare), where a domestic dog female in oestrus strays and is mated by a male wild wolf.
The wolfdog has been the center of controversy for much of its history, and most breed - specific legislation is either the result of the animal 's perceived danger or its categorization as protected native wildlife. The Humane Society of the United States, the RSPCA, Ottawa Humane Society, the Dogs Trust and the Wolf Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission consider wolfdogs to be wild animals and therefore unsuitable as pets, and support an international ban on the private possession, breeding, and sale of wolfdogs.
According to the National Wolfdog Alliance, 40 U.S. states effectively forbid the ownership, breeding, and importation of wolfdogs, while others impose some form of regulation upon ownership. In Canada, the provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island prohibit wolfdogs as pets. Most European nations have either outlawed the animal entirely or put restrictions on ownership. Wolfdogs were among the breeds banned from the U.S. Marine Corps base at Camp Pendleton and elsewhere after a fatal dog attack by a Pitbull on a child.
Admixture in the wild usually occurs near human habitations where wolf density is low and dogs are common. However, there were several reported cases of wolfdogs in areas with normal wolf densities in the former Soviet Union. Wild wolfdogs were occasionally hunted by European aristocracy, and were termed lycisca to distinguish them from common wolves. Noted historic cases (such as the Beast of Gévaudan) of large wolves that were abnormally aggressive toward humans, may be attributable to wolf - dog mating. In Europe, unintentional mating of dogs and wild wolves have been confirmed in some populations through genetic testing. As the survival of some Continental European wolf packs is severely threatened, scientists fear that the creation of wolfdog populations in the wild is a threat to the continued existence of European wolf populations. However, extensive admixture between wolf and dog is not supported by morphological evidence, and analyses of mtDNA sequences have revealed that such mating are rare. In 1997, during the Mexican Wolf Arizona Reintroduction, controversy arose when a captive pack at Carlsbad designated for release was found to be largely composed of wolfdogs by Roy McBride, who had captured many wolves for the recovery programme in the 1970s. Though staff initially argued that the animals ' odd appearance was due to captivity and diet, it was later decided to euthanise them.
In 2018, a study compared the sequences of 61,000 Single - nucleotide polymorphisms (mutations) taken from across the genome of grey wolves. The study indicated that there exists individual wolves of dogwolf ancestry in most of the wolf populations of Eurasia but less so in North America. The admixture has been occurring across different time scales and was not a recent event. Low - level admixture did not reduce the wolf distinctiveness.
The physical characteristics of an animal created by breeding a wolf to a dog are not predictable, similar to that of mixed - breed dogs. Genetic research shows that wolf and dog populations initially diverged approximately 14,000 years ago and have interbred only occasionally since, accounting for the dissimilarity between dogs and wolves in behavior and appearance. In many cases the resulting adult wolfdog may be larger than either of its parents due to the genetic phenomenon of heterosis (commonly known as hybrid vigor). Breeding experiments in Germany with Poodles and wolves, and later on with the resulting wolfdogs showed unrestricted fertility, mating via free choice and no significant problems of communication (even after a few generations). The offspring of poodles with either coyotes and jackals however all showed a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems, and an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbreeding between the hybrids. The researchers therefore concluded that domestic dogs and wolves are the same species.
Wolfdogs display a wide variety of appearances, ranging from a resemblance to dogs without wolf blood to animals that are often mistaken for full - blooded wolves. A lengthy study by DEFRA and the RSPCA found several examples of misrepresentation by breeders and indeterminate levels of actual wolf pedigree in many animals sold as wolfdogs. The report noted that uneducated citizens misidentify dogs with wolf - like appearance as wolfdogs. Wolfdogs tend to have somewhat smaller heads than pure wolves, with larger, pointier ears that lack the dense fur commonly seen in those of wolves. Fur markings also tend to be very distinctive and not well blended. Black coloured wolfdogs tend to retain black pigment longer as they age, compared to black wolves. In some cases, the presence of dewclaws on the hind feet is considered a useful, but not absolute indicator of dog gene contamination in wild wolves. Dewclaws are the vestigial first toes, which are common on the hind legs of domestic dogs but thought absent from pure wolves, which only have four hind toes.
Observations on wild wolfdogs in the former Soviet Union indicate that in a wild state these may form larger packs than pure wolves, and have greater endurance when chasing prey. High wolf - content wolfdogs typically have longer canine teeth than dogs of comparable size, with some officers in the South African Defence Force commenting that the animals are capable of biting through the toughest padding "like a knife through butter ''. Their sense of smell apparently rivals that of most established scenthounds.
Tests undertaken in the Perm Institute of Interior Forces in Russia demonstrated that high wolf - content wolfdogs took 15 -- 20 seconds to track down a target in training sessions, whereas ordinary police dogs took three to four minutes. The scientific evidence to support the claims by wolfdog researchers is minimal, and more research has been called for.
Wolfdogs are generally said to be naturally healthy animals, and are affected by fewer inherited diseases than most breeds of dog. Wolfdogs are usually healthier than either parent due to heterosis. Some of the established breeds of wolfdog that exist today were bred specifically to improve the health and vigor of working dogs.
There is some controversy over the effectiveness of the standard dog / cat rabies vaccine on a wolfdog. The USDA has not to date approved any rabies vaccine for use in wolfdogs, though they do recommend an off - label use of the vaccine. Wolfdog owners and breeders purport that the lack of official approval is a political move to prevent condoning wolfdog ownership.
Wolfdogs are a mixture of genetic traits, which results in less predictable behavior patterns compared to either the wolf or dog. The adult behavior of wolfdog pups also can not be predicted with comparable certainty to dog pups, even in third - generation pups produced by wolfdog mating with dogs or from the behavior of the parent animals. Thus, though the behavior of a single individual wolfdogs may be predictable, the behavior of the type as a whole is not. The majority of high wolf - content wolfdogs are very curious and are generally no more destructive than any other curious or active dogs.
Due to the variability inherent to their admixture, whether a wolf -- dog cross should be considered more dangerous than a dog depends on behavior specific to the individual alone rather than to wolfdogs as a group.
The view that aggressive characteristics are inherently a part of wolfdog temperament has been contested in recent years by wolfdog breeders and other advocates of wolfdogs as pets.
|
can a stable isotope of carbon be used for carbon dating | Radiocarbon dating - wikipedia
Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon - 14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon (14 C), a radioactive isotope of carbon.
The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists. Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960. The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide, which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis; animals then acquire 14 C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point onwards the amount of 14 C it contains begins to decrease as the 14 C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14 C in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less 14 C there is to be detected, and because the half - life of 14 C (the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago, although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples.
The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14 C in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of 14 C throughout the biosphere (reservoir effects). Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above - ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its 14 C to decay below detectable levels, fossil fuels contain almost no 14 C, and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of 14 C in the atmosphere, which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began.
Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta - counting devices, which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14 C atoms in a sample. More recently, accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice; it counts all the 14 C atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly. The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances. Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the "radiocarbon revolution ''. Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the last ice age, and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions.
In 1939, Martin Kamen and Samuel Ruben of the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley began experiments to determine if any of the elements common in organic matter had isotopes with half - lives long enough to be of value in biomedical research. They synthesized 14 C using the laboratory 's cyclotron accelerator and soon discovered that the atom 's half - life was far longer than had been previously thought. This was followed by a prediction by Serge A. Korff, then employed at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, that the interaction of slow neutrons with 14 N in the upper atmosphere would create 14 C. It had previously been thought that 14 C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13 C. At some time during World War II, Willard Libby, who was then at Berkeley, learned of Korff 's research and conceived the idea that it might be possible to use radiocarbon for dating.
In 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago where he began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14 C as well as non-radioactive carbon. Libby and several collaborators proceeded to experiment with methane collected from sewage works in Baltimore, and after isotopically enriching their samples they were able to demonstrate that they contained radioactive 14 C. By contrast, methane created from petroleum showed no radiocarbon activity because of its age. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, in which the authors commented that their results implied it would be possible to date materials containing carbon of organic origin.
Libby and James Arnold proceeded to test the radiocarbon dating theory by analyzing samples with known ages. For example, two samples taken from the tombs of two Egyptian kings, Zoser and Sneferu, independently dated to 2625 BC plus or minus 75 years, were dated by radiocarbon measurement to an average of 2800 BC plus or minus 250 years. These results were published in Science in 1949. Within 11 years of their announcement, more than 20 radiocarbon dating laboratories had been set up worldwide.
In 1960, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work.
In nature, carbon exists as two stable, nonradioactive isotopes: carbon - 12 (12 C), and carbon - 13 (13 C), and a radioactive isotope, carbon - 14 (14 C), also known as "radiocarbon ''. The half - life of 14 C (the time it takes for half of a given amount of 14 C to decay) is about 5,730 years, so its concentration in the atmosphere might be expected to reduce over thousands of years, but 14 C is constantly being produced in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere by cosmic rays, which generate neutrons that in turn create 14 C when they strike nitrogen - 14 (14 N) atoms. The following nuclear reaction creates 14 C:
where n represents a neutron and p represents a proton.
Once produced, the 14 C quickly combines with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide (CO 2). Carbon dioxide produced in this way diffuses in the atmosphere, is dissolved in the ocean, and is taken up by plants via photosynthesis. Animals eat the plants, and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere. The ratio of 14 C to 12 C is approximately 1.5 parts of 14 C to 10 parts of 12 C. In addition, about 1 % of the carbon atoms are of the stable isotope 13 C.
The equation for the radioactive decay of 14 C is:
By emitting a beta particle (an electron, e) and an electron antineutrino (ν e), one of the neutrons in the 14 C nucleus changes to a proton and the 14 C nucleus reverts to the stable (non-radioactive) isotope 14 N.
During its life, a plant or animal is exchanging carbon with its surroundings, so the carbon it contains will have the same proportion of 14 C as the atmosphere. Once it dies, it ceases to acquire 14 C, but the 14 C within its biological material at that time will continue to decay, and so the ratio of 14 C to 12 C in its remains will gradually decrease. Because 14 C decays at a known rate, the proportion of radiocarbon can be used to determine how long it has been since a given sample stopped exchanging carbon -- the older the sample, the less 14 C will be left.
The equation governing the decay of a radioactive isotope is:
where N is the number of atoms of the isotope in the original sample (at time t = 0, when the organism from which the sample was taken died), and N is the number of atoms left after time t. λ is a constant that depends on the particular isotope; for a given isotope it is equal to the reciprocal of the mean - life -- i.e. the average or expected time a given atom will survive before undergoing radioactive decay. The mean - life, denoted by τ, of 14 C is 8,267 years, so the equation above can be rewritten as:
The sample is assumed to have originally had the same 14 C / 12 C ratio as the ratio in the atmosphere, and since the size of the sample is known, the total number of atoms in the sample can be calculated, yielding N, the number of 14 C atoms in the original sample. Measurement of N, the number of 14 C atoms currently in the sample, allows the calculation of t, the age of the sample, using the equation above.
The half - life of a radioactive isotope (usually denoted by t) is a more familiar concept than the mean - life, so although the equations above are expressed in terms of the mean - life, it is more usual to quote the value of 14 C 's half - life than its mean - life. The currently accepted value for the half - life of 14 C is 5,730 years. This means that after 5,730 years, only half of the initial 14 C will remain; a quarter will remain after 11,460 years; an eighth after 17,190 years; and so on.
The above calculations make several assumptions, such as that the level of 14 C in the atmosphere has remained constant over time. In fact, the level of 14 C in the atmosphere has varied significantly and as a result the values provided by the equation above have to be corrected by using data from other sources. This is done by calibration curves, which convert a measurement of 14 C in a sample into an estimated calendar age. The calculations involve several steps and include an intermediate value called the "radiocarbon age '', which is the age in "radiocarbon years '' of the sample: an age quoted in radiocarbon years means that no calibration curve has been used − the calculations for radiocarbon years assume that the 14 C / 12 C ratio has not changed over time. Calculating radiocarbon ages also requires the value of the half - life for 14 C, which for more than a decade after Libby 's initial work was thought to be 5,568 years. This was revised in the early 1960s to 5,730 years, which meant that many calculated dates in papers published prior to this were incorrect (the error in the half - life is about 3 %). For consistency with these early papers, and to avoid the risk of a double correction for the incorrect half - life, radiocarbon ages are still calculated using the incorrect half - life value. A correction for the half - life is incorporated into calibration curves, so even though radiocarbon ages are calculated using a half - life value that is known to be incorrect, the final reported calibrated date, in calendar years, is accurate. When a date is quoted, the reader should be aware that if it is an uncalibrated date (a term used for dates given in radiocarbon years) it may differ substantially from the best estimate of the actual calendar date, both because it uses the wrong value for the half - life of 14 C, and because no correction (calibration) has been applied for the historical variation of 14 C in the atmosphere over time.
Carbon is distributed throughout the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the oceans; these are referred to collectively as the carbon exchange reservoir, and each component is also referred to individually as a carbon exchange reservoir. The different elements of the carbon exchange reservoir vary in how much carbon they store, and in how long it takes for the 14 C generated by cosmic rays to fully mix with them. This affects the ratio of 14 C to 12 C in the different reservoirs, and hence the radiocarbon ages of samples that originated in each reservoir. The atmosphere, which is where 14 C is generated, contains about 1.9 % of the total carbon in the reservoirs, and the 14 C it contains mixes in less than seven years. The ratio of 14 C to 12 C in the atmosphere is taken as the baseline for the other reservoirs: if another reservoir has a lower ratio of 14 C to 12 C, it indicates that the carbon is older and hence that some of the 14 C has decayed. The ocean surface is an example: it contains 2.4 % of the carbon in the exchange reservoir, but there is only about 95 % as much 14 C as would be expected if the ratio were the same as in the atmosphere. The time it takes for carbon from the atmosphere to mix with the surface ocean is only a few years, but the surface waters also receive water from the deep ocean, which has more than 90 % of the carbon in the reservoir. Water in the deep ocean takes about 1,000 years to circulate back through surface waters, and so the surface waters contain a combination of older water, with depleted 14 C, and water recently at the surface, with 14 C in equilibrium with the atmosphere.
Creatures living at the ocean surface have the same 14 C ratios as the water they live in, and as a result of the reduced 14 C / 12 C ratio, the radiocarbon age of marine life is typically about 440 years. Organisms on land are in closer equilibrium with the atmosphere and have the same 14 C / 12 C ratio as the atmosphere. These organisms contain about 1.3 % of the carbon in the reservoir; sea organisms have a mass of less than 1 % of those on land and are not shown on the diagram. Accumulated dead organic matter, of both plants and animals, exceeds the mass of the biosphere by a factor of nearly 3, and since this matter is no longer exchanging carbon with its environment, it has a 14 C / 12 C ratio lower than that of the biosphere.
The variation in the 14 C / 12 C ratio in different parts of the carbon exchange reservoir means that a straightforward calculation of the age of a sample based on the amount of 14 C it contains will often give an incorrect result. There are several other possible sources of error that need to be considered. The errors are of four general types:
In the early years of using the technique, it was understood that it depended on the atmospheric 14 C / 12 C ratio having remained the same over the preceding few thousand years. To verify the accuracy of the method, several artefacts that were datable by other techniques were tested; the results of the testing were in reasonable agreement with the true ages of the objects. Over time, however, discrepancies began to appear between the known chronology for the oldest Egyptian dynasties and the radiocarbon dates of Egyptian artefacts. Neither the pre-existing Egyptian chronology nor the new radiocarbon dating method could be assumed to be accurate, but a third possibility was that the 14 C / 12 C ratio had changed over time. The question was resolved by the study of tree rings: comparison of overlapping series of tree rings allowed the construction of a continuous sequence of tree - ring data that spanned 8,000 years. (Since that time the tree - ring data series has been extended to 13,900 years.) In the 1960s, Hans Suess was able to use the tree - ring sequence to show that the dates derived from radiocarbon were consistent with the dates assigned by Egyptologists. This was possible because although annual plants, such as corn, have a 14 C / 12 C ratio that reflects the atmospheric ratio at the time they were growing, trees only add material to their outermost tree ring in any given year, while the inner tree rings do n't get their 14 C replenished and instead start losing 14 C through decay. Hence each ring preserves a record of the atmospheric 14 C / 12 C ratio of the year it grew in. Carbon - dating the wood from the tree rings themselves provides the check needed on the atmospheric 14 C / 12 C ratio: with a sample of known date, and a measurement of the value of N (the number of atoms of 14 C remaining in the sample), the carbon - dating equation allows the calculation of N -- the number of atoms of 14 C in the sample at the time the tree ring was formed -- and hence the 14 C / 12 C ratio in the atmosphere at that time. Equipped with the results of carbon - dating the tree rings, it became possible to construct calibration curves designed to correct the errors caused by the variation over time in the 14 C / 12 C ratio. These curves are described in more detail below.
Coal and oil began to be burned in large quantities during the 19th century. Both are sufficiently old that they contain little detectable 14 C and, as a result, the CO 2 released substantially diluted the atmospheric 14 C / 12 C ratio. Dating an object from the early 20th century hence gives an apparent date older than the true date. For the same reason, 14 C concentrations in the neighbourhood of large cities are lower than the atmospheric average. This fossil fuel effect (also known as the Suess effect, after Hans Suess, who first reported it in 1955) would only amount to a reduction of 0.2 % in 14 C activity if the additional carbon from fossil fuels were distributed throughout the carbon exchange reservoir, but because of the long delay in mixing with the deep ocean, the actual effect is a 3 % reduction.
A much larger effect comes from above - ground nuclear testing, which released large numbers of neutrons and created 14 C. From about 1950 until 1963, when atmospheric nuclear testing was banned, it is estimated that several tonnes of 14 C were created. If all this extra 14 C had immediately been spread across the entire carbon exchange reservoir, it would have led to an increase in the 14 C / 12 C ratio of only a few per cent, but the immediate effect was to almost double the amount of 14 C in the atmosphere, with the peak level occurring in about 1965. The level has since dropped, as this bomb pulse or "bomb carbon '' (as it is sometimes called) percolates into the rest of the reservoir.
Photosynthesis is the primary process by which carbon moves from the atmosphere into living things. In photosynthetic pathways 12 C is absorbed slightly more easily than 13 C, which in turn is more easily absorbed than 14 C. The differential uptake of the three carbon isotopes leads to 13 C / 12 C and 14 C / 12 C ratios in plants that differ from the ratios in the atmosphere. This effect is known as isotopic fractionation.
To determine the degree of fractionation that takes place in a given plant, the amounts of both 12 C and 13 C isotopes are measured, and the resulting 13 C / 12 C ratio is then compared to a standard ratio known as PDB. The 13 C / 12 C ratio is used instead of 14 C / 12 C because the former is much easier to measure, and the latter can be easily derived: the depletion of 13 C relative to 12 C is proportional to the difference in the atomic masses of the two isotopes, so the depletion for 14 C is twice the depletion of 13 C. The fractionation of 13 C, known as δ C, is calculated as follows:
where the ‰ sign indicates parts per thousand. Because the PDB standard contains an unusually high proportion of 13 C, most measured δ C values are negative.
For marine organisms, the details of the photosynthesis reactions are less well understood, and the δ C values for marine photosynthetic organisms are dependent on temperature. At higher temperatures, CO 2 has poor solubility in water, which means there is less CO 2 available for the photosynthetic reactions. Under these conditions, fractionation is reduced, and at temperatures above 14 ° C the δ C values are correspondingly higher, while at lower temperatures, CO 2 becomes more soluble and hence more available to marine organisms. The δ C value for animals depends on their diet. An animal that eats food with high δ C values will have a higher δ C than one that eats food with lower δ C values. The animal 's own biochemical processes can also impact the results: for example, both bone minerals and bone collagen typically have a higher concentration of 13 C than is found in the animal 's diet, though for different biochemical reasons. The enrichment of bone 13 C also implies that excreted material is depleted in 13 C relative to the diet.
Since 13 C makes up about 1 % of the carbon in a sample, the 13 C / 12 C ratio can be accurately measured by mass spectrometry. Typical values of δ C have been found by experiment for many plants, as well as for different parts of animals such as bone collagen, but when dating a given sample it is better to determine the δ C value for that sample directly than to rely on the published values.
The carbon exchange between atmospheric CO 2 and carbonate at the ocean surface is also subject to fractionation, with 14 C in the atmosphere more likely than 12 C to dissolve in the ocean. The result is an overall increase in the 14 C / 12 C ratio in the ocean of 1.5 %, relative to the 14 C / 12 C ratio in the atmosphere. This increase in 14 C concentration almost exactly cancels out the decrease caused by the upwelling of water (containing old, and hence 14 C depleted, carbon) from the deep ocean, so that direct measurements of 14 C radiation are similar to measurements for the rest of the biosphere. Correcting for isotopic fractionation, as is done for all radiocarbon dates to allow comparison between results from different parts of the biosphere, gives an apparent age of about 440 years for ocean surface water.
Libby 's original exchange reservoir hypothesis assumed that the 14 C / 12 C ratio in the exchange reservoir is constant all over the world, but it has since been discovered that there are several causes of variation in the ratio across the reservoir.
Marine effect
The CO 2 in the atmosphere transfers to the ocean by dissolving in the surface water as carbonate and bicarbonate ions; at the same time the carbonate ions in the water are returning to the air as CO 2. This exchange process brings 14 C from the atmosphere into the surface waters of the ocean, but the 14 C thus introduced takes a long time to percolate through the entire volume of the ocean. The deepest parts of the ocean mix very slowly with the surface waters, and the mixing is uneven. The main mechanism that brings deep water to the surface is upwelling, which is more common in regions closer to the equator. Upwelling is also influenced by factors such as the topography of the local ocean bottom and coastlines, the climate, and wind patterns. Overall, the mixing of deep and surface waters takes far longer than the mixing of atmospheric CO 2 with the surface waters, and as a result water from some deep ocean areas has an apparent radiocarbon age of several thousand years. Upwelling mixes this "old '' water with the surface water, giving the surface water an apparent age of about several hundred years (after correcting for fractionation). This effect is not uniform -- the average effect is about 440 years, but there are local deviations of several hundred years for areas that are geographically close to each other. The effect also applies to marine organisms such as shells, and marine mammals such as whales and seals, which have radiocarbon ages that appear to be hundreds of years old.
Hemisphere effect
The northern and southern hemispheres have atmospheric circulation systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. The atmospheric 14 C / 12 C ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere, with an apparent additional age of 30 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north. This is probably because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere than in the north. Since the surface ocean is depleted in 14 C because of the marine effect, 14 C is removed from the southern atmosphere more quickly than in the north.
Other effects
If the carbon in freshwater is partly acquired from aged carbon, such as rocks, then the result will be a reduction in the 14 C / 12 C ratio in the water. For example, rivers that pass over limestone, which is mostly composed of calcium carbonate, will acquire carbonate ions. Similarly, groundwater can contain carbon derived from the rocks through which it has passed. These rocks are usually so old that they no longer contain any measurable 14 C, so this carbon lowers the 14 C / 12 C ratio of the water it enters, which can lead to apparent ages of thousands of years for both the affected water and the plants and freshwater organisms that live in it. This is known as the hard water effect because it is often associated with calcium ions, which are characteristic of hard water; other sources of carbon such as humus can produce similar results. The effect varies greatly and there is no general offset that can be applied; additional research is usually needed to determine the size of the offset, for example by comparing the radiocarbon age of deposited freshwater shells with associated organic material.
Volcanic eruptions eject large amounts of carbon into the air. The carbon is of geological origin and has no detectable 14 C, so the 14 C / 12 C ratio in the vicinity of the volcano is depressed relative to surrounding areas. Dormant volcanoes can also emit aged carbon. Plants that photosynthesize this carbon also have lower 14 C / 12 C ratios: for example, plants on the Greek island of Santorini, near the volcano, have apparent ages of up to a thousand years. These effects are hard to predict -- the town of Akrotiri, on Santorini, was destroyed in a volcanic eruption thousands of years ago, but radiocarbon dates for objects recovered from the ruins of the town show surprisingly close agreement with dates derived from other means. If the dates for Akrotiri are confirmed, it would indicate that the volcanic effect in this case was minimal.
Any addition of carbon to a sample of a different age will cause the measured date to be inaccurate. Contamination with modern carbon causes a sample to appear to be younger than it really is: the effect is greater for older samples. If a sample that is 17,000 years old is contaminated so that 1 % of the sample is modern carbon, it will appear to be 600 years younger; for a sample that is 34,000 years old the same amount of contamination would cause an error of 4,000 years. Contamination with old carbon, with no remaining 14 C, causes an error in the other direction independent of age -- a sample contaminated with 1 % old carbon will appear to be about 80 years older than it really is, regardless of the date of the sample.
Samples for dating need to be converted into a form suitable for measuring the 14 C content; this can mean conversion to gaseous, liquid, or solid form, depending on the measurement technique to be used. Before this can be done, the sample must be treated to remove any contamination and any unwanted constituents. This includes removing visible contaminants, such as rootlets that may have penetrated the sample since its burial. Alkali and acid washes can be used to remove humic acid and carbonate contamination, but care has to be taken to avoid destroying or damaging the sample.
Particularly for older samples, it may be useful to enrich the amount of 14 C in the sample before testing. This can be done with a thermal diffusion column. The process takes about a month and requires a sample about ten times as large as would be needed otherwise, but it allows more precise measurement of the 14 C / 12 C ratio in old material and extends the maximum age that can be reliably reported.
Once contamination has been removed, samples must be converted to a form suitable for the measuring technology to be used. Where gas is required, CO 2 is widely used. For samples to be used in liquid scintillation counters, the carbon must be in liquid form; the sample is typically converted to benzene. For accelerator mass spectrometry, solid graphite targets are the most common, although iron carbide and gaseous CO 2 can also be used.
The quantity of material needed for testing depends on the sample type and the technology being used. There are two types of testing technology: detectors that record radioactivity, known as beta counters, and accelerator mass spectrometers. For beta counters, a sample weighing at least 10 grams (0.35 ounces) is typically required. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) is much more sensitive, and samples as small as 0.5 milligrams (0.0077 grains) can be used.
For decades after Libby performed the first radiocarbon dating experiments, the only way to measure the 14 C in a sample was to detect the radioactive decay of individual carbon atoms. In this approach, what is measured is the activity, in number of decay events per unit mass per time period, of the sample. This method is also known as "beta counting '', because it is the beta particles emitted by the decaying 14 C atoms that are detected. In the late 1970s an alternative approach became available: directly counting the number of 14 C and 12 C atoms in a given sample, via accelerator mass spectrometry, usually referred to as AMS. AMS counts the 14 C / 12 C ratio directly, instead of the activity of the sample, but measurements of activity and 14 C / 12 C ratio can be converted into each other exactly. For some time, beta counting methods were more accurate than AMS, but as of 2014 AMS is more accurate and has become the method of choice for radiocarbon measurements. In addition to improved accuracy, AMS has two further significant advantages over beta counting: it can perform accurate testing on samples much too small for beta counting; and it is much faster -- an accuracy of 1 % can be achieved in minutes with AMS, which is far quicker than would be achievable with the older technology.
Libby 's first detector was a Geiger counter of his own design. He converted the carbon in his sample to lamp black (soot) and coated the inner surface of a cylinder with it. This cylinder was inserted into the counter in such a way that the counting wire was inside the sample cylinder, in order that there should be no material between the sample and the wire. Any interposing material would have interfered with the detection of radioactivity, since the beta particles emitted by decaying 14 C are so weak that half are stopped by a 0.01 mm thickness of aluminium.
Libby 's method was soon superseded by gas proportional counters, which were less affected by bomb carbon (the additional 14 C created by nuclear weapons testing). These counters record bursts of ionization caused by the beta particles emitted by the decaying 14 C atoms; the bursts are proportional to the energy of the particle, so other sources of ionization, such as background radiation, can be identified and ignored. The counters are surrounded by lead or steel shielding, to eliminate background radiation and to reduce the incidence of cosmic rays. In addition, anticoincidence detectors are used; these record events outside the counter, and any event recorded simultaneously both inside and outside the counter is regarded as an extraneous event and ignored.
The other common technology used for measuring 14 C activity is liquid scintillation counting, which was invented in 1950, but which had to wait until the early 1960s, when efficient methods of benzene synthesis were developed, to become competitive with gas counting; after 1970 liquid counters became the more common technology choice for newly constructed dating laboratories. The counters work by detecting flashes of light caused by the beta particles emitted by 14 C as they interact with a fluorescing agent added to the benzene. Like gas counters, liquid scintillation counters require shielding and anticoincidence counters.
For both the gas proportional counter and liquid scintillation counter, what is measured is the number of beta particles detected in a given time period. Since the mass of the sample is known, this can be converted to a standard measure of activity in units of either counts per minute per gram of carbon (cpm / g C), or becquerels per kg (Bq / kg C, in SI units). Each measuring device is also used to measure the activity of a blank sample -- a sample prepared from carbon old enough to have no activity. This provides a value for the background radiation, which must be subtracted from the measured activity of the sample being dated to get the activity attributable solely to that sample 's 14 C. In addition, a sample with a standard activity is measured, to provide a baseline for comparison.
AMS counts the atoms of 14 C and 12 C in a given sample, determining the 14 C / 12 C ratio directly. The sample, often in the form of graphite, is made to emit C ions (carbon atoms with a single negative charge), which are injected into an accelerator. The ions are accelerated and passed through a stripper, which removes several electrons so that the ions emerge with a positive charge. The C ions are then passed through a magnet that curves their path; the heavier ions are curved less than the lighter ones, so the different isotopes emerge as separate streams of ions. A particle detector then records the number of ions detected in the 14 C stream, but since the volume of 12 C (and 13 C, needed for calibration) is too great for individual ion detection, counts are determined by measuring the electric current created in a Faraday cup. Some AMS facilities are also able to evaluate a sample 's fractionation, another piece of data necessary for calculating the sample 's radiocarbon age. The use of AMS, as opposed to simpler forms of mass spectrometry, is necessary because of the need to distinguish the carbon isotopes from other atoms or molecules that are very close in mass, such as 14 N and 13 CH. As with beta counting, both blank samples and standard samples are used. Two different kinds of blank may be measured: a sample of dead carbon that has undergone no chemical processing, to detect any machine background, and a sample known as a process blank made from dead carbon that is processed into target material in exactly the same way as the sample which is being dated. Any 14 C signal from the machine background blank is likely to be caused either by beams of ions that have not followed the expected path inside the detector, or by carbon hydrides such as 12 CH 2 or 13 CH. A 14 C signal from the process blank measures the amount of contamination introduced during the preparation of the sample. These measurements are used in the subsequent calculation of the age of the sample.
The calculations to be performed on the measurements taken depend on the technology used, since beta counters measure the sample 's radioactivity whereas AMS determines the ratio of the three different carbon isotopes in the sample.
To determine the age of a sample whose activity has been measured by beta counting, the ratio of its activity to the activity of the standard must be found. To determine this, a blank sample (of old, or dead, carbon) is measured, and a sample of known activity is measured. The additional samples allow errors such as background radiation and systematic errors in the laboratory setup to be detected and corrected for. The most common standard sample material is oxalic acid, such as the HOxII standard, 1,000 lb of which was prepared by NIST in 1977 from French beet harvests.
The results from AMS testing are in the form of ratios of 12 C, 13 C, and 14 C, which are used to calculate Fm, the "fraction modern ''. This is defined as the ratio between the 14 C / 12 C ratio in the sample and the 14 C / 12 C ratio in modern carbon, which is in turn defined as the 14 C / 12 C ratio that would have been measured in 1950 had there been no fossil fuel effect.
Both beta counting and AMS results have to be corrected for fractionation. This is necessary because different materials of the same age, which because of fractionation have naturally different 14 C / 12 C ratios, will appear to be of different ages because the 14 C / 12 C ratio is taken as the indicator of age. To avoid this, all radiocarbon measurements are converted to the measurement that would have been seen had the sample been made of wood, which has a known δ13 C value of − 25 ‰.
Once the corrected 14 C / 12 C ratio is known, a "radiocarbon age '' is calculated using:
A g e = − 8033 ⋅ ln (F m) (\ displaystyle Age = - 8033 \ cdot \ ln (Fm))
The calculation uses Libby 's half - life of 5,568 years, not the more accurate modern value of 5,730 years. Libby 's value for the half - life is used to maintain consistency with early radiocarbon testing results; calibration curves include a correction for this, so the accuracy of final reported calendar ages is assured.
The reliability of the results can be improved by lengthening the testing time. For example, if counting beta decays for 250 minutes is enough to give an error of ± 80 years, with 68 % confidence, then doubling the counting time to 500 minutes will allow a sample with only half as much 14 C to be measured with the same error term of 80 years.
Radiocarbon dating is generally limited to dating samples no more than 50,000 years old, as samples older than that have insufficient 14 C to be measurable. Older dates have been obtained by using special sample preparation techniques, large samples, and very long measurement times. These techniques can allow measurement of dates up to 60,000 and in some cases up to 75,000 years before the present.
Radiocarbon dates are generally presented with a range of one standard deviation (usually represented by the Greek letter sigma as 1σ) on either side of the mean. However, a date range of 1σ represents only 68 % confidence level, so the true age of the object being measured may lie outside the range of dates quoted. This was demonstrated in 1970 by an experiment run by the British Museum radiocarbon laboratory, in which weekly measurements were taken on the same sample for six months. The results varied widely (though consistently with a normal distribution of errors in the measurements), and included multiple date ranges (of 1σ confidence) that did not overlap with each other. The measurements included one with a range from about 4250 to about 4390 years ago, and another with a range from about 4520 to about 4690.
Errors in procedure can also lead to errors in the results. If 1 % of the benzene in a modern reference sample accidentally evaporates, scintillation counting will give a radiocarbon age that is too young by about 80 years.
The calculations given above produce dates in radiocarbon years: i.e. dates that represent the age the sample would be if the 14 C / 12 C ratio had been constant historically. Although Libby had pointed out as early as 1955 the possibility that this assumption was incorrect, it was not until discrepancies began to accumulate between measured ages and known historical dates for artefacts that it became clear that a correction would need to be applied to radiocarbon ages to obtain calendar dates.
To produce a curve that can be used to relate calendar years to radiocarbon years, a sequence of securely dated samples is needed which can be tested to determine their radiocarbon age. The study of tree rings led to the first such sequence: individual pieces of wood show characteristic sequences of rings that vary in thickness because of environmental factors such as the amount of rainfall in a given year. These factors affect all trees in an area, so examining tree - ring sequences from old wood allows the identification of overlapping sequences. In this way, an uninterrupted sequence of tree rings can be extended far into the past. The first such published sequence, based on bristlecone pine tree rings, was created by Wesley Ferguson. Hans Suess used this data to publish the first calibration curve for radiocarbon dating in 1967. The curve showed two types of variation from the straight line: a long term fluctuation with a period of about 9,000 years, and a shorter term variation, often referred to as "wiggles '', with a period of decades. Suess said he drew the line showing the wiggles by "cosmic schwung '', by which he meant that the variations were caused by extraterrestrial forces. It was unclear for some time whether the wiggles were real or not, but they are now well - established. These short term fluctuations in the calibration curve are now known as de Vries effects, after Hessel de Vries.
A calibration curve is used by taking the radiocarbon date reported by a laboratory, and reading across from that date on the vertical axis of the graph. The point where this horizontal line intersects the curve will give the calendar age of the sample on the horizontal axis. This is the reverse of the way the curve is constructed: a point on the graph is derived from a sample of known age, such as a tree ring; when it is tested, the resulting radiocarbon age gives a data point for the graph.
Over the next thirty years many calibration curves were published using a variety of methods and statistical approaches. These were superseded by the INTCAL series of curves, beginning with INTCAL98, published in 1998, and updated in 2004, 2009, and 2013. The improvements to these curves are based on new data gathered from tree rings, varves, coral, plant macrofossils, speleothems, and foraminifera. The INTCAL13 data includes separate curves for the northern and southern hemispheres, as they differ systematically because of the hemisphere effect; there is also a separate marine calibration curve. For a set of samples with a known sequence and separation in time such as a sequence of tree rings, the samples ' radiocarbon ages form a small subset of the calibration curve. The resulting curve can then be matched to the actual calibration curve by identifying where, in the range suggested by the radiocarbon dates, the wiggles in the calibration curve best match the wiggles in the curve of sample dates. This "wiggle - matching '' technique can lead to more precise dating than is possible with individual radiocarbon dates. Wiggle - matching can be used in places where there is a plateau on the calibration curve, and hence can provide a much more accurate date than the intercept or probability methods are able to produce. The technique is not restricted to tree rings; for example, a stratified tephra sequence in New Zealand, known to predate human colonization of the islands, has been dated to 1314 AD ± 12 years by wiggle - matching. The wiggles also mean that reading a date from a calibration curve can give more than one answer: this occurs when the curve wiggles up and down enough that the radiocarbon age intercepts the curve in more than one place, which may lead to a radiocarbon result being reported as two separate age ranges, corresponding to the two parts of the curve that the radiocarbon age intercepted.
Bayesian statistical techniques can be applied when there are several radiocarbon dates to be calibrated. For example, if a series of radiocarbon dates is taken from different levels in a given stratigraphic sequence, Bayesian analysis can help determine if some of the dates should be discarded as anomalies, and can use the information to improve the output probability distributions. When Bayesian analysis was introduced, its use was limited by the need to use mainframe computers to perform the calculations, but the technique has since been implemented on programs available for personal computers, such as OxCal.
Several formats for citing radiocarbon results have been used since the first samples were dated. As of 2014, the standard format required by the journal Radiocarbon is as follows.
Uncalibrated dates should be reported as "< laboratory >: < 14 C year > ± < range > BP ", where:
For example, the uncalibrated date "UtC - 2020: 3510 ± 60 BP '' indicates that the sample was tested by the Utrecht van der Graaf Laboratorium, where it has a sample number of 2020, and that the uncalibrated age is 3510 years before present, ± 60 years. Related forms are sometimes used: for example, "10 ka BP '' means 10,000 radiocarbon years before present (i.e. 8,050 BC), and 14 C yr BP might be used to distinguish the uncalibrated date from a date derived from another dating method such as thermoluminescence.
Calibrated 14 C dates are frequently reported as cal BP, cal BC, or cal AD, again with BP referring to the year 1950 as the zero date. Radiocarbon gives two options for reporting calibrated dates. A common format is "cal < date - range > < confidence > '', where:
For example, "cal 1220 -- 1281 AD (1σ) '' means a calibrated date for which the true date lies between 1220 AD and 1281 AD, with the confidence level given as 1σ, or one standard deviation. Calibrated dates can also be expressed as BP instead of using BC and AD. The curve used to calibrate the results should be the latest available INTCAL curve. Calibrated dates should also identify any programs, such as OxCal, used to perform the calibration. In addition, an article in Radiocarbon in 2014 about radiocarbon date reporting conventions recommends that information should be provided about sample treatment, including the sample material, pretreatment methods, and quality control measurements; that the citation to the software used for calibration should specify the version number and any options or models used; and that the calibrated date should be given with the associated probabilities for each range.
A key concept in interpreting radiocarbon dates is archaeological association: what is the true relationship between two or more objects at an archaeological site? It frequently happens that a sample for radiocarbon dating can be taken directly from the object of interest, but there are also many cases where this is not possible. Metal grave goods, for example, can not be radiocarbon dated, but they may be found in a grave with a coffin, charcoal, or other material which can be assumed to have been deposited at the same time. In these cases a date for the coffin or charcoal is indicative of the date of deposition of the grave goods, because of the direct functional relationship between the two. There are also cases where there is no functional relationship, but the association is reasonably strong: for example, a layer of charcoal in a rubbish pit provides a date which has a relationship to the rubbish pit.
Contamination is of particular concern when dating very old material obtained from archaeological excavations and great care is needed in the specimen selection and preparation. In 2014, Tom Higham and co-workers suggested that many of the dates published for Neanderthal artefacts are too recent because of contamination by "young carbon ''.
As a tree grows, only the outermost tree ring exchanges carbon with its environment, so the age measured for a wood sample depends on where the sample is taken from. This means that radiocarbon dates on wood samples can be older than the date at which the tree was felled. In addition, if a piece of wood is used for multiple purposes, there may be a significant delay between the felling of the tree and the final use in the context in which it is found. This is often referred to as the "old wood '' problem. One example is the Bronze Age trackway at Withy Bed Copse, in England; the trackway was built from wood that had clearly been worked for other purposes before being re-used in the trackway. Another example is driftwood, which may be used as construction material. It is not always possible to recognize re-use. Other materials can present the same problem: for example, bitumen is known to have been used by some Neolithic communities to waterproof baskets; the bitumen 's radiocarbon age will be greater than is measurable by the laboratory, regardless of the actual age of the context, so testing the basket material will give a misleading age if care is not taken. A separate issue, related to re-use, is that of lengthy use, or delayed deposition. For example, a wooden object that remains in use for a lengthy period will have an apparent age greater than the actual age of the context in which it is deposited.
The Pleistocene is a geological epoch that began about 2.6 million years ago. The Holocene, the current geological epoch, begins about 11,700 years ago, when the Pleistocene ends. Establishing the date of this boundary − which is defined by sharp climatic warming − as accurately as possible has been a goal of geologists for much of the 20th century. At Two Creeks, in Wisconsin, a fossil forest was discovered (Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area), and subsequent research determined that the destruction of the forest was caused by the Valders ice readvance, the last southward movement of ice before the end of the Pleistocene in that area. Before the advent of radiocarbon dating, the fossilized trees had been dated by correlating sequences of annually deposited layers of sediment at Two Creeks with sequences in Scandinavia. This led to estimates that the trees were between 24,000 and 19,000 years old, and hence this was taken to be the date of the last advance of the Wisconsin glaciation before its final retreat marked the end of the Pleistocene in North America. In 1952 Libby published radiocarbon dates for several samples from the Two Creeks site and two similar sites nearby; the dates were averaged to 11,404 BP with a standard error of 350 years. This result was uncalibrated, as the need for calibration of radiocarbon ages was not yet understood. Further results over the next decade supported an average date of 11,350 BP, with the results thought to be most accurate averaging 11,600 BP. There was initial resistance to these results on the part of Ernst Antevs, the palaeobotanist who had worked on the Scandinavian varve series, but his objections were eventually discounted by other geologists. In the 1990s samples were tested with AMS, yielding (uncalibrated) dates ranging from 11,640 BP to 11,800 BP, both with a standard error of 160 years. Subsequently, a sample from the fossil forest was used in an interlaboratory test, with results provided by over 70 laboratories. These tests produced a median age of 11,788 ± 8 BP (2σ confidence) which when calibrated gives a date range of 13,730 to 13,550 cal BP. The Two Creeks radiocarbon dates are now regarded as a key result in developing the modern understanding of North American glaciation at the end of the Pleistocene.
In 1947, scrolls were discovered in caves near the Dead Sea that proved to contain writing in Hebrew and Aramaic, most of which are thought to have been produced by the Essenes, a small Jewish sect. These scrolls are of great significance in the study of Biblical texts because many of them contain the earliest known version of books of the Hebrew bible. A sample of the linen wrapping from one of these scrolls, the Great Isaiah Scroll, was included in a 1955 analysis by Libby, with an estimated age of 1,917 ± 200 years. Based on an analysis of the writing style, palaeographic estimates were made of the age of 21 of the scrolls, and samples from most of these, along with other scrolls which had not been palaeographically dated, were tested by two AMS laboratories in the 1990s. The results ranged in age from the early 4th century BC to the mid 4th century AD. In many cases the scrolls were determined to be older than the palaeographically determined age. The Isaiah scroll was included in the testing and was found to have two possible date ranges at a 2σ confidence level, because of the shape of the calibration curve at that point: there is a 15 % chance that it dates from 355 -- 295 BC, and an 84 % chance that it dates from 210 -- 45 BC. Subsequently, these dates were criticized on the grounds that before the scrolls were tested, they had been treated with modern castor oil in order to make the writing easier to read; it was argued that failure to remove the castor oil sufficiently would have caused the dates to be too young. Multiple papers have been published both supporting and opposing the criticism.
Soon after the publication of Libby 's 1949 paper in Science, universities around the world began establishing radiocarbon - dating laboratories, and by the end of the 1950s there were more than 20 active 14 C research laboratories. It quickly became apparent that the principles of radiocarbon dating were valid, despite certain discrepancies, the causes of which then remained unknown.
The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology -- often described as the "radiocarbon revolution ''. In the words of anthropologist R. E. Taylor, "14 C data made a world prehistory possible by contributing a time scale that transcends local, regional and continental boundaries ". It provides more accurate dating within sites than previous methods, which usually derived either from stratigraphy or from typologies (e.g. of stone tools or pottery); it also allows comparison and synchronization of events across great distances. The advent of radiocarbon dating may even have led to better field methods in archaeology, since better data recording leads to firmer association of objects with the samples to be tested. These improved field methods were sometimes motivated by attempts to prove that a 14 C date was incorrect. Taylor also suggests that the availability of definite date information freed archaeologists from the need to focus so much of their energy on determining the dates of their finds, and led to an expansion of the questions archaeologists were willing to research. For example, from the 1970s questions about the evolution of human behaviour were much more frequently seen in archaeology.
The dating framework provided by radiocarbon led to a change in the prevailing view of how innovations spread through prehistoric Europe. Researchers had previously thought that many ideas spread by diffusion through the continent, or by invasions of peoples bringing new cultural ideas with them. As radiocarbon dates began to prove these ideas wrong in many instances, it became apparent that these innovations must sometimes have arisen locally. This has been described as a "second radiocarbon revolution '', and with regard to British prehistory, archaeologist Richard Atkinson has characterized the impact of radiocarbon dating as "radical... therapy '' for the "progressive disease of invasionism ''. More broadly, the success of radiocarbon dating stimulated interest in analytical and statistical approaches to archaeological data. Taylor has also described the impact of AMS, and the ability to obtain accurate measurements from very small samples, as ushering in a third radiocarbon revolution.
Occasionally, radiocarbon dating techniques date an object of popular interest, for example the Shroud of Turin, a piece of linen cloth thought by some to bear an image of Jesus Christ after his crucifixion. Three separate laboratories dated samples of linen from the Shroud in 1988; the results pointed to 14th - century origins, raising doubts about the shroud 's authenticity as an alleged 1st - century relic.
Researchers have studied other radioactive isotopes created by cosmic rays to determine if they could also be used to assist in dating objects of archaeological interest; such isotopes include 3 He, 10 Be, 21 Ne, 26 Al, and 36 Cl. With the development of AMS in the 1980s it became possible to measure these isotopes precisely enough for them to be the basis of useful dating techniques, which have been primarily applied to dating rocks. Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes can also form the basis of dating methods, as with potassium -- argon dating, argon -- argon dating, and uranium series dating. Other dating techniques of interest to archaeologists include thermoluminescence, optically stimulated luminescence, electron spin resonance, and fission track dating, as well as techniques that depend on annual bands or layers, such as dendrochronology, tephrochronology, and varve chronology.
In 2016, the development of radiocarbon dating was recognized as a National Historic Chemical Landmark for its contributions to chemistry and society by the American Chemical Society.
|
when was the seismograph invented in ancient china | Zhang Heng - wikipedia
Zhang Heng (Chinese: 張 衡; AD 78 -- 139), formerly romanized as Chang Heng, was a Han Chinese polymath from Nanyang who lived during the Han dynasty. Educated in the capital cities of Luoyang and Chang'an, he achieved success as an astronomer, mathematician, scientist, engineer, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet, statesman, and literary scholar.
Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant in Nanyang. Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure, preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian. His political rivalry with the palace eunuchs during the reign of Emperor Shun (r. 125 -- 144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator of Hejian in Hebei. Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139.
Zhang applied his extensive knowledge of mechanics and gears in several of his inventions. He invented the world 's first water - powered armillary sphere to assist astronomical observation; improved the inflow water clock by adding another tank; and invented the world 's first seismoscope, which discerned the cardinal direction of an earthquake 500 km (310 mi) away. He improved previous Chinese calculations for pi. In addition to documenting about 2,500 stars in his extensive star catalog, Zhang also posited theories about the Moon and its relationship to the Sun: specifically, he discussed the Moon 's sphericity, its illumination by reflected sunlight on one side and the hidden nature of the other, and the nature of solar and lunar eclipses. His fu (rhapsody) and shi poetry were renowned in his time and studied and analyzed by later Chinese writers. Zhang received many posthumous honors for his scholarship and ingenuity; some modern scholars have compared his work in astronomy to that of the Greco - Roman Ptolemy (AD 86 -- 161).
Born in the town of Xi'e in Nanyang Commandery (north of the modern Nanyang City in Henan province), Zhang Heng came from a distinguished but not very affluent family. His grandfather Zhang Kan had been governor of a commandery and one of the leaders who supported the restoration of the Han by Emperor Guangwu (r. 25 -- 57), following the death of the usurping Wang Mang of the Xin (AD 9 -- 23). When he was ten, Zhang 's father died, leaving him in the care of his mother and grandmother. An accomplished writer in his youth, Zhang left home in the year 95 to pursue his studies in the capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang. While traveling to Luoyang, Zhang passed by a hot spring near Mount Li and dedicated one of his earliest fu poems to it. This work, entitled "Fu on the Hot Springs '' (Wēnquán fù 溫泉 賦), describes the throngs of people attending the hot springs, which later became famous as the "Huaqing Hot Springs '', a favorite retreat of imperial concubine Yang Guifei during the Tang dynasty. After studying for some years at Luoyang 's Taixue, he was well - versed in the classics and friends with several notable persons, including the mathematician and calligrapher Cui Yuan (78 -- 143), the official and philosophical commentator Ma Rong (79 -- 166), and the philosopher Wang Fu (78 -- 163). Government authorities offered Zhang appointments to several offices, including a position as one of the Imperial Secretaries, yet he acted modestly and declined. At age twenty - three, he returned home with the title "Officer of Merit in Nanyang '', serving as the master of documents under the administration of Governor Bao De (in office from 103 -- 111). As he was charged with composing inscriptions and dirges for the governor, he gained experience in writing official documents. As Officer of Merit in the commandery, he was also responsible for local appointments to office and recommendations to the capital of nominees for higher office. He spent much of his time composing rhapsodies on the capital cities. When Bao De was recalled to the capital in 111 to serve as a minister of finance, Zhang continued his literary work at home in Xi'e. Zhang Heng began his studies in astronomy at the age of thirty and began publishing his works on astronomy and mathematics.
In 112, Zhang was summoned to the court of Emperor An (r. 106 -- 125), who had heard of his expertise in mathematics. When he was nominated to serve at the capital, Zhang was escorted by carriage -- a symbol of his official status -- to Luoyang, where he became a court gentleman working for the Imperial Secretariat. He was promoted to Chief Astronomer for the court, serving his first term from 115 -- 120 under Emperor An and his second under the succeeding emperor from 126 -- 132. As Chief Astronomer, Zhang was a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies, one of Nine Ministers ranked just below the Three Excellencies. In addition to recording heavenly observations and portents, preparing the calendar, and reporting which days were auspicious and which ill - omened, Zhang was also in charge of an advanced literacy test for all candidates to the Imperial Secretariat and the Censorate, both of whose members were required to know at least 9,000 characters and all major writing styles. Under Emperor An, Zhang also served as Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages under the Ministry of Guards, in charge of receiving memorials to the throne (formal essays on policy and administration) as well as nominees for official appointments.
When the government official Dan Song proposed the Chinese calendar should be reformed in 123 to adopt certain apocryphal teachings, Zhang opposed the idea. He considered the teachings to be of questionable stature and believed they could introduce errors. Others shared Zhang 's opinion and the calendar was not altered, yet Zhang 's proposal that apocryphal writings should be banned was rejected. The officials Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu, members of a committee to compile the dynastic history Dongguan Hanji (東觀 漢 記), sought permission from the court to consult Zhang Heng. However, Zhang was barred from assisting the committee due to his controversial views on apocrypha and his objection to the relegation of Gengshi Emperor 's (r. 23 -- 25) role in the restoration of the Han Dynasty as lesser than Emperor Guangwu 's. Liu Zhen and Liu Taotu were Zhang 's only historian allies at court, and after their deaths Zhang had no further opportunities for promotion to the prestigious post of court historian.
Despite this setback in his official career, Zhang was reappointed as Chief Astronomer in 126 after Emperor Shun of Han (r. 125 -- 144) ascended to the throne. His intensive astronomical work was rewarded only with the rank and salary of 600 bushels, or shi, of grain (mostly commuted to coin cash or bolts of silk). To place this number in context, in a hierarchy of twenty official ranks, the lowest - paid official earned the rank and salary of 100 bushels and the highest - paid official earned 10,000 bushels during the Han. The 600 - bushel rank was the lowest the emperor could directly appoint to a central government position; any official of lower status was overseen by central or provincial officials of high rank.
In 132, Zhang introduced an intricate seismoscope to the court, which he claimed could detect the precise cardinal direction of a distant earthquake. On one occasion his device indicated that an earthquake had occurred in the northwest. As there was no perceivable tremor felt in the capital his political enemies were briefly able to relish the failure of his device, until a messenger arrived shortly afterwards to report that an earthquake had occurred about 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang in Gansu province.
A year after Zhang presented his seismoscope to the court, officials and candidates were asked to provide comments about a series of recent earthquakes which could be interpreted as signs of displeasure from Heaven. The ancient Chinese viewed natural calamities as cosmological punishments for misdeeds that were perpetrated by the Chinese ruler or his subordinates on earth. In Zhang 's memorial discussing the reasons behind these natural disasters, he criticized the new recruitment system of Zuo Xiong which fixed the age of eligible candidates for the title "Filial and Incorrupt '' at age forty. The new system also transferred the power of the candidates ' assessment to the Three Excellencies rather than the Generals of the Household, who by tradition oversaw the affairs of court gentlemen. Although Zhang 's memorial was rejected, his status was significantly elevated soon after to Palace Attendant, a position he used to influence the decisions of Emperor Shun. With this prestigious new position, Zhang earned a salary of 2,000 bushels and had the right to escort the emperor.
As Palace Attendant to Emperor Shun, Zhang Heng attempted to convince him that the court eunuchs represented a threat to the imperial court. Zhang pointed to specific examples of past court intrigues involving eunuchs, and convinced Shun that he should assume greater authority and limit their influence. The eunuchs attempted to slander Zhang, who responded with a fu rhapsody called "Fu on Pondering the Mystery '', which vents his frustration. Rafe de Crespigny states that Zhang 's rhapsody used imagery similar to Qu Yuan 's (340 -- 278 BC) poem "Li Sao '' and focused on whether or not good men should flee the corrupted world or remain virtuous within it.
While working for the central court, Zhang Heng had access to a variety of written materials located in the Archives of the Eastern Pavilion. Zhang read many of the great works of history in his day and claimed he had found ten instances where the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian (145 -- 90 BC) and the Book of Han by Ban Gu (AD 32 -- 92) differed from other ancient texts that were available to him. His account was preserved and recorded in the 5th century text of the Book of Later Han by Fan Ye (398 -- 445). His rhapsodies and other literary works displayed a deep knowledge of classic texts, Chinese philosophy, and histories. He also compiled a commentary on the Taixuan (太 玄, "Great Mystery '') by the Daoist author Yang Xiong (53 BC -- AD 18).
Xiao Tong (501 -- 531), a crown prince of the Liang Dynasty (502 -- 557), immortalized several of Zhang 's works in his literary anthology, Selections of Refined Literature (Wen xuan 文選). Zhang 's rhapsodies (賦, fu) include "Western Metropolis Rhapsody '' (西京 賦), "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody '' (東京 賦), "Southern Capital Rhapsody '' (南都 賦), "Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery '' (思 玄 賦), and "Rhapsody on Returning to the Fields '' (歸 田賦). The latter fuses Daoist ideas with Confucianism and was a precursor to later Chinese metaphysical nature poetry, according to Liu Wu - chi. A set of four short lyric poems (shi 詩) entitled "Lyric Poems on Four Sorrows '' (四 愁 詩), is also included with Zhang 's preface. This set constitutes some of the earliest heptasyllabic shi Chinese poetry written. While still in Luoyang, Zhang became inspired to write his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody '' and "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody '', which were based on the "Rhapsody on the Two Capitals '' by the historian Ban Gu. Zhang 's work was similar to Ban 's, although the latter fully praised the contemporaneous Eastern Han regime while Zhang provided a warning that it could suffer the same fate as the Western Han if it too declined into a state of decadence and moral depravity. These two works satirized and criticized what he saw as the excessive luxury of the upper classes. Zhang 's "Southern Capital Rhapsody '' commemorated his home city of Nanyang, home of the restorer of the Han Dynasty, Guangwu.
In Zhang Heng 's poem "Four Sorrows '', he laments that he is unable to woo a beautiful woman due to the impediment of mountains, snows and rivers. Rafe de Crespigny, Tong Xiao, and David R. Knechtges claim that Zhang wrote this as an innuendo hinting at his inability to keep in contact with the emperor, hindered by unworthy rivals and petty men. This poem is one of the first in China to have seven words per line. His "Four Sorrows '' reads:
In Taishan stays my dear sweetheart, But Liangfu keeps us long apart; Looking east, I find tears start. She gives me a sword to my delight; A jade I give her as requite. I 'm at a loss as she is out of sight; Why should I trouble myself all night?
In another poem of his called "Stabilizing the Passions '' (定 情 賦) -- preserved in a Tang Dynasty (618 -- 907) encyclopedia, but referred to earlier by Tao Qian (365 -- 427) in praise of Zhang 's lyrical minimalism -- Zhang displays his admiration for an attractive and exemplary woman. This simpler type of fu poem influenced later works by the prominent official and scholar Cai Yong (132 -- 192). Zhang wrote:
Ah, the chaste beauty of this alluring woman! She shines with flowery charms and blooming face. She is unique among all her contemporaries. She is without a peer among her comrades.
Zhang 's long lyrical poems also revealed a great amount of information on urban layout and basic geography. His rhapsody "Sir Based - On - Nothing '' provides details on terrain, palaces, hunting parks, markets, and prominent buildings of Chang'an, the Western Han capital. Exemplifying his attention to detail, his rhapsody on Nanyang described gardens filled with spring garlic, summer bamboo shoots, autumn leeks, winter rape - turnips, perilla, evodia, and purple ginger. Zhang Heng 's writing confirms the size of the imperial hunting park in the suburbs of Chang'an, as his estimate for the circumference of the park 's encircling wall agrees with the historian Ban Gu 's estimate of roughly 400 li (one li in Han times was equal to 415.8 m, or 1,364 ft, making the circumference of the park wall 166,320 m, or 545,600 ft). Along with Sima Xiangru (179 -- 117 BC), Zhang listed a variety of animals and hunting game inhabiting the park, which were divided in the northern and southern portions of the park according to where the animals had originally came from: northern or southern China. Somewhat similar to the description of Sima Xiangru, Zhang described the Western Han emperors and their entourage enjoying boat outings, water plays, fishing, and displays of archery targeting birds and other animals with stringed arrows from the tops of tall towers along Chang'an's Kunming Lake. The focus of Zhang 's writing on specific places and their terrain, society, people, and their customs could also be seen as early attempts of ethnographic categorization. In his poem "Xijing fu '', Zhang shows that he was aware of the new foreign religion of Buddhism, introduced via the Silk Road, as well as the legend of the birth of Buddha with the vision of the white elephant bringing about conception. In his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody '' (西京 賦), Zhang described court entertainments such as juedi (角 抵), a form of theatrical wrestling accompanied by music in which participants butted heads with bull horn masks.
With his "Responding to Criticism '' (Ying jian 應 間), a work modeled on Yang Xiong 's "Justification Against Ridicule '', Zhang was an early writer and proponent of the Chinese literary genre shelun, or hypothetical discourse. Authors of this genre created a written dialogue between themselves and an imaginary person (or a real person of their entourage or association); the latter poses questions to the author on how to lead a successful life. He also used it as a means to criticize himself for failing to obtain high office, but coming to the conclusion that the true gentleman displays virtue instead of greed for power. In this work, Dominik Declercq asserts that the person urging Zhang to advance his career in a time of government corruption most likely represented the eunuchs or Empress Liang 's (116 -- 150) powerful relatives in the Liang clan. Declercq states that these two groups would have been "anxious to know whether this famous scholar could be lured over to their side '', but Zhang flatly rejected such an alignment by declaring in this politically charged piece of literature that his gentlemanly quest for virtue trumped any desire of his for power.
Zhang wrote about the various love affairs of emperors dissatisfied with the imperial harem, going out into the city incognito to seek out prostitutes and sing - song girls. This was seen as a general criticism of the Eastern Han emperors and their imperial favorites, guised in the criticism of earlier Western Han emperors. Besides criticizing the Western Han emperors for lavish decadence, Zhang also pointed out that their behavior and ceremonies did not properly conform with the Chinese cyclical beliefs in yin and yang. In a poem criticizing the previous Western Han Dynasty, Zhang wrote:
Those who won this territory were strong; Those who depended on it endured. When a stream is long, its water is not easily exhausted. When roots are deep, they do not rot easily. Therefore, as extravagance and ostentation were given free rein, The odour became pungent and increasingly fulsome.
For centuries the Chinese approximated pi as 3; Liu Xin (d. AD 23) made the first known Chinese attempt at a more accurate calculation of 3.1457, but there is no record detailing the method he used to obtain this figure. In his work around 130, Zhang Heng compared the celestial circle to the diameter of the earth, proportioning the former as 736 and the latter as 232, thus calculating pi as 3.1724. In Zhang 's day, the ratio 4: 3 was given for the area of a square to the area of its inscribed circle and the volume of a cube and volume of the inscribed sphere should also be 4: 3. In formula, with D as diameter and V as volume, D: V = 16: 9 or V = 9 16 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (9) (16))) D; Zhang realized that the value for diameter in this formula was inaccurate, noting the discrepancy as the value taken for the ratio. Zhang then attempted to remedy this by amending the formula with an additional 1 16 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (1) (16))) D, hence V = 9 16 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (9) (16))) D + 1 16 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (1) (16))) D = 5 8 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (5) (8))) D. With the ratio of the volume of the cube to the inscribed sphere at 8: 5, the implied ratio of the area of the square to the circle is √ 8: √ 5. From this formula, Zhang calculated pi as the square root of 10 (or approximately 3.162). Zhang also calculated pi as 730 232 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (730) (232))) = 3.1466 in his book Ling Xian (靈 憲). In the 3rd century, Liu Hui made the calculation more accurate with his π algorithm, which allowed him to obtain the value 3.14159. Later, Zu Chongzhi (429 -- 500) approximated pi as 355 113 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (355) (113))) or 3.141592, the most accurate calculation for pi the ancient Chinese would achieve.
In his publication of AD 120 called The Spiritual Constitution of the Universe (靈 憲, Ling Xian, lit. "Sublime Model ''), Zhang Heng theorized that the universe was like an egg "as round as a crossbow pellet '' with the stars on the shell and the Earth as the central yolk. This universe theory is congruent with the geocentric model as opposed to the heliocentric model. Although the ancient Warring States (403 -- 221 BC) Chinese astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De had compiled China 's first star catalogue in the 4th century BC, Zhang nonetheless catalogued 2,500 stars which he placed in a "brightly shining '' category (the Chinese estimated the total to be 14,000), and he recognized 124 constellations. In comparison, this star catalogue featured many more stars than the 850 documented by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus (c. 190 -- c. 120 BC) in his catalogue, and more than Ptolemy (AD 83 -- 161), who catalogued over 1,000. Zhang supported the "radiating influence '' theory to explain solar and lunar eclipses, a theory which was opposed by Wang Chong (AD 27 -- 97). In the Ling Xian, Zhang wrote:
The Sun is like fire and the Moon like water. The fire gives out light and the water reflects it. Thus the moon 's brightness is produced from the radiance of the Sun, and the Moon 's darkness is due to (the light of) the sun being obstructed. The side which faces the Sun is fully lit, and the side which is away from it is dark. The planets (as well as the Moon) have the nature of water and reflect light. The light pouring forth from the Sun does not always reach the moon owing to the obstruction of the earth itself -- this is called ' an - xu ', a lunar eclipse. When (a similar effect) happens with a planet (we call it) an occultation; when the Moon passes across (the Sun 's path) then there is a solar eclipse.
Zhang Heng viewed these astronomical phenomena in supernatural terms as well. The signs of comets, eclipses, and movements of heavenly bodies could all be interpreted by him as heavenly guides on how to conduct affairs of state. Contemporary writers also wrote about eclipses and the sphericity of heavenly bodies. The music theorist and mathematician Jing Fang (78 -- 37 BC) wrote about the spherical shape of the Sun and Moon while discussing eclipses:
The Moon and the planets are Yin; they have shape but no light. This they receive only when the Sun illuminates them. The former masters regarded the Sun as round like a crossbow bullet, and they thought the Moon had the nature of a mirror. Some of them recognized the Moon as a ball too. Those parts of the Moon which the Sun illuminates look bright, those parts which it does not, remain dark.
The theory posited by Zhang and Jing was supported by later pre-modern scientists such as Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095), who expanded on the reasoning of why the Sun and Moon were spherical. The theory of the celestial sphere surrounding a flat, square earth was later criticized by the Jin - dynasty scholar - official Yu Xi (fl. 307 - 345). He suggested that the Earth could be round like the heavens, a spherical Earth theory fully accepted by mathematician Li Ye (1192 - 1279) but not by mainstream Chinese science until European influence in the 17th century.
The outflow clepsydra was a timekeeping device used in China as long ago as the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 -- c. 1050 BC), and certainly by the Zhou Dynasty (1122 -- 256 BC). The inflow clepsydra with an indicator rod on a float had been known in China since the beginning of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC and had replaced the outflow type. The Han Chinese noted the problem with the falling pressure head in the reservoir, which slowed the timekeeping of the device as the inflow vessel was filled. Zhang Heng was the first to address this problem, indicated in his writings from 117, by adding an extra compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel. Zhang also mounted two statuettes of a Chinese immortal and a heavenly guard on the top of the inflow clepsydra, the two of which would guide the indicator rod with their left hand and point out the graduations with their right. Joseph Needham states that this was perhaps the ancestor of all clock jacks that would later sound the hours found in mechanical clocks by the 8th century, but he notes that these figures did not actually move like clock jack figurines or sound the hours. Many additional compensation tanks were added to later clepsydras in the tradition of Zhang Heng. In 610 the Sui Dynasty (581 -- 618) engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai crafted an unequal - armed steelyard balance able to make seasonal adjustments in the pressure head of the compensating tank, so that it could control the rate of water flow for different lengths of day and night during the year. Zhang mentioned a "jade dragon 's neck '', which in later times meant a siphon. He wrote of the floats and indicator - rods of the inflow clepsydra as follows:
Bronze vessels are made and placed one above the other at different levels; they are filled with pure water. Each has at the bottom a small opening in the form of a ' jade dragon 's neck '. The water dripping (from above) enters two inflow receivers (alternately), the left one being for the night and the right one for the day. On the covers of each (inflow receiver) there are small cast statuettes in gilt bronze; the left (night) one is an immortal and the right (day) one is a policeman. These figures guide the indicator - rod (lit. arrow) with their left hands, and indicate the graduations on it with their right hands, thus giving the time.
Zhang Heng is the first person known to have applied hydraulic motive power (i.e. by employing a waterwheel and clepsydra) to rotate an armillary sphere, an astronomical instrument representing the celestial sphere. The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes (276 -- 194 BC) invented the first armillary sphere in 255 BC. The Chinese armillary sphere was fully developed by 52 BC, with the astronomer Geng Shouchang 's addition of a permanently fixed equatorial ring. In AD 84 the astronomers Fu An and Jia Kui added the ecliptic ring, and finally Zhang Heng added the horizon and meridian rings. This invention is described and attributed to Zhang in quotations by Hsu Chen and Li Shan, referencing his book Lou Shui Chuan Hun Thien I Chieh (Apparatus for Rotating an Armillary Sphere by Clepsydra Water). It was likely not an actual book by Zhang, but a chapter from his Hun I or Hun I Thu Chu, written in 117 AD. His water - powered armillary influenced the design of later Chinese water clocks and led to the discovery of the escapement mechanism by the 8th century. The historian Joseph Needham (1900 -- 1995) states:
What were the factors leading to the first escapement clock in China? The chief tradition leading to Yi Xing (AD 725) was of course the succession of ' pre-clocks ' which had started with Zhang Heng about 125. Reason has been given for believing that these applied power to the slow turning movement of computational armillary spheres and celestial globes by means of a water - wheel using clepsydra drip, which intermittently exerted the force of a lug to act on the teeth of a wheel on a polar - axis shaft. Zhang Heng in his turn had composed this arrangement by uniting the armillary rings of his predecessors into the equatorial armillary sphere, and combining it with the principles of the water - mills and hydraulic trip - hammers which had become so widespread in Chinese culture in the previous century.
Zhang did not initiate the Chinese tradition of hydraulic engineering, which began during the mid Zhou Dynasty (c. 6th century BC), through the work of engineers such as Sunshu Ao and Ximen Bao. Zhang 's contemporary, Du Shi, (d. AD 38) was the first to apply the motive power of waterwheels to operate the bellows of a blast furnace to make pig iron, and the cupola furnace to make cast iron. Zhang provided a valuable description of his water - powered armillary sphere in the treatise of 125, stating:
The equatorial ring goes around the belly of the armillary sphere 91 and 5 / 19 (degrees) away from the pole. The circle of the ecliptic also goes round the belly of the instrument at an angle of 24 (degrees) with the equator. Thus at the summer solstice the ecliptic is 67 (degrees) and a fraction away from the pole, while at the winter solstice it is 115 (degrees) and a fraction away. Hence (the points) where the ecliptic and the equator intersect should give the north polar distances of the spring and autumn equinoxes. But now (it has been recorded that) the spring equinox is 90 and 1 / 4 (degrees) away from the pole, and the autumn equinox is 92 and 1 / 4 (degrees) away. The former figure is adopted only because it agrees with the (results obtained by the) method of measuring solstitial sun shadows as embodied in the Xia (dynasty) calendar.
Zhang Heng 's water - powered armillary sphere had profound effects on Chinese astronomy and mechanical engineering in later generations. His model and its complex use of gears greatly influenced the water - powered instruments of later astronomers such as Yi Xing (683 -- 727), Zhang Sixun (fl. 10th century), Su Song (1020 -- 1101), Guo Shoujing (1231 -- 1316), and many others. Water - powered armillary spheres in the tradition of Zhang Heng 's were used in the eras of the Three Kingdoms (220 -- 280) and Jin Dynasty (265 -- 420), yet the design for it was temporarily out of use between 317 and 418, due to invasions of northern Xiongnu nomads. Zhang Heng 's old instruments were recovered in 418, when Emperor Wu of Liu Song (r. 420 -- 422) captured the ancient capital of Chang'an. Although still intact, the graduation marks and the representations of the stars, Moon, Sun, and planets were quite worn down by time and rust. In 436, the emperor ordered Qian Luozhi, the Secretary of the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar, to recreate Zhang 's device, which he managed to do successfully. Qian 's water - powered celestial globe was still in use at the time of the Liang Dynasty (502 -- 557), and successive models of water - powered armillary spheres were designed in subsequent dynasties.
From the earliest times, the Chinese were concerned with the destructive force of earthquakes. It was recorded in Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian of 91 BC that in 780 BC an earthquake had been powerful enough to divert the courses of three rivers. It was not known at the time that earthquakes were caused by the shifting of tectonic plates in the Earth 's crust; instead, the people of the ancient Zhou Dynasty explained them as disturbances with cosmic yin and yang, along with the heavens ' displeasure with acts committed (or the common peoples ' grievances ignored) by the current ruling dynasty. These theories were ultimately derived from the ancient text of the Yijing (Book of Changes), in its fifty - first hexagram. There were other early theories about earthquakes, developed by those such as the ancient Greeks. Anaxagoras (c. 500 -- 428 BC) believed that they were caused by excess water near the surface crust of the earth bursting into the Earth 's hollows; Democritus (c. 460 -- 370 BC) believed that the saturation of the Earth with water caused them; Anaximenes (c. 585 -- c. 525 BC) believed they were the result of massive pieces of the Earth falling into the cavernous hollows due to drying; and Aristotle (384 -- 322 BC) believed they were caused by instability of vapor (pneuma) caused by the drying of the moist Earth by the Sun 's rays.
During the Han Dynasty, many learned scholars -- including Zhang Heng -- believed in the "oracles of the winds ''. These oracles of the occult observed the direction, force, and timing of the winds, to speculate about the operation of the cosmos and to predict events on Earth. These ideas influenced Zhang Heng 's views on the cause of earthquakes. Against the grain of earlier theories proposed by his fellow Chinese and contemporary Greeks, Zhang Heng believed that earthquakes were caused by wind and air, writing:
The chief cause of earthquake is air, an element naturally swift and shifting from place to place. As long as it is not stirred, but lurks in a vacant space, it reposes innocently, giving no trouble to objects around it. But any cause coming upon it from without rouses it, or compresses it, and drives it into a narrow space... and when opportunity of escape is cut off, then ' With deep murmur of the Mountain it roars around the barriers ', which after long battering it dislodges and tosses on high, growing more fierce the stronger the obstacle with which it has contended.
In 132, Zhang Heng presented to the Han court what many historians consider to be his most impressive invention, the first seismoscope. A seismoscope records the motions of Earth 's shaking, but unlike a seismometer, it does not retain a time record of those motions. It was named "earthquake weathervane '' (houfeng didongyi 候 風 地動儀), and it was able to roughly determine the direction (out of eight directions) where the earthquake came from. According to the Book of Later Han (compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century), his bronze urn - shaped device, with a swinging pendulum inside, was able to detect the direction of an earthquake hundreds of miles / kilometers away. This was essential for the Han government in sending quick aid and relief to regions devastated by this natural disaster. The Book of Later Han records that, on one occasion, Zhang 's device was triggered, though no observer had felt any seismic disturbance; several days later a messenger arrived from the west and reported that an earthquake had occurred in Longxi (modern Gansu Province), the same direction that Zhang 's device had indicated, and thus the court was forced to admit the efficacy of the device.
To indicate the direction of a distant earthquake, Zhang 's device dropped a bronze ball from one of eight tubed projections shaped as dragon heads; the ball fell into the mouth of a corresponding metal object shaped as a toad, each representing a direction like the points on a compass rose. His device had eight mobile arms (for all eight directions) connected with cranks having catch mechanisms at the periphery. When tripped, a crank and right angle lever would raise a dragon head and release a ball which had been supported by the lower jaw of the dragon head. His device also included a vertical pin passing through a slot in the crank, a catch device, a pivot on a projection, a sling suspending the pendulum, an attachment for the sling, and a horizontal bar supporting the pendulum. Wang Zhenduo (王振鐸) argued that the technology of the Eastern Han era was sophisticated enough to produce such a device, as evidenced by contemporary levers and cranks used in other devices such as crossbow triggers.
Later Chinese of subsequent periods were able to reinvent Zhang 's seismoscope. They included the 6th - century mathematician and surveyor Xindu Fang of the Northern Qi Dynasty (550 -- 577) and the astronomer and mathematician Lin Xiaogong of the Sui Dynasty (581 -- 618). Like Zhang, Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong were given imperial patronage for their services in craftsmanship of devices for the court. By the time of the Yuan Dynasty (1271 -- 1368), it was acknowledged that all devices previously made were preserved, except for that of the seismoscope. This was discussed by the scholar Zhou Mi around 1290, who remarked that the books of Xindu Fang and Lin Xiaogong detailing their seismological devices were no longer to be found. Horwitz, Kreitner, and Needham speculate if Tang Dynasty (618 -- 907) era seismographs found their way to contemporary Japan; according to Needham, "instruments of apparently traditional type there in which a pendulum carries pins projecting in many directions and able to pierce a surrounding paper cylinder, have been described. ''
Hong - sen Yan states that modern replicas of Zhang 's device have failed to reach the level of accuracy and sensitivity described in Chinese historical records. Wang Zhenduo presented two different models of the seismoscope based on the ancient descriptions of Zhang 's device. In his 1936 reconstruction, the central pillar (du zhu) of the device was a suspended pendulum acting as a movement sensor, while the central pillar of his second model in 1963 was an inverted pendulum. According to Needham, while working in the Seismological Observatory of Tokyo University in 1939, Akitsune Imamura and Hagiwara made a reconstruction of Zhang 's device. While it was John Milne and Wang Zhenduo who argued early on that Zhang 's "central pillar '' was a suspended pendulum, Imamura was the first to propose an inverted model. He argued that transverse shock would have rendered Wang 's immobilization mechanism ineffective, as it would not have prevented further motion that could knock other balls out of their position. On June 13, 2005, modern Chinese seismologists announced that they had successfully created a replica of the instrument.
Anthony J. Barbieri - Low, a Professor of Early Chinese History at the University of California, Santa Barbara, names Zhang Heng as one of several high - ranking Eastern - Han officials who engaged in crafts that were traditionally reserved for artisans (gong 工), such as mechanical engineering. Barbieri - Low speculates that Zhang only designed his seismoscope, but did not actually craft the device himself. He asserts that this would most likely have been the job of artisans commissioned by Zhang. He writes: "Zhang Heng was an official of moderately high rank and could not be seen sweating in the foundries with the gong artisans and the government slaves. Most likely, he worked collaboratively with the professional casters and mold makers in the imperial workshops. ''
The Wei (220 -- 265) and Jin Dynasty (265 -- 420) cartographer and official Pei Xiu (224 -- 271) was the first in China to describe in full the geometric grid reference for maps that allowed for precise measurements using a graduated scale, as well as topographical elevation. However, map - making in China had existed since at least the 4th century BC with the Qin state maps found in Gansu in 1986. Pinpointed accuracy of the winding courses of rivers and familiarity with scaled distance had been known since the Qin and Han Dynasty, respectively, as evidenced by their existing maps, while the use of a rectangular grid had been known in China since the Han as well. Historian Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of Zhang Heng 's work in cartography are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng. Rafe de Crespigny asserts that it was Zhang who established the rectangular grid system in Chinese cartography. Needham points out that the title of his book Flying Bird Calendar may have been a mistake, and that the book is more accurately entitled Bird 's Eye Map. Historian Florian C. Reiter notes that Zhang 's narrative "Guitian fu '' contains a phrase about applauding the maps and documents of Confucius of the Zhou Dynasty, which Reiter suggests places maps (tu) on a same level of importance with documents (shu). It is documented that a physical geography map was first presented by Zhang Heng in 116 AD, called a Ti Hsing Thu.
Zhang Heng is often credited with inventing the first odometer, an achievement also attributed to Archimedes (c. 287 -- 212 BC) and Heron of Alexandria (fl. AD 10 -- 70). Similar devices were used by the Roman and Han - Chinese empires at about the same period. By the 3rd century, the Chinese had termed the device the ji li gu che, or "li - recording drum carriage '' (the modern measurement of li = 500 m / 1640 ft).
Ancient Chinese texts describe the mechanical carriage 's functions; after one li was traversed, a mechanically driven wooden figure struck a drum, and after ten li had been covered, another wooden figure struck a gong or a bell with its mechanically operated arm. However, there is evidence to suggest that the invention of the odometer was a gradual process in Han Dynasty China that centered on the "huang men '' -- court people (i.e. eunuchs, palace officials, attendants and familiars, actors, acrobats, etc.) who followed the musical procession of the royal "drum - chariot ''. There is speculation that at some time during the 1st century BC the beating of drums and gongs was mechanically driven by the rotation of the road wheels. This might have actually been the design of Luoxia Hong (c. 110 BC), yet by at least 125 the mechanical odometer carriage was already known, as it was depicted in a mural of the Xiao Tang Shan Tomb.
The south - pointing chariot was another mechanical device credited to Zhang Heng. It was a non-magnetic compass vehicle in the form of a two - wheeled chariot. Differential gears driven by the chariot 's wheels allowed a wooden figurine (in the shape of a Chinese state minister) to constantly point to the south, hence its name. The Song Shu (c. AD 500) records that Zhang Heng re-invented it from a model used in the Zhou Dynasty era, but the violent collapse of the Han Dynasty unfortunately did not allow it to be preserved. Whether Zhang Heng invented it or not, Ma Jun (200 -- 265) succeeded in creating the chariot in the following century.
Zhang Heng 's mechanical inventions influenced later Chinese inventors such as Yi Xing, Zhang Sixun, Su Song, and Guo Shoujing. Su Song directly named Zhang 's water - powered armillary sphere as the inspiration for his 11th - century clock tower. The cosmic model of nine points of Heaven corresponding with nine regions of earth conceived in the work of the scholar - official Chen Hongmou (1696 -- 1771) followed in the tradition of Zhang 's book Spiritual Constitution of the Universe. The seismologist John Milne, who created the modern seismograph in 1876 alongside Thomas Gray and James A. Ewing at the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo, commented in 1886 on Zhang Heng 's contributions to seismology. The historian Joseph Needham emphasized his contributions to pre-modern Chinese technology, stating that Zhang was noted even in his day for being able to "make three wheels rotate as if they were one. '' More than one scholar has described Zhang as a polymath. However, some scholars also point out that Zhang 's writing lacks concrete scientific theories. Comparing Zhang with his contemporary, Ptolemy (83 -- 161) of Roman Egypt, Jin Guantao, Fan Hongye, and Liu Qingfeng state:
Zhang 's poetry was widely read during his life and after his death. In addition to the compilation of Xiao Tong mentioned above, the Eastern Wu official Xue Zong (d. 237) wrote commentary on Zhang 's poems "Dongjing fu '' and "Xijing fu ''. The influential poet Tao Qian wrote that he admired the poetry of Zhang Heng for its "curbing extravagant diction and aiming at simplicity '', in regards to perceived tranquility and rectitude correlating with the simple but effective language of the poet. Tao wrote that both Zhang Heng and Cai Yong "avoided inflated language, aiming chiefly at simplicity '', and adding that their "compositions begin by giving free expression to their fancies but end on a note of quiet, serving admirably to restrain undisciplined and passionate nature ''.
Zhang was given great honors in life and in death. The philosopher and poet Fu Xuan (217 -- 278) of the Wei and Jin dynasties once lamented in an essay over the fact that Zhang Heng was never placed in the Ministry of Works. Writing highly of Zhang and the 3rd - century mechanical engineer Ma Jun, Fu Xuan wrote, "Neither of them was ever an official of the Ministry of Works, and their ingenuity did not benefit the world. When (authorities) employ personnel with no regard to special talent, and having heard of genius neglect even to test it -- is this not hateful and disastrous? ''
In honor of Zhang 's achievements in science and technology, his friend Cui Ziyu (Cui Yuan) wrote a memorial inscription on his burial stele, which has been preserved in the Guwen yuan. Cui stated, "(Zhang Heng 's) mathematical computations exhausted (the riddles of) the heavens and the earth. His inventions were comparable even to those of the Author of Change. The excellence of his talent and the splendour of his art were one with those of the gods. '' The minor official Xiahou Zhan (243 -- 291) of the Wei Dynasty made an inscription for his own commemorative stele to be placed at Zhang Heng 's tomb. It read: "Ever since gentlemen have composed literary texts, none has been as skillful as the Master (Zhang Heng) in choosing his words well... if only the dead could rise, oh I could then turn to him for a teacher! ''
Several things have been named after Zhang in modern times, including the lunar crater Chang Heng, the asteroid 1802 Zhang Heng, and the mineral Zhanghengite. In 2018, China launched a research satellite called China Seismo - Electromagnetic Satellite (CSES) which is also named Zhangheng - 1 (ZH - 1).
|
who won a 1991 best male vocalist grammy despite having died in 1988 | Grammy award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance - wikipedia
The Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance was awarded between 1966 and 2011 (the final year it was awarded for records issued in 2010). The award had several minor name changes:
The award was discontinued from 2012 in a major overhaul of Grammy categories. From 2012, all solo performances in the pop category (male, female, instrumentalist) were shifted to the newly formed Best Pop Solo Performance category.
A similar award for Best Vocal Performance, Male was awarded from 1959 to 1968. This was also in the pop field, but did not specify pop music.
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year.
Most wins
Most nominations
|
who is hosting the world cup in 2022 | 2022 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2022 FIFA World Cup is scheduled to be the 22nd edition of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men 's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Qatar in 2022. This will be the first World Cup held in Asia since 2002 and also this will be the first World Cup ever to be held in the Middle East, and in an Arab and a majority - Muslim country. This tournament will be the last to involve 32 teams, with an increase to 48 teams scheduled from the 2026 tournament.
This will also mark the first World Cup not to be held in June or July; the tournament is instead scheduled for late November until mid-December. It is to be played in a reduced timeframe of around 28 days, with the final being held on 18 December 2022, which is also Qatar National Day.
Accusations of corruption have been made relating to how Qatar won the right to host the event. FIFA completed an internal investigation into these allegations and a report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing, but the chief investigator Michael J. Garcia has since described FIFA 's report on his inquiry as "materially incomplete and erroneous ''. On 27 May 2015, Swiss federal prosecutors opened an investigation into corruption and money laundering related to the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 World Cups.
On 7 June 2015, it was announced that Qatar would possibly no longer be eligible to host the event, if evidence of bribery was proven. According to Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee: "Should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''.
Qatar has faced strong criticism due to the treatment of foreign workers involved in preparation for the World Cup, with Amnesty International referring to "forced labour '' and stating that workers have been suffering human rights abuses, despite worker welfare standards being drafted in 2014.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, eleven bids were made for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian Football Association failed to submit a letter of Indonesian government guarantee to support the bid. Indonesian officials had not ruled out a bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, until Qatar took the 2022 cup. During the bidding process, all non-UEFA nations gradually withdrew from the 2022 bids for the 2018 one, thus making the UEFA nations ineligible for the bid.
In the end, there were five bids for the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Australia, Japan, Qatar, South Korea and the United States. The twenty - two member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Two FIFA executive committee members were suspended before the vote in relation to allegations of corruption regarding their votes. The decision to host the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, which was graded as having "high operational risk '', generated criticism from media commentators. It has been criticised as many to be part of the FIFA corruption scandals.
The voting patterns were as follows:
There have been allegations of bribery and corruption in the selection process involving members of FIFA 's executive committee. These allegations are being investigated by FIFA. (See § Bidding corruption allegations, below.)
Qatar is the smallest nation by area ever to have been awarded a FIFA World Cup -- the next smallest by area is Switzerland, host of the 1954 FIFA World Cup, which is more than three times as large as Qatar and only needed to host 16 teams instead of the current 32.
The qualification process for the 2022 World Cup has not yet been announced. All FIFA member associations, of which there are currently 211, are eligible to enter qualification. Qatar, as hosts, qualified automatically for the tournament. However, the AFC allowed Qatar to participate in the Asian qualifying stage as the first two rounds also act as qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. If they reach the final stage, their choice on whether to continue with World Cup qualifying is subject to FIFA approval. If the hosts choose not to compete, the next - ranked team will advance instead. For the first time after the initial two tournaments of 1930 and 1934, the World Cup will be hosted by a country whose national team has never played in the finals before.
The allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. It was decided that the same allocation as 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments.
The qualifying draw is scheduled to take place in July 2019.
The first five proposed venues for the World Cup were unveiled at the beginning of March 2010. The stadiums aim to employ cooling technology capable of reducing temperatures within the stadium by up to 20 ° C (36 ° F), and the upper tiers of the stadiums will be disassembled after the World Cup and donated to countries with less developed sports infrastructure. All of the five stadium projects launched have been designed by German architect Albert Speer & Partners. Leading football clubs in Europe wanted the World Cup to take place from 28 April to 29 May rather than the typical June and July staging, due to concerns about the heat.
A report released on 9 December 2010 quoted FIFA President Sepp Blatter as stating that other nations could host some matches during the World Cup. However, no specific countries were named in the report. Blatter added that any such decision must be taken by Qatar first and then endorsed by FIFA 's executive committee. Prince Ali bin Al Hussein of Jordan told the Australian Associated Press that holding games in Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and possibly Saudi Arabia would help to incorporate the people of the region during the tournament.
According to a report released in April 2013 by Merrill Lynch, the investment banking division of Bank of America, the organisers in Qatar have requested FIFA to approve a smaller number of stadiums due to the growing costs. Bloomberg.com said that Qatar wishes to cut the number of venues to eight or nine from the 12 originally planned.
Although as of April 2017, FIFA had yet to finalise the number of stadiums Qatar must have ready in five years ' time, Qatar 's Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy said it expected there would be eight.
The final draw is scheduled to take place in April 2022.
A number of groups and media outlets have expressed concern over the suitability of Qatar to host the event, with regard to interpretations of human rights, particularly worker conditions, the rights of fans in the LGBT community, climatic conditions and accusations of Qatar for supporting terrorism both diplomatically and financially.
The selection of Qatar as the host country has been controversial; FIFA officials were accused of corruption and allowing Qatar to "buy '' the World Cup, the treatment of construction workers was called into question by human rights groups, and the high costs needed to make the plans a reality were criticised. The climate conditions caused some to call hosting the tournament in Qatar infeasible, with initial plans for air - conditioned stadiums giving way to a potential date switch from summer to winter. Sepp Blatter, who was FIFA President when Qatar was selected, later remarked that awarding the World Cup to Qatar was a "mistake '' because of the extreme heat.
The issue of migrant workers ' rights has also attracted attention, with an investigation by The Guardian newspaper claiming that many workers are denied food and water, have their identity papers taken away from them, and that they are not paid on time or at all, making some of them in effect slaves. The Guardian has estimated that up to 4,000 workers may die due to lax safety and other causes by the time the competition is held. These claims are based upon the fact that 522 Nepalese workers and over 700 Indian workers have died since 2010, when Qatar 's bid as World Cup 's host was won, about 250 Indian workers dying each year. Given that there are half a million Indian workers in Qatar, the Indian government says that is quite a normal number of deaths. In the United Kingdom, in any group of half a million 25 -- 30 - year - old men, an average of 300 die each year, a higher rate than among Indian workers in Qatar.
In 2015, a crew of four journalists from the BBC were arrested and held for two days after they attempted to report on the condition of workers in the country. The reporters had been invited to visit the country as guests of the Qatari government.
The Wall Street Journal reported in June 2015 the International Trade Union Confederation 's claim that over 1,200 workers had died while working on infrastructure and real - estate projects related to the World Cup, and the Qatar government 's counter-claim that no - one had. The BBC later reported that this often - cited figure of 1,200 workers having died in World Cup construction in Qatar between 2011 and 2013 is not correct, and that the 1,200 number is instead representing deaths from all Indians and Nepalese working in Qatar, not just of those workers involved in the preparation for the World Cup, and not just of construction workers. Most Qatar nationals avoid doing manual work or low - skilled jobs; additionally, they are given preference at the workplace.
In October 2017, The International Trade Union Confederation said that Qatar has signed an agreement to improve the situation of more than 2 million migrant workers in the country. According to the ITUC, the agreement provided for establishing substantial reforms in labour system, including ending Al - Kafala system. ITUC also said the agreement would positively affect the general situation of the worker, especially, who work in the projects of Qatar World Cup 2022. The workers will no longer need their employer 's permission to leave the country or change their jobs.
Sports Illustrated reported on 18 February 2015 that the event will be staged from mid-November to mid-December. Owing to the climate in Qatar, concerns have been expressed since the bid was made about holding the event during the traditional months for the World Cup finals of June and July. In October 2013, a task force was commissioned to consider alternative dates and report after the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. On 24 February 2015, the FIFA Task Force proposed that the tournament be played from late November to late December 2022, to avoid the summer heat between May and September and also avoid clashing with the 2022 Winter Olympics in February and Ramadan in April.
The notion of staging the tournament in November is controversial since it would interfere with the regular season schedules of domestic leagues around the world. Commentators have noted the clash with the Western Christmas season is likely to cause disruption, whilst there is concern about how short the tournament is intended to be. It would also force the postponement of the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations from January to June to prevent African players from having a quick turnaround. FIFA executive committee member Theo Zwanziger said that awarding the 2022 World Cup to Qatar 's desert state was a "blatant mistake ''. Frank Lowy, chairman of Football Federation Australia, said that if the 2022 World Cup were moved to November and thus upset the schedule of the A-League, they would seek compensation from FIFA. Richard Scudamore, chief executive of the Premier League, stated that they would consider legal action against FIFA because a move would interfere with the Premier League 's popular Christmas and New Year fixture programme. On 19 March 2015, FIFA sources confirmed that the 2022 World Cup final would be played on 18 December.
Qatar has faced growing pressure over its hosting of the World Cup in relation to allegations over the role of former top football official Mohammed bin Hammam played in securing the bid.
A former employee of the Qatar bid team alleged that several African officials were paid $1.5 m by Qatar. She retracted her claims, but later said she was coerced to do so by Qatari bid officials. More suspicions emerged in March 2014 when it was discovered that disgraced former CONCACAF president Jack Warner and his family were paid almost $2 million from a firm linked to Qatar 's successful campaign. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is investigating Warner and his alleged links to the Qatari bid.
Five of FIFA 's six primary sponsors, Sony, Adidas, Visa, Hyundai and Coca - Cola, have called upon FIFA to investigate the claims. The Sunday Times published bribery allegations based on a leak of millions of secret documents. FIFA vice-president Jim Boyce has gone on record stating he would support a re-vote to find a new host if the corruption allegations are proven. FIFA completed a lengthy investigation into these allegations and a report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing.
Despite the claims, the Qataris insist that the corruption allegations are being driven by envy and mistrust while Sepp Blatter said it is fueled by racism in the British media.
In the 2015 FIFA corruption case, Swiss officials, operating under information from the United States Department of Justice, arrested many senior FIFA officials in Zurich, Switzerland. They also seized physical and electronic records from FIFA 's main headquarters. The arrests continued in the United States where several FIFA officers were arrested and FIFA buildings raided. The arrests were made on the information of at least a $150 million (USD) corruption and bribery scandal.
On 7 June 2015, Phaedra Almajid, the former media officer for the Qatar bid team claimed that the allegations would result in Qatar not hosting the World Cup. In an interview published on the same day, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''.
|
who plays the new kol in the originals | Daniel Sharman - wikipedia
Daniel Andrew Sharman (born 25 April 1986) is an English actor from Hackney, in London, known for his role as Troy Otto on Fear The Walking Dead, Isaac Lahey on Teen Wolf, Ares in Tarsem Singh 's Immortals and Kaleb on The Originals.
Sharman started acting as a child at the age of nine. He auditioned for the Royal Shakespeare Company and was selected out of hundreds of other children. "I just adored it, '' he said of his venture into the dramatic arts. "Between Macbeth and Henry VI with all of the armour and the blood and everything, it was just fantastic as a kid. It was the best thing ever. '' Sharman stayed with the Royal Shakespeare Company for two plays: The Park in 1995 (age 9) and Macbeth in 1996 (age 10). Sharman attended Mill Hill School and also the Arts Educational School, both in London. During his school years, he acted in the play "Kvetch '' that made it to the Edinburgh Fringe festival. He also acted in the touring play The Winslow Boy in 2002 at age 16.
For three years, from 2004 to 2007, Sharman studied at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art, gaining a Bachelor of Arts degree in acting and graduating with honors.
Sharman 's first feature film role was in the independent film The Last Days of Edgar Harding, in which he played a musician. In 2010, he was cast as Ares, the Greek god of war, in the fantasy film Immortals with Mickey Rourke, Kellan Lutz and Henry Cavill among others; the film was released in 2011. "I found acting on film really difficult, '' he admits of his first screen performances. "I found it really kind of odd and unnatural. Then I became obsessed with trying to get it right. I 'm hugely competitive. '' Sharman appeared in the horror film The Collection with his fellow Teen Wolf cast member Eaddy Mays, released in November 2012. In April 2015, Sharman, through his Twitter and Instagram accounts, crowdfunded $20,000 on Kickstarter for the short film Soon You Will Be Gone, in which he starred.
Sharman 's television credits include a recurring role in two episodes of The Nine Lives of Chloe King as Zane (in which he appeared alongside fellow Teen Wolf cast member Colton Haynes), and roles in Inspector Lewis, Robin Pilcher 's television film Starting Over and one episode of Judge John Deed. He also starred in Funny or Die 's The Sexy Dark Ages with Shawn Pyfrom and Robert Englund. Beginning in 2012, Sharman had a recurring role as werewolf Isaac Lahey in MTV 's supernatural drama series, Teen Wolf. After the third season finale, it was announced that Sharman would be leaving the series to explore other opportunities.
Sharman also played the role of a Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer, Edward Montclair in the TV film When Calls the Heart, based on Janette Oke 's romance novel of the same name. In 2014 he joined The Originals as the recurring character Kaleb Westphall. In March 2015, it was confirmed that Sharman had landed the lead role in the CBS medical drama pilot LFE. However, the pilot was ultimately not picked up by the network, and he joined the Williamstown Theatre Festival for the play Off the Main Road with Kyra Sedgwick, among others. He joined the cast of AMC 's Fear The Walking Dead in 2017.
Sharman read the audiobook version of Cassandra Clare 's young adult novel Clockwork Princess.
Sharman was in a relationship with former Teen Wolf co-star Crystal Reed from 2011 to 2013.
|
where is cast iron used on a car | Cast iron - wikipedia
Cast iron is a group of iron - carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2 %. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through, grey cast iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks, and ductile cast iron has spherical graphite "nodules '' which stop the crack from further progressing.
Carbon (C) ranging from 1.8 -- 4 wt %, and silicon (Si) 1 -- 3 wt % are the main alloying elements of cast iron. Iron alloys with lower carbon content (~ 0.8 %) are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe -- C -- Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron -- carbon phase diagram. Since the compositions of most cast irons are around the eutectic point (lowest liquid point) of the iron -- carbon system, the melting temperatures usually range from 1,150 to 1,200 ° C (2,100 to 2,190 ° F), which is about 300 ° C (540 ° F) lower than the melting point of pure iron of 1,535 ° C (2,795 ° F).
Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, resistance to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation.
The earliest cast - iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. During the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for cannon in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The amounts of cast iron used for cannon required large scale production. The first cast - iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, and is known as The Iron Bridge. Cast iron was also used in the construction of buildings.
Cast iron is made from pig iron, which is the product of smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Cast iron can be made directly from the molten pig iron or by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon (coke) and taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the molten iron, but this also burns out the carbon, which must be replaced. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, which may be anywhere from 2 -- 3.5 % and 1 -- 3 %, respectively. If desired, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting.
Cast iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola, but in modern applications, it is more often melted in electric induction furnaces or electric arc furnaces. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle.
Cast iron 's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide and the production of white cast iron. A high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, and the formation of those carbides. Nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and decreases density. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, which prevents the formation of graphite and increases hardness. The problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt, so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag. The amount of manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 × sulfur content + 0.3 %. If more than this amount of manganese is added, then manganese carbide forms, which increases hardness and chilling, except in grey iron, where up to 1 % of manganese increases strength and density.
Nickel is one of the most common alloying elements because it refines the pearlite and graphite structure, improves toughness, and evens out hardness differences between section thicknesses. Chromium is added in small amounts to reduce free graphite, produce chill, and because it is a powerful carbide stabilizer; nickel is often added in conjunction. A small amount of tin can be added as a substitute for 0.5 % chromium. Copper is added in the ladle or in the furnace, on the order of 0.5 -- 2.5 %, to decrease chill, refine graphite, and increase fluidity. Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.3 -- 1 % to increase chill and refine the graphite and pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction with nickel, copper, and chromium to form high strength irons. Titanium is added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases fluidity. 0.15 -- 0.5 % vanadium is added to cast iron to stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and increase resistance to wear and heat. 0.1 -- 0.3 % zirconium helps to form graphite, deoxidize, and increase fluidity.
In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale of 0.002 -- 0.01 %, to increase how much silicon can be added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in the production of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening effect of bismuth.
Grey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which causes fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the most commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.5 -- 4.0 % carbon, 1 -- 3 % silicon, and the remainder iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel, but its compressive strength is comparable to low - and medium - carbon steel. These mechanical properties are controlled by the size and shape of the graphite flakes present in the microstructure and can be characterised according to the guidelines given by the ASTM.
White cast iron displays white fractured surfaces due to the presence of an iron carbide precipitate called cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and faster cooling rate, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite, Fe C, rather than graphite. The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles. As the iron carbide precipitates out, it withdraws carbon from the original melt, moving the mixture toward one that is closer to eutectic, and the remaining phase is the lower iron - carbon austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide the benefit of what is called precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where much smaller cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through the pure iron ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet. White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe 's digging bucket (although cast medium - carbon martensitic steel is more common for this application).
It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white cast iron all the way through. However, rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a chilled casting, has the benefits of a hard surface with a somewhat tougher interior.
High - chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example, a 10 - tonne impeller) to be sand cast, as the chromium reduces cooling rate required to produce carbides through the greater thicknesses of material. Chromium also produces carbides with impressive abrasion resistance. These high - chromium alloys attribute their superior hardness to the presence of chromium carbides. The main form of these carbides are the eutectic or primary M C carbides, where "M '' represents iron or chromium and can vary depending on the alloy 's composition. The eutectic carbides form as bundles of hollow hexagonal rods and grow perpendicular to the hexagonal basal plane. The hardness of these carbides are within the range of 1500 - 1800HV
Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated for a day or two at about 950 ° C (1,740 ° F) and then cooled over a day or two. As a result, the carbon in iron carbide transforms into graphite and ferrite plus carbon (austenite). The slow process allows the surface tension to form the graphite into spheroidal particles rather than flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio, the spheroids are relatively short and far from one another, and have a lower cross section vis - a-vis a propagating crack or phonon. They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to flakes, which alleviates the stress concentration problems found in grey cast iron. In general, the properties of malleable cast iron are more like those of mild steel. There is a limit to how large a part can be cast in malleable iron, as it is made from white cast iron.
Developed in 1948, nodular or ductile cast iron has its graphite in the form of very tiny nodules with the graphite in the form of concentric layers forming the nodules. As a result, the properties of ductile cast iron are that of a spongy steel without the stress concentration effects that flakes of graphite would produce. Tiny amounts of 0.02 to 0.1 % magnesium, and only 0.02 to 0.04 % cerium added to these alloys slow the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections.
Cast iron and wrought iron can be produced unintentionally when smelting copper using iron ore as a flux.
The earliest cast - iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. This is based on an analysis of the artifact 's microstructures. Because cast iron is comparatively brittle, it is not suitable for purposes where a sharp edge or flexibility is required. It is strong under compression, but not under tension. Cast iron was invented in China in the 5th century BC and poured into moulds to make ploughshares and pots as well as weapons and pagodas. Although steel was more desirable, cast iron was cheaper and thus was more commonly used for implements in ancient China, while wrought iron or steel was used for weapons.
In the west, where it did not become available until the 15th century, its earliest uses included cannon and shot. Henry VIII initiated the casting of cannon in England. Soon, English iron workers using blast furnaces developed the technique of producing cast - iron cannons, which, while heavier than the prevailing bronze cannons, were much cheaper and enabled England to arm her navy better. The technology of cast iron was transferred from China. Al - Qazvini in the 13th century and other travellers subsequently noted an iron industry in the Alburz Mountains to the south of the Caspian Sea. This is close to the silk route, so that the use of technology derived from China is conceivable. The ironmasters of the Weald continued producing cast irons until the 1760s, and armament was one of the main uses of irons after the Restoration.
Cast - iron pots were made at many English blast furnaces at the time. In 1707, Abraham Darby patented a method of making pots (and kettles) thinner and hence cheaper than his rivals could. This meant that his Coalbrookdale furnaces became dominant as suppliers of pots, an activity in which they were joined in the 1720s and 1730s by a small number of other coke - fired blast furnaces.
The development of the steam engine by Thomas Newcomen provided further market for cast iron, since cast iron was considerably cheaper than the brass of which the engine cylinders were originally made. John Wilkinson was a great proponent of cast iron, who, amongst other things, cast the cylinders for many of Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt 's improved steam engines until the establishment of the Soho Foundry in 1795.
The use of cast iron for structural purposes began in the late 1770s, when Abraham Darby III built the Iron Bridge, although short beams had already been used, such as in the blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale. Other inventions followed, including one patented by Thomas Paine. Cast - iron bridges became commonplace as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace. Thomas Telford adopted the material for his bridge upstream at Buildwas, and then for Longdon - on - Tern Aqueduct, a canal trough aqueduct at Longdon - on - Tern on the Shrewsbury Canal.
It was followed by the Chirk Aqueduct and the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, both of which remain in use following the recent restorations. Cast - iron beam bridges were used widely by the early railways, such as the Water Street Bridge at the Manchester terminus of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Problems arose when a new bridge carrying the Chester and Holyhead Railway across the River Dee in Chester collapsed in May 1847, less than a year after it was opened. The Dee bridge disaster was caused by excessive loading at the centre of the beam by a passing train, and many similar bridges had to be demolished and rebuilt, often in wrought iron. The bridge had been badly designed, being trussed with wrought iron straps, which were wrongly thought to reinforce the structure. The centres of the beams were put into bending, with the lower edge in tension, where cast iron, like masonry, is very weak.
The best way of using cast iron for bridge construction was by using arches, so that all the material is in compression. Cast iron, again like masonry, is very strong in compression. Wrought iron, like most other kinds of iron and indeed like most metals in general, is strong in tension, and also tough -- resistant to fracturing. The relationship between wrought iron and cast iron, for structural purposes, may be thought of as analogous to the relationship between wood and stone.
Nevertheless, cast iron continued to be used in inappropriate structural ways, until the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879 cast serious doubt on the use of the material. Crucial lugs for holding tie bars and struts in the Tay Bridge had been cast integral with the columns, and they failed in the early stages of the accident. In addition, the bolt holes were also cast and not drilled, so that all the tension from the tie bars was placed on a corner, rather than being spread over the length of the hole. The replacement bridge was built in wrought iron and steel.
Further bridge collapses occurred, however, culminating in the Norwood Junction rail accident of 1891. Thousands of cast - iron rail underbridges were eventually replaced by steel equivalents.
Original Tay Bridge from the north
Fallen Tay Bridge from the north
Iron Bridge over the River Severn at Coalbrookdale, England
The Eglinton Tournament Bridge, North Ayrshire, Scotland, built from cast iron
Cast - iron columns enabled architects to build tall buildings without the enormously thick walls required to construct masonry buildings of any height. Such flexibility allowed tall buildings to have large windows. In urban centres like SoHo - Cast Iron Historic District in New York City, manufacturing buildings and early department stores were built with cast - iron columns to allow daylight to enter. Slender cast - iron columns could also support the weight that would otherwise require thick masonry columns or piers, opening up floor spaces in factories, and sight lines in churches and auditoriums. The historic Iron Building in Watervliet, New York, is a cast - iron building.
Another important use was in textile mills. The air in the mills contained flammable fibres from the cotton, hemp, or wool being spun. As a result, textile mills had an alarming propensity to burn down. The solution was to build them completely of non-combustible materials, and it was found convenient to provide the building with an iron frame, largely of cast iron, replacing flammable wood. The first such building was at Ditherington in Shrewsbury, Shropshire. Many other warehouses were built using cast - iron columns and beams, although faulty designs, flawed beams or overloading sometimes caused building collapses and structural failures.
During the Industrial Revolution, cast iron was also widely used for frame and other fixed parts of machinery, including spinning and later weaving machines in textile mills. Cast iron became widely used, and many towns had foundries producing industrial and agricultural machinery.
|
the cultivation of which of the following crops is not mentioned in ain-i-akbari | Ain - i - Akbari - wikipedia
The Ain - i - Akbari (Persian: آئینِ اکبری ) or the "Constitution of Akbar '', is a 16th - century, detailed document recording the administration of emperor Akbar 's empire, written by his vizier, Abu'l - Fazl ibn Mubarak. It makes the Volume III and the final part of the much larger document, the Akbarnama (Persian: اکبر نامه ), the Book of Akbar, also by Abul Fazl, and it itself is in three volumes.
It is currently housed in the Hazarduari Palace, in West Bengal.
The Ain - i - Akbari is the third volume of the Akbarnama containing information regarding Akbar 's reign in the form of, what would be called in modern times, administration reports, statistical compilations, or gazetteers. It contains the áín (i.e., mode of governing) of Emperor Akbar, and is, in fact, the administration report and statistical Return of his government. The first volume of the Akbarnama contains the history of Timur 's family and the reigns of Babar, the Súr kings, and Humayun. The second volume is devoted to the detailed history of the nearly forty - six years of the Akbar 's reign. Since it was written around 1590, it also contains details of Hindu beliefs and practices as well as a history of India.
The Ain - i - Akbari is itself divided into five books. The first book deals with the imperial household, and the second with the servants of the emperor, the military and civil services. The third book deals with the imperial administration, containing the regulations for the judicial and executive departments. The fourth book contains information about Hindu philosophy, science, social customs and literature. The fifth book contains sayings of Akbar, along with an account of the ancestry and biography of the author.
The volume has a total of 90 ' Ain ' or Regulations dealing and describing the different segments of administration and occupations at that time. The various ains include the one on the imperial mint, its workmen and their process of refining and extracting gold and silver, the dirham and the dinar etc. There are also portions dedicated to the Imperial harem (ain 15), the royal seals (ain 20), the imperial kitchen (ain 23) and its recipes and the rules relating to the days of abstinence (ain 26). The volume contains a detailed description of the trade / business of items like fruits, vegetables, perfumes, carpets etc. and also of art and painting. Ain - i - Akbari is an excellent resource to know more about the maintenance of an army as large as Akbar 's. Ain 35 onwards deals with the use and maintenance of artillery, upkeep and branding of royal horses, camels, mules and elephants, describing even the detail of the food given to the animals. The volume also has regulations pertaining to the wages of labourers, estimates of house building etc.
Volume 2
The second book treats of the servants of the throne, the military and civil services, and the attendants at court whose literary genius or musical skill receives a great deal of encouragement from the emperor, and who in their turn reflect a brilliant light on the government.
The third book is entirely devoted to regulations for the judicial and executive departments, the establishment of a new and more practical era, the survey of the land, the tribal divisions, and the rent - roll of the great Finance minister.
The fourth book treats of the social condition and literary activity, especially in philosophy and law, of the Hindus, who form the bulk of the population, and in whose political advancement the emperor saw the guarantee of the stability of his realm. There are also a few chapters on the foreign invaders of India, on distinguished travellers, and on Muhammadan saints and the sects to which they respectively belong.
Volume 5
The fifth book contains the moral sentences and epigrammatical sayings, observations, and rules of wisdom of the emperor, which Abulfazl has gathered as the disciple gathers the sayings of the master.
The Muster of Man (Ain 76 Book 1) The business which Akbar Majesty transacts is multifarious. A large number of men were appointed on the days assembly of expenditure was announced. Their merits are inquired into and the coin of knowledge passes the current. Some pray his majesty to remove religious doubt; other again seek his advice for settling a worldly matter; other want medicines for their cure. Like these many other requests were made. The salaries of large number of men from Iran, Turkey, Europe, Hindustan and Kashmir are fixed in a manner described below, and the men themselves are taken before His Majesty by the paymasters. Formerly it had been custom for man to come with horses and accoutrements; but now only men appointed to the post of Ahadi were allowed to bring horses. The salary is proposed by the officer who bring them, which is then increased or decreased, though it is generally increased; for the market of His Majesty is never dull. The number of men brought before His Majesty depends on number of men available. Every Monday all such horsemen are mustered as were left from the preceding week. With the view of increasing army and zeal of officers, His Majesty gives to each who brings horsemen, a present of two dams for each horsemen.
Regulation regarding education (Ain 25 Book 2) His Majesty orders that every school boy must learn to write the letters of the alphabet first and then learn to trace their several forms. he ought to learn the shape and name of each letter, which may be done on two days, after which the boy should proceed to write joined letter. They may be practised for a week after which boy should learn some prose and poetry by heart, and then commit to memory some verses to the praise of God, or moral sentences, each written separately. Care is to be taken that he learns everything by himself but the teacher must assist him a little.
The original Persian text was translated into English in three volumes. The first volume, translated by Heinrich Blochmann (1873) consisted of Books I and II. The second volume, translated by Colonel Henry Sullivan Jarrett (1891), consisted of Book III. The third volume, also translated by Jarrett (1896), consisted of Books IV and V. These three volumes were published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta as a part of their Bibliotheca Indica series.
|
in human beings multiple genes are involved in the inheritance of | Polygene - wikipedia
A "polygene '' or "multiple gene inheritance '' is a member of a group of non-epistatic genes that interact additively to influence a phenotypic trait. The term "monozygous '' is usually used to refer to a hypothetical gene as it is often difficult to characterise the effect of an individual gene from the effects of other genes and the environment on a particular phenotype. Advances in statistical methodology and high throughput sequencing are, however, allowing researchers to locate candidate genes for the trait. In the case that such a gene is identified, it is referred to as a quantitative trait locus (QTL). These genes are generally pleiotropic as well. The genes that contribute to type 2 diabetes are thought to be mostly polygenes. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.
Traits with polygenic determinism correspond to the classical quantitative characters, as opposed to the qualitative characters with monogenic or oligogenic determinism. In essence instead of two options, such as freckles or no freckles, there are many variations. Like the color of skin, hair, or even eyes.
Polygenic locus is any individual locus which is included in the system of genes responsible for the genetic component of variation in a quantitative (polygenic) character. Allelic substitutions contribute to the variance in a specified quantitative character. Polygenic locus may be either a single or complex genetic locus in the conventional sense, i.e., either a single gene or closely linked block of functionally related genes.
In modern sense, the inheritance mode of polygenic patterns is called polygenic inheritance, whose main properties may be summarized as follows:
Polygenic inheritance occurs when one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes. Often the genes are large in quantity but small in effect. Examples of human polygenic inheritance are height, skin color, eye color and weight. Polygenes exist in other organisms, as well. Drosophila, for instance, display polygeny with traits such as wing morphology, bristle count (20170808 dead link) and many others.
The frequency of the phenotypes of these traits generally follows a normal continuous variation distribution pattern. This results from the many possible allelic combinations. When the values are plotted, a bell - shaped curve is obtained. The mode of the distribution represents the optimal, or fittest, phenotype. The more genes are involved, the smoother the estimated curve. However, in this model all genes must code for alleles with additive effects. This assumption is often unrealistic as many genes display epistasis effects which can have unpredictable effects on the distribution of outcomes, especially when looking at the distribution on a fine scale.
Traditionally, mapping polygenes requires statistical tools available to help measure the effects of polygenes as well as narrow in on single genes. One of these tools is QTL - mapping. QTL - mapping utilizes a phenomenon known as linkage disequilibrium by comparing known marker genes with correlated phenotypes. Often, researchers will find a large region of DNA, called a locus, that accounts for a significant amount of the variation observed in the measured trait. This locus will usually contain a large number of genes that are responsible. A new form of QTL has been described as expression QTL (eQTL). eQTLs regulate the amount of expressed mRNA, which in turn regulates the amount of protein within the organism.
Another interest of statistical geneticists using QTL mapping is to determine the complexity of the genetic architecture underlying a phenotypic trait. For example, they may be interested in knowing whether a phenotype is shaped by many independent loci, or by a few loci, and do those loci interact. This can provide information on how the phenotype may be evolving.
(de) Polygenie
|
how many types of users in linux operating system | Linux - Wikipedia
Linux (/ ˈlɪnəks / (listen) LIN - əks) is a family of free and open - source software operating systems built around the Linux kernel. Typically, Linux is packaged in a form known as a Linux distribution (or distro for short) for both desktop and server use. The defining component of a Linux distribution is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds. Many Linux distributions use the word "Linux '' in their name. The Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU / Linux to refer to the operating system family, as well as specific distributions, to emphasize that most Linux distributions are not just the Linux kernel, and that they have in common not only the kernel, but also numerous utilities and libraries, a large proportion of which are from the GNU project. This has led to some controversy.
Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system. Because of the dominance of the Linux kernel - based Android OS on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all general - purpose operating systems. Linux is also the leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers, and the only OS used on TOP500 supercomputers (since November 2017, having before gradually eliminated all competitors). It is used by around 2.3 % of desktop computers. The Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel - based Chrome OS, dominates the US K -- 12 education market and represents nearly 20 % of the sub - $300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems -- devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, video game consoles and smartwatches. Many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives.
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open - source software collaboration. The underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed -- commercially or non-commercially -- by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License.
Some of the most popular and mainstream Linux distributions are Arch Linux, CentOS, Debian, Fedora, Gentoo Linux, Linux Mint, Mageia, openSUSE and Ubuntu, together with commercial distributions such as Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server. Distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities and libraries, many of which are provided by the GNU Project, and usually a large amount of application software to fulfil the distribution 's intended use. Desktop Linux distributions include a windowing system, such as X11, Mir or a Wayland implementation, and an accompanying desktop environment such as GNOME or KDE Plasma; some distributions may also include a less resource - intensive desktop, such as LXDE or Xfce. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, and instead include other software to set up and operate a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use.
The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969, at AT&T 's Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna. First released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie (with the exception of some hardware and I / O routines). The availability of a high - level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier.
Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, AT&T was required to license the operating system 's source code to anyone who asked. As a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs; freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary product, where users were n't legally allowed to modify Unix. The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix - compatible software system '' composed entirely of free software. Work began in 1984. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although low - level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel, called GNU / Hurd, were stalled and incomplete.
Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.
Although not released until 1992, due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created Linux.
MINIX was created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum, a computer science professor, and released in 1987 as a minimal Unix - like operating system targeted at students and others who wanted to learn the operating system principles. Although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000.
In 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious about operating systems. Frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which at the time limited it to educational use only, he began to work on his own operating system kernel, which eventually became the Linux kernel.
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems. GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components, because it was advantageous to use the freely available code from the GNU Project with the fledgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be reused in other computer programs as long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL. Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, making a fully functional and free operating system.
Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention "Freax '', a portmanteau of "free '', "freak '', and "x '' (as an allusion to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, some of the project 's makefiles included the name "Freax '' for about half a year. Torvalds had already considered the name "Linux '', but initially dismissed it as too egotistical.
In order to facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server (ftp.funet.fi) of FUNET in September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds ' coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax '' was a good name. So, he named the project "Linux '' on the server without consulting Torvalds. Later, however, Torvalds consented to "Linux ''.
To demonstrate how the word "Linux '' should be pronounced (/ ˈlɪnəks / (listen) LIN - əks), Torvalds included an audio guide (listen (help info)) with the kernel source code. Another variant of pronunciation is / ˈlaɪnəks / LYN - əks.
Adoption of Linux in production environments, rather than being used only by hobbyists, started to take off first in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community, where organizations such as NASA started to replace their increasingly expensive machines with clusters of inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial use followed when Dell and IBM, followed by Hewlett - Packard, started offering Linux support to escape Microsoft 's monopoly in the desktop operating system market.
Today, Linux systems are used throughout computing, from embedded systems to virtually all supercomputers, and have secured a place in server installations such as the popular LAMP application stack. Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing. Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their own Chrome OS designed for netbooks.
Linux 's greatest success in the consumer market is perhaps the mobile device market, with Android being one of the most dominant operating systems on smartphones and very popular on tablets and, more recently, on wearables. Linux gaming is also on the rise with Valve showing its support for Linux and rolling out its own gaming oriented Linux distribution. Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal government of Brazil.
Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third - party non-GNU components. These third - party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.
Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
A Linux - based system is a modular Unix - like operating system, deriving much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, access to the peripherals, and file systems. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel, or added as modules that are loaded while the system is running.
The GNU userland is a key part of most systems based on the Linux kernel, with Android being the notable exception. The Project 's implementation of the C library functions as a wrapper for the system calls of the Linux kernel necessary to the kernel - userspace interface, the toolchain is a broad collection of programming tools vital to Linux development (including the compilers used to build the Linux kernel itself), and the coreutils implement many basic Unix tools. The project also develops a popular CLI shell. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the X Window System. More recently, the Linux community seeks to advance to Wayland as the new display server protocol in place of X11. Many other open - source software projects contribute to Linux systems.
Installed components of a Linux system include the following:
The user interface, also known as the shell, is either a command - line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, although the CLI is commonly available through terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console.
CLI shells are text - based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output. The dominant shell used in Linux is the Bourne - Again Shell (bash), originally developed for the GNU project. Most low - level Linux components, including various parts of the userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication.
On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the GUI shells, packaged together with extensive desktop environments, such as the K Desktop Environment (KDE), GNOME, MATE, Cinnamon, Unity, LXDE, Pantheon and Xfce, though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System, often simply called "X ''. It provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the X Window System are not capable of working over the network. Several X display servers exist, with the reference implementation, X.Org Server, being the most popular.
Several types of window managers exist for X11, including tiling, dynamic, stacking and compositing. Window managers provide means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interact with the X Window System. Simpler X window managers such as dwm or ratpoison provide a minimalist functionality, while more elaborate window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment or Window Maker provide more features such as a built - in taskbar and themes, but are still lightweight when compared to desktop environments. Desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations, such as Mutter (GNOME), KWin (KDE) or Xfwm (xfce), although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.
Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the X11 protocol; as of 2014, it has not received wider adoption. Unlike X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, window manager and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOME 's Mutter and KDE 's KWin are being ported to Wayland as standalone display servers. Enlightenment has already been successfully ported since version 19.
Linux currently has two modern kernel - userspace APIs for handling video input devices: V4L2 API for video streams and radio, and DVB API for digital TV reception.
Due to the complexity and diversity of different devices, and due to the large amount of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Also, a good userspace device library is the key of the success for having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open - source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used. Some free and open - source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Project.
Linux based distributions are intended by developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX, SUS, LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX. 1 certified, Linux - FT.
Free software projects, although developed through collaboration, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand - alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.
Many Linux distributions, or "distros '', manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose - knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package manager such as apt, yum, zypper, pacman or portage to install, remove, and update all of a system 's software from one central location.
A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well - known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora, and SUSE does with openSUSE.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open - source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specific support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often bundle cover disks that carry software or even complete Linux distributions.
Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of free software. An analysis of the Linux kernel showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to volunteers and 7 % unclassified. Major corporations that provide contributions include Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Microsystems (now part of Oracle) and Nokia. A number of corporations, notably Red Hat, Canonical and SUSE, have built a significant business around Linux distributions.
The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.
Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such as CP / M, Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.6 freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer 's computer that shared the same architecture.
Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU Build System. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Go and Fortran. Many programming languages have a cross-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for example PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python, Java, Go, Rust and Haskell. First released in 2003, the LLVM project provides an alternative cross-platform open - source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C / C++ Compiler. BASIC in the form of Visual Basic is supported in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and in terms of terminal programming or QuickBASIC or Turbo BASIC programming in the form of QB64.
A common feature of Unix - like systems, Linux includes traditional specific - purpose programming languages targeted at scripting, text processing and system configuration and management in general. Linux distributions support shell scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs also have an embedded programming language to support configuring or programming themselves. For example, regular expressions are supported in programs like grep and locate, the traditional Unix MTA Sendmail contains its own Turing complete scripting system, and the advanced text editor GNU Emacs is built around a general purpose Lisp interpreter.
Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. Guile Scheme acts as an extension language targeting the GNU system utilities, seeking to make the conventionally small, static, compiled C programs of Unix design rapidly and dynamically extensible via an elegant, functional high - level scripting system; many GNU programs can be compiled with optional Guile bindings to this end. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM 's J2SE RE, as well as many open - source projects like Kaffe and JikesRVM.
GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code:: Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Qt Creator, while the long - established editors Vim, nano and Emacs remain popular.
The Linux kernel is a widely ported operating system kernel, available for devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers; it runs on a highly diverse range of computer architectures, including the hand - held ARM - based iPAQ and the IBM mainframes System z9 or System z10. Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less mainstream architectures; for example, the ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16 - bit microprocessors, while the μClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer - created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.
There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as FreedomHEC. Over time, support for different hardware has improved in Linux, resulting in any off - the - shelf purchase having a "good chance '' of being compatible.
Besides the Linux distributions designed for general - purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real - time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. As of 2015, over four hundred Linux distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general - purpose use.
The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers and laptops has been increasing over the years. Most modern distributions include a graphical user environment, with, as of February 2015, the two most popular environments being the KDE Plasma Desktop and Xfce.
No single official Linux desktop exists: rather desktop environments and Linux distributions select components from a pool of free and open - source software with which they construct a GUI implementing some more or less strict design guide. GNOME, for example, has its human interface guidelines as a design guide, which gives the human -- machine interface an important role, not just when doing the graphical design, but also when considering people with disabilities, and even when focusing on security.
The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform language localization of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost - effective. For example, the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution became available significantly before Microsoft translated Windows XP into Sinhalese. In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.
The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; for example in 2007 Con Kolivas accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development out of frustration with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all '' interview on the topic. Since then a significant amount of development has focused on improving the desktop experience. Projects such as Upstart and systemd aim for a faster boot time; the Wayland and Mir projects aim at replacing X11 while enhancing desktop performance, security and appearance.
Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example, Mozilla Firefox, OpenOffice.org/LibreOffice and Blender have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications initially developed for Linux, such as Pidgin, and GIMP, were ported to other operating systems (including Windows and Mac OS X) due to their popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux, such as Autodesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake in the high - end field of animation and visual effects; see the list of proprietary software for Linux for more details. There are also several companies that have ported their own or other companies ' games to Linux, with Linux also being a supported platform on both the popular Steam and Desura digital - distribution services.
Many other types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X also run on Linux. Commonly, either a free software application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as with Skype and some video games like Dota 2 and Team Fortress 2. Furthermore, the Wine project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. It is sponsored by commercial interests including CodeWeavers, which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the Wine project. CrossOver, a proprietary solution based on the open - source Wine project, supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Office, Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many popular games such as World of Warcraft. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as desktop publishing and professional audio, there is equivalent software available on Linux. It is also possible to run applications written for Android on other versions of Linux using Anbox.
Besides externally visible components, such as X window managers, a non-obvious but quite central role is played by the programs hosted by freedesktop.org, such as D - Bus or PulseAudio; both major desktop environments (GNOME and KDE) include them, each offering graphical front - ends written using the corresponding toolkit (GTK+ or Qt). A display server is another component, which for the longest time has been communicating in the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes the X.Org Server and Xlib. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led to the creation of a new display server protocol, Wayland.
Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as the Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and Yum Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specific to Linux.
Unity
Cinnamon
GNOME
Enlightenment
KDE Plasma
LXDE
LXQt
Mate
Pantheon
Fluxbox
Sugar
Trinity
Xfce
i3 - gaps
Budgie
Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices such as the Asus Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.
In 2009, Google announced its Chrome OS as a minimal Linux - based operating system, using the Chrome browser as the main user interface. Chrome OS does not run any non-web applications, except for the bundled file manager and media player (a certain level of support for Android applications was added in later versions). Netbooks that shipped with the operating system, termed Chromebooks, started appearing on the market in June 2011.
Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in September 2006, that eight of the ten (other two with "unknown '' OS) most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their web servers, with Linux in the top position. In June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten, FreeBSD three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten; since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten, with Linux in the top position.
Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the LAMP server - software combination (Linux, Apache, MariaDB / MySQL, Perl / PHP / Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.
Linux distributions have become increasingly popular on mainframes, partly due to pricing and the open - source model. In December 2009, computer giant IBM reported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe - based Enterprise Linux Server. At LinuxCon North America 2015, IBM announced LinuxONE, a series of mainframes specifically designed to run Linux and open - source software.
Linux distributions are also dominant as operating systems for supercomputers. As of November 2017, all supercomputers on the 500 list run some variant of Linux.
Several operating systems for smart devices, such as smartphones, tablet computers, smart TVs, and in - vehicle infotainment (IVI) systems, are based on Linux. Major platforms for such systems include Android, Firefox OS, Mer and Tizen.
Android has become the dominant mobile operating system for smartphones, running on 79.3 % of units sold worldwide during the second quarter of 2013. Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, and Android smart TVs and in - vehicle infotainment systems have also appeared in the market.
Cellphones and PDAs running Linux on open - source platforms became more common from 2007; examples include the Nokia N810, Openmoko 's Neo1973, and the Motorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend, Palm (later acquired by HP) produced a new Linux - derived operating system, webOS, which is built into its line of Palm Pre smartphones.
Nokia 's Maemo, one of the earliest mobile operating systems, was based on Debian. It was later merged with Intel 's Moblin, another Linux - based operating system, to form MeeGo. The project was later terminated in favor of Tizen, an operating system targeted at mobile devices as well as IVI. Tizen is a project within The Linux Foundation. Several Samsung products are already running Tizen, Samsung Gear 2 being the most significant example. Samsung Z smartphones will use Tizen instead of Android.
As a result of MeeGo 's termination, the Mer project forked the MeeGo codebase to create a basis for mobile - oriented operating systems. In July 2012, Jolla announced Sailfish OS, their own mobile operating system built upon Mer technology.
Mozilla 's Firefox OS consists of the Linux kernel, a hardware abstraction layer, a web - standards - based runtime environment and user interface, and an integrated web browser.
Canonical has released Ubuntu Touch, aiming to bring convergence to the user experience on this mobile operating system and its desktop counterpart, Ubuntu. The operating system also provides a full Ubuntu desktop when connected to an external monitor.
Due to its low cost and ease of customization, Linux is often used in embedded systems. In the non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector, the majority of customer - premises equipment (CPE) hardware runs some Linux - based operating system. OpenWrt is a community driven example upon which many of the OEM firmware releases are based.
For example, the popular TiVo digital video recorder also uses a customized Linux, as do several network firewalls and routers from such makers as Cisco / Linksys. The Korg OASYS, the Korg KRONOS, the Yamaha Motif XS / Motif XF music workstations, Yamaha S90XS / S70XS, Yamaha MOX6 / MOX8 synthesizers, Yamaha Motif - Rack XS tone generator module, and Roland RD - 700GX digital piano also run Linux. Linux is also used in stage lighting control systems, such as the WholeHogIII console.
In the past, not many games were available for Linux, but in the recent years, more games have been released with support for Linux. Nowadays, many games support Linux (especially Indie games), except for a few AAA title games. On the other hand, as a popular mobile platform, Android (which uses the Linux kernel) has gained much developer interest and is one of the main platforms for mobile game development along with iOS operating system by Apple for iPhone and iPad devices.
On February 14, 2013, Valve released a Linux version of Steam, a popular game distribution platform on PC. Many Steam games were ported to Linux. On December 13, 2013, Valve released SteamOS, a gaming oriented OS based on Debian, for beta testing, and has plans to ship Steam Machines as a gaming and entertainment platform. Valve has also developed VOGL, an OpenGL debugger intended to aid video game development, as well as porting its Source game engine to desktop Linux. As a result of Valve 's effort, several prominent games such as DotA 2, Team Fortress 2, Portal, Portal 2 and Left 4 Dead 2 are now natively available on desktop Linux.
On July 31, 2013, Nvidia released Shield as an attempt to use Android as a specialized gaming platform.
Some Linux users play Windows games through Wine or CrossOver Linux.
Due to the flexibility, customizability and free and open - source nature of Linux, it becomes possible to highly tune Linux for a specific purpose. There are two main methods for creating a specialized Linux distribution: building from scratch or from a general - purpose distribution as a base. The distributions often used for this purpose include Debian, Fedora, Ubuntu (which is itself based on Debian), Arch Linux, Gentoo, and Slackware. In contrast, Linux distributions built from scratch do not have general - purpose bases; instead, they focus on the JeOS philosophy by including only necessary components and avoiding resource overhead caused by components considered redundant in the distribution 's use cases.
A home theater PC (HTPC) is a PC that is mainly used as an entertainment system, especially a Home theater system. It is normally connected to a television, and often an additional audio system.
OpenELEC, a Linux distribution that incorporates the media center software Kodi, is an OS tuned specifically for an HTPC. Having been built from the ground up adhering to the JeOS principle, the OS is very lightweight and very suitable for the confined usage range of an HTPC.
There are also special editions of Linux distributions that include the MythTV media center software, such as Mythbuntu, a special edition of Ubuntu.
Kali Linux is a Debian - based Linux distribution designed for digital forensics and penetration testing. It comes preinstalled with several software applications for penetration testing and identifying security exploits. The Ubuntu derivative BackBox provides pre-installed security and network analysis tools for ethical hacking.
There are many Linux distributions created with privacy, secrecy, network anonymity and information security in mind, including Tails, Tin Hat Linux and Tinfoil Hat Linux. Lightweight Portable Security is a distribution based on Arch Linux and developed by the United States Department of Defense. Tor - ramdisk is a minimal distribution created solely to host the network anonymity software Tor.
Linux Live CD sessions have long been used as a tool for recovering data from a broken computer system and for repairing the system. Building upon that idea, several Linux distributions tailored for this purpose have emerged, most of which use GParted as a partition editor, with additional data recovery and system repair software:
SpaceX uses multiple redundant flight computers in a fault - tolerant design in the Falcon 9 rocket. Each Merlin engine is controlled by three voting computers, with two physical processors per computer that constantly check each other 's operation. Linux is not inherently fault - tolerant (no operating system is, as it is a function of the whole system including the hardware), but the flight computer software makes it so for its purpose. For flexibility, commercial off - the - shelf parts and system - wide "radiation - tolerant '' design are used instead of radiation hardened parts. As of June 2015, SpaceX has made 19 launches of the Falcon 9 since 2010, out of which 18 have successfully delivered their primary payloads to Earth orbit, including some support missions for the International Space Station.
In addition, Windows was used as an operating system on non-mission critical systems -- laptops used on board the space station, for example -- but it has been replaced with Linux; the first Linux - powered humanoid robot is also undergoing in - flight testing.
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory has used Linux for a number of years "to help with projects relating to the construction of unmanned space flight and deep space exploration ''; NASA uses Linux in robotics in the Mars rover, and Ubuntu Linux to "save data from satellites ''.
Linux distributions have been created to provide hands - on experience with coding and source code to students, on devices such as the Raspberry Pi. In addition to producing a practical device, the intention is to show students "how things work under the hood ''.
The Ubuntu derivatives Edubuntu and The Linux Schools Project, as well as the Debian derivative Skolelinux, provide education - oriented software packages. They also include tools for administering and building school computer labs and computer - based classrooms, such as the Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP).
Instant WebKiosk and Webconverger are browser - based Linux distributions often used in web kiosks and digital signage. Thinstation is a minimalist distribution designed for thin clients. Rocks Cluster Distribution is tailored for high - performance computing clusters.
There are general - purpose Linux distributions that target a specific audience, such as users of a specific language or geographical area. Such examples include Ubuntu Kylin for Chinese language users and BlankOn targeted at Indonesians. Profession - specific distributions include Ubuntu Studio for media creation and DNALinux for bioinformatics. There is also a Muslim - oriented distribution of the name Sabily, as well as an Arabic - focused distribution called Ojuba Linux that consequently also provides some Islamic tools. Certain organizations use slightly specialized Linux distributions internally, including GendBuntu used by the French National Gendarmerie, Goobuntu used internally by Google, and Astra Linux developed specifically for the Russian army.
Many quantitative studies of free / open - source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux. The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008. Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock - in.
Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under this license, must make the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. Other key components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.org implementation of the X Window System uses the MIT License.
Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3. He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management. It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code. Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person - years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about $1.53 billion (2018 US dollars) to develop in the United States. Most of the source code (71 %) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8 % of the total.
In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007). This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required about seventy three thousand man - years and cost US $8.46 billion (in 2018 dollars) to develop by conventional means.
In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds. Initially, nobody registered it, but on August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled. The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute (LMI). Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks, but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.
The Free Software Foundation (FSF) prefers GNU / Linux as the name when referring to the operating system as a whole, because it considers Linux distributions to be variants of the GNU operating system initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman, president of the FSF. They explicitly take no issue over the name Android for the Android OS, which is also an operating system based on the Linux kernel, as GNU is not a part of it.
A minority of public figures and software projects other than Stallman and the FSF, notably Debian (which had been sponsored by the FSF up to 1996), also use GNU / Linux when referring to the operating system as a whole. Most media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many large Linux distributions (for example, SUSE Linux and Red Hat Enterprise Linux). By contrast, Linux distributions containing only free software use "GNU / Linux '' or simply "GNU '', such as Trisquel GNU / Linux, Parabola GNU / Linux - libre, BLAG Linux and GNU, and gNewSense.
As of May 2011, about 8 % to 13 % of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered part of GNU), as determined by counting lines of source code making up Ubuntu 's "Natty '' release; meanwhile, 6 % is taken by the Linux kernel, increased to 9 % when including its direct dependencies.
|
who did mimi date on days of our lives | Mimi Lockhart - wikipedia
Mimi Lockhart is a fictional character from Days of Our Lives. Mimi was originated by Doren Fein from August 17 to 19, 1999. She is most recognized by actress Farah Fath who played the role from September 16, 1999, to March 1, 2007. In May 2018, it was revealed that Fath would be returning to the show after an 11 year absence.
Mimi grew up in an abusive household. Her father, David, attacked Mimi and Bonnie on a number of occasions forcing her older brother, Patrick, to split at an early age. Mimi looked after her younger brother Connor until he too moved away at a young age.
Mimi was Belle Black 's best friend since kindergarten. Mimi grew jealous of Belle 's new friendship with Chloe Lane and began working with Jan Spears to cast Chloe as a social outcast. Jan preyed on Mimi 's insecurities and used her to torment Chloe, including taking nude pictures of Chloe in the shower. Mimi developed a crush on Shawn - Douglas Brady but he was interested in Belle. Shawn agreed to take both Belle and Mimi to the dance after Mimi got down on bended knee to beg Shawn to take her. Jan 's hatred for Chloe intensified and Jan used Mimi to sneak the photos of Chloe into the slide projector to humiliate Chloe and advertise their website operagirl.net. The prank almost landed Mimi in jail; instead she was forced to spend her senior year at Salem High cleaning bathrooms.
Despite Mimi 's involvement in the pranks, her friends noticed her odd behavior that included staying away from her friends and roaming the streets at night. Chloe was the first to discover that Mimi and her family were homeless. Her father had been laid off, and was out of town searching for work. Mimi 's friends rallied together and built a Habitat for Humanity house for the Lockhart family.
During the summer of 2001, Mimi joined her classmates on a trip to Puerto Rico to study the environment. She and Belle became close again, but she became even closer to geeky Kevin Lambert and the two nearly had sex on the island. With her newfound self - esteem, Mimi became determined to do the right thing and make up with Chloe. In fact, Chloe and Mimi joined forces toward to help Belle and Shawn get back together. She accomplished that task, along with high school graduation, and spent the summer with Kevin; they broke up at the end of the summer so he could go away to college.
Mimi started the following year at Salem University with Belle. Mimi eventually got together with Rex DiMera but feared he might be the Salem Stalker. Rex suffered from massive headaches and mood swings. At one point, Rex accidentally killed Dr. Rolf, Rex 's "creator. '' After this ordeal, the couple landed on solid groupd until Mimi found out she was pregnant. Mimi 's insecurities returned and she convinced herself she had a good thing with Rex and it would be ruined with a baby. Mimi made the heartbreaking decision to have an abortion without telling Rex. Due to a resulting infection, Mimi was rendered sterile.
Jan returned to Salem and Mimi learned that she had been keeping Shawn hostage at her country home. Before Mimi could expose Jan, Jan blackmailed her about the abortion. Jan tripped and hit her head on a rock while arguing with Mimi and ended up in serious condition in the hospital. Mimi confessed to all her sins and was sentenced to jail. Rex and Patrick managed to get their hands on a video clearing Mimi 's name just in time, and Mimi was released. Mimi 's guilt over her lies to Rex mounted but her mother, Bonnie convinced her to keep quiet and hold on to her man.
Rex overheard an argument between Belle and Mimi and learned that Mimi had aborted his child without ever telling him that she was pregnant. He left her, and Salem. Mimi blamed Belle for ruining her life and grew closer with her new roommate and high school crush, Shawn. After the birth of Belle 's daughter, Claire, Mimi attempted to mend fences with Belle. After months of escalating romance, Shawn proposed to Mimi on New Year 's Eve and they married in March 2006.
Mimi did everything she could to keep Shawn and Belle apart because she feared they would fall in love again. Mimi and Shawn went thru the "in vitro '' process and Mimi became pregnant in May 2006, just two months after the couple wed. In early June, Mimi and Belle were out shopping when she started having cramps. Lexie Carver told Shawn, Belle and Phillip that Mimi had miscarried. Mimi was truly devastated and Shawn stuck by her. They decided to ask a surrogate to carry their child but a mix - up in the lab caused Mimi 's egg to be fertilized with Philip 's sperm and Belle 's egg with Shawn 's sperm; the Gloved Hand was responsible for this mix - up as part of his crusade to ruin the lives of the people in Salem. Mimi knew that Shawn was the father of Belle 's baby and told no one. When the truth was finally revealed, Shawn left Mimi and they got a divorce. She and Philip signed away their rights to their baby to the surrogate, Lauren.
Mimi moved back home to the Lockhart House with Bonnie and Conner. Mimi briefly worked at Chez Rouge but left after a fight Shawn 's girlfriend at the time, Willow Stark. Mimi then got a job working for Max at his garage. She and Max grew close as they looked for a seemingly missing Philip. Victor 's goons held them prisoner in a church basement where they shared their first kiss and also discovered a skeleton. Mimi and Max began to date, much to Abby 's dismay. Mimi got in the way oh Phillip 's search for Claire after Shawn and Belle took her into hiding. Max rescued Mimi and they two helped Shawn and Belle flee to Canada.
The skeleton that they was revealed to be David Lockhart, Mimi 's father. Max comforted Mimi through this mystery but it was Bonnie who was able to give Mimi the answers she was looking for. Bonnie explained that Mimi killed her father but suppressed the memories because David used to abuse the family. Instead of letting her daughter take the blame, Bonnie went to jail. With her mother and older brother both in jail, Mimi left to live with her younger brother, Connor, in Arizona.
|
last book of a series of unfortunate events | The End (novel) - wikipedia
The End is the thirteenth and final novel in the children 's novel series A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket. The book was released on Friday, October 13, 2006.
The book opens with the Baudelaire orphans and Count Olaf on a boat heading away from the Hotel Denouement. After a storm, the Baudelaires arrive and are welcomed on an island by a young girl named Friday. Count Olaf, however, is not welcomed due to his snobby attitude and death threat to Friday.
Later, the pregnant Kit Snicket and a friendly snake known as the "Incredibly Deadly Viper '' (which first appeared in The Reptile Room) are shipwrecked on the island. Count Olaf disguises himself as Kit, but the Islanders, led by a man called Ishmael, find out. The islanders capture him and shun the Baudelaires for their possessing forbidden items. That night, two of the islanders sneak out to feed the children, asking them to join a mutiny. Agreeing, the Baudelaires go to the arboretum to collect weapons, where they discover a hidden room with a book that chronicles the history of the island. Ishmael arrives, explaining to the children that their parents were once the island 's leaders and were responsible for many improvements in island life, but were eventually overthrown by Ishmael, who brought the island back to a simple and austere way of life while hoarding comforts for himself.
The Baudelaires and Ishmael go back to the other side of the island, where the mutiny is already underway. Ishmael harpoons Olaf in the stomach, inadvertently shattering the helmet containing the Medusoid Mycelium, a deadly fungi, infecting the island 's entire population. The Baudelaires run back to the arboretum to find horseradish, a cure for the fungi, which turns out to be in the hybridized apples on a tree in the arboretum. They gather apples for the other islanders, only to discover that the island people have abandoned the mutiny and boarded their outrigger canoe, preparing to leave the island. Ishmael promises that he will save the islanders by sailing to a horseradish factory, but refuses to give them the apples, despite having already consumed one himself. At this point, Kit is about to go into labor. Though she is succumbing to the fungus, she can not eat the bitter apple due to its unhealthy effects on unborn babies. When the dying Olaf hears that she is still alive, he uses his last effort to get her safely down onto the beach, where he kisses Kit and dies soon after. The Baudelaires help Kit give birth to a baby girl. Kit then dies after requesting that the orphans name the baby after their mother Beatrice. The Baudelaires spend the next year taking care of Kit 's daughter, occasionally visiting the graves of Kit and Olaf.
After reading an entry from the history book written by their parents, the Baudelaires decide to leave the island with Beatrice in order to honor their parents ' wishes. Despite their fears about the outside world, the children prepare a boat and supplies for their journey back to the mainland. The fate of the children is left ambiguous, with the narrator speculating that the Baudelaires may have rejoined VFD or perished at sea.
The book will be adapted for the third season of the television series adaptation produced by Netflix. Unlike the other books, which are split into two episodes, this will be done as one long episode.
|
who plays the brother on being mary jane | Being Mary Jane - wikipedia
Being Mary Jane is an American drama television series created by Mara Brock Akil and starring Gabrielle Union, that debuted January 7, 2014, on BET. The 90 minute pilot for the series aired on July 2, 2013. The series follows professional and personal life of successful TV news anchor Mary Jane Paul, who lives in Atlanta, Georgia.
Being Mary Jane has received positive reviews from critics, and the series premiere on BET had more than 4 million viewers. The second and third seasons received critical acclaim, specifically praising Gabrielle Union 's leading performance, Mara Brock Akil 's writing, and directing work by Regina King. On January 6, 2016, the series was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on January 10, 2017. Set in New York, season 4 reaches a milestone and a record as it is made with 20 episodes. It was announced on October 11, 2017 that the series would conclude in 2018 with a two - hour movie finale.
At the 45th NAACP Image Awards, the pilot movie won award for Outstanding Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special, and Union for Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special. The series later received another nine NAACP Image Awards nominations, include two for Outstanding Drama Series.
The show was originally to be called Single Black Female. The series centers on successful broadcast journalist Mary Jane Paul (played by Gabrielle Union) and her professional and private family life while searching for "Mr. Right '':
Mary Jane Paul has it all: she 's a successful TV news anchor, entirely self - sufficient -- an all - around powerhouse who remains devoted to a family that does n't share her motivation. As Mary Jane juggles her life, her work and her commitment to her family, we find out how far she 's willing to go to find the puzzle pieces that she, and society, insist are missing from her life as a single Black female.
Omari Hardwick plays a potential Mr. Right. Other cast members include Latarsha Rose, Lisa Vidal, Aaron D. Spears, Richard Roundtree, Margaret Avery, Richard Brooks, Tika Sumpter, Raven Goodwin, B.J. Britt, and Robinne Lee.
The series is produced by Mara Brock Akil, who produced BET 's most successful series ever, The Game, and the romantic comedy film Jumping the Broom. The pilot episode was filmed in April 2012 at 780 N. Highland Ave. in the Virginia Highland neighborhood of Atlanta.
On September 12, 2013, BET renewed Being Mary Jane for a second season, before the first season premiered. The second season premiered on February 3, 2015, and on February 5 the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered October 20, 2015.
In 2016, Gabrielle Union sued BET for allegedly depriving her of agreed upon compensation.
|
madagascar's cultural practice of famadihana dancing with the dead | Famadihana - wikipedia
Famadihana is a funerary tradition of the Malagasy people in Madagascar. Known as the turning of the bones, people bring forth the bodies of their ancestors from the family crypts and rewrap them in fresh cloth, then dance with the corpses around the tomb to live music.
The Famadihana custom appears to be a custom of somewhat recent origin, perhaps only since the seventeenth century in its present form, although it may be an adaptation of premodern double funeral customs from Southeast Asia. The custom is based upon a belief that the spirits of the dead finally join the world of the ancestors after the body 's complete decomposition and appropriate ceremonies, which may take many years. In Madagascar this became a regular ritual usually once every seven years, and the custom brings together extended families in celebrations of kinship, sometimes even those with troubled relations.
The practice of Famadihana is on the decline due to the expense of silk shrouds and belief by some Malagasy that the practice is outdated. Early missionaries discouraged the practice and Evangelical Christian Malagasy have abandoned the practice in increasing numbers. The Catholic Church, however, no longer objects to the practice because it regards Famadihana as purely cultural rather than religious. As one Malagasy man explained to the BBC, "It 's important because it 's our way of respecting the dead. It is also a chance for the whole family, from across the country, to come together. ''
|
who provided the work on the southern plantations | Plantations in the American South - Wikipedia
Plantations were an important aspect of the history of the American South, particularly the antebellum (pre-American Civil War) era. The mild subtropical climate, plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils of the Southeastern United States allowed the flourishing of large plantations, where large numbers of workers, usually Africans held captive for slave labor, were required for agricultural production.
An individual who owned a plantation was known as a planter. Historians of the antebellum South have generally defined "planter '' most precisely as a person owning property (real estate) and 20 or more slaves. The wealthiest planters, such as the Virginia elite with plantations near the James River, owned more land and slaves than other farmers. Tobacco was the major cash crop in the Upper South (in the original Chesapeake Bay Colonies of Virginia and Maryland, and in parts of the Carolinas).
The later development of cotton and sugar cultivation in the Deep South in the early 18th century led to the establishment of large plantations which had hundreds of slaves. The great majority of Southern farmers owned no slaves or owned fewer than five slaves. Slaves were much more expensive than land.
In the "Black Belt '' counties of Alabama and Mississippi, the terms "planter '' and "farmer '' were often synonymous; a "planter '' was generally a farmer who owned many slaves. While most Southerners were not slave - owners, and while the majority of slaveholders held ten or fewer slaves, planters were those who held a significant number of slaves, mostly as agricultural labor. Planters are often spoken of as belonging to the planter elite or to the planter aristocracy in the antebellum South.
The historians Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman define large planters as those owning over 50 slaves, and medium planters as those owning between 16 and 50 slaves. Historian David Williams, in A People 's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom, suggests that the minimum requirement for planter status was twenty negroes, especially since a southern planter could exempt Confederate duty for one white male per twenty slaves owned. In his study of Black Belt counties in Alabama, Jonathan Weiner defines planters by ownership of real property, rather than of slaves. A planter, for Weiner, owned at least $10,000 worth of real estate in 1850 and $32,000 worth in 1860, equivalent to about the top 8 percent of landowners. In his study of southwest Georgia, Lee Formwalt defines planters in terms of size of land holdings rather than in terms of numbers of slaves. Formwalt 's planters are in the top 4.5 percent of landowners, translating into real estate worth six thousand dollars or more in 1850, 24,000 dollars or more in 1860, and eleven thousand dollars or more in 1870. In his study of Harrison County, Texas, Randolph B. Campbell classifies large planters as owners of 20 slaves, and small planters as owners of between 10 and 19 slaves. In Chicot and Phillips Counties, Arkansas, Carl H. Moneyhon defines large planters as owners of twenty or more slaves, and of six hundred or more acres.
Many nostalgic memoirs about plantation life were published in the post-bellum South. For example, James Battle Avirett, who grew up on the Avirett - Stephens Plantation in Onslow County, North Carolina and served as an Episcopal chaplain in the Confederate States Army, published The Old Plantation: How We Lived in Great House and Cabin before the War in 1901. Such memoirs often included descriptions of Christmas as the epitome of anti-modern order exemplified by the "great house '' and extended family.
On larger plantations an overseer represented the planter in matters of daily management. Usually portrayed as uncouth, ill - educated and low - class, he had the difficult and often despised task of middleman and the often contradictory goals of fostering both productivity and the enslaved work - force.
Crops cultivated on antebellum plantations included cotton, tobacco, sugar, indigo, rice, and to a lesser extent okra, yam, sweet potato, peanuts, and watermelon. By the late 18th century, most planters in the Upper South had switched from exclusive tobacco cultivation to mixed - crop production.
In the Lowcountry of South Carolina, even before the American Revolution, planters in South Carolina typically owned hundreds of slaves. (In towns and cities, families held slaves to work as household servants.) The 19th - century development of the Deep South for cotton cultivation depended on large tracts of land with much more acreage than was typical of the Chesapeake Bay area, and for labor, planters held dozens, or sometimes hundreds, of slaves.
Antebellum architecture can be seen in many extant "plantation houses '', the large residences of planters and their families. Over time in each region of the plantation south a regional architecture emerged inspired by those who settled the area. Most early plantation architecture was constructed to mitigate the hot subtropical climate and provide natural cooling.
Some of earliest plantation architecture occurred in southern Louisiana by the French. Using styles and building concepts they had learned in the Caribbean, the French created many of the grand plantation homes around New Orleans. French Creole architecture began around 1699, and lasted well into the 1800s. In the Lowcountry of South Carolina and Georgia, the Dogtrot style house was built with a large center breezeway running through the house to mitigate the subtropical heat. The wealthiest planters in colonial Virginia constructed their manor houses in the Georgian style, e.g. the mansion of Shirley Plantation. In the 19th century, Greek Revival architecture also became popular on some of the plantation homes of the deep south.
Common plants and trees incorporated in the landscape of Southern plantation manors included Southern live oak and Southern magnolia. Both of these large trees are native to the Southern United States and were classic symbols of the old south. Southern live oaks, classically draped in Spanish moss, were planted along long paths or walkways leading to the plantation to create a grand, imposing, and majestic theme. Plantation landscapes were very well maintained and trimmed, usually, the landscape work was managed by the planter, with assistance from slaves or workers. Planters themselves also usually maintained a small flower or vegetable garden. Cash crops were not grown in these small garden plots, but rather garden plants and vegetables for enjoyment.
|
35. how did the wi-fi alliance resolve the issues with wep | Wi - Fi Protected Access - Wikipedia
Wi - Fi Protected Access (WPA) and Wi - Fi Protected Access II (WPA2) are two security protocols and security certification programs developed by the Wi - Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks. The Alliance defined these in response to serious weaknesses researchers had found in the previous system, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP).
WPA (sometimes referred to as the draft IEEE 802.11 i standard) became available in 2003. The Wi - Fi Alliance intended it as an intermediate measure in anticipation of the availability of the more secure and complex WPA2, which became available in 2004 and is a common shorthand for the full IEEE 802.11 i (or IEEE 802.11 i - 2004) standard.
In January 2018, Wi - Fi Alliance announced the release of WPA3 with several security improvements over WPA2.
The Wi - Fi Alliance intended WPA as an intermediate measure to take the place of WEP pending the availability of the full IEEE 802.11 i standard. WPA could be implemented through firmware upgrades on wireless network interface cards designed for WEP that began shipping as far back as 1999. However, since the changes required in the wireless access points (APs) were more extensive than those needed on the network cards, most pre-2003 APs could not be upgraded to support WPA.
The WPA protocol implements much of the IEEE 802.11 i standard. Specifically, the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) was adopted for WPA. WEP used a 64 - bit or 128 - bit encryption key that must be manually entered on wireless access points and devices and does not change. TKIP employs a per - packet key, meaning that it dynamically generates a new 128 - bit key for each packet and thus prevents the types of attacks that compromised WEP.
WPA also includes a Message Integrity Check, which is designed to prevent an attacker from altering and resending data packets. This replaces the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that was used by the WEP standard. CRC 's main flaw was that it did not provide a sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee for the packets it handled. Well tested message authentication codes existed to solve these problems, but they required too much computation to be used on old network cards. WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called TKIP to verify the integrity of the packets. TKIP is much stronger than a CRC, but not as strong as the algorithm used in WPA2. Researchers have since discovered a flaw in WPA that relied on older weaknesses in WEP and the limitations of the message integrity code hash function, named Michael, to retrieve the keystream from short packets to use for re-injection and spoofing.
WPA2 replaced WPA. WPA2, which requires testing and certification by the Wi - Fi Alliance, implements the mandatory elements of IEEE 802.11 i. In particular, it includes mandatory support for CCMP, an AES - based encryption mode. Certification began in September, 2004; from March 13, 2006, WPA2 certification is mandatory for all new devices to bear the Wi - Fi trademark.
In January 2018, the Wi - Fi Alliance announced WPA3 as a replacement to WPA2. The new standard uses 128 - bit encryption in WPA3 - Personal mode (192 - bit in WPA3 - Enterprise) and forward secrecy. The WPA3 standard also replaces the Pre-Shared Key exchange with Simultaneous Authentication of Equals resulting in a more secure initial key exchange in personal mode. The Wi - Fi Alliance also claims that WPA3 will mitigate security issues posed by weak passwords and simplify the process of setting up devices with no display interface.
WPA has been designed specifically to work with wireless hardware produced prior to the introduction of WPA protocol, which provides inadequate security through WEP. Some of these devices support WPA only after applying firmware upgrades, which are not available for some legacy devices.
Wi - Fi devices certified since 2006 support both the WPA and WPA2 security protocols. WPA2 may not work with some older network cards.
Different WPA versions and protection mechanisms can be distinguished based on the target end - user (according to the method of authentication key distribution), and the encryption protocol used.
Originally, only EAP - TLS (Extensible Authentication Protocol - Transport Layer Security) was certified by the Wi - Fi alliance. In April 2010, the Wi - Fi Alliance announced the inclusion of additional EAP types to its WPA - and WPA2 - Enterprise certification programs. This was to ensure that WPA - Enterprise certified products can interoperate with one another.
As of 2010 the certification program includes the following EAP types:
802.1 X clients and servers developed by specific firms may support other EAP types. This certification is an attempt for popular EAP types to interoperate; their failure to do so as of 2013 is one of the major issues preventing rollout of 802.1 X on heterogeneous networks.
Commercial 802.1 X servers include Microsoft Internet Authentication Service and Juniper Networks Steelbelted RADIUS as well as Aradial Radius server. FreeRADIUS is an open source 802.1 X server.
Pre-shared key WPA and WPA2 remain vulnerable to password cracking attacks if users rely on a weak password or passphrase.
Brute forcing of simple passwords can be attempted using the Aircrack Suite starting from the four - way authentication handshake exchanged during association or periodic re-authentication.
To further protect against intrusion, the network 's SSID should not match any entry in the top 1,000 SSIDs as downloadable rainbow tables have been pre-generated for them and a multitude of common passwords.
WPA3 replaces cryptographic protocols susceptible to off - line analysis with protocols that require interaction with the infrastructure for each guessed password, so that the infrastructure may place temporal limits on the number of guesses.
WPA and WPA2 do n't provide forward secrecy, meaning that once an adverse person discovers the pre-shared key, they can potentially decrypt all packets encrypted using that PSK transmitted in the future and even past, which could be passively and silently collected by the attacker. This also means an attacker can silently capture and decrypt others ' packets if a WPA - protected access point is provided free of charge at a public place, because its password is usually shared to anyone in that place. In other words, WPA only protects from attackers who do n't have access to the password. Because of that, it 's safer to use Transport Layer Security (TLS) or similar on top of that for the transfer of any sensitive data. However starting from WPA3, this issue has been addressed.
Mathy Vanhoef and Frank Piessens significantly improved upon the WPA - TKIP attacks of Erik Tews and Martin Beck. They demonstrated how to inject an arbitrary amount of packets, with each packet containing at most 112 bytes of payload. This was demonstrated by implementing a port scanner, which can be executed against any client using WPA - TKIP. Additionally they showed how to decrypt arbitrary packets sent to a client. They mentioned this can be used to hijack a TCP connection, allowing an attacker to inject malicious JavaScript when the victim visits a website. In contrast, the Beck - Tews attack could only decrypt short packets with mostly known content, such as ARP messages, and only allowed injection of 3 to 7 packets of at most 28 bytes. The Beck - Tews attack also requires Quality of Service (as defined in 802.11 e) to be enabled, while the Vanhoef - Piessens attack does not. Neither attack leads to recovery of the shared session key between the client and Access Point. The authors say using a short rekeying interval can prevent some attacks but not all, and strongly recommend switching from TKIP to AES - based CCMP.
Halvorsen and others show how to modify the Beck - Tews attack to allow injection of 3 to 7 packets having a size of at most 596 bytes. The downside is that their attack requires substantially more time to execute: approximately 18 minutes and 25 seconds. In other work Vanhoef and Piessens showed that, when WPA is used to encrypt broadcast packets, their original attack can also be executed. This is an important extension, as substantially more networks use WPA to protect broadcast packets, than to protect unicast packets. The execution time of this attack is on average around 7 minutes, compared to the 14 minutes of the original Vanhoef - Piessens and Beck - Tews attack.
The vulnerabilities of TKIP are significant in that WPA - TKIP had been held to be an extremely safe combination; indeed, WPA - TKIP is still a configuration option upon a wide variety of wireless routing devices provided by many hardware vendors. A survey in 2013 showed that 71 % still allow usage of TKIP, and 19 % exclusively support TKIP.
A more serious security flaw was revealed in December 2011 by Stefan Viehböck that affects wireless routers with the Wi - Fi Protected Setup (WPS) feature, regardless of which encryption method they use. Most recent models have this feature and enable it by default. Many consumer Wi - Fi device manufacturers had taken steps to eliminate the potential of weak passphrase choices by promoting alternative methods of automatically generating and distributing strong keys when users add a new wireless adapter or appliance to a network. These methods include pushing buttons on the devices or entering an 8 - digit PIN.
The Wi - Fi Alliance standardized these methods as Wi - Fi Protected Setup; however the PIN feature as widely implemented introduced a major new security flaw. The flaw allows a remote attacker to recover the WPS PIN and, with it, the router 's WPA / WPA2 password in a few hours. Users have been urged to turn off the WPS feature, although this may not be possible on some router models. Also, the PIN is written on a label on most Wi - Fi routers with WPS, and can not be changed if compromised.
WPA3 introduces a new alternative for configuration of devices that lack sufficient user interface capabilities by allowing nearby devices to serve as an adequate UI for network provisioning purposes, thus mitigating the need for WPS.
Several weaknesses have been found in MS - CHAPv 2, some of which severely reduce the complexity of brute - force attacks making them feasible with modern hardware. In 2012 the complexity of breaking MS - CHAPv2 was reduced to that of breaking a single DES key, work by Moxie Marlinspike and Marsh Ray. Moxie advised: "Enterprises who are depending on the mutual authentication properties of MS - CHAPv2 for connection to their WPA2 Radius servers should immediately start migrating to something else. ''
Tunneled EAP methods using TTLS or PEAP which encrypt the MSCHAPv2 exchange are widely deployed to protect against exploitation of this vulnerability. However, prevalent WPA2 client implementations during the early 2000s were prone to misconfiguration by end users, or in some cases (e.g. Android), lacked any user - accessible way to properly configure validation of AAA server certificate CNs. This extended the relevance of the original weakness in MSCHAPv2 within MiTM attack scenarios. Under stricter WPA2 compliance tests announce alongside WPA3, certified client software will be required to conform to certain behaviors surrounding AAA certificate validation.
Hole196 is a vulnerability in the WPA2 protocol that abuses the shared Group Temporal Key (GTK). It can be used to conduct man - in - the - middle and denial - of - service attacks. However, it assumes that the attacker is already authenticated against Access Point and thus in possession of the GTK.
In 2016 it was shown that the WPA and WPA2 standards contain an insecure expository random number generator (RNG). Researchers showed that, if vendors implement the proposed RNG, an attacker is able to predict the group key (GTK) that is supposed to be randomly generated by the access point (AP). Additionally, they showed that possession of the GTK enables the attacker to inject any traffic into the network, and allowed the attacker to decrypt all internet traffic transmitted over the wireless network. They demonstrated their attack against an Asus RT - AC51U router that uses the MediaTek out - of - tree drivers, which generate the GTK themselves, and showed the GTK can be recovered within two minutes or less. Similarly, they demonstrated the keys generated by Broadcom access daemons running on VxWorks 5 and later can be recovered in four minutes or less, which affects, for example, certain versions of Linksys WRT54G and certain Apple AirPort Extreme models. Vendors can defend against this attack by using a secure RNG. By doing so, Hostapd running on Linux kernels is not vulnerable against this attack and thus routers running typical OpenWrt or LEDE installations do not exhibit this issue.
In October 2017, details of the KRACK (Key Reinstallation Attack) attack on WPA2 were published. The KRACK attack is believed to affect all variants of WPA and WPA2, though the security implications vary between implementations depending on how a vaguery in the standard was interpreted by the developers of each. Software patches can resolve the vulnerability but are not available for all devices.
|
who was the president of india during pokhran 1 test | Pokhran - II - Wikipedia
The Pokhran - II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army 's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code - named Smiling Buddha, was conducted in May 1974.
Pokhran - II consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs. The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name Operation Shakti, with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated, and the Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee shortly convened a press conference to declare India a full - fledged nuclear state. The tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major states, including Japan and the United States.
Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called Operation Shakti -- 98, and the five nuclear bombs were designated Shakti - I through to Shakti - V. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as Pokhran II, and the 1974 explosion as Pokhran - I.
Efforts towards building the nuclear bomb, infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since World War II. Origins of India 's nuclear program dates back to 1944 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha began persuading the Indian Congress towards the harnessing of nuclear energy -- a year later he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the BARC and plans were developed to produce plutonium and other bomb components. In 1962, India and China engaged in the disputed northern front, and was further intimidated with Chinese nuclear test in 1964. Direction towards militarisation of the nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and little interest of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965.
After Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India 's decision toward building nuclear weapons in 1967 and conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974.
Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group severely affected the India 's nuclear program. The world 's major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan, which was technologically racing to meet with India 's challenge. The nuclear program struggled for years to gain credibility and its progress crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependent on imported technology and technical assistance. At IAEA, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared that India 's nuclear program was not militarising despite authorising preliminary work on the hydrogen bomb design.
As an aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 's government, the nuclear program was left with a vacuum of political leadership and even basic management. Work on the hydrogen bomb design continued under M. Srinivasan, a mechanical engineer, but progress was slow.
The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister Morarji Desai who was renowned for his peace advocacy. In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred physicist Ramanna to Indian MoD, and his government was not entirely without progress in nuclear program and had the program continue to grow at a desirable rate.
Disturbing news came from Pakistan when the world discovered the Pakistan 's clandestine atomic bomb program. Contrary to India 's nuclear program, Pakistan 's atomic bomb program was akin to United States 's Manhattan Project, it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program. The Pakistani atomic bomb program was well funded and organised by then; India realised that Pakistan was likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.
In 1980, the general elections marked the return of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear program began to gain momentum under Ramanna in 1981. Requests for additional nuclear tests were continued to be denied by the government when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saw Pakistan began exercising the brinkmanship, though the nuclear program continued to advance. Initiation towards hydrogen bomb began as well as the launch of the missile programme began under Late president Dr. Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer.
In 1989, the general elections witnessed the Janata Dal party led by V.P. Singh, forming the government. Prime Minister V.P. Singh down played the relations with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto whose Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the general elections in 1988. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan began to severely worsen when India began charging Pakistan of supporting the militancy in Jammu and Kashmir. During this time, the missile program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles.
Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism. The Indian public had been supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995. Plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs of preparations for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. President Bill Clinton and his administration exerted enormous pressure on Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to stop the preparations. Responding to India, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto issued harsh and severe statements against India on Pakistan 's news channels; thus putting stress on the relations between two countries.
Diplomatic tension escalated between two countries when Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto raised the Kashmir issue at the United Nations in 1995. In a speech delivered by then - Speaker National Assembly Yousaf Raza Gillani, stressed the "Kashmir issue '' as continue to endanger the peace and security in the region. The Indian delegation headed by Atal Bihari Vajpayee at the United Nations, reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan -- the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area. ''
The BJP, came to power in 1998 general elections with an exclusive public mandate. BJP 's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.
In Pakistan, the similar conservative force, the PML (N), was also in power with an exclusive mandate led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif who defeated the leftist PPP led by Benazir Bhutto in general elections held in 1997. During the BJP campaign, Atal Bihari Vajpayee indulged in grandstanding -- such as when he declared on 25 February that his government would "take back that part of Kashmir that is under Pakistan 's control. '' Before this declaration, the BJP platform had clear intention to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons '' and "India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved. '' By 18 March 1998, Vajpayee had publicly begun his lobbying for nuclear explosion and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty. ''
Consultation began between Prime Minister Vajpayee, Dr. Abdul Kalam, R. Chidambaram and officials of the Indian DAE on nuclear options. Chidambaram briefed Prime Minister Vajpayee extensively on the nuclear program; Abdul Kalam presented the status of the missile program. On 28 March 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.
It was time of tense atmosphere when Pakistan, at a Conference on Disarmament, offered a peace rhetoric agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields. '' Pakistan 's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee 's position to order the tests.
Unlike Pakistan 's weapon -- testing laboratories, there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at Pokhran. Contrary to high - altitude granite mountains in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the Rajasthan Desert do n't provide much cover from probing satellites. The Indian intelligence had been aware of United States spy satellites and the American CIA had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995; therefore, the tests required complete secrecy in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries. The 58th Engineer Regiment of Indian Army 's Corps of Engineers was commissioned to prepare the test sites without being probed by the United States spy satellites. The 58th Engineer 's commander Colonel Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy. ''
Extensive planning was done by a very small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the Indian government did n't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr. Abdul Kalam, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the Director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the chief coordinators of this test planning. The scientists and engineers of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and obtaining test data. A very small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process, all scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned to avoid satellite detection. Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.
Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug - out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation. Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three. They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniform, to prevent detection in satellite images.
The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:
Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the advanced detonators, the implosion and high - voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for weaponising, systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials. The bombs were transported in four Indian Army trucks under the command of Colonel Umang Kapur; all devices from BARC were relocated at 3 am on 1 May 1998. From the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, the bombs were flown in an Indian Air Force 's AN - 32 plane to the Jaisalmer army base. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as ' Prayer Hall '.
The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices Shakti IV and V. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named ' White House ', which was over 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named ' Taj Mahal ', and the first sub-kiloton device in ' Kumbhkaran '. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the ' Kumbhkaran ' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8: 30 pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the ' White House ' shaft by 4 am, and the fission device being placed in the ' Taj Mahal ' shaft was sealed at 7: 30 am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L - shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.
The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak - proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3: 45 pm the three devices were detonated.
Five nuclear devices were Made during Operation Shakti. All devices were weapon - grade plutonium and they were:
An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) is suspected to have been present but not detonated.
At 3: 43 pm IST; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the Shakti I, II and III) were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors. On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m. IST 6: 51 UTC, two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station. On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.
Following the Pokhran - II tests, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club. Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister 's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:
News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large - scale approval by society in India. The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold decision; editorials were full of praise for the country 's leadership and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country 's armed forces. The Indian opposition, led by Congress Party criticised the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests. The Congress Party spokesman, Salman Khursheed, accused the BJP of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country 's national security.
By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44 bn in loans in 1998, from IMF and the World Bank. The industrial sectors of the Indian economy such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions. The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions. In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.
The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that sanctions would follow. The American intelligence community was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade '' in detecting the preparations for the test.
In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.
From 1998 -- 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming party of the CTBT and NPT. In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the rollback of India 's nuclear program. India took a firm stand against the CTBT and refusing to be signatory party of it despite under pressure by the US President Bill Clinton, and noted the treaty as it was not consistent with India 's national security interest.
Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India 's actions and its High Commissioner. Sanctions were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.
Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid to India and government - to - government credit lines. However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.
On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India, '' and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia. ''. The next day the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued the statement clearly stating that "it is shocked and strongly condemned '' the Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons ''. China further rejected India 's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as "totally unreasonable ''. In a meeting with Masayoshi Takemura of Democratic Party of Japan, Foreign Minister of the People 's Republic of China Qian Qichen was quoted as saying that India 's nuclear tests were a "serious matter, '' particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat ''. On 24 November 1998, the Chinese Embassy, New Delhi issued a formal statement:
(sic)... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India 's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India 's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.
The most vehement and strong reaction to India 's nuclear explosion was from a neighbouring country, Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a severe statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to India. The day after the first tests, Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields '', he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent. ''
On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk (sic) and was acting in a totally unrestrained way. '' Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was much more subdued, maintaining ambiguity about whether a test would be conducted in response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security '', he said. Sharif sought to mobilise the entire Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticised India for nuclear proliferation.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had been under intense pressure regarding the nuclear tests by President Bill Clinton and Opposition leader Benazir Bhutto at home. Initially surprising the world, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testing program and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) carried out nuclear testings under the codename Chagai - I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai - II on 30 May 1998. These six underground nuclear tests at the Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted fifteen days after India 's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai - I).
Pakistan 's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States. American President Bill Clinton was quoted as saying "Two wrongs do n't make a right '', criticising Pakistan 's tests as reactionary to India 's Pokhran - II. The United States and Japan reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan. According to the Pakistan 's science community, the Indian nuclear tests gave an opportunity to Pakistan to conduct nuclear tests after 14 years of conducting only cold tests (See: Kirana - I).
Pakistan 's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan 's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.
The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the test and that of Pakistan 's. China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia.
Overall, the effect of international sanctions on Indian economy was minimal; the technological progress was marginal. Most nations did not call for embargoes against India as the exports and imports together constituted only 4.0 % of its GDP, with United States trade accounting for only 10.0 % of this total. Far more significant were the restrictions on lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies. Most of the sanctions were lifted within five years.
The Indian government has officially declared the 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.
It was officially signed by then - Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.
Coordinates: 27 ° 04 ′ 44 '' N 71 ° 43 ′ 20 '' E / 27.07884 ° N 71.722113 ° E / 27.07884; 71.722113
|
salman khan movie tumko na bhool paayenge songs | Tumko Na Bhool Paayenge - wikipedia
Template: Use India English
Tumko Na Bhool Paayenge (English: I ca n't forget you) is a 2002 Indian action thriller film directed by Pankaj Parashar. The films stars Salman Khan, Sushmita Sen and Dia Mirza in the lead roles. The story of this film is based on the 1996 Hollywood film The Long Kiss Goodnight starring Geena Davis and Samuel L. Jackson. The film was a box office failure.
Veer Thakur (Salman Khan) is an eligible young bachelor living in a small community with his parents, Thakur Kunal Singh (Sharat Saxena), and mom Thakurain Geeta (Nishigandha Wad). He is in love with Muskaan (Dia Mirza), his friend & daughter of another Thakur. Their parents give their support to the union, but Veer suddenly starts getting visions of events that he ca n't remember ever happening to him & finds that he is an expert in fighting techniques no pehelwaan (wrestler), including his father, have ever seen before. Nobody has any explanation for these facts. one day, as the Chief Minister (Anjan Srivastav) is giving a speech at a certain function in his village, Veer suddenly spots a sniper trying to aim at the CM. Veer lunges to save the CM, only to find that the sniper and the building are both missing. Veer grows restless, but nobody notices that the CM has grown restless on seeing Veer. Some days later, at Veer 's wedding, some goons attack the party and try to kill Veer. Veer kills them single - handedly. Convinced that everyone is hiding something important from him, he demands answers. The Thakur relents and tells him that he is neither Veer nor their son.
The real Veer (Arbaaz Khan) was a soldier who died in the line of duty. After immersing his ashes, he found the bullet - ridden body of an unknown man. When he realized that this man had no memories of his past, he told him that he is Veer & concoct a past for him, because they feel the need to have a son. Veer decides to go on a quest to find his real identity. He goes to Mumbai to find that both police and goons are baying for his blood. He meets a teenager who calls him Ali bhaiyya (brother), but the teenager dies while trying to save Ali from an assassin. The hero does not see the face of the assassin, but assumes that his name is Ali. He gets visions of a girl (Sushmita Sen) whom he has never seen.
The mystery starts unwinding when he meets a guy named Inder (Inder Kumar). As Ali starts getting his past memories, it is confirmed that his name is indeed Ali. Ali & the teenager were orphaned brothers, while Inder was Ali 's friend. An old man named Rahim Chacha (Alok Nath) was their guardian. The mysterious girl Ali saw was Mehak, his love. Ali and Inder had won medals for shooting during many contests, although Ali was always the better. The marksmanship skills is noticed by the Joint Commissioner of Mumbai Crime Branch, Arvind Raj (Mukesh Rishi), who makes a proposal to them: masquerade as goons of a gang, kill goons of their rival gang & trick both the gangs to destroy each other in gang wars. Ali refuses flatly, but after some goons kill Rahim Chacha, Ali & Inder decide to take the offer.
Mehak gives both the guys portable video recorders, so that they can prove their innocence if anything goes wrong. Soon, the Inspector takes them to the Chief Minister (Sadashiv Amrapurkar) & his aide (Anjan Srivastav). They plan to enact an attack on the CM, making the opposition look dirty in eyes of people & garnering sympathy votes for CM. However, when Ali is trying to fake the shooting, somebody really kills the CM. The police start chasing Ali, thinking him to be the killer & Ali flees.
After recovering his memory, Ali realizes that the CM 's aide took advantage of the plan to become CM himself. Meanwhile, Ali learns that Inder made Mehak his fiancee to save her from harassment. Ali tries to tell the truth to the Inspector, but realizes that nobody believes him. In an attack when Ali goes aboard a local, the remaining memories come to him. He remembers boarding the train same way on the day of assassination where Inder met him & confessed to killing the CM. Thereafter, Inder shot Ali to hide the truth & threw his body in a river. Suddenly, the Inspector confronts him, Ali convinces the Inspector by telling the truth.
Ali goes to Mehak & tells her everything. He realizes that there must be some incriminating evidence in Inder 's tapes. As he plays a tape, Mehak witnesses in horror Inder striking the deal with CM 's aide. Ali notifies Inder that he remembers everything now. Inder, along with his cronies, comes to kill Ali, Mehak dies in the process. This angers Ali and he kills the goons. Inder and Ali has a hand - to - hand fight. Ali demands Inder an explanation for his actions.
Inder reveals that he was always second best with Ali around & that even Mehak, whom he secretly loved, chose Ali over him. Also, Ali always got money & fame more easily than Inder. Inder reveals that he had sent the goons to kill Rahim Chacha, thus manipulating Ali to take the offer. Also, when Ali came back to Bombay, Inder saw him. Inder was the sniper whom Ali 's brother saw.
Ali kills Inder in combat and afterwards broadcasts Inder 's tape over the cable TV network, thus freeing himself from his charges & putting the present CM in the dock. He returns to the village and marries Muskaan, just as planned.
This movie came out when Salman Khan was in the news for all the wrong reasons - Aishwarya Rai break - up, the alleged hit - and - run case etc. This contributed to its dismal at the box office despite receiving good critic ratings.
|
discuss the historical development of mapping in kenya | History of Kenya - wikipedia
A part of Eastern Africa, the territory of what is now Kenya has seen human habitation since the beginning of the Lower Paleolithic. The Bantu expansion from a West African centre of dispersal reached the area by the 1st millennium AD. With the borders of the modern state at the crossroads of the Bantu, Nilo - Saharan and Afro - Asiatic ethno - linguistic areas of Africa, Kenya is a truly multi-ethnic state.
The European and Arab presence in Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, but European exploration of the interior began only in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, from 1920 known as the Kenya Colony.
The independent Republic of Kenya was formed in 1964. It was ruled as a de facto one - party state by the Kenya African National Union (KANU), it was an alliance led by Jomo Kenyatta during 1963 to 1978. Kenyatta was succeeded by Daniel arap Moi, who ruled until 2002. Moi attempted to transform the de facto one - party status of Kenya into a de jure status during the 1980s, but with the end of the Cold War, the practices of political repression and torture which had been "overlooked '' by the Western powers as necessary evils in the effort to contain communism were no longer tolerated.
Moi came under pressure, notably by US ambassador Smith Hempstone, to restore a multi-party system, which he did by 1991. Moi won elections in 1992 and 1997, which were overshadowed by political killings on both sides. During the 1990s, evidence of Moi 's involvement in human rights abuses and corruption (Goldenberg scandal) was uncovered. He was constitutionally barred from running in the 2002 election, which was won by Mwai Kibaki. Widely reported electoral fraud on Kibaki 's side in the 2007 elections resulted in the 2007 -- 2008 Kenyan crisis. After that Kenya was succeeded by Uhuru Kenyatta in the 2013 electionsthere have been rumours of Raila actually winning but we are not sur
In 1929, the first evidence, called Bennett Kamm, of the presence of ancient early human ancestors in Kenya was discovered when Louis Leakey unearthed 1 million year old Acheulian hand axes at Kariandusi in south west Kenya. Subsequently, many species of early hominid have been discovered in Kenya. The oldest was found by Martin Pickford in the year 2000 and is the 6 million years old Orrorin tugenensis, named after the Tugen Hills where it was unearthed. It is the second oldest fossil hominid in the world after Sahelanthropus tchadensis.
In 1995 Meave Leakey named a new species of hominid Australopithecus anamensis following a series of fossil discoveries near Lake Turkana in 1965, 1987 and 1994, and is around 4.1 million years old.
In 2011 3.2 million year old stone tools were discovered at Lake Turkana - these are the oldest stone tools found anywhere in the world and pre-date the emergence of Homo.
One of the most famous and complete hominid skeletons ever discovered was the 1.6 million year old Homo erectus known as the Turkana Boy which was found by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 on an excavation led by Richard Leakey.
The oldest Acheulean tools ever discovered anywhere in the world are from West Turkana, and were dated in 2011 through the method of magnetostratigraphy to about 1.76 million years old.
Remarkable prehistoric sites in the interior of Kenya include the archaeoastronomical site Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana and the walled settlement of Thimlich Ohinga in Nyanza Province.
The first inhabitants of present - day Kenya were hunter - gatherer groups, akin to the modern Khoisan speakers. For the most part, these communities were assimilated into various food producing societies that began moving into Kenya from the 3rd millennium BC.
Linguistic evidence points to a relative sequence of population movements into Kenya that begins with the entry into northern Kenya of a Southern Cushitic speaking population around the 3rd millennium BC. They kept domestic stock, most likely sheep and goats, and possibly also had a knowledge of agriculture. By 1000 BC and even earlier, the Southern Cushities had spread into central Kenya and northern Tanzania.
In present times the descendants of the Southern Cushitic speakers are located in north central Tanzania near Lake Eyasi. Their past distribution, as determined by the presence of loanwords in other languages, encompasses the known distribution of the Highland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture.
Beginning around 700 BC, Southern Nilotic speaking communities whose homelands lay somewhere near the common border between Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia moved south into the western highlands and Rift Valley region of Kenya.
The arrival of the Southern Nilotes in Kenya occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa. The past distribution of the Southern Nilotic speakers, as inferred from place names, loan words and oral traditions includes the known distribution of Elmenteitan sites.
The Bantu expansion is thought to have reached western Kenya around 1000 BC. Later migrations through Tanzania led to settlement on the Kenyan coast where these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders leading to the development of the Swahili culture.
The Kenyan coast had served host to communities of ironworkers and communities of Bantu subsistence farmers, hunters and fishers who supported the economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production and trade with foreign countries. These communities formed the earliest city states in the region which were collectively known as Azania.
By the 1st century CE, many of the city - states such as Mombasa, Malindi, and Zanzibar began to establish trade relations with Arabs. This led to the increase economic growth of the Swahili states, introduction of Islam, Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language, cultural diffusion, as well as the Swahili city - states becoming a member of a larger trade network. Many historians had long believed that the city states were established by Arab or Persian traders, but archeological evidence has led scholars to recognize the city states as an indigenous development which, though subjected to foreign influence due to trade, retained a Bantu cultural core.
Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples. A Swahili culture developed in the towns, notably Pate, Malindi, and Mombasa. The impact of Arabic and Persian traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture remains controversial. During the Middle Ages,
the East African Swahili coast (including Zanzibar) was a wealthy and advanced region, which consisted of many autonomous merchant cities. Wealth flowed into the cities via the Africans ' roles as intermediaries and facilitators of Indian, Persian, Arab, Indonesian, Malaysian, African and Chinese merchants. All of these peoples enriched the Swahili culture to some degree. The Swahili culture developed its own written language; the language incorporated elements from different civilisations, with Arabic as its strongest quality. Some Arab settlers were rich merchants who, because of their wealth, gained power -- sometimes as rulers of coastal cities.
The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reached Mombasa in 1498. The Portuguese did not intend to found settlements, but to establish naval bases that would give Portugal control of the Indian Ocean. After decades of small - scale conflict, Arabs from Oman defeated the Portuguese in Kenya. Under Seyyid Said, the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1840, the Arabs set up long - distance trade routes into the interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by seminomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long - distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenyan coast on the east and to the kingdoms of Uganda on the west.
The Portuguese became the first Europeans to explore the region of current - day Kenya: Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in April 1498. Da Gama 's voyage successfully reached India (May 1498), and this permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea, thus challenging older trading - networks over mixed land and sea routes, such as the Spice trade routes that utilised the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After the Ottoman Turks had closed traditional land routes to India, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by Gama to break the Venetian trading monopoly. Portuguese rule in East Africa focused mainly on a coastal strip centred in Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in East Africa officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Dom Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in what is now northern Tanzania.
The Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purpose of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels disrupted the commerce of Portugal 's enemies within the western Indian Ocean and the Portuguese demanded high tariffs on items transported through the area, given their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 aimed to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the English, Dutch and Omani Arab incursions into the region during the 17th century. The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in East Africa, besieging Portuguese fortresses and openly attacking naval vessels. Omani forces captured Fort Jesus in 1698, only to lose it in a revolt (1728), but by 1730 the Omanis had expelled the remaining Portuguese from the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts. By this time the Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice - trade sea - route because of the decreasing profitability of that traffic. Portuguese - ruled territories, ports and settlements remained active to the south, in Mozambique, until 1975.
Under Seyyid Said (ruled 1807 - 1856), the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1824, the Arabs set up long - distance trade routes into the interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by seminomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long - distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenyan coast on the east and to the kingdoms of Uganda on the west. Arab, Shirazi and coastal African cultures produced an Islamic Swahili people trading in a variety of up - country commodities, including slaves.
Omani Arab colonisation of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city - states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of plantations, intensification of the slave trade and movement of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region. Arab governance of all the major ports along the East African coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at securing their ' Indian Jewel ' and creation of a system of trade among individuals began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late 19th century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely strangled by the British. The Omani Arabs had no interest in resisting the Royal Navy 's efforts to enforce anti-slavery directives. As the Moresby Treaty demonstrated, whilst Oman sought sovereignty over its waters, Seyyid Said saw no reason to intervene in the slave trade, as the main customers for the slaves were Europeans. As Farquhar in a letter made note, only with the intervention of Said would the European Trade in slaves in the Western Indian Ocean be abolished. As the Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the 1964 revolution, but the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s. Nevertheless, the Omani Arab legacy in East Africa is currently found through their numerous descendants found along the coast that can directly trace ancestry to Oman and are typically the wealthiest and most politically influential members of the Kenyan coastal community.
The first Christian mission was founded on 25 August 1846, by Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German sponsored by the Church Missionary Society of England. He established a station among the Mijikenda on the coast. He later translated the Bible into Swahili.
By 1850 European explorers had begun mapping the interior. Three developments encouraged European interest in East Africa in the first half of the 19th century. First, was the emergence of the island of Zanzibar, located off the east coast of Africa. Zanzibar became a base from which trade and exploration of the African mainland could be mounted. By 1840, to protect the interests of the various nationals doing business in Zanzibar, consul offices had been opened by the British, French, Germans and Americans. In 1859, the tonnage of foreign shipping calling at Zanzibar had reached 19,000 tons. By 1879, the tonnage of this shipping had reached 89,000 tons. The second development spurring European interest in Africa was the growing European demand for products of Africa including ivory and cloves. Thirdly, British interest in East Africa was first stimulated by their desire to abolish the slave trade. Later in the century, British interest in East Africa would be stimulated by German competition.
In 1895 the British government took over and claimed the interior as far west as Lake Naivasha; it set up the East Africa Protectorate. The border was extended to Uganda in 1902, and in 1920 the enlarged protectorate, except for the original coastal strip, which remained a protectorate, became a crown colony. With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the Rift Valley and the surrounding Highlands became reserved for whites. In the 1920s Indians objected to the reservation of the Highlands for Europeans, especially British war veterans. The whites engaged in large - scale coffee farming dependent on mostly Kikuyu labour. Bitterness grew between the Indians and the Europeans.
This area 's fertile land has always made it the site of migration and conflict. There were no significant mineral resources -- none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa.
Imperial Germany set up a protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar 's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of Sir William Mackinnon 's British East Africa Company (BEAC) in 1888, after the company had received a royal charter and concessionary rights to the Kenya coast from the Sultan of Zanzibar for a 50 - year period. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of Tanganyika. The colonial takeover met occasionally with some strong local resistance: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, a Kikuyu chief who ruled Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the BEAC, having been subject to considerable harassment, burnt down Lugard 's fort in 1890. Waiyaki was abducted two years later by the British and killed.
Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on 1 July 1895 established direct rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening (1902) the fertile highlands to white settlers.
A key to the development of Kenya 's interior was the construction, started in 1895, of a railway from Mombasa to Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, completed in 1901. This was to be the first piece of the Uganda Railway. The British government had decided, primarily for strategic reasons, to build a railway linking Mombasa with the British protectorate of Uganda. A major feat of engineering, the "Uganda railway '' (that is the railway inside Kenya leading to Uganda) was completed in 1903 and was a decisive event in modernising the area. As governor of Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard was instrumental in initiating railway extension policy that led to construction of the Nairobi - Thika and Konza - Magadi railways.
Some 32,000 workers were imported from British India to do the manual labour. Many stayed, as did most of the Indian traders and small businessmen who saw opportunity in the opening up of the interior of Kenya. Rapid economic development was seen as necessary to make the railway pay, and since the African population was accustomed to subsistence rather than export agriculture, the government decided to encourage European settlement in the fertile highlands, which had small African populations. The railway opened up the interior, not only to the European farmers, missionaries and administrators, but also to systematic government programmes to attack slavery, witchcraft, disease and famine. The Africans saw witchcraft as a powerful influence on their lives and frequently took violent action against suspected witches. To control this, the British colonial administration passed laws, beginning in 1909, which made the practice of witchcraft illegal. These laws gave the local population a legal, nonviolent way to stem the activities of witches.
By the time the railway was built, military resistance by the African population to the original British takeover had petered out. However new grievances were being generated by the process of European settlement. Governor Percy Girouard is associated with the debacle of the Second Maasai Agreement of 1911, which led to their forceful removal from the fertile Laikipia plateau to semi-arid Ngong. To make way for the Europeans (largely Britons and whites from South Africa), the Maasai were restricted to the southern Loieta plains in 1913. The Kikuyu claimed some of the land reserved for Europeans and continued to feel that they had been deprived of their inheritance.
In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs. When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.
In building the railway the British had to confront strong local opposition, especially from Koitalel Arap Samoei, a diviner and Nandi leader who prophesied that a black snake would tear through Nandi land spitting fire, which was seen later as the railway line. For ten years he fought against the builders of the railway line and train. The settlers were partly allowed in 1907 a voice in government through the legislative council, a European organisation to which some were appointed and others elected. But since most of the powers remained in the hands of the Governor, the settlers started lobbying to transform Kenya in a Crown Colony, which meant more powers for the settlers. They obtained this goal in 1920, making the Council more representative of European settlers; but Africans were excluded from direct political participation until 1944, when the first of them was admitted in the Council.
Kenya became a military base for the British in the First World War (1914 -- 1918), as efforts to subdue the German colony to the south were frustrated. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. However Lt Col Paul von Lettow - Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerilla warfare campaign, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow the British deployed Indian Army troops from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior by foot. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long - term politicisation.
Before the war, African political focus was diffuse. But after the war, problems caused by new taxes and reduced wages and new settlers threatening African land led to new movements. The experiences gained by Africans in the war coupled with the creation of the white - settler - dominated Kenya Crown Colony, gave rise to considerable political activity in the 1920s which culminated in Archdeacon Owen 's "Piny Owacho '' (Voice of the People) movement and the "Young Kikuyu Association '' (renamed the "East African Association '') started in 1921 by Harry Thuku (1895 -- 1970), which gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience. From the 1920s, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation, the ban on female circumcision and support for Thuku.
Most political activity between the wars was local, and this succeeded most among the Luo of Kenya, where progressive young leaders became senior chiefs. By the later 1930s government began to intrude on ordinary Africans through marketing controls, stricter educational supervision and land changes. Traditional chiefs became irrelevant and younger men became communicators by training in the missionary churches and civil service. Pressure on ordinary Kenyans by governments in a hurry to modernise in the 1930s to 1950s enabled the mass political parties to acquire support for "centrally '' focused movements, but even these often relied on local communicators.
During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea. By the 1930s, approximately 30,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms, and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled.
Kenya became a focus of resettlement of young, upper class British officers after the war, giving a strong aristocratic tone to the white settlers. If they had £ 1,000 in assets they could get a free 1,000 acres (4 km); the goal of the government was to speed up modernisation and economic growth. They set up coffee plantations, which required expensive machinery, a stable labour force, and four years to start growing crops. The veterans did escape democracy and taxation in Britain, but they failed in their efforts to gain control of the colony. The upper class bias in migration policy meant that whites would always be a small minority. Many of them left after independence.
Power remained concentrated in the governor 's hands; weak legislative and executive councils made up of official appointees were created in 1906. The European settlers were allowed to elect representatives to the Legislative Council in 1920, when the colony was established. The white settlers, 30,000 strong, sought "responsible government, '' in which they would have a voice. They opposed similar demands by the far more numerous Indian community. The European settlers gained representation for themselves and minimised representation on the Legislative Council for Indians and Arabs. The government appointed a European to represent African interests on the Council. In the "Devonshire declaration '' of 1923 the Colonial Office declared that the interests of the Africans (comprising over 95 % of the population) must be paramount -- achieving that goal took four decades. Historian Charles Mowat explained the issues:
In the Second World War (1939 -- 45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia. The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called "askaris ''. The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the King 's African Rifles (KAR). Looking for middle class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defence forces, created a new class of modernised Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.
British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang'a District 1920 -- 45. Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and "betterment '' of farming in the colonial tribal reserves. While criticised as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state 's agrarian reforms.
Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the Luo the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch 's extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self - sufficient with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernise traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.
As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya 's first African political protest movement, the Young Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku. After the Young Kikuyu Association was banned by the government, it was replaced by the Kikuyu Central Association in 1924.
In 1944 Thuku founded and was first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was an African nationalist organisation that demanded access to white - owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya 's legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic group. In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans.
In response to the rising pressures the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 African and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954.
A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the Mau Mau Uprising, an armed local movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers. It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa. The protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. Harry Thuku said in 1952, "To - day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why? Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau. '' The British killed over 12,000 Mau Mau militants. Mau Mau carried out many atrocities with the violence on all sides reflecting the ferocity of the movement and the ruthlessness with which the British suppressed it. Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961. To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee licence, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union.
After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council under a weighted franchise based on education. The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of "one man, one vote. '' However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage.
At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the British settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell. However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), with the slogan "Uhuru, '' or "Freedom, '' was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader James S. Gichuru and labour leader Tom Mboya. Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labour and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skilfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement. A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by R. Ngala and M. Muliro. In the elections of February 1961, KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians and Arabs). Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October.
In 1959, nationalist leader Tom Mboya began a programme, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the programme anyway. The next year Senator John F. Kennedy helped fund the programme, which trained some 70 % of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist Wangari Maathai.
In 1962, a KANU - KADU coalition government, including both Kenyatta and Ngala, was formed. The 1962 constitution established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 117 - member House of Representatives and a 41 - member Senate. The country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions, each with its own regional assembly. The quota principle of reserved seats for non-Africans was abandoned, and open elections were held in May 1963. KADU gained control of the assemblies in the Rift Valley, Coast and Western regions. KANU won majorities in the Senate and House of Representatives, and in the assemblies in the Central, Eastern and Nyanza regions. Kenya now achieved internal self - government with Jomo Kenyatta as its first president. The British and KANU agreed, over KADU protests, to constitutional changes in October 1963 strengthening the central government. Mau Mau members, made up primarily of Kikuyu and carried out violent attacks against colonial leaders and white settlers. Between 1952 and 1956, the British defeated the Mau Mau through a brutal campaign of military action and widespread detention of the Kikuyu. However, the Mau Mau Rebellion also persuaded the British that social and political reforms were necessary.In 1953, Kenyatta was charged with leading the Mau Mau rebellion and sentenced to seven years in prison. Between 1952 and 1956, the British defeated the Mau Mau through a brutal campaign of military action and widespread detention of the Kikuyu. In 1953, Kenyatta was charged with leading the Mau Mau rebellion and sentenced to seven years in prison. Kenya attained independence on 12 December 1963 as a Commonwealth realm as the "Dominion of Kenya '' with Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State. In 1964 Kenya became a republic and constitutional changes further centralised the government.
The British government bought out the white settlers and they mostly left Kenya. The Indian minority dominated retail business in the cities and most towns, but was deeply distrusted by the Africans. As a result, 120,000 of the 176,000 Indians kept their old British passports rather than become citizens of an independent Kenya; large numbers left Kenya, most of them headed to Britain.
Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978 most of the country 's wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Gikuyu - Embu - Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30 % of the population. At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta 's support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands "stolen by the whites '' -- even when these had previously belonged to other groups. The other groups, a 70 % majority, were outraged, setting up long - term ethnic animosities.
The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU. KANU was the only party 1964 -- 66 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People 's Union (KPU). It was led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice-president and Luo elder. KPU advocated a more "scientific '' route to socialism -- criticising the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities -- as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union. In June 1969 Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country KPU was banned. The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. Kenya thereby became a one - party state under KANU.
Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one - party rule allowed Mzee ("Old Man '') Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, claimed he achieved "political stability. '' Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya 's very rapid population growth rate and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position in the country of Asians and Europeans.
At Kenyatta 's death (22 August 1978), Vice-President Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On 14 October, Moi formally became President after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one - party state. On 1 August members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army the General Service Unit (GSU) -- paramilitary wing of the police -- and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.
Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance. Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda did not win approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The EAC collapsed in 1977 and it was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya 's relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.
Kenyatta died in 1978 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi (b. 1924) who ruled as President 1978 -- 2002. Moi, a member of the Kalenjin ethnic group, quickly consolidated his position and governed in an authoritarian and corrupt manner. By 1986, Moi had concentrated all the power -- and most of its attendant economic benefits -- into the hands of his Kalenjin tribe and of a handful of allies from minority groups.
On 1 August 1982, lower - level air force personnel, led by Senior Private Grade - I Hezekiah Ochuka and backed by university students, attempted a coup d'état to oust Moi. The putsch was quickly suppressed by forces commanded by Chief of General Staff Mahamoud Mohamed, a veteran Somali military official. In the coup 's aftermath, some of Nairobi 's poor Kenyans attacked and looted stores owned by Asians. Robert Ouko, the senior Luo in Moi 's cabinet, was appointed to expose corruption at high levels, but was murdered a few months later. Moi 's closest associate was implicated in Ouko 's murder; Moi dismissed him but not before his remaining Luo support had evaporated. Germany recalled its ambassador to protest the "increasing brutality '' of the regime and foreign donors pressed Moi to allow other parties, which was done in December 1991 through a constitutional amendment.
On the heels of the Garissa massacre of 1980, Kenyan troops committed the Wagalla massacre in 1984 against thousands of civilians in the North Eastern Province. An official probe into the atrocities was later ordered in 2011.
After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament repealed the one - party section of the constitution. The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures switched parties. But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911 -- 1994), a Luo and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically based factions. In the first open presidential elections in a quarter century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37 % of the vote, Matiba received 26 %, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic Party) 19 %, and Odinga 18 %. In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of the 188 seats at stake. Moi 's government in 1993 agreed to economic reforms long urged by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which restored enough aid for Kenya to service its $7.5 billion foreign debt.
Obstructing the press both before and after the 1992 elections, Moi continually maintained that multiparty politics would only promote tribal conflict. His own regime depended upon exploitation of inter-group hatreds. Under Moi, the apparatus of clientage and control was underpinned by the system of powerful provincial commissioners, each with a bureaucratic hierarchy based on chiefs (and their police) that was more powerful than the elected members of parliament. Elected local councils lost most of their power, and the provincial bosses were answerable only to the central government, which in turn was dominated by the president. The emergence of mass opposition in 1990 -- 91 and demands for constitutional reform were met by rallies against pluralism. The regime leaned on the support of the Kalenjin and incited the Maasai against the Kikuyu. Government politicians denounced the Kikuyu as traitors, obstructed their registration as voters and threatened them with dispossession. In 1993 and after, mass evictions of Kikuyu took place, often with the direct involvement of army, police and game rangers. Armed clashes and many casualties, including deaths, resulted.
Further liberalisation in November 1997 allowed the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26. President Moi won re-election as President in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly retained its parliamentary majority.
Moi ruled using a strategic mixture of ethnic favouritism, state repression and marginalisation of opposition forces. He utilised detention and torture, looted public finances and appropriated land and other property. Moi sponsored irregular army units that attacked the Luo, Luhya and Kikuyu communities, and he disclaimed responsibility by assigning the violence to ethnic clashes arising from a land dispute. Beginning in 1998, Moi engaged in a carefully calculated strategy to manage the presidential succession in his and his party 's favour. Faced with the challenge of a new, multiethnic political coalition, Moi shifted the axis of the 2002 electoral contest from ethnicity to the politics of generational conflict. The strategy backfired, ripping his party wide open and resulting in its humiliating defeat of his candidate, Kenyatta 's son, in the December 2002 general elections.
Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya 's first President, as his successor. A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi 's former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was elected President by a large majority.
On 27 December 2002, by 62 % the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (b. 1931) to the presidency. Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union 's (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a cabinet, to seek international support and to balance power within the NaRC.
Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The annual rate of growth improved from − 1.6 % in 2002 to 2.6 % by 2004, 3.4 % in 2005, and 5.5 % in 2007. However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well - off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May -- November 2007 alone.
Once regarded as the world 's "most optimistic, '' Kibaki 's regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self - destruction of Kibaki 's National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945 --) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).
In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM charged the Kikuyu with having grabbed everything and all the other tribes having lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December 2007 elections the ODM won majority seats in Parliament, but the presidential elections votes were marred by claims of rigging by both sides. It may never be clear who won the elections, but it was roughly 50: 50 before the rigging started.
"Majimboism '' was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today "majimboism '' is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fuelling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted today 's majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralised government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands -- corruption, aloofness, favouritism and its flip side, marginalisation. In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu traders settled decades ago. In February 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community were displaced from Rift Valley province. Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organising into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu - dominated areas like Nakuru. "We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism, '' wrote one of Kenya 's leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.
The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo Kenyatta era (1963 -- 1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.
Between 1980 and 2000 total fecundity in Kenya fell by about 40 %, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10 %. The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility. The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government 's active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not promote until 1995.
|
how many exits on i95 in north carolina | Interstate 95 in North Carolina - wikipedia
Interstate 95 (I - 95) is a major Interstate Highway, running along the East Coast of the United States from Florida to Maine. In North Carolina, I - 95 runs diagonally across the eastern third of the state, from Rowland at the South Carolina border to Pleasant Hill at the Virginia border. From south to north, the route passes through or near the cities of Lumberton, Fayetteville, Wilson, Rocky Mount and Roanoke Rapids. The entire route is rural, forming the informal border between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain regions of the state. There are two auxiliary routes for I - 95 in the state: Future I - 295, a partially completed bypass of Fayetteville and I - 795, a spur route connecting I - 95 to the city of Goldsboro.
Interstate 95 enters North Carolina at the South Carolina line, just north of the South of the Border attraction and just to the south of the town of Rowland. Traveling mostly northeast from the border, the road enters Lumberton where it interchanges with I - 74. Frontage roads through Lumberton have extensive travel services, including restaurants, shops, and hotels. Leaving Lumberton, the route turns due north through a rural area of the state, past the small farming community of St. Pauls. I - 95 serves as the eastern bypass of Fayetteville where Interstate 95 Business, an older alignment, connects I - 95 to downtown Fayetteville.
I - 95 interchanges with I - 40 in Benson, North Carolina, U.S. 264 in Wilson, and U.S. 64 in Rocky Mount, three of the main east - west routes in the eastern part of the state. The last city it passes is Roanoke Rapids before leaving the state near the unincorporated community of Pleasant Hill at the Virginia border. For most of the route, I - 95 is paralleled closely by U.S. 301.
The North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT) operate and maintain two welcome centers and six rest areas along I - 95. Welcome centers, which have a travel information facility on site, are located at mile markers 5 (northbound) and 181 (southbound); rest areas are located at mile markers 47 (north and southbound), 99 (north and southbound) and 142 (north and southbound). Common at all locations are public restrooms, public telephones, vending machines, picnic area and barbecue grills.
The North Carolina Department of Public Safety (NCDPS) operate and maintain four truck inspection / weigh stations along I - 95. The Robeson County stations are located on both north and southbound at mile marker 24, each has one fixed scale. The Halifax County stations are located on both north and southbound at mile marker 151, each has two fixed scales.
Interstate 95 in North Carolina feature numerous dedicated or memorialized bridges, interchanges and stretches of freeway.
Established in 1956, as part of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, I - 95 was routed along or near existing US 301 throughout the state of North Carolina. By 1961, two stretches of the interstate opened: from mile marker 56, in Fayetteville, to mile marker 107, near Kenly; the other a small bypass near Saint Pauls. In 1964, the Saint Pauls section extended further south into Lumberton; while another small stretch opened from US 158, in Roanoke Rapids, to the Virginia state line. In 1969, I - 95 was extended further south from Roanoke Rapids to exit 145, in Rocky Mount (later used for NC 4). In 1973, Interstate 95 was completed from Saint Pauls to the South Carolina state line.
By the mid 1970s, I - 95 had two gaps along its route: Fayetteville and Kenly - Gold Rock. In May 1978, two Interstate 95 Business loops were established, both overlapping US 301, to help connect through the gaps and make I - 95 appear as one continuous route throughout the state. In November 1978, the first gap to be completed was the Kenly - Gold Rock section. The final section of Interstate 95 was completed in 1980, an easterly bypass of Fayetteville.
The idea of tolling I - 95 started in 2001 as a way to pay for improvements along the route. In 2003, state officials sought permission from the Federal Highway Administration for a plan that would cost $3 billion and put toll booths every thirty miles along the entire route. However, this was quickly killed by Governor Mike Easley, who did not support tolls.
In 2006, when the Virginia General Assembly passed the resolution calling for an interstate compact to build a toll highway, North Carolina was asked to join in on the compact of putting tolls along the entire length of Interstate 95 in both states. Again, this was stopped by Governor Mike Easley, who did not see the benefit in such a compact and reiterated his opposition of tolls along Interstate 95.
In 2010, North Carolina leaders revived talks on tolling Interstate 95, submitting a request to the Federal Highway Administration to toll the entire route. Approval would be considered after an environmental assessment and other conditions. Support has grown in a number of factors including the fact that the interstate is mostly rural and used predominantly by out - of - state drivers.
On January 20, 2012, NCDOT received final approval of the Environmental Assessment for improvements along I - 95 in North Carolina. The following recommendations were made:
It is estimated to cost $4.4 billion with recommendation that it should be paid through tolls. Construction would begin in two phases: Phase 1 (exit 31 - exit 81) would begin in 2016 with tolls starting after completion; phase 2 would begin in 2019, which covers the remainder of the interstate. With a possible 2019 start date for the tolls, NCDOT plans to install nine overhead toll collection sensors every twenty miles with additional toll collection sensors at exits before tolls (to reduce drivers from jumping off and on at each toll); main toll stations will charge twenty miles each while exit tolls will charge ten miles each. Gaps along the route, where no toll collectors are located, will allow local traffic to utilize the interstate toll free. Though the toll rates have not been established, a NCDOT report suggest charging 19.2 cents per mile (11.9 ¢ / km) for cars in the phase 1 section, with a much lower rate of 6.4 ¢ / mi (4.0 ¢ / km) on phase 2 sections; which would work out to be $19.20 from border to border (trucks with three axles or more will be charged more). Drivers that do not carry a toll transponder (i.e. North Carolina Quick Pass) will have their license numbers recorded by cameras and will be billed by mail, at a higher toll rate.
NCDOT plans to widen I - 95 from four to six lanes between mile markers 14 and 21, in Robeson County. However, it is currently flagged "Scheduled for Reprioritization, '' with no estimated cost or date established.
An improvement project along I - 95 includes widening sections of the interstate in Cumberland and Robeson counties between Exit 22 & Exit 40 and in Harnett & Johnston counties between Exit 71 & Exit 81 to eight lanes. Currently, funding is expected for the Cumberland and Robeson section after 2027 and construction scheduled for the Harnett & Johnston counties section in 2026.
Route map: Google
|
who painted the inside of the florence dome | Florence cathedral - Wikipedia
Florence Cathedral, formally the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Italian pronunciation: (katteˈdraːle di ˈsanta maˈriːa del ˈfjoːre); in English "Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower ''), is the cathedral of Florence, Italy (Italian: Duomo di Firenze). It was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome designed by Filippo Brunelleschi. The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink, bordered by white, and has an elaborate 19th - century Gothic Revival façade by Emilio De Fabris.
The cathedral complex, in Piazza del Duomo, includes the Baptistery and Giotto 's Campanile. These three buildings are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence and are a major tourist attraction of Tuscany. The basilica is one of Italy 's largest churches, and until the development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed.
The cathedral is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is currently Giuseppe Betori.
Santa Maria del Fiore was built on the site of Florence 's second cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata; the first was the Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze whose first building was consecrated as a church in 393 by St. Ambrose of Milan. The ancient structure, founded in the early 5th century and having undergone many repairs, was crumbling with age, according to the 14th - century Nuova Cronica of Giovanni Villani, and was no longer large enough to serve the growing population of the city. Other major Tuscan cities had undertaken ambitious reconstructions of their cathedrals during the Late Medieval period, such as Pisa and particularly Siena where the enormous proposed extensions were never completed.
The new church was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and approved by city council in 1294. Di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9, 1296, by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence. The building of this vast project was to last 140 years; Arnolfo 's plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size.
After Arnolfo died in 1310, work on the cathedral slowed for thirty years. When the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata, the project gained a new impetus. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the guild of wool merchants, took over patronage for the construction of the cathedral and in 1334 appointed Giotto to oversee the work. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambio 's design. His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died the January 8th of 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was halted due to the Black Death in 1348.
In 1349, work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, starting with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels. In 1359, Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini (1360 -- 1369) who divided the center nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Neri di Fioravante and Andrea Orcagna. By 1375, the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and by 1418, only the dome remained incomplete.
On 18 August 1418, the Arte della Lana announced an architectural design competition for erecting Neri 's dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained sharp. Brunelleschi won and received the commission.
Ghiberti, appointed coadjutator, drew a salary equal to Brunelleschi 's and, though neither was awarded the announced prize of 200 florins, was promised equal credit, although he spent most of his time on other projects. When Brunelleschi became ill, or feigned illness, the project was briefly in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him. In 1423, Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility.
Work started on the dome in 1420 and was completed in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, 1436, (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first ' octagonal ' dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame. It was one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance. During the consecration in 1436, Guillaume Dufay 's motet Nuper rosarum flores was performed. The structure of this motet was strongly influenced by the structure of the dome.
The decoration of the exterior of the cathedral, begun in the 14th century, was not completed until 1887, when the polychrome marble façade was completed with the design of Emilio De Fabris. The floor of the church was relaid in marble tiles in the 16th century.
The exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara (white), Prato (green), Siena (red), Lavenza and a few other places. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto 's Bell Tower. There are two side doors: the Doors of the Canonici (south side) and the Door of the Mandorla (north side) with sculptures by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. The six side windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows closest to the transept admit light; the other two are merely ornamental. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic.
During its long history, this cathedral has been the seat of the Council of Florence (1439), heard the preachings of Girolamo Savonarola and witnessed the murder of Giuliano di Piero de ' Medici on Sunday, 26 April 1478 (with Lorenzo Il Magnifico barely escaping death), in the Pazzi conspiracy.
The cathedral of Florence is built as a basilica, having a wide central nave of four square bays, with an aisle on either side. The chancel and transepts are of identical polygonal plan, separated by two smaller polygonal chapels. The whole plan forms a Latin cross. The nave and aisles are separated by wide pointed Gothic arches resting on composite piers.
The dimensions of the building are enormous: building area 8,300 square metres (89,340 square feet), length 153 metres (502 feet), width 38 metres (125 feet), width at the crossing 90 metres (300 feet). The height of the arches in the aisles is 23 metres (75 feet). The height of the dome is 114.5 metres (375.7 feet).
By the beginning of the 15th century, after a hundred years of construction, the structure was still missing its dome. The basic features of the dome had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. His brick model, 4.6 metres (15.1 feet) high, 9.2 metres (30.2 feet) long, was standing in a side aisle of the unfinished building, and had long been sacrosanct. It called for an octagonal dome higher and wider than any that had ever been built, with no external buttresses to keep it from spreading and falling under its own weight.
The commitment to reject traditional Gothic buttresses had been made when Neri di Fioravanti 's model was chosen over a competing one by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini. That architectural choice, in 1367, was one of the first events of the Italian Renaissance, marking a break with the Medieval Gothic style and a return to the classic Mediterranean dome. Italian architects regarded Gothic flying buttresses as ugly makeshifts. Furthermore, the use of buttresses was forbidden in Florence, as the style was favored by central Italy 's traditional enemies to the north. Neri 's model depicted a massive inner dome, open at the top to admit light, like Rome 's Pantheon, but enclosed in a thinner outer shell, partly supported by the inner dome, to keep out the weather. It was to stand on an unbuttressed octagonal drum. Neri 's dome would need an internal defense against spreading (hoop stress), but none had yet been designed.
The building of such a masonry dome posed many technical problems. Brunelleschi looked to the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome for solutions. The dome of the Pantheon is a single shell of concrete, the formula for which had long since been forgotten. The Pantheon had employed structural centring to support the concrete dome while it cured. This could not be the solution in the case of a dome this size and would put the church out of use. For the height and breadth of the dome designed by Neri, starting 52 metres (171 ft) above the floor and spanning 44 meters (144 ft), there was not enough timber in Tuscany to build the scaffolding and forms. Brunelleschi chose to follow such design and employed a double shell, made of sandstone and marble. Brunelleschi would have to build the dome out of brick, due to its light weight compared to stone and being easier to form, and with nothing under it during construction. To illustrate his proposed structural plan, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco, a model which is still displayed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. The model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, so as to ensure Brunelleschi 's control over the construction.
Brunelleschi 's solutions were ingenious, such as his use of the catenary arch for support. The spreading problem was solved by a set of four internal horizontal stone and iron chains, serving as barrel hoops, embedded within the inner dome: one at the top, one at the bottom, with the remaining two evenly spaced between them. A fifth chain, made of wood, was placed between the first and second of the stone chains. Since the dome was octagonal rather than round, a simple chain, squeezing the dome like a barrel hoop, would have put all its pressure on the eight corners of the dome. The chains needed to be rigid octagons, stiff enough to hold their shape, so as not to deform the dome as they held it together.
Each of Brunelleschi 's stone chains was built like an octagonal railroad track with parallel rails and cross ties, all made of sandstone beams 43 centimetres (17 in) in diameter and no more than 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) long. The rails were connected end - to - end with lead - glazed iron splices. The cross ties and rails were notched together and then covered with the bricks and mortar of the inner dome. The cross ties of the bottom chain can be seen protruding from the drum at the base of the dome. The others are hidden. Each stone chain was supposed to be reinforced with a standard iron chain made of interlocking links, but a magnetic survey conducted in the 1970s failed to detect any evidence of iron chains, which if they exist are deeply embedded in the thick masonry walls. Brunelleschi also included vertical "ribs '' set on the corners of the octagon, curving towards the center point. The ribs, 13 feet (4 meters) deep, are supported by 16 concealed ribs radiating from center. The ribs had slits to take beams that supported platforms, thus allowing the work to progress upward without the need for scaffolding.
A circular masonry dome can be built without supports, called centering, because each course of bricks is a horizontal arch that resists compression. In Florence, the octagonal inner dome was thick enough for an imaginary circle to be embedded in it at each level, a feature that would hold the dome up eventually, but could not hold the bricks in place while the mortar was still wet. Brunelleschi used a herringbone brick pattern to transfer the weight of the freshly laid bricks to the nearest vertical ribs of the non-circular dome.
The outer dome was not thick enough to contain embedded horizontal circles, being only 60 centimetres (2 ft) thick at the base and 30 centimetres (1 ft) thick at the top. To create such circles, Brunelleschi thickened the outer dome at the inside of its corners at nine different elevations, creating nine masonry rings, which can be observed today from the space between the two domes. To counteract hoop stress, the outer dome relies entirely on its attachment to the inner dome and has no embedded chains.
A modern understanding of physical laws and the mathematical tools for calculating stresses were centuries in the future. Brunelleschi, like all cathedral builders, had to rely on intuition and whatever he could learn from the large scale models he built. To lift 37,000 tons of material, including over 4 million bricks, he invented hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and his structural innovations were Brunelleschi 's chief contribution to architecture. Although he was executing an aesthetic plan made half a century earlier, it is his name, rather than Neri 's, that is commonly associated with the dome.
Brunelleschi 's ability to crown the dome with a lantern was questioned and he had to undergo another competition, even though there had been evidence that Brunelleschi had been working on a design for a lantern for the upper part of the dome. The evidence is shown in the curvature, which was made steeper than the original model. He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri. His design (now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo) was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows. Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before his death in 1446. Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to alterations by several architects. The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi 's friend Michelozzo in 1461. The conical roof was crowned with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in 1469. This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to 114.5 meters (375 ft). This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July 1600 and fell down. It was replaced by an even larger one two years later.
The commission for this bronze ball (atop the lantern) went to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop there was at this time a young apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci. Fascinated by Filippo 's (Brunelleschi 's) machines, which Verrocchio used to hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series of sketches of them and, as a result, is often given credit for their invention.
Leonardo might have also participated in the design of the bronze ball, as stated in the G manuscript of Paris "Remember the way we soldered the ball of Santa Maria del Fiore ''.
The decorations of the drum gallery by Baccio d'Agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one less than Michelangelo.
A huge statue of Brunelleschi now sits outside the Palazzo dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. It is still the largest masonry dome in the world.
The building of the cathedral had started in 1296 with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in 1469 with the placing of Verrochio 's copper ball atop the lantern. But the façade was still unfinished and would remain so until the 19th century.
The original façade, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and usually attributed to Giotto, was actually begun twenty years after Giotto 's death. A mid-15th - century pen - and - ink drawing of this so - called Giotto 's façade is visible in the Codex Rustici, and in the drawing of Bernardino Poccetti in 1587, both on display in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo. This façade was the collective work of several artists, among them Andrea Orcagna and Taddeo Gaddi. This original façade was completed in only its lower portion and then left unfinished. It was dismantled in 1587 -- 1588 by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de ' Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre. The competition for a new façade turned into a huge corruption scandal. The wooden model for the façade of Buontalenti is on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. A few new designs had been proposed in later years, but the models (of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de ' Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna) were not accepted. The façade was then left bare until the 19th century.
In 1864, a competition held to design a new façade was won by Emilio De Fabris (1808 -- 1883) in 1871. Work began in 1876 and was completed in 1887. This neo-gothic façade in white, green and red marble forms a harmonious entity with the cathedral, Giotto 's bell tower and the Baptistery, but some think it is excessively decorated.
The whole façade is dedicated to the Mother of Christ.
The three huge bronze doors date from 1899 to 1903. They are adorned with scenes from the life of the Madonna. The mosaics in the lunettes above the doors were designed by Niccolò Barabino. They represent (from left to right): Charity among the founders of Florentine philanthropic institutions; Christ enthroned with Mary and John the Baptist; and Florentine artisans, merchants and humanists. The pediment above the central portal contains a half - relief by Tito Sarrocchi of Mary enthroned holding a flowered scepter. Giuseppe Cassioli sculpted the right - hand door.
On top of the façade is a series of niches with the twelve Apostles with, in the middle, the Madonna with Child. Between the rose window and the tympanum, there is a gallery with busts of great Florentine artists.
The Gothic interior is vast and gives an empty impression. The relative bareness of the church corresponds with the austerity of religious life, as preached by Girolamo Savonarola.
Many decorations in the church have been lost in the course of time, or have been transferred to the Museum Opera del Duomo, such as the magnificent cantorial pulpits (the singing galleries for the choristers) of Luca della Robbia and Donatello.
As this cathedral was built with funds from the public, some important works of art in this church honour illustrious men and military leaders of Florence:
Lorenzo Ghiberti had a large artistic impact on the cathedral. Ghiberti worked with Filippo Brunelleschi on the cathedral for eighteen years and had a large number of projects on almost the whole east end. Some of his works were the stained glass designs, the bronze shrine of Saint Zenobius and marble revetments on the outside of the cathedral.
Above the main door is the colossal clock face with fresco portraits of four Prophets or Evangelists by Paolo Uccello (1443). This one - handed liturgical clock shows the 24 hours of the hora italica (Italian time), a period of time ending with sunset at 24 hours. This timetable was used until the 18th century. This is one of the few clocks from that time that still exist and are in working order.
The church is particularly notable for its 44 stained glass windows, the largest undertaking of this kind in Italy in the 14th and 15th century. The windows in the aisles and in the transept depict saints from the Old and the New Testament, while the circular windows in the drum of the dome or above the entrance depict Christ and Mary. They are the work of the greatest Florentine artists of their times, such as Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Paolo Uccello and Andrea del Castagno.
Christ crowning Mary as Queen, the stained - glass circular window above the clock, with a rich range of coloring, was designed by Gaddo Gaddi in the early 14th century.
Donatello designed the stained - glass window (Coronation of the Virgin) in the drum of the dome (the only one that can be seen from the nave).
The beautiful funeral monument of Antonio d'Orso (1323), bishop of Florence, was made by Tino da Camaino, the most important funeral sculptor of his time.
The monumental crucifix, behind the Bishop 's Chair at the high altar, is by Benedetto da Maiano (1495 -- 1497). The choir enclosure is the work of the famous Bartolommeo Bandinelli. The ten - paneled bronze doors of the sacristy were made by Luca della Robbia, who has also two glazed terracotta works inside the sacristy: Angel with Candlestick and Resurrection of Christ.
In the back of the middle of the three apses is the altar of Saint Zanobius, first bishop of Florence. Its silver shrine, a masterpiece of Ghiberti, contains the urn with his relics. The central compartment shows us one of his miracles, the reviving of a dead child. Above this shrine is the painting Last Supper by the lesser - known Giovanni Balducci. There was also a glass - paste mosaic panel The Bust of Saint Zanobius by the 16th - century miniaturist Monte di Giovanni, but it is now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo.
Many decorations date from the 16th - century patronage of the Grand Dukes, such as the pavement in colored marble, attributed to Baccio d'Agnolo and Francesco da Sangallo (1520 -- 26). Some pieces of marble from the façade were used, topside down, in the flooring (as was shown by the restoration of the floor after the 1966 flooding).
It was suggested that the interior of the 45 metre (147 ft) wide dome should be covered with a mosaic decoration to make the most of the available light coming through the circular windows of the drum and through the lantern. Brunelleschi had proposed the vault to glimmer with resplendent gold, but his death in 1446 put an end to this project, and the walls of the dome were whitewashed. Grand Duke Cosimo I de ' Medici decided to have the dome painted with a representation of The Last Judgment. This enormous work, 3,600 metres2 (38 750 ft2) of painted surface, was started in 1568 by Giorgio Vasari and Federico Zuccari and would last till 1579. The upper portion, near the lantern, representing The 24 Elders of Apoc. 4 was finished by Vasari before his death in 1574. Federico Zuccari and a number of collaborators, such as Domenico Cresti, finished the other portions: (from top to bottom) Choirs of Angels; Christ, Mary and Saints; Virtues, Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Beatitudes; and at the bottom of the cupola: Capital Sins and Hell. These frescoes are considered Zuccari 's greatest work. But the quality of the work is uneven because of the input of different artists and the different techniques. Vasari had used true fresco, while Zuccari had painted in secco. During the restoration work, which ended in 1995, the entire pictorial cycle of The Last Judgment was photographed with specially designed equipment and all the information collected in a catalogue. All the restoration information along with reconstructed images of the frescos were stored and managed in the Thesaurus Florentinus computer system.
The cathedral underwent difficult excavations between 1965 and 1974. The archaeological history of this huge area was reconstructed through the work of Dr. Franklin Toker: remains of Roman houses, an early Christian pavement, ruins of the former cathedral of Santa Reparata and successive enlargements of this church. Close to the entrance, in the part of the crypt open to the public, is the tomb of Brunelleschi. While its location is prominent, the actual tomb is simple and humble. That the architect was permitted such a prestigious burial place is proof of the high esteem he was given by the Florentines.
|
what is a throttle sensor on a car | Throttle position sensor - wikipedia
A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the throttle position of a vehicle. The sensor is usually located on the butterfly spindle / shaft so that it can directly monitor the position of the throttle. More advanced forms of the sensor are also used, for example an extra closed throttle position sensor (CTPS) may be employed to indicate that the throttle is completely closed. Some engine control units (ECUs) also control the throttle position electronic throttle control (ETC) or "drive by wire '' systems and if that is done the position sensor is used in a feedback loop to enable that control.
Related to the TPS are accelerator pedal sensors, which often include a wide open throttle (WOT) sensor. The accelerator pedal sensors are used in electronic throttle control (ETC) or "drive by wire '' systems, and the most common use of a wide open throttle sensor is for the kick - down function on automatic transmissions.
Modern day sensors are non contact type. These modern non contact TPS include Hall effect sensors, Inductive sensors, magnetoresistive and others. In the potentiometric type sensors, a multi-finger metal brush / rake is in contact with a resistive strip, while the butterfly valve is turned from the lower mechanical stop (minimum air position) to WOT, there is a change in the resistance and this change in resistance is given as the input to the ECU.
Non contact type TPS work on the principle of Hall effect or Inductive sensors, or magnetoresistive technologies, wherein generally the magnet or inductive loop is the dynamic part which is mounted on the butterfly valve throttle spindle / shaft gear and the sensor & signal processing circuit board is mounted within the ETC gear box cover and is stationary. When the magnet / inductive loop mounted on the spindle which is rotated from the lower mechanical stop to WOT, there is a change in the magnetic field for the sensor. The change in the magnetic field is sensed by the sensor and the voltage generated is given as the input to the ECU. Normally a two pole rare earth magnet is used for the TPS due to their high Curie temperatures required in the under - hood vehicle environment. The magnet may be of diametrical type, ring type, rectangular or segment type. The magnet is defined to have a certain magnetic field that does not vary significantly with time or temperature. In case of failure of the TPS operation the CHECK ENGINE light remains illuminated even if there is no problem or error in the ECU. It can not be corrected by clearing ECU errors by running diagnostic software. In order to rectify the malfunction the TPS needs to be replaced by a new one.
|
who plays jd in heathers the musical 2017 | Heathers: the Musical - wikipedia
Heathers: The Musical is a rock musical with music, lyrics, and a book by Laurence O'Keefe and Kevin Murphy and based on the 1988 cult film Heathers. After a sold - out Los Angeles tryout, the show had a production Off - Broadway in 2014. The show, while a comedy, deals with issues of teen suicide, murder, bullying, homophobia, and gun violence. It has since become massively popular on various social media outlets.
It is the first day of school, 1989, and seventeen - year - old Veronica Sawyer is frustrated with the hellish competitive social hierarchy at Westerburg High School, where nerds and underclassmen are pushed around by brutish, idiot jocks like Ram Sweeney and Kurt Kelly. After trying to defend her best friend, the cheerful, overweight Martha Dunnstock (cruelly renamed "Martha Dumptruck '' by the uncreative Kurt), Veronica longs for the days of elementary school when life was simple and everyone was friends. She wishes desperately to be above the drama, but there is only one elite clique who can do that: the Heathers, the three most beautiful, most popular girls in school. They are the weak - willed head cheerleader Heather McNamara; the bulimic, personality - lacking yearbook committee head Heather Duke; and the "mythic bitch queen '' of the school, Heather Chandler. When Veronica uses her talents as a forger to get the Heathers out of detention, Chandler recognizes her potential and gives her a make - over, elevating her to a member of their inner circle ("Beautiful '').
Veronica soon realizes that popularity is a double - edged sword when Heather Chandler discovers that Martha has had a crush on Ram Sweeney since he kissed her in kindergarten. She orders Veronica to forge a romantic note from him and give it to Martha. Veronica tries to stop them but backs down when the Heathers threaten to destroy her social life ("Candy Store ''). Their threats are witnessed by a mysterious, trenchcoat - wearing, Baudelaire - quoting new kid, Jason "J.D. '' Dean, who criticizes Veronica for betraying her friend in exchange for popularity. Ram and Kurt take the opportunity to pick a fight with him, and he unexpectedly fights back and defeats them. Watching the fight, Veronica finds herself attracted to the stranger ("Fight for Me ''). At Veronica 's house, Chandler ridicules her for being into someone below her social status and subtly insults her parents, who are n't sure they like their daughter 's new friends ("Candy Store Playoff '').
Veronica meets J.D. again in a 7 - Eleven on her way to Ram 's homecoming party. They hit it off, and he flirtatiously extols the virtues of the Slurpee, explaining he uses the brain - freeze to numb the pain of his troubled relationship with his father, the absence of his dead mother, and his nomadic lifestyle ("Freeze Your Brain '').
Ram and Kurt 's macho fathers leave for a fishing trip, roughing their sons up on the way out the door in a similar fashion to the way their sons treat the kids at school. With his folks gone, Ram starts the party, which quickly grows out of control as Veronica gets increasingly drunk ("Big Fun ''). Martha shows up, thinking Ram invited her because of the note but is cruelly rebuffed. The Heathers try to prank her by dressing up a pig - shaped piñata to resemble her, but Veronica stops them and throws the piñata in the pool. She angrily resigns from the Heathers, but Heather Chandler refuses to allow her to walk away, threatening to ruin her social life. In response, the inebriated Veronica vomits on Heather 's shoes, enraging her, and the frightened students turn their backs on her. Feeling she has nothing to lose now, she breaks into J.D. 's bedroom and seduces him, losing her virginity ("Dead Girl Walking '').
After having a nightmare about Chandler tormenting her ("Veronica 's Chandler Nightmare ''), Veronica decides to go to her house to apologize, with J.D. tagging along. Heather orders Veronica to make her a hangover cure, and J.D., apparently jokingly, suggests putting toxic drain cleaner in it as revenge. Veronica tells him to stop, but in a distracted moment, grabs the wrong cup. J.D. notices the mix - up but says nothing as Chandler humiliates Veronica, rejects her apology, drinks the hangover cure, and dies. Fearing no one will believe it was an accident, Veronica freaks out until J.D. spots Heather 's copy of The Bell Jar. He convinces Veronica to forge a suicide note. In the process, she makes Heather sound more deep and complex than she actually was, gaining her sympathy from the entire school and inspiring ex-hippie teacher Miss Fleming to start a school - wide campaign to prevent teenage suicide ("Me Inside Of Me '').
With Heather Chandler dead, Heather Duke breaks free of her subservient status and assumes control. Veronica and J.D. watch her give sob story interviews on multiple news channels (and in multiple languages) at J.D. 's house, where Veronica witnesses first - hand J.D. 's tense relationship with his father, demolitions expert Big Bud Dean. Veronica 's displeasure at the new status quo is equaled only by that of Chandler herself, who appears as a ghost to berate Veronica from beyond the grave. Veronica gets a call from Heather McNamara, begging her to come to the cemetery, and when she gets there, she discovers the Heathers have locked themselves in a car, trying to fend off a drunk Kurt and Ram. It emerges that they escaped date - rape by the intoxicated football players, who are desperate for sexual relief, by telling them that they can have Veronica. The boys aggressively beg her to have sex with them ("Blue ''), but she escapes by giving them more alcohol until they pass out. The next day, Veronica discovers that Heather Duke has taken on Heather Chandler 's role of leader, as she takes Heather Chandler 's red scrunchie (a symbol of her power) from her locker, and that Ram and Kurt have told everyone that she had sex with them ("Blue (Reprise) ''), and she is branded a slut by the other students ("Blue Playoff '').
J.D. comforts her and enlists Veronica 's help in a plan to get revenge on the two jocks. She lures them into the cemetery with the promise of making their lies about her come true, where J.D. explains that they will shoot them with special "Ich Lüge '' (German for "I Am Lying '') bullets which cause temporary unconsciousness, putting them out long enough for cops to find a forged suicide note proclaiming they 're gay lovers. Once the jocks are in position, J.D. shoots Ram, but Veronica misses Kurt, who runs into the woods pursued by J.D. As Veronica realizes Ram is dead and the bullets are real, J.D. shoots Kurt down in cold blood, and proclaims his undying love to a horrified Veronica ("Our Love is God '').
At Ram and Kurt 's joint funeral, a distraught Veronica reflects on Ram and Kurt, musing that they could have potentially outgrown their immaturity, however, their lives were cut short before they were given the chance ("Prom or Hell? ''). Their fathers unexpectedly decide to accept their sons ' homosexuality, even more unexpectedly reveal their own past love affair during a fishing trip, and vow to work towards making the world a more tolerant place ("My Dead Gay Son ''). Seeing this as a sign their murders are making the world a better place, J.D. tries to convince Veronica they should make Heather Duke their next target. She refuses, provoking a furious rant about the way society creates pain and misery. Sensing the deeper pain driving his fury, Veronica asks J.D. how his mother died, and learns that he watched her commit suicide by walking into a library his father was demolishing just before it was blown up. Attempting to get through to him, Veronica begs him to give up trying to change the world through violence and live a normal life with her ("Seventeen '').
When he leaves, Heather Chandler 's ghost appears once more doubting he really changed. Martha asks Veronica for help breaking into J.D. 's locker, as she suspects he murdered the football players, insisting Ram could n't be gay because of the love note he wrote her. Knowing that if Martha found anything incriminating she would become J.D. 's next target and also fearing that her own role in the killings might be discovered, Veronica listens to ghostly Heather Chandler 's advice and drives Martha away by confessing she wrote the note and that Ram thought she was a loser. Martha runs off in tears.
School guidance counselor Pauline Fleming holds a televised therapy assembly in order to aid the student body and prevent any more suicides from happening, and coincidentally to promote Fleming 's controversial therapeutic techniques on live television ("Shine a Light ''). Heather McNamara is the only one to step forward, confessing she 's thought about killing herself due to the overwhelming peer pressure she faces every day ("Lifeboat ''). Duke turns on her, whipping the other students into a frenzy and mocking her. Veronica lashes out at Ms. Fleming for taking advantage of the publicity and not protecting McNamara, and in her rage, she confesses to the murders. No one believes her, thinking she is just desperate for attention. She follows McNamara to the school bathroom, where she catches her attempting to overdose on a bottle of sleeping pills ("Shine a Light (Reprise) ''). Veronica stops her in time and comforts her. J.D. tries to talk her into killing Duke again, and Veronica realizes he is carrying around a loaded gun. Realizing how unstable he is, Veronica breaks up with him. They argue, and he accidentally points the gun at her. She storms out, leaving him alone, as the other students (including Heather McNamara) come out revealing that there is going to be a pep rally later that night ("Hey Yo, Westerburg '').
J.D. confronts Duke with evidence that she and Martha were friends when they were children, and blackmails her into getting all the kids at school to sign a petition declaring a holiday in remembrance of the victims of suicide. Martha, unnoticed by everyone and mourning her beloved Ram, tries to commit suicide by jumping off a bridge ("Kindergarten Boyfriend ''). She survives with a few broken bones, and her suicide is derided as a failed attempt to imitate the popular kids. Veronica rushes to the hospital as the ghosts of Kurt, Ram, and Heather Chandler taunt her with the realization that she has become as awful as Chandler ("Yo Girl ''). When she returns home her parents confront her, telling her J.D. has told them she is suicidal, and she realizes J.D. plans to make her his next victim. He breaks into her room, wielding a gun, as she barricades herself in the closet. Increasingly unhinged, he tells her he 's changed his mind about killing her, believing the solution to their problem is to kill the student body that 's brainwashed her. He reveals that the petition, signed by every student at Westerburg, was actually a disguised suicide note, and he plans to blow up the school while everyone 's at a pep rally, making it look like a mass suicide. Growing impatient, he breaks open the door, and finds Veronica dangling from a noose. Grief - stricken, he rushes out to complete his plan in her memory ("Meant to Be Yours '').
Veronica, however, has faked her suicide, and grabs a croquet mallet to put an end to J.D. 's madness, even if she has to die in the process. ("Dead Girl Walking (Reprise) ''). She confronts him as he 's setting up the bomb in the boiler room underneath the gym. She begs him one final time to stop, but he refuses to listen, and she attacks him. In their struggle, his gun goes off, and J.D. collapses with a bullet in his gut. Having no idea how to disarm the bomb, Veronica takes it out to the empty football field, intending to save the other students by sacrificing herself. J.D., still alive, follows her and convinces her to let him take the bomb instead ("I Am Damaged ''), asking her to do something good with her life. The bomb goes off, killing J.D. and leaving everyone else unharmed.
Returning to the school singed but alive, Veronica takes the red scrunchie from Heather Duke, tying it in her own hair, and declares to the student body that the era of constant ridicule and belittlement is over. Veronica invites Martha and Heather McNamara to hang out, rent a movie, and simply be kids for a little while before their childhoods are over ("Seventeen (Reprise) '').
† Not featured on World Premiere Cast Recording
The show 's director, Andy Fickman, had been working with Daniel Waters (the screenwriter of the film) on the musical. After seeing Laurence O'Keefe 's work with Legally Blonde and how he transitioned film to theatre, he decided to pair him with Reefer Madness collaborator Kevin Murphy. Fickman said of the experience, "we found that Heathers gave a great deal of opportunity for ' 80s commentary and a great chance for music and storytelling ''.
There was a reading sometime in 2010, with Kristen Bell as Veronica, Christian Campbell as J.D., and Jenna Leigh Green, Corri English, and Christine Lakin as the Heathers.
On September 13 -- 14, 2010, it was presented as a concert at Joe 's Pub. The show was directed by Andy Fickman, and it starred Annaleigh Ashford as Veronica Sawyer, Jeremy Jordan as Jason Dean, Jenna Leigh Green as Heather Chandler, Corri English as Heather McNamara, and Christine Lakin as Heather Duke, James Snyder as Kurt Kelly, PJ Griffith as Ram Sweeney, Julie Garnyé as Martha "Dumptruck '' Dunnstock, Eric Leviton as Ram 's Dad, Kevin Pariseau as Kurt 's Dad / Principal, Jill Abramovitz as Ms. Fleming / Veronica 's Mom, Tom Compton as Hipster Dork / Preppy Kid, Alex Ellis as Goth Girl / English Teacher / Young Republicanette, and Kelly Karbacz as Stoner Chick / School Psychologist.
The show played at the Hudson Backstage Theatre in Los Angeles for a limited engagement on the weekends from September 21, 2013 to October 6, 2013. The cast included Barrett Wilbert Weed as Veronica, Ryan McCartan as J.D., Sarah Halford as Heather Chandler, Kristolyn Lloyd as Heather Duke, and Elle McLemore as Heather McNamara.
In 2013, it was announced that Heathers: The Musical would be brought to Off - Broadway, previews beginning in March at New World Stages, directed by Andy Fickman. Coincidentally, New World is also the name of the original film 's distributor. In February 2014, the cast was announced, including Barrett Wilbert Weed, Ryan McCartan, and Elle McLemore reprising their roles as Veronica, J.D, and Heather McNamara, respectively, with new additions to the cast being Jessica Keenan Wynn as Heather Chandler and Alice Lee as Heather Duke. The show began previews on March 15, 2014, and opened on March 31, 2014.
A cast album was recorded on April 15 -- 16, 2014 with an in - store and digital release of June 17, 2014. It was released a week early on June 10, 2014.
Heathers: The Musical played its final performance at New World Stages on August 4, 2014.
In 2016 White Plains Performing Arts Center presented the NY Regional Premiere of the production to sold out audiences.
The Australian premiere of Heathers: The Musical at the Hayes Theatre in Sydney was staged in July - August 2015. Directed by Trevor Ashley with choreography by Cameron Mitchell, it starred Jaz Flowers as Veronica Sawyer, Stephen Madsen as Jason "J.D. '' Dean, Lucy Maunder as Heather Chandler, Erin Clare as Heather McNamara, and Libby Asciak as Heather Duke. The well - received production transferred the following year, with mostly the same cast, for seasons in Brisbane (Playhouse, Queensland Performing Arts Centre) in January 2016, Melbourne (Playhouse, Arts Centre Melbourne) in May 2016, and the Sydney Opera House 's Playhouse in June 2016.
Following its 2014 Off - Broadway run, the musical gained cult status from audiences that mirrored the characters at the fictional Westerburg High, and multiple high schools were putting in requests for the licensing rights; accordingly, an abridged "PG - 13 '' version was prepared, newly revised by writers Laurence O'Keefe and Kevin Murphy, iTheatrics, and licensing company Samuel French specifically for student productions. Most of the profanity in the show was deleted, "Big Fun '' and "Dead Girl Walking '' received rewritten lyrics and one new song, "You 're Welcome '' was written for the show to replace "Blue ''.
The world premiere of Heathers The Musical: High School Edition took place on September 15, 2016, at Pearce Theatre, J.J. Pearce High School, Richardson, Texas.
|
when did the suite life on deck start | The Suite Life on Deck - wikipedia
The Suite Life on Deck is an American sitcom that aired on Disney Channel from September 26, 2008 to May 6, 2011. It is a sequel / spin - off of the Disney Channel Original Series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. The series follows twin brothers Zack and Cody Martin and hotel heiress London Tipton in a new setting, the SS Tipton, where they attend classes at "Seven Seas High School '' and meet Bailey Pickett while Mr. Moseby manages the ship. The ship travels around the world to nations such as Italy, France, Greece, India, Sweden and the United Kingdom where the characters experience different cultures, adventures, and situations.
The series ' pilot aired in the UK on September 19, 2008, and in U.S. markets on September 26, 2008. The series premiere on the Disney Channel in the U.S. drew 5.7 million viewers, and it became the most watched series premiere in Canada on the Family Channel. The show was also TV 's No. 1 series in Kids 6 -- 11 and No. 1 scripted series in tweens 9 -- 14 in 2008, outpacing veteran series Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place in the ratings. On October 19, 2009, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a third season, which began production in January 2010 and debuted on July 2, 2010. The series is also 2009 's top rated scripted series in the children and tween demographic (6 -- 14).
The series has been broadcast in more than 30 countries worldwide, and was shot at Hollywood Center Studios in Los Angeles (as was the original series). The series was taped in front of a live studio audience, though a laugh track is used for some scenes. The series is the second spin - off of a Disney Channel series (after the short - lived That 's So Raven spinoff Cory in the House); as well as the last Disney Channel series to debut broadcasting exclusively in standard definition, and the first of three Disney Channel shows to transition from standard definition to high definition, which occurred on August 7, 2009 with the season 2 premiere, "The Spy Who Shoved Me, '' and the third multi-camera comedy (after Sonny with a Chance and Jonas) to utilize a filmized appearance instead of the Filmlook appearance that was used in the first season.
On March 25, 2011, a film based on The Suite Life on Deck and its parent series titled The Suite Life Movie aired on the Disney Channel. The series ' forty - minute finale episode, "Graduation on Deck '', aired on Disney Channel on May 6, 2011, officially ending the series.
On February 4, 2008, it was announced that the Disney Channel was developing a new contemporary sequel to the Disney channel sitcom The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. The announcement was made by Gary Marsh, the President of the Disney Channel. He stated, "Our audience has shown us that after 88 episodes, ' The Suite Life of Zack & Cody ' remains one of their favorite sitcoms ever, we decided to find a new way for Zack, Cody, London, and Mr. Moseby to live ' The Suite Life ' in a whole new setting -- this time aboard a luxury cruise liner. '' The series original creator, Danny Kallis was announced to be involved with the project. The elements from the original series remain the same though the setting is completely different.
In December 2008, it was reported that the Disney Channel had renewed the series for a thirteen episode second season. On May 11, 2009, Disney issued a press release stating that the second season had been extended to include a larger number of episodes than the original thirteen. Gary Marsh, the president of Disney Channels Worldwide said: "With this second - season extension, the cast of ' The Suite Life ' makes Disney Channel history by becoming the longest running continuous characters on our air -- 138 half - hour episodes. We are thrilled for them, and for the brilliant, inspired production team that made this extraordinary run possible. ''
As of 2011, The Suite Life series holds the record (162 episodes) for having the longest running continuous characters on air and the most canon episodes for any Disney Channel series.
According to show creators and producers, the choice of setting was made to appeal to an international audience with different ports - of - call, such as India, Greece, Italy, Morocco, the United Kingdom and Thailand. An on - board theater serves as an "organic '' set - up for musical numbers. Most of the action in the series occurs on board the SS Tipton. However, the ship travels to a variety of places around the world which are often unfamiliar places to both Zack and Cody Martin.
The SS Tipton is a cruise ship belonging to London Tipton 's father. The ship had its first canon appearance in The Suite Life of Zack and Cody episode "Let Us Entertain You ''. Unlike most cruise ships it also includes a school, Seven Seas High School, which is a common setting on the ship, as are the Sky Deck, the lobby, the corridors outside the students ' cabins and the cabins themselves. In the third season, the Aqua Lounge, a newly refurbished space on the ship, was shown, and it replaced the Sky Deck as the main hangout (although the Sky Deck is still commonly shown). There are also various areas on the SS Tipton that are mentioned, but never seen, including several decks and the ship 's putt - putt golf course, where the captain spends most of his time. In the crossover episode of Wizards of Waverly Place, "Cast - Away (To Another Show), '' Mr. Moseby reveals that the ship itself weighs 87,000 tons. After the events in "Graduation on Deck '' the SS Tipton was sold and later dismantled. Mr Moseby mentioned in the season 1 episode "Cruisin ' for a Bruisin ' '', that the ship was not the first ship with the SS Tipton name (indicating that the Tipton cruiseline had been in service long before the events of the first series). Mr Tipton commissioned a scale model "replica - in - a-bottle '' of the first SS Tipton as a gift for Captain Lansferd.
The show 's theme song, "Livin ' the Suite Life, '' was written by John Adair and Steve Hampton (who also wrote the themes for fellow Disney Channel series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, Phil of the Future, and Wizards of Waverly Place, as well as the theme for the ABC Kids series Power Rangers: RPM), with music composed by Gary Scott (who also composed the music cues to signal scene changes and promo breaks, some of which are styled similarly to the theme), and is performed by British singer Steve Rushton (who is only credited for performing the theme in the second season).
The series was one of only 4 of Disney Channel shows still running in 2011 whose theme song is not performed by a star of the series (Phineas and Ferb, Fish Hooks and Shake It Up are the others).
Note: The show 's first ever air date was in the United Kingdom on September 19, 2008.
The episode "Double - Crossed '' is the second part of a three - way crossover that begins on Wizards of Waverly Place and concludes on Hannah Montana. Cody promises to get tickets for himself and Bailey to a concert in Hawaii featuring Hannah Montana, who has boarded the SS Tipton. In the meantime, the Russo siblings enjoy a cruise of their own until Alex pulls a prank that causes Justin to turn blue.
On September 20, 2010, Disney Channel announced that production had begun for a Disney Channel Original Movie based on The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and The Suite Life on Deck.
The Suite Life Movie premiered on the Disney Channel in the United States and Canada on March 25, 2011.
In 2013, during an interview with Gawker, Dylan Sprouse revealed he and his brother had pitched an idea to the Disney Channel about continuing the Suite Life series. The show would see Zack and Cody return to the Tipton Hotel in Boston to live with their mother, and would become mentors to a boy who lived with his father at the hotel. Disney rejected the idea initially, but contacted the twins a year later with an edited concept that retained the boy and his father storyline, but Zack and Cody would move to a Miami hotel instead, Selena Gomez would also star and the twins would not get producer credits like they had requested. The Sprouses rejected the concept, leaving the project abandoned.
The Suite Life on Deck premiered in Australia and New Zealand October 6, 2008. It is broadcast on Disney Channel and on NZ MediaWorks TV3 and FOUR.
The Canadian Family Channel debuted the series October 13, 2008. VRAK.TV broadcast the series as La vie de croisière de Zack et Cody (The Cruise Life of Zack and Cody) beginning August 27, 2009. The series also aired on Disney XD (Canada) beginning June 1, 2011.
In Ireland, the series debuted on Disney XD September 4, 2010.
Disney Channel broadcast the series in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland February 6, 2009, with an advance airing September 19, 2008. The series also aired on Disney XD beginning July 16, 2012.
The Suite Life on Deck premiered in the United States September 26, 2008 on Disney Channel. Disney XD began broadcasting the series February 13, 2009.
An activity book based on the series was released on July 13, 2009. The book is called "The Suite Life on Deck Sink or Swim Sticker Activity Book ''. A photo album based on the series was also released, and it includes several posters, colored images from the series, captions and activities for the reader. In August 2009, two new books titled "Suite Life on Deck: A Day in the Life '' and "Suite Life on Deck Party Planner '' were released by Walt Disney.
The show 's pilot premiered on the Disney Channel in the U.S. on September 26, 2008, and gathered 5.7 million viewers on the night of its premiere. The series premiere in Canada was also the most watched series premiere on Family channel. In December 2008, Business Wire reported the show was 2008 's # 1 top scripted television series for children between the ages 6 to 11 and pre-teenagers between the ages 9 to 14, beating the veteran series Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place in the ratings. The show was in the # 1 spot for the top rated children 's television series for many months. The show has been one of the top 4 live - action television series for many months. Since then, "The Suite Life on Deck '' held a commanding lead in the time slot (Friday 8: 00 p.m.), ranking as TV 's # 1 program among the key children demographics, virtually doubling Nickelodeon among children between the age of 9 -- 14, and defeating it by a 6 % among children between the age of 6 -- 11. In addition, the series is # 1 in total viewers on all cable, outperforming # 2 rank (Fox News and Nickelodeon) by 800,000 more viewers.
As of August 2009, the highest rated episode of The Suite Life on Deck was "Double - Crossed, '' the second part of Wizards On Deck with Hannah Montana, a trilogy of crossover episodes featuring guest stars from Wizards of Waverly Place and Hannah Montana which premiered on July 17, 2009 on Disney Channel. The special was viewed by more than 10.6 million viewers, program of the night across both cable and broadcast television, and ranks as one of the highest - rated episodes for a Disney Channel original series. This was the first episode that Cody and Bailey go out on a date.
In early October 2009, the series one - hour special episode "Lost at Sea '' became the most watched episode of the series, with 7.6 million total viewers, including 3.2 million in the Kids 6 -- 11 demographic, and 2.8 million in the Tweens 9 -- 13 demographic. The episode delivered Disney Channel 's best numbers in the hour with regular programming in the net 's history. In 2009, the series was the most watched scripted series in the children and tween demographic (6 -- 14), outpacing Hannah Montana and several other teenage shows. The series second season 's ratings grew 25 % higher than the show 's season one ratings, the second season has averaged approximately 5.1 million viewers.
Before the series officially made its debut on air, the first episode entitled "The Suite Life Sets Sail '' was made available as a free download on iTunes. All series have since been made available.
|
law & order special victims unit season 15 episode 24 cast | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 15) - wikipedia
The fifteenth season of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit made its debut with a two - hour premiere episode on September 25, 2013, at 9pm / 8c - 11pm / 10c (Eastern), on NBC.
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit was renewed for a fifteenth season on April 26, 2013, which consists of 24 episodes. Cast - member Mariska Hargitay (Detective Olivia Benson) revealed on May 25, 2013, that her contract had been renewed for the upcoming season. Ice - T (Detective Fin Tutuola) announced on Twitter that filming on the fifteenth season commenced on July 24, 2013.
In August 2013, Leight revealed that the storyline for the fifteenth season would pick up where the finale of the previous season had ended, with some high drama in particular for Benson; "Olivia will very much be dealing with and reeling from her encounter with Lewis... her character 's got incredible empathy for others and yet has had a hard time looking out for herself. This is the season where she 's talked the talk to others, but she has n't had to walk the walk until now. ''
On July 12, 2013, it was announced that Raúl Esparza would be elevated to the main cast as ADA Rafael Barba during this season. Esparza portrayed Barba in a recurring capacity during the series ' fourteenth season. On the promotion, SVU executive producer and showrunner Warren Leight expressed, "Making (Esparza) a series regular is a small way of acknowledging his enormous contribution to our show. '' Barba is the first regular ADA on the series since Alexandra Cabot (Stephanie March) in the eleventh season.
On October 2, 2013, it was announced that Broadway actress Jessica Phillips would return to the series for a recurring role as ADA Pippa Cox. Phillips previously guest starred as ADA Cox in the fourteenth season 's "Born Psychopath ''.
On September 27, 2013, it was announced that Richard Belzer (Sergeant John Munch) would depart the main cast in the fifth episode, "Wonderland Story. '' The storyline showed Munch retiring from the Special Victims Unit after 15 years in order to move onto becoming a Special District Attorney Investigator, which allowed the character to make future recurring appearances on the series. Belzer, one of the series ' original cast members, collectively portrayed Munch for 20 years as a regular on Homicide: Life on the Street (1993 -- 99) and later SVU, in conjunction with guest appearances in other Law & Order universe shows.
On December 10, 2013, it was announced that Dann Florek (Captain Donald Cragen) would depart SVU in an episode airing in January 2014. The storyline was revealed in "Internal Affairs '', in which he reveals to Benson (Hargitay) that like Munch, he too has his days left at SVU numbered, as he is approaching the mandatory retirement age limit. Like Belzer, Florek was one of the series ' original cast members, portraying Cragen for fifteen consecutive seasons. Florek was the last link to the original franchise, portraying Captain Cragen in the first three seasons of Law & Order (1990 -- 93), returning for guest appearances in later seasons, as well as appearing in Exiled: A Law & Order Movie (1998).
After appearing in the fourteenth - season finale, Dean Winters (Brian Cassidy), Pablo Schreiber (William Lewis), and Lauren Ambrose (Vanessa Mayer) continued their respective portrayals in the season premiere episode, "Surrender Benson ''. Winters also starred in the subsequent episodes, "Imprisoned Lives '', "Internal Affairs '', and "Wonderland Story ''. Cybill Shepherd guest starred in the ' ripped from the headlines ' third episode of the season, which combines the Shooting of Trayvon Martin case and the Paula Deen racial epithet controversy. Shepherd 's character, Jolene Castille, thought she was being pursued by a rapist and turned around to discover it was a teenager. She shot him. Jeffrey Tambor reprised his role as Defense Attorney Ben Cohen in this episode, to represent Castille.
David Conrad, who had originally auditioned to play detective Nick Amaro, appeared in "Internal Affairs '' as Officer West, together with Nadia Dajani as Officer Ryan Quinn, who were suspected of raping young women during their shifts.
In "Wonderland Story '', Sofia Vassilieva guest starred as Sarah Walsh, a rape victim who needed the help of Detective Benson after being raped again. Vassilieva first appeared as Walsh in the thirteenth season 's "True Believers ''. Munch 's resignation in this episode welcomed back his ex-wives Gwen Munch (Carol Kane) and Billie Lou Hatfield (Ellen McElduff) and his former Homicide: Life on the Street co-worker, Baltimore Detective Meldrick Lewis (Clark Johnson).
Kirk Acevedo appeared as Eddie Garcia in "October Surprise '', a childhood friend of ADA Rafael Barba (Raúl Esparza). Originally, Acevedo played District Attorney investigator Hector Salazar in the short - lived Law & Order spin - off, Law & Order: Trial by Jury. He had made an appearance on SVU in the sixth season 's TBJ - SVU crossover episode "Night ''.
Tony Award winner Billy Porter guest starred in "Dissonant Voices '' as singing coach and television personality Jackie Walker, who was accused of sexual abuse by his students. The X Factor season 2 contestant Carly Rose Sonenclar portrayed Grace Belsey in this episode. Ashanti, Clay Aiken and Taylor Hicks make cameos as judges on a reality show.
In "Military Justice '', Shiri Appleby made a special appearance as Amelia Albers, a junior officer who appeared to have been raped by her group of soldiers. In the same episode, Laura Benanti returns as Maria Grazie, the ex-wife of Detective Amaro, who provides information about the case to the SVU squad. Terry Serpico appears as Lieutenant Commander Travers, the commanding officer of Albers, and Delaney Williams returns as Defense Attorney John Buchanan.
In "Rapist Anonymous '', Nia Vardalos returned as Defense Attorney Minonna Efron, having previously appeared in the season 14 episode, "Criminal Hatred ''. In the same episode, former co-star of The Killing, Amy Seimetz and Thomas Sadoski guest starred. Mel Harris appears in "Rapist Anonymous '' and "Amaro 's One - Eighty '' as Eileen Switzer, the new girlfriend of Captain Cragen.
It was announced that Pablo Schreiber will return in the tenth episode of the season, "Psycho / Therapist '', as William Lewis, when facing trial for kidnapping and assault to Detective Olivia Benson. Renee Elise Goldsberry is guest starring in the same episode as the lawyer Martha Brown, who defends Lewis.
In "Amaro 's One - Eighty '', Cathy Moriarty returned as Captain Toni Howard. In the same episode, Elizabeth Marvel reprises her role as defense attorney Rita Calhoun and Greg Germann returns as ADA Derek Strauss. In "Jersey Breakdown '', Alana de la Garza returned as her Law & Order character, Connie Rubirosa, now as a Federal Prosecutor heading up a joint task force on underage sex trafficking. In the same episode, Bill Sage, Chazz Palminteri, Stefanie Scott, and Dayton Callie guest star.
Rosanna Arquette and Mark Boone Junior guest star in "Wednesday 's Child '' playing a criminal couple, known for child endangerment and pornography. Josh Pais guest stars in the same episode playing Hank Abraham, who also appears in "October Surprise ''.
Sophia Bush guest stars as her Chicago PD character Detective Erin Lindsay in the first part of a planned Law & Order: Special Victims Unit / Chicago PD crossover slated to air on February 26, 2014 after the 2014 Winter Olympics. The episode is titled "Comic Perversion '', Jonathan Silverman, Laura Slade Wiggins, and Elizabeth Marvel guest star, Skyler Day returns as Reneè Clark, a character who also plays in the episode "Girl Dishonored '' in season 14.
In "Gridiron Soldier '', Glenn Morshower and Greg Finley guest star. Thomas Sadoski returns as Nate Davis, a character who also appeared in the previous episode "Rapist Anonymous ''. In "Gambler 's Fallacy '', Donal Logue and Sherri Saum guest star as two club managers. Stefanie Scott returns as Clare Wilson. Donal Logue has a recurring role starting in this episode until the end of the season, as Lieutenant Declan Murphy.
Alec Baldwin returns to television in "Criminal Stories '' playing Jimmy MacArthur, a controversial New York newspaper columnist who questions the SVU squad 's motives during the investigation of a potential hate crime / rape case. The episode also marks the directorial debut of Mariska Hargitay, whose character, Sergeant Olivia Benson, goes head to head with MacArthur. Katie Couric also makes a cameo appearance, playing herself as a talk show host who quizzes MacArthur about the headline grabbing case. Summer Bishil and Questlove guest star.
In "Reasonable Doubt '', Bradley Whitford, Celia Kennan - Bolger, Aida Turturro, Emma Bell, and Samantha Mathis guest star. This is the second appearance of Mathis on the show as she had first appeared in "Control '', the ninth episode of the fifth season. She had also auditioned for the role of Detective Olivia Benson in 1999. Jeffrey Tambor returns as counselor Lester Cohen. Geraldo Rivera and Ann Curry make cameo appearances.
BD Wong guest stars as Dr. George Huang in the episode entitled "Thought Criminal ''. This marks Wong 's third appearance on the show after his departure in season 12. Nia Vardalos and Laura Benanti return as counselor Minnona Efron and Marie Grazie respectively. Joshua Malina and Brian Baumgartner guest star.
Richard Belzer returns to SVU as DA Investigator John Munch in the season finale, "Spring Awakening ''. This is his first appearance on the series since his departure in the fifth episode of season 15. Peter Hermann who is married to Hargitay in real life, returns as counselor Trevor Langan. His last appearance in the show was in the third episode of the twelfth season. Jason Cerbone guest stars. Michael Potts makes his second appearance in the season. Jessica Phillips returns as ADA Pippa Cox in the episode, previously starring in Season 14 as well as two episodes in the fifteenth season. ADA Cox was in charge of the Baby Boy Doe case.
After a night of partying, a rape victim (Sofia Vassilieva) seeks help from Benson after she believes she has been raped again. The search for her attacker leads the detectives to a world of underground parties and a cyber mogul who preys on vulnerable girls. Meanwhile, the SVU comes together to celebrate the retirement of Sergeant Munch.
When Barba 's childhood friend is arrested for attempted rape, his connection to Alex Munoz (Vincent Laresca), a mayoral frontrunner, puts his campaign in jeopardy. When an undercover investigation uncovers further misconduct by Munoz, Detective Amaro and the SVU team wonder if Barba can put aside personal feelings to prosecute the man he used to idolize.
After leaving a dinner party at Benson 's apartment, Amaro and Rollins witness an officer in the chase of a suspected drug dealer. A standoff leads to gunfire and a teenage boy is gravely wounded. When the evidence leads to a shocking revelation, the SVU squad struggles to keep IAB Lt. Tucker and recently assigned Detective Cassidy from jumping to conclusions. As the case becomes a public spectacle, special prosecutor Derek Strauss (Greg Germann) pushes for a grand jury indictment and Amaro begins to question if fighting for his badge is best for his family. Meanwhile, Cragen announces his retirement from the NYPD.
When a student is assaulted after protesting a comedian (Jonathan Silverman) who jokes about rape, Barba tells SVU they can not arrest the comedian just based on his words. After another student accuses the comedian of rape, Benson quickly arrests the man, giving Barba a tough, circumstantial case, which propels him to call out Benson on the arrest. Meanwhile, Chicago police officer Erin Lindsay (Sophia Bush) comes to Manhattan to ask SVU for help.
This episode begins a crossover with Chicago P.D. that concludes on "Conventions ''.
A renowned journalist, Jimmy MacArthur (Alec Baldwin), is given an inside look into the SVU to profile their new commanding officer, Sergeant Benson. When a young Muslim woman is raped, he interferes with the investigation and declares the crime a hoax. With the victim facing public scrutiny, Benson and Barba fight to keep the case on solid ground and get a conviction.
|
when did the statue of liberty go up | Statue of Liberty - wikipedia
The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.
The Statue of Liberty is a figure of a robed woman representing Libertas, a Roman liberty goddess. She holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' (July 4, 1776), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.
Bartholdi was inspired by a French law professor and politician, Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. independence would properly be a joint project of the French and U.S. peoples. Because of the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the U.S. provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch - bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.
The torch - bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island. The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker - tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. Public access to the balcony around the torch has been barred for safety since 1916.
According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after - dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort -- a common work of both our nations. '' The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy. ''
According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, with a plan to build Progress or Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia, a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco - Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.
Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government -- it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states. '' As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's, U.S. artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830, a half - clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.
Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet. Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.
Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor 's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact. He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:
The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half - hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet - le - Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet - le - Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet - le - Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.
By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco - American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue 's announced name.
Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 kilos (128,000 pounds) of copper.
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm '' or "Bartholdi Electric Light ''. The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.
During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco - American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee ''. One of its members was 19 - year - old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.
On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet - le - Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles '', that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor - intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.
Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret.
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on - site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island.
In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors -- one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.
The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three - and - a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works -- the selection of Italian - born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once. '' The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances. '' Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.
The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven - point star. The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean. In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m).
Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty ''. The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 - foot - deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt 's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money - raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus '', including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free '', is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 -- the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world '' donated "60 cents, the result of self denial. '' One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund. '' A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with. '' Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman. '' Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn -- the cities would not merge until 1898 -- donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new - found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.
Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I - beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch -- which was covered with gold leaf -- and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication.
A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker - tape parade.
A nautical parade began at 12: 45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue 's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world ''. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he declined. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.
Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality '':
"Liberty enlightening the world, '' indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty '' of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku - kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty '' of this country "enlightening the world, '' or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon. '' Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.
The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled,
I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you 're such a beautiful! (sic) You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America. '' And always that statue was on my mind.
Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized US $62,800 (equivalent to $1,710,486 in 2017) for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful. '' The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.
On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe 's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch - bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about US $100,000 (equivalent to $2,248,930 in 2017). The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public - safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.
That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise US $30,000 (equivalent to $674,679 in 2017) for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors, but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor -- a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose -- to secure liberty -- and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base.
In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island. With the Army 's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast - iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.
During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D - Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot - dot - dot - dash '', the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944 -- 1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.
In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue 's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.
In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue where she and others from the National Organization for Women 's New York chapter draped an enormous banner over a railing which read "WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE! ''
Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.
In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world 's largest free - standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos - based substance that Bartholdi had used -- ineffectively, as inspections showed -- to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits '', with self - contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24 - carat gold. The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and is lighted by floodlights at night.
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low - carbon corrosion - resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced -- night - time illumination subsequently came from metal - halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.
July 3 -- 6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend '', marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan 's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see. ''
Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off - limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift '' to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.
The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012, only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically... months '' before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings.
On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The original torch will be relocated here, and in addition to exhibits relating to the statue 's construction and history, there will be a theater where visitors can watch an aerial view of the statue. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca - Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, Mellody Hobson, and George Lucas. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras -- lockers are provided for other items -- and must undergo a second security screening.
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty.
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans -- Pulitzer and Lazarus -- and three Frenchmen -- Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye -- are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.
In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance '' describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit '' that "endures as a highly potent symbol -- inspiring contemplation, debate and protest -- of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. ''
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one - fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 -- 1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2,500 mm) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions -- the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York - New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.
As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten - dollar bill. The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue to either the front or the side of the serial number. The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith 's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American) '', and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half - buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science - fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney 's time - travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979,
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted (E) arth -- giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future.
Notes
Bibliography
|
what is a focal point in a company | Focal point - wikipedia
Focal point may refer to:
|
saturday night live skit we want to pump you up | Hans and Franz - wikipedia
Hans and Franz were characters in a recurring sketch called "Pumping Up with Hans & Franz '' on the television sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live. Hans and Franz themselves were played by Dana Carvey and Kevin Nealon, respectively.
In the sketch, Carvey and Nealon play a pair of muscle - bound Austrian jocks who spoofed Arnold Schwarzenegger by using padding for fake muscles, drab gray sweatsuits, weight belts, and Austrian accents. The background of the set includes several life - sized cutouts of Schwarzenegger during his competition years, and the sketch 's introduction music featured mock Austrian yodeling.
"Pumping Up '' primarily consists of Hans and Franz denigrating others for not being strong and as physically fit as they were, and then striking bodybuilder poses to show off their "muscled '' bodies, complete with strained facial expressions. Schwarzenegger makes a guest appearance on the sketch (to much applause) and ridicules "his cousins '' for being girlie and weak.
In a 2010 interview on Conan, Nealon and host Conan O'Brien discussed being holed up in a Santa Monica hotel room for a month in the early nineties with Carvey and Robert Smigel working on a script for a Hans and Franz film, intended to be a musical. Carvey discussed the script during a 2016 interview with Howard Stern, which was to be called Hans and Franz: The Girlyman Dilemma. Schwarzenegger was written into the film and expressed an interest in the script, but he ultimately declined to participate following the poor reception of his self - parodying vehicle Last Action Hero. The disastrous box office performances of the SNL spinoff movies Stuart Saves His Family and It 's Pat likely hurt the film 's prospects, but Schwarzenegger dropping out proved to be an insurmountable obstacle to getting the movie made.
A short sketch was filmed for the show 's 1999 primetime 25th Anniversary Special which spoofed VH1 's Behind the Music specials, but time constraints prevented it from airing. It appeared in a later episode that season. In the sketch, Hans and Franz tell the story of how they were reunited in Hollywood when Franz unsuspectingly had his buttocks "read '' by Hans. In 2014, the duo appeared in several State Farm commercials with Green Bay Packers quarterback Aaron Rodgers.
This sketch was one of the most popular on SNL, and the characters and their catchphrases entered American pop culture. When Schwarzenegger entered politics, he referred to the sketches himself, using the phrases "girlie men '' and "pump you up. '' He even used the "girlie men '' term during the 1988 Presidential election. Accompanying then Vice President George H.W. Bush, he attacked Bush 's Democratic opponents by saying to the crowd: "They all look like a bunch of girlie men, right? '' He used the phrase again to attack California state legislators in speeches during his election campaign for governor of California.
Hans and Franz are featured in several State Farm commercials along with Aaron Rodgers in 2014. These commercials are probably a follow - up to another series of State Farm commercials which also starred Aaron Rodgers and co-starred Bill Swerski 's Superfans, also SNL characters. The Volkswagen Southtowne dealership in Sandy, Utah also utilized their own versions of the characters in various radio advertisements, notably referencing "pump you up! ''
NASA 's two crawler - transporters -- large diesel - powered transport devices used since 1965 to carry heavy launch loads to the launch site, including fully assembled spacecraft from the Apollo, Skylab, and Shuttle eras -- are also nicknamed "Hans '' and "Franz '' after the duo.
In the popular MMO, World of Warcraft, Hans'gar and Franzok are twin brothers in the Blackrock Foundry raid. With a throwback to the Saturday Night Live characters, Franzok can be heard yelling "Hear me now and believe me later! ''
In the first - person shooter Borderlands, there are two mini-bosses named Hans and Franz. They are the two bodyguards of Baron Flynt.
The idea for the characters of Hans and Franz came in 1987 in a Des Moines, Iowa hotel room while Nealon was watching an Arnold Schwarzenegger television interview during Nealon 's and Carvey 's first comedy tour. The first sketch in which the characters appear occurred during the season premiere of the 13th season.
|
who wrote the song new york alicia keys | Empire State of Mind - wikipedia
"Empire State of Mind '' is a song performed by American rapper Jay - Z and featuring vocals by American singer Alicia Keys that was written by Angela Hunte and Jane 't Sewell - Ulepic. Produced by Al Shux, Angela Hunte and Jane 't Sewell - Ulepic, it was released as the third single from Jay - Z 's 11th studio album, The Blueprint 3 (2009), by his Roc Nation label in October 2009. The song was written as a tribute to both artists ' hometown, New York City, and features music samples of "Love on a Two - Way Street '' performed by The Moments. The following month they submitted the song to Jay - Z 's Roc Nation, whose reviews were a discouragement. Following an incident that Hunte and Sewell - Ulepic describe as an omen, they took the suggestion of an associate of EMI Music Publishing and resubmitted it to Jay - Z, who kept the "New York '' singing part on the hook, changed the verses, and recorded it as a single.
The single was supposed to feature Hunte on the song 's hook, but when Hunte and Sewell - Ulepic were asked if they thought anyone else would be more appropriate for the chorus, Hunte suggested Keys. Mary J. Blige was also considered for the part, but Keys was chosen after Jay - Z heard the song 's piano loop. Keys wrote the bridge of the song. The song was viewed as being an "orchestral rap ballad '' and has pop - rap musical styles. It contains references to various locations in New York and its famous residents, while describing the city 's essence. Profanity is present throughout the song and, although it is usually included during live performances, it was omitted during the performance at Game 2 of the 2009 World Series.
A critical success, the song was included in multiple critics ' top 10 list for the best songs of 2009; including Rolling Stone magazine and the New York Times. The song was also nominated for three Grammy Awards, winning Best Rap Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration. "Empire State of Mind '' achieved commercial success worldwide. The track peaked within the top 10 in countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, France, Italy and Sweden. The single was commercially successful in the United States, peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for five consecutive weeks, becoming Jay - Z 's first number - one single on the chart as a lead artist. It appeared in 2009 year - end charts in Italy, Australia and the US, where the song was also the last number one hit of the 2000s. As of June 2014, the single has sold over 5.5 million copies in the United States.
In the song 's music video, which is primarily in black - and - white, Jay - Z and Keys are shown performing the song in various locations in New York. "Empire State of Mind '' has been performed by Jay - Z and Keys multiple times, including during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards and the 2009 American Music Awards. Usually when the duo performs the song, an overhead screen shows images of places in New York. Keys recorded a sequel entitled "Empire State of Mind (Part II) Broken Down '', which is featured on her fourth studio album The Element of Freedom (2009). Her version was positively received by critics, reached the Top 10 in the UK, the Netherlands and Ireland charts, and peaked at number fifty - five on the Billboard Hot 100 without an official release. Keys said that she chose to record her own version of "Empire State of Mind '' because she wanted to express her own personal feelings about New York.
"Empire State of Mind '' was created by singer - songwriter - producer Angela Hunte, a native of Brooklyn, along with writing partner Jane 't "Jnay '' Sewell - Ulepic. Hunte grew up in the same building where rapper and hip hop artist Jay - Z lived -- 560 State Street, an address which is mentioned in the song. The track 's creation was inspired during an overseas trip Hunte and Sewell - Ulepic made to London in February 2009 when they were both feeling homesick. Hunte was ill during that summer, while Sewell - Ulepic 's mother was ill. Hunte recalls, "We said to ourselves, ' we complain so much about New York -- about the busy streets, about the crowds and the pushing, about the subway system -- but I would trade that for anything right now. ' Before we left the hotel that night, we knew we would write a song about our city. '' Although they wrote the song as a simple way to voice their feelings for their hometown, they sent it to the Roc Nation music label the following month in hope that Jay - Z would like it and record it. When they received negative reviews about the track they were convinced it would never be recorded. However, in the summer of the same year, EMI Music Publishing 's (EMI) Jon "Big Jon '' Platt heard the track at a barbecue and fell in love with it, believing that "it would be perfect for Jay - Z ''.
Hunte and Sewell - Ulepic were hesitant though, as they had sent the track for consideration already and been unsuccessful. According to Hunte, when a Notorious B.I.G. figure she kept by the computer fell over as they played the track for Platt -- a statue that had never moved before regardless of how loud they 've blasted music -- she realized it was an omen. She commented, "We all just looked at each other like, ' if Biggie approves, then, send it to Jay ' ''. The next day Platt sent it to Jay - Z and he "loved it and recorded it that night ''. Hunte recalls, "We were just so happy he wanted to honor our work and our production. Two female producers / writers, and for him as a rapper to take our song -- that 's not a combination you see a lot. For him to be so open - minded about it, we just could n't be any more grateful and thankful. '' Originally composed as a song to be sung, Jay - Z ended up rewriting new verses inspired from the original lyrics and leaving Hunte on the song 's hook. However, when Hunte and Sewell - Ulepic were asked if they thought someone else would be more appropriate for the chorus, Hunte suggested R&B and soul artist Alicia Keys. Hunte said, "She 's never done a record with him and she also has my same vocal tone. She made the song sound so close to the original, She just nailed it and brought it home. It was a great choice. '' Keys also contributed to writing "Empire State of Mind '' 's new bridge.
-- Alicia Keys, MTV News
Jay - Z stated in an interview that after he first heard the track 's piano loops (which are sampled from "Love on a Two - Way Street '' by The Moments), he immediately thought of Keys and wanted her to be featured on the song. Jay - Z said that Mary J. Blige was initially considered for Keys ' part on "Empire State of Mind '' and admitted that he was "two seconds away '' from asking Blige to appear on the record 's chorus. His second choice for the track 's vocals was Keys and that using Blige on the song would have been a safe move, but said that the combination of Keys ' sound and piano talent had struck a chord with him. In December 2009 Hunte, who would not reveal many details, said the original version of "Empire State of Mind '' will one day be released, adding that "The original is so powerful it 's only a matter of time till you hear it down the line ''.
"Empire State of Mind '' features rap verses from Jay - Z and vocals during the song 's chorus from Keys. It is a rap hip hop song with influences of electropop and orchestral pop. The track also has pop - rap musical styles and contains a music sample of the 1970 Billboard R&B chart - topping single "Love on a Two - Way Street '' by The Moments, the sample being the piano component that runs throughout the song. The song is played at a moderate tempo of 84 beats per minute and is written in the key of F# major. It has a sequence of F ♯ -- C ♯ / B -- B -- F ♯ as its chord progression, throughout the single Keys ' vocal range changes from the register of A ♯ to C ♯. Pete Cashmore of NME described Keys as having established "crashing piano chords '' during her verses in the track. Mariel Concepcion of Billboard magazine noted that the track has a "simple piano pattern ''. Stephen Dalton of The Times described the song as an "orchestral rap ballad ''.
Lyrically, the single opens with lyrics referencing locations in New York, it name - checks notable neighborhoods and captures the city 's essence; from attending Knicks basketball games to its famous residents. Drug dealing references, "N - words '', and profanity are also present throughout the song. Raju Mudhar of the Toronto Star commented on the track 's lyrics "I 'm the new Sinatra / And since I made it here / I can make it anywhere / Yeah they love me everywhere '' remarking "who can argue? '' noting that he 's "one of those waffling retirees '', but is a living "hip hop legend ''.
Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News felt that Keys "croons '' on the track 's chorus line, "I 'm from Neeeeww Yooooork / These streets will make you feel brand - new / Bright lights will inspire you. '' Keys said that while recording the song she wanted to make sure she got the hook right explaining, "I did try it a couple of times, but it was more about capturing the kind of grand feeling of it. With the way I sang it the first time, I was actually kind of sick, and I knew that he needed the record, so I was like, ' Let me get to it. ' '' She added, "I came back and revisited it so that it could be what it is now (.) So it actually took a couple of times, but every time, the energy was just so high. '' Simon Vozick - Levinson of Entertainment Weekly felt that the singer who sings the song 's hook has a "crucial role '', believing that "Empire State of Mind '' is a "smash that concert attendees expect Jay to play, and it just would n't work without a big, clear voice to sing that hook ''. In November 2012, Keys said she was congested when she first recorded the vocals and had to redo them after Jay - Z said he was n't satisfied with her original take.
"Empire State of Mind '' received acclaim from contemporary music critics, with most reviewers praising Keys ' vocal performance. Jon Bush of AllMusic listed the song as being a highlight from The Blueprint 3. He commented that the song is Jay - Z 's "king of crossovers... a New York flag - waver with plenty of landmark name - dropping that turns into a great anthem with help on the chorus from Alicia Keys ''. Los Angeles Times writer Greg Kot commended Jay - Z for his ability to perform with cameos and called the song "the sound of Jay - Z cruising for pop hits. '' Pete Cashmore of NME described Alicia Keys 's cameo as "lusty bellowing ''. Martin Andrew of PopMatters called the song "yet another chance '' for Jay - Z to show his respect to New York, but commented that it "remains interesting thanks to a fantastic Al Shux beat and celebratory hook from Alicia Keys. ''
Writing in Rolling Stone magazine, Jody Rosen called it a "pallid New York shout - out ''. USA Today 's Steve Jones perceived a maturity by Jay - Z in the song, writing that "The upper - crust landmarks he now references are a far cry from the grimy Marcy Projects sights that he once detailed, something that perhaps is to be expected from the self - described ' new Sinatra '. '' The Daily Telegraph described the song 's sound as "anthemic club pop '' and called Keys 's chorus line a "singalong ''. Shannon Barbour of About.com called "Empire State of Mind '' the album 's apex, while commending Keys for her "excellent display of some unusually strong vocals ''. Slant Magazine writer William McBee described it as a "glittering paean to the Big Apple '' with Keys "soaring skyscraper - level on the hook and Jay putting on for his city. ''
IGN music reviewer Chris Carle described Keys as having "soaring vocals '' in the song. New York Post writer Ryan Brockington called "Empire State of Mind '' his favorite song from The Blueprint 3 and Tyler Gray from the same publication said "Empire State of Mind '' was the "most soulful '' song on the album. Francois Marchand of the Vancouver Sun called the song "shiver - inducing ''. The Times writer Stephen Dalton called the track a "heartfelt love letter to New York City, '' with Jay - Z playing the "hip - hop Sinatra '' over Keys ' "luscious '' chorus, and The Guardian 's Alexis Petridis described its chorus as "incredible, breezy pop ''. Killan Fox of the same publication felt that the track was a "terrific homage '' to New York and listed the song as being one of the "really good tracks '' on The Blueprint 3. Pitchfork 's Ian Cohen stated that "the piledriver hooks of "Run This Town '' and "Empire State of Mind '' are content to annoy their way to ubiquity ".
"Empire State of Mind '' has been included in multiple music critics list for the best songs of 2009. The single was ranked the 8th best song of 2009 by MTV, the second - best song of 2009 by Rolling Stone magazine, and was voted the best single of 2009 by The Village Voice 's 37th annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll. On the 2010 Pazz & Jop list, the song was, along with a number of other songs, ranked at 226. Jon Pareles of The New York Times placed "Empire State of Mind '' at number three on his list of the top songs of 2009, and Pitchfork also ranked it at number 44 on its The Top 100 Tracks of 2009 list. Entertainment Weekly placed it number one on its list of "The 10 Best Singles of 2009 ''. "Empire State of Mind '' was placed at number six on NME 's Albums and Tracks of the Year, 2009 list. It was placed at number nine on PopMatters ' list of "The Best Singles of 2009 '' and at number twelve on Consequence of Sound 's list of "The Top 50 Songs of ' 09 ''. The song appears at number one on Rap - Up 's list of the 25 best songs of 2009. Jay - Z, a long - time fan of the New York Yankees, said that he was elated that his songs, namely "Empire State of Mind '' and "Run This Town '', had been played during different Yankee player 's batting at home games in the 2009 World Series, commenting that it was "incredible '' and "beyond explanation '' to hear his music being played during Yankee games. New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg commented that "Empire State of Mind '' had become "one of the newest anthems of the Yankees ''. The New York Daily News included it at number ten on its list of "The 10 best songs about New York ''.
At the 53rd Grammy Awards ceremony the track won Best Rap / Sung Collaboration and Best Rap Song. It had also been one of the five nominees for Record of the Year. In February 2011, Billboard placed the song at number 15 on its list of "The 40 Biggest Duets Of All Time '' and in September 2011, the song was placed at number eight by VH1 on its list for the 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 00s. In October 2011, NME placed it at number 13 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years ''. Additionally, in Summer 2012, an advertisement for New York State touting its economic comeback features the piano loop of this song along with Key 's voice singing "New York ''. Complex placed the song at number nine on its list of "The 100 Best Jay - Z Songs '' and on number four on its list of "The 25 Best Alicia Keys Songs '', noting that the song "has replaced Frank Sinatra 's "New York, New York '' as the city 's go - to anthem, and remains one of Keys ' greatest contributions to pop culture ". In July 2013, PopMatters placed the song at number six on its list of "The Top 20 Jay - Z Songs to Date '', remarking that "Alicia Keys ' voice soars through the city night as Hov offers up his typical wit and, in this case, New York authenticity '', making the song to become "the unofficial anthem of the most celebrated city in the world ''. In May 2012, in a poll published by the Official Charts Company, "Empire State of Mind '' ranked as the 76th biggest selling single of the 21st century in the United Kingdom.
"Empire State of Mind '' was ranked at number 14 the 2009 Pitchfork 's "Song of the Year '' Reader 's Poll.
"Empire State of Mind '' achieved commercial success worldwide. In the United States the track peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for five consecutive weeks, from November 28 to December 26, replacing "Fireflies '' by Owl City for the top position and giving Jay - Z his first number one single on that chart as a lead artist in his 14 - year career. The song, which was both artists ' fourth number one entry on the chart, became the first Billboard Hot 100 number one single to reference New York in its title. Moreover, it was included in Billboard 's year - end music charts for 2009 at number 62 and was the last number one single for the 2000s (decade). According to Billboard magazine, the song was the 15th biggest hit by two recording artists for all time.
The single sold 205,000 digital copies in the US in its opening week and its highest week sale was of 360,000 in December 2009. "Empire State of Mind '' has also peaked at number one on the Billboard component chart for the sales of legal digital downloads on October 3, 2009, as well as topping the Billboard component chart for singles with the most radio airplay throughout the country for eight consecutive weeks from November 28 to January 23, 2010. The track also peaked at the top position on the R&B / Hip - Hop songs chart for three consecutive weeks, as well as topping the Billboard Rap Songs chart for nine consecutive weeks. After five months of release "Empire State of Mind '' was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for the shipment of over 3,000,000 units in the US. By August 2012, the single has reached its 5 millionth sales mark in the US, and as of June 2014, the song has sold 5,513,000 copies in the US.
In the United Kingdom the track debuted at number fifteen and, in the two succeeding weeks, the single peaked at number two, having been held from the top position by Taio Cruz 's "Break Your Heart ''. "Empire State of Mind '' peaked at number three on the Canadian Hot 100 and was listed as being the top digital gainer on December 12. The song peaked at number four in Australia, and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for the shipment of 35,000 units in the country. "Empire State of Mind '' was also included in Australia 's 2009 year - end music chart at number 64. In New Zealand the song peaked at number six. Furthermore, the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for the shipment of over 7,500 units in New Zealand. The single debuted at number 18 in France, eventually peaking at number eight in the following three weeks. It also peaked at number four in Belgium 's Flemish and French charts. The song also peaked within the top 10 positions in the music charts of Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Finland, the Netherlands, and Sweden. In Italy "Empire State of Mind '' was certified multi-platinum. "Empire State of Mind '' 's least commercially successful charting territories were Austria, Brazil, and Spain; peaking at number 13, 17, and 27 respectively. The song has been featured in trailers for Sex and the City 2.
The music video for "Empire State of Mind '' was directed by Hype Williams. The video, which was filmed on location, features black - and - white images of New York City intercut with full - color shots of Jay - Z and Keys performing in Times Square. "Empire State of Mind '' 's music video began filming on September 29, in Tribeca and around Ground Zero, and was released on October 30, 2009. Keys praised the music video and said that the video has all the key elements of a homage to her hometown.
The music video opens with black and white images of locations in New York being shown in the form of a slideshow. The slideshow is then intercut with a black and white clip of Jay - Z, wearing a Yankees cap and a vest with no sleeves, performing the song on a street in front of apartment buildings. Then the video begins to rotate from images of New York being shown briefly, to clips of Jay - Z singing "Empire State of Mind '' in several locations with different outfits. Images shown include a monument to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., street signs and stairwells leading to subway stations.
Next we see black and white clips of Keys, who is wearing large hoop - earrings with high heels, a black shirt and pants, playing a Yamaha piano that has an image of the Statue of Liberty on it. She is singing her verse of the song in a street at night while cars drive by. Keys ' performance is then intercut with aerial views of skyscrapers and clips of the Yankee Stadium, clips of the New York Police, and NYPD cars and logos. Some people, such as ones who are walking around New York or wearing Yankee emblems, have their faces shown or blurred out. Keys and Jay - Z, both wearing sunglasses at night, are then shown performing the song together as the video continues to be intercut with clips of them performing "Empire State of Mind '' individually, as well as images of New York. The video ends with color vision of the duo performing at night on the red glass steps forming the roof of the TKTS pavilion in Times Square. Interspersed are clips of Keys playing piano and views of the New York skyline.
Jay - Z 's Lifestyle blog came out with an alternative video which features supermodels lip - syncing to the song in various locations in Manhattan. The video was directed by Justin Wu. The New York Observer wrote of the video that "(w) e 're not sure exactly what this video is promoting '' but "the caliber of the cast 's sheer ubiquity is impressive ''. A blogger on Yahoo Music commented that the models "do a better job modeling clothes than miming Jigga '', but concluded, however, that the video is "without a doubt the greatest lip - dub ever committed to video ''.
"Empire State of Mind '' was first performed at Jay - Z 's "Answer the Call '' benefit concert in Madison Square Garden on September 11, 2009, where it was the opening song. All ticket proceeds from the show went to the New York Police and Fire Widows and Children 's Fund. The song was then performed live at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards (MTV VMA) on September 13, 2009, where it closed the awards show. The VMA performance was the first time Jay - Z and Keys performed the song together. Shaheem Redi of MTV News commented on the performance that, "Their set was elegant and ' hood at the same time, and it was such a powerful moment ''. Ryan Brockington of the New York Post wrote "Alicia 's buttery voice and Jay - Z 's impeccable stage presence made for an audio adrenaline overload '' and placed the performance third on his list of the "top six performances '' from the MTV VMAs. For the performance Jay - Z wore his signature Yankees cap and Keys wore all black while playing the piano. During the MTV VMA performance images of locations in New York, such as the Empire State Building and the Apollo Theatre, were shown on an overhead screen behind Jay - Z and Keys. Towards the end of the performance rapper Lil ' Mama got up onto the stage uninvited and posed with Jay - Z and Keys while they were finishing the final verse of the track. Lil ' Mama said she did not mean to disrespect either performer but the song had her "emotions running high '', adding that "in that moment I came up onstage to celebrate my two icons singing about NY. '' Keys responded to the incident saying "We can appreciate her being overwhelmed and inspired, but we would have appreciated it if she would have done it from her seat '', and Jay - Z added, "It was a lot of planning that went into that performance. To disrupt that was outta line. '' Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said that the duo "brought some genuine street heat to the tongue - twisting torrents '' of "Empire State of Mind ''. She added that "Keys, on piano and soaring chorus, brought the feminine strength and soul. ''
Jay - Z was due to perform "Empire State of Mind '' with Keys during the opening game of the baseball 2009 World Series in early October 2009 but, due to an inclement weather, the duo did not perform. They ultimately performed the song live in the Yankee Stadium before Game 2 of the 2009 World Series in mid-October. The two musicians performed the song on a custom - made stage adorned with Yankees flags, while images of New York City flashed across several large screens throughout the stadium. Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News wrote of the performance, "If the Yankees were looking to change their tune heading into Game 2 of the World Series, they could n't have picked better musical guests. '' During most live performances of the track, the lyrics containing profanity are included in the song, but they were omitted for the World Series set. On November 5, 2009, Jay - Z and Keys sang "Empire State of Mind '' at the MTV Europe Music Awards (EMA) in Berlin, Germany, while performing in front of a New York cityscape. Jocelyn Vena and Eric Ditzian of MTV News noted that Jay - Z "took his hometown pride rather seriously '' during the performance. Jay - Z also performed the song at the Yankees ' World Series victory ceremonies in New York City Hall on November 6, 2009. Keys was not in attendance for the performance, so singer and Roc Nation recording artist Bridget Kelly filled in. As the last verse of the song was sung, Yankee members got up from their seats to shower Jay - Z with handshakes and hugs.
The single was also performed by Jay - Z and Keys at the American Music Awards (AMA) on November 22, 2009. They began their performance of "Empire State of Mind '' with a rendition of Frank Sinatra 's "New York, New York ''. Keys played on a piano on a stage with blue lights in front of a backdrop that had tall buildings. Also, the words "New York '' scrolled across screens on the stage. Towards the end of the song, Keys sang with Jay - Z at the front of the stage while holding up a "I love you '' sign. Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times felt that the song had "worn out its welcome '', and gave the performance a letter grade "D ''. However, Jeremy Blacklow of Access Hollywood had a more positive feeling towards the performance, describing it as being "so great '' in his live blog for the award ceremony. "Empire State of Mind '' was performed by Jay - Z and Alicia Keys at the 2010 BRIT Awards on February 16, 2010. The Guardian wrote that Jay - Z and Alicia Keys "dazzled with their rendition of "Empire State of Mind '' ". The Daily Mail commented on the performance that it was "a rare highlight in a show of lowlights ''. According to Metro, Jay - Z and Alicia Keys "blew the place away '' with their performance and "Jay - Z was given a welcome befitting a cultural hero '' while "Keys oozed elegance and soul as her startlingly powerful voice stopped everyone in their tracks ''. The Nation opined that the pair "delivered a powerful rendition '' of the song.
In March, Jay - Z joined Keys onstage during one of her Freedom Tours New York concerts to perform "Empire State of Mind '', while images of New York were shown throughout the concert arena. Jay - Z performed "Empire State of Mind '' as well as three of his other singles, at California 's Coachella music festival in April 2010. Jay - Z performed the song live on an episode of Saturday Night Live on May 9, 2010. Jay - Z performed the song with a medley of his other singles, including "On to the Next One ''. Jay - Z wore a white T - shirt with a black leather vest while performing the song on a stage light by blue lights, with musicians playing instruments in the far back. Caitlyn Millat of San Diego 's NBC felt that Jay - Z "brought the house down '' during his performances of the melodies. Rodriguez of MTV News said that Bridget Kelly, who sang Keys ' part, "turned more than a few heads '' because the outfit she was wearing was "tighter than her boss ' rhyme ''.
Jay - Z and Keys performed the song during Keys ' Here in Times Square concert special, televised on BET.
Following the release of "Empire State of Mind '' in January 2010, Keys stated that she was planning to release a second version of the song as a single the following month, featuring only her vocals. The track, entitled "Empire State of Mind (Part II) Broken Down '', appeared on Keys ' fourth studio album The Element of Freedom which was released in December 2009. The original version, entitled "Empire State of Mind Part 2 '', included both Keys ' vocals and a new rap verse from Jay - Z, but the final product did not include Jay - Z. Discussing the record, Keys said that it acts as a dichotomy of strength and vulnerability, commenting that "The music is really strong, and the drums are really aggressive, but my voice is vulnerable and delicate ''.
"Empire State of Mind (Part II) Broken Down '' was generally well received by contemporary music critics in their reviews for The Element of Freedom. Allison Stewart of The Washington Post noted that the track, which is a pop ballad, had replaced "Empire State of Mind '' sports team references and ruminations with "even milder and less controversial string of generalities '', highlighting Keys ' version 's lyrics "If I could make it here / I could make it anywhere ''. The song peaked at number four in the United Kingdom, number forty on the Canadian Hot 100, and number sixty - nine in Sweden. It also debuted on the Billboard R&B charts at number seventy - seven and peaked at number fifty - five on the Billboard Hot 100 without an official release.
Comedy website CollegeHumor parodied the song in a video titled "Galactic Empire State of Mind '' which re-writes the lyrics to follow the events of the first three Star Wars films from the perspective of Darth Vader. The video has been viewed nearly four million times on YouTube.
The music video for "Newport (Ymerodraeth State of Mind) '' parodies the song, replacing references to the "Empire State '' of New York with of the smaller Welsh city of Newport. In the Welsh language Ymerodraeth means "empire ''. "Newport (Ymerodraeth State of Mind) '' was directed by British filmmaker M-J Delaney and featured London - based actors Alex Warren and Terema Wainwright, rapping and singing respectively. Days after its release Delaney said: "I hope Jay - Z and Alicia get to see the video as long as their publishing people do n't force us to take it offline. It 's only tongue in cheek. '' Its participants were invited to appear on national television news and their work was reported in national newspapers. Their work was also so well received in Wales that they were invited to the reopening of the Newport Transporter Bridge. It achieved viral video status when it reached nearly a million hits in 3 days and, by August 2010, nearly 2.5 million people had watched it on YouTube. In July both Warren and Wainwright met with Universal Records (the music publishers) to discuss releasing the track as a single, with some of the proceeds going to the mental health charity Newport Mind. But the seven co-writers of "Empire State of Mind '' refused to give permission for the Newport single, a situation which led to the video being removed from YouTube on August 10.
"Empire State of Mind '' was covered by the cast of the US television series Glee for the second season premiere episode "Audition '' on September 21, 2010. In the episode the fictional William McKinley High School glee club, upon learning that Nationals will be held in New York, decide to perform "Empire State of Mind '' at the school courtyard, in the hopes it will pique the interest of their schoolmates. MTV 's Kyle Anderson felt that the choreography of "Empire State of Mind '' compensated for any awkwardness in its delivery. Aly Semigran, also writing for the same publication, thought the cast 's performance was lacking the gravitas of the original version, but reported that Keys had deemed the Glee cover "amazing ''. Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post found the song 's performance to be "maybe - trying - too - hard ''. Music critic Tom Stack, of Entertainment Weekly, had a more positive assessment of Glee 's take on it in the episode, stating that from the wardrobe to the choreography, it was "spectacular '' and elating. He gave it a letter grade of "A ''. MTV Buzzworthy wrote that "(t) hings get a little dicey when the male cast members make their way through Jay 's rapped first verse ''. Glee 's cover version was released as a single and debuted at number twenty - one on the Billboard Hot 100, taking the title for biggest jump of that week. It also charted number twenty in Australia.
In 2010, American alternative dance band LCD Soundsystem played "Empire State of Mind '' in concert, performing a verse of the song as a duet between James Murphy and keyboardist Nancy Whang. In May 2011, at 64th Cannes Film Festival, British singer - songwriter Jamie Cullum performed a piano medley of Frank Sinatra 's "New York, New York '' and "Empire State of Mind '' in honour of Robert De Niro. In February 2012, British singer Ed Sheeran did a soulful acoustic rendition of the song at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. Sheeran later sang it as a duet with Jason Mraz at the Jingle Ball Viewing Party in December 2012. In April 2012, British glam rock band Sweet released an updated version of the Hello and Ace Frehley hit single "New York Groove '' that incorporated the chorus of "Empire State of Mind '' into its own chorus.
The song was also parodied in The Simpsons episode "The Food Wife '' as "Bloggin ' a Food Blog '', sung by Tim Heidecker, Eric Wareheim and Carmen Carter.
Neil Patrick Harris, Audra McDonald, and Lin - Manuel Miranda performed a parody of "Empire State of Mind '' to close the 67th Tony Awards, with modified lyrics to recap the awards show.
|
what is the most important industry in iceland | Economy of Iceland - Wikipedia
553,000 ISK /
388,000 ISK /
The economy of Iceland is small and subject to high volatility. In 2011, gross domestic product was US $ 12.3 bn; by 2017 that had increased to a nominal GDP of US $ 24bn. With a population of 350,000, this is $50,000 per capita, based on purchasing power parity (PPP) estimates. The financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 produced a decline in GDP and employment that has since been reversed entirely by a recovery aided by a tourism boom starting in 2010. Tourism accounted for more than 10 % of Iceland 's GDP in 2017. After a period of robust growth, Iceland 's economy is slowing down according to an economic outlook for the years 2018 - 2020 published by Arion Research in April 2018.
Iceland has a mixed economy with high levels of free trade and government intervention. However, government consumption is less than other Nordic countries. Geothermal power is the primary source of home and industrial energy in Iceland.
In the 1990s Iceland undertook extensive free market reforms, which initially produced strong economic growth. As a result, Iceland was rated as having one of the world 's highest levels of economic freedom as well as civil freedoms. In 2007, Iceland topped the list of nations ranked by Human Development Index and was one of the most egalitarian, according to the calculation provided by the Gini coefficient.
From 2006 onwards, the economy faced problems of growing inflation and current account deficits. Partly in response, and partly as a result of earlier reforms, the financial system expanded rapidly before collapsing entirely in a sweeping financial crisis. Iceland had to obtain emergency funding from the International Monetary Fund and a range of European countries in November 2008.
Iceland occupies a land area of 103,000 square kilometers. It has a 4,790 kilometer coastline and a 200 nautical mile (370.4 km) exclusive economic zone extending over 758,000 square kilometers of water. Approximately only 0.7 % of Iceland 's surface area is arable, since the island 's terrain is mostly mountainous and volcanic.
Iceland has few proven mineral resources. In the past, deposits of sulphur have been mined, and diatomite (skeletal algae) was extracted from Lake Mývatn until recently. However, today most sulphur is obtained in the refining of oil. That plant has now been closed for environmental reasons. The only natural resource conversion in Iceland is the manufacture of cement. Concrete is widely used as building material, including for all types of residential housing.
By harnessing the abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power sources, Iceland 's renewable energy industry provides close to 85 % of all the nation 's primary energy -- proportionally more than any other country -- with 99.9 % of Iceland 's electricity being generated from renewables.
By far the largest of the many Icelandic hydroelectric power stations is Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant (690 MW) in the area north of Vatnajökull. Other stations include Búrfell (270 MW), Hrauneyjarfoss (210 MW), Sigalda (150 MW), Blanda (150 MW), and more. Iceland has explored the feasibility of exporting hydroelectric energy via submarine cable to mainland Europe and also actively seeks to expand its power - intensive industries, including aluminium and ferro - silicon smelting plants.
Recent geological research has improved the likelihood of Iceland having sizable off - shore oil reserves within its 200 mile economic zone in the seabed of the Jan Mayen area.
Tourism
Tourism is Iceland 's largest export sector by far. Tourism accounted for more than 10 % of the country 's GDP in 2017. In 2017 the proportion of Iceland 's exports was: tourism 42 %, seafood 17 %, aluminium 16 %, other 24 %. Iceland is among countries who are most dependent on tourism. In October 2017 the tourism sector directly employed around 26,800 people, with the total number of employees in the country being 186,900.
At the start of the growth period around 2010 tourism benefited from a weak ISK but a strong ISK is now cooling down the sector. Since 2010 tourist arrivals in Iceland have increased by 378 %.
Iceland is the world 's largest electricity producer per capita. The presence of abundant electrical power due to Iceland 's geothermal and hydroelectric energy sources has led to the growth of the manufacturing sector. Power - intensive industries, which are the largest components of the manufacturing sector, produce mainly for export. Manufactured products constituted 36 % of all merchandise exports, an increase from the 1997 figure of 22 %. Power - intensive products ' share of merchandise exports is 21 %, compared to 12 % in 1997.
Aluminium smelting is the most important power - intensive industry in Iceland. There are currently three plants in operation with a total capacity of over 800,000 mtpy, putting Iceland at 11th place among aluminium - producing nations worldwide.
Rio Tinto Alcan operates Iceland 's first aluminium smelter (plant name: ISAL), in Straumsvík, near the town of Hafnarfjörður. The plant has been in operation since 1969. Its initial capacity was 33,000 metric tons per year (mtpy) but it has since been expanded several times and now has a capacity of about 189,000 mtpy.
The second plant started production in 1998 and is operated by Norðurál, a wholly owned subsidiary of U.S. - based Century Aluminum Company. It is located in Grundartangi in Western Iceland near the town of Akranes. Its former capacity was 220,000 mtpy but an expansion to 260,000 mtpy has already finished. In 2012 the plant produced 280,000 metric tons which was valued at 610 million dollars or 76 billion krónur. 4,300 gigawatts hours were used in the production that year, amounting to nearly one - fourth of all electrical energy produced in the country. In October 2013, Norðurál announced the start of a five - year project aimed at increasing its production by a further 50,000 mtpy.
United States - based aluminium manufacturer Alcoa runs a plant near the town of Reyðarfjörður. The plant, known as Fjardaál (or "aluminium of the fjords ''), has a capacity of 346,000 mtpy and was put into operation in April 2008. To power the plant, Landsvirkjun built Kárahnjúkar, a 690 - MW hydropower station. The project was enormous in the context of the Icelandic economy, increasing total installed electric power capacity from under 1,600 MW to around 2,300 MW.
According to Alcoa, construction of Fjardaál entailed no human displacement, no impact on endangered species, and no danger to commercial fisheries; there will also be no significant effect on reindeer, bird and seal populations. However, the project drew considerable opposition from environmentalist groups such as the World Wide Fund for Nature, which called on Alcoa to abandon the plan to build Fjardaál. In addition, Icelandic singer Björk was a notable early opponent to the plan; protesting the proposed construction, the singer 's mother, Hildur Rúna Hauksdóttir, went on a hunger strike in 2002.
Several other aluminium smelter projects have been planned. Between 2005 and 2011, Alcoa conducted a feasibility study for a second plant in Iceland near Húsavík. That plant was to have a 250,000 mtpy capacity, to be powered entirely by geothermal power, although later estimates showed a potential need for other sources of power. In October 2011, Alcoa announced its decision to cancel the Bakki project. In 2006, Nordurál signed a memorandum of understanding with two Icelandic geothermal power producers, Hitaveita Suðurnesja and Orkuveita Reykjavíkur, to purchase electricity for its own aluminium reduction project in Helguvík. The power supplied will initially support aluminium production of 150,000 mtpy, which will eventually grow to support 250,000 mtpy.
Fisheries and related sectors -- in recent years labelled "the ocean cluster '' -- was the single most important part of the Icelandic economy (has now been replaced by tourism) representing an overall contribution to GDP of 27.1 % in 2011. The fisheries sector directly employs around 9,000 people (4,900 in fishing and 4,100 in fish processing; approximately 5 per cent of Iceland 's workforce), although it is estimated that a total of between 25,000 and 35,000 people (up to 20 per cent of the workforce) depend on the ocean cluster for their livelihood. Many of these jobs are provided by technological companies that manufacture equipment for fisheries firms and by companies engaged in the advanced processing of marine products or in biotechnical production. By contrast, aquaculture remains a very small industry in Iceland, employing only around 250 people for a production of 5,000 tonnes.
Iceland is the second biggest fisheries nation in the North East Atlantic behind Norway, having overtaken the United Kingdom in the early 1990s. Since 2006, Icelandic fishing waters have yielded a total catch of between 1.1 m and 1.4 m tonnes of fish annually, although this is down from a peak of over 2m tonnes in 2003. Iceland has been affected by a general decline in fishing yields in the Northeast Atlantic, with a one - way decrease of 18 % from 2003 to 2009, although this trend appears to have been halted or reversed lately.
Cod remains the most important species harvested by Icelandic fisheries, with a total catch of 178,516 tonnes in 2010. The catch of cod has stagnated in recent years due to quotas, and was supplemented by the catch of blue whiting, which is used mainly for processing. The Icelandic catch of this previously insignificant fish increased from a negligible 369 tonnes in 1995 to a peak of 501,505 tonnes in 2003. Subsequently, the stock showed signs of instability and quotas were reduced, leading to a decline in the catch to 87,121 tonnes in 2010. There have been increased numbers of Atlantic mackerel, the "Miracle of the Mackerel. '' in the 21st century as the Atlantic Ocean has slightly warmed.
The Icelandic banking system has been completely overhauled in the wake of its collapse in 2008. There are now three major commercial banks, NBI (commonly referred to as Landsbanki), Arion Bank (formerly Kaupthing Bank) and Islandsbanki (formerly Glitnir). There are smaller banks, including Kvika banki (formerly MP Straumur), and some savings banks. There has been extensive consolidation of smaller banks, with Sparisjodur Keflavikur being taken over by Landsbanki and Byr being taken over by Islandsbanki. Kvika is presently the only bank listed on Iceland Stock Exchange. Arion Bank is mostly owned by foreign creditors while Landsbanki and Islandsbanki are now wholly owned by the State. The ownership stake of the Icelandic State in the banks is managed by Bankasysla rikisins (State Financial Investments), which aims to privatise its shares in the banks in coming years.
Because of historically persistent inflation, historical reliance on fish production and the long - standing public ownership of the commercial banks, equity markets were slow to develop. The Iceland Stock Exchange was created in 1985. Trading in Icelandic T - Bonds began in 1986 and trading in equities commenced in 1990. All domestic trading in Icelandic stocks, bonds and mutual funds takes place on the ICEX.
The ICEX has used electronic trading systems since its creation. Since 2000, SAXESS, the joint trading system of the NOREX alliance, has been used. There are currently two equities markets on the ICEX. The Main Market is the larger and better known of the two. The Alternative Market is a less regulated over-the - counter market. Because of the small size of the market, trading is illiquid in comparison with larger markets. A variety of firms across all sectors of the Icelandic economy are listed on the ICEX.
The most important stock market index was the ICEX 15; however, this index was discontinued in the wake of the financial crisis following a decade in which it had been the worst - performing stock market index in the entire world.
Historically, investors tended to be reluctant to hold Icelandic bonds because of the persistence of high inflation and the volatility of the Króna. What did exist was largely limited to bonds offered by the central government. The bond market on the ICEX has boomed in recent years, however, largely because of the resale of mortgages as housing bonds.
A mutual fund market exists on the ICEX in theory, but no funds are currently listed. A small derivatives market formerly existed, but was closed in 1999 because of illiquidity.
By the end of 2018, Bitcoin mining is expected to consume more electricity in Iceland than all the country 's residents combined.
Iceland 's economy is highly export - driven. Marine products account for the majority of goods exports. Other important exports include aluminium, ferro - silicon alloys, machinery and electronic equipment for the fishing industry, software, woollen goods. Most of Iceland 's exports go to the European Union (EU) and European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries, the United States, and Japan. The 2005 value of Iceland 's exports was $3.215 billion FOB.
The main imports are machinery and equipment, petroleum products, foodstuffs and textiles. Cement is Iceland 's most imported product. The total 2005 value of imports was $4.582 billion. Iceland 's primary import partner is Germany, with 12.6 %, followed by the United States, Norway, and Denmark. Most agricultural products are subject to high tariffs; the import of some products, such as uncooked meat, is greatly restricted for phyto - sanitary reasons.
Iceland 's relatively liberal trading policy has been strengthened by accession to the European Economic Area in 1993 and by the Uruguay Round, which also brought significantly improved market access for Iceland 's exports, particularly seafood products. However, the agricultural sector remains heavily subsidized and protected; some tariffs range as high as 700 %.
The fishing industry is one of the most important industries. It provides 40 % of export income and employs 7.0 % of the workforce; therefore, the state of the economy remains sensitive to world prices for fish products.
The following table should be considered in light of the dramatic depreciation of the currency in 2008 of approximately 50 %, corrected to EUD or USD. Corrected in this manner imports since the 2007 peak have been negative, not positive. See Wikipedia entry on Icelandic króna.
Source: Statistics Iceland (statice.is)
Iceland became a full European Free Trade Association member in 1970 and entered into a free trade agreement with the European Community in 1973. Under the agreement on a European Economic Area, effective January 1, 1994, there is basically free cross-border movement of capital, labor, goods, and services between Iceland, Norway, and the EU countries. However, many of Iceland 's political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders ' concern about losing control over their fishing resources. Iceland also has bilateral free trade agreements with several countries outside the EEA. The most extensive of these is the Hoyvík Agreement between Iceland and the Faroe Islands, this agreement goes even further than the EEA agreement by establishing free trade in agricultural products between the nations. Iceland has a free trade agreement with Mexico on November 27, 2000.
The currency of Iceland is the króna (plural: krónur), issued exclusively by the Central Bank of Iceland since the bank 's founding in 1961. Iceland is the smallest country to have its own currency and monetary policy.
During the 1970s the oil shocks (1973 and 1979 energy crisis) hit Iceland hard. Inflation rose to 43 % in 1974 and 59 % in 1980, falling to 15 % in 1987 but rising to 30 % in 1988. Iceland experienced moderately strong GDP growth (3 % on average) from 1995 to 2004. Growth slowed between 2000 and 2002, but the economy expanded by 4.3 % in 2003 and grew by 6.2 % in 2004. Growth in 2005 exceeded 6 %. Inflation averaged merely 1.5 % from 1993 to 1994, and only 1.7 % from 1994 to 1995. Inflation over 2006 topped at 8.6 %, with a rate of 6.9 % as of January 2007. Standard & Poor 's reduced their rating for Iceland to AA - from A+ (long term) in December 2006, following a loosening of fiscal policy by the Icelandic government ahead of the 2007 elections. Foreign debt rose to more than five times the value of Iceland 's GDP, and Iceland 's Central Bank raised short - term interest rates to nearly 15 % in 2007. Due to the plunging currency against the euro and dollar, in 2008 inflation was speculated to be at 20 - 25 %.
Iceland 's economy had been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the 1990s, and new developments in software production, biotechnology, and financial services were taking place. The tourism sector was also expanding, with the recent trends in ecotourism and whale watching. However, in 2008, the Icelandic economy entered a deep recession in correspondence to the global financial crisis. Although Iceland 's economy grew 3.3 % during the last quarter of 2009, the overall contraction in GDP over 2009 was 6.5 %, less than the 10 % originally forecasted by the IMF.
|
when did creative destruction the game come out | Creative destruction - wikipedia
Creative destruction (German: schöpferische Zerstörung), sometimes known as Schumpeter 's gale, is a concept in economics which since the 1950s has become most readily identified with the Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter who derived it from the work of Karl Marx and popularized it as a theory of economic innovation and the business cycle.
According to Schumpeter, the "gale of creative destruction '' describes the "process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one ''. In Marxian economic theory the concept refers more broadly to the linked processes of the accumulation and annihilation of wealth under capitalism.
The German Marxist sociologist Werner Sombart has been credited with the first use of these terms in his work Krieg und Kapitalismus (War and Capitalism, 1913). In the earlier work of Marx, however, the idea of creative destruction or annihilation (German: Vernichtung) implies not only that capitalism destroys and reconfigures previous economic orders, but also that it must ceaselessly devalue existing wealth (whether through war, dereliction, or regular and periodic economic crises) in order to clear the ground for the creation of new wealth.
In Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942), Joseph Schumpeter developed the concept out of a careful reading of Marx 's thought (to which the whole of Part I of the book is devoted), arguing (in Part II) that the creative - destructive forces unleashed by capitalism would eventually lead to its demise as a system (see below). Despite this, the term subsequently gained popularity within neoliberal or free - market economics as a description of processes such as downsizing in order to increase the efficiency and dynamism of a company. The Marxian usage has, however, been retained and further developed in the work of social scientists such as David Harvey, Marshall Berman, Manuel Castells and Daniele Archibugi.
Although the modern term "creative destruction '' is not used explicitly by Marx, it is largely derived from his analyses, particularly in the work of Werner Sombart (whom Engels described as the only German professor who understood Marx 's Capital), and of Joseph Schumpeter, who discussed at length the origin of the idea in Marx 's work (see below).
In The Communist Manifesto of 1848, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels described the crisis tendencies of capitalism in terms of "the enforced destruction of a mass of productive forces '':
Modern bourgeois society, with its relations of production, of exchange and of property, a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells. (...) It is enough to mention the commercial crises that by their periodical return put the existence of the whole of bourgeois society on trial, each time more threateningly. In these crises, a great part not only of existing production, but also of previously created productive forces, are periodically destroyed. In these crises, there breaks out an epidemic that, in all earlier epochs, would have seemed an absurdity -- the epidemic of over-production. Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary barbarism; it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation, had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence; industry and commerce seem to be destroyed; and why? Because there is too much civilisation, too much means of subsistence, too much industry, too much commerce. The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions. (...) And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises? On the one hand by enforced destruction of a mass of productive forces; on the other, by the conquest of new markets, and by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones. That is to say, by paving the way for more extensive and more destructive crises, and by diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented.
A few years later, in the Grundrisse, Marx was writing of "the violent destruction of capital not by relations external to it, but rather as a condition of its self - preservation ''. In other words, he establishes a necessary link between the generative or creative forces of production in capitalism and the destruction of capital value as one of the key ways in which capitalism attempts to overcome its internal contradictions:
These contradictions lead to explosions, cataclysms, crises, in which (...) momentaneous suspension of labour and annihilation of a great portion of capital (...) violently lead it back to the point where it is enabled (to go on) fully employing its productive powers without committing suicide.
In the Theories of Surplus Value ("Volume IV '' of Das Kapital, 1863), Marx refines this theory to distinguish between scenarios where the destruction of (commodity) values affects either use values or exchange values or both together. The destruction of exchange value combined with the preservation of use value presents clear opportunities for new capital investment and hence for the repetition of the production - devaluation cycle:
the destruction of capital through crises means the depreciation of values which prevents them from later renewing their reproduction process as capital on the same scale. This is the ruinous effect of the fall in the prices of commodities. It does not cause the destruction of any use - values. What one loses, the other gains. Values used as capital are prevented from acting again as capital in the hands of the same person. The old capitalists go bankrupt. (...) A large part of the nominal capital of the society, i.e., of the exchange - value of the existing capital, is once for all destroyed, although this very destruction, since it does not affect the use - value, may very much expedite the new reproduction. This is also the period during which moneyed interest enriches itself at the cost of industrial interest.
Social geographer David Harvey sums up the differences between Marx 's usage of these concepts and Schumpeter 's: "Both Karl Marx and Joseph Schumpeter wrote at length on the ' creative - destructive ' tendencies inherent in capitalism. While Marx clearly admired capitalism 's creativity he (...) strongly emphasised its self - destructiveness. The Schumpeterians have all along gloried in capitalism 's endless creativity while treating the destructiveness as mostly a matter of the normal costs of doing business ''.
In the Origin of Species, which was published in 1859, Charles Darwin wrote that the "extinction of old forms is the almost inevitable consequence of the production of new forms. '' One notable exception to this rule is how the extinction of the dinosaurs facilitated the adaptive radiation of mammals. In this case creation was the consequence, rather than the cause, of destruction.
In philosophical terms, the concept of "creative destruction '' is close to Hegel _́ s concept of sublation. In German economic discourse it was taken up from Marx 's writings by Werner Sombart, particularly in his 1913 text Krieg und Kapitalismus:
Again, however, from destruction a new spirit of creation arises; the scarcity of wood and the needs of everyday life... forced the discovery or invention of substitutes for wood, forced the use of coal for heating, forced the invention of coke for the production of iron.
Hugo Reinert has argued that Sombart 's formulation of the concept was influenced by Eastern mysticism, specifically the image of the Hindu god Shiva, who is presented in the paradoxical aspect of simultaneous destroyer and creator. Conceivably this influence passed from Johann Gottfried Herder, who brought Hindu thought to German philosophy in his Philosophy of Human History (Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit) (Herder 1790 -- 92), specifically volume III, pp. 41 -- 64. via Arthur Schopenhauer and the Orientalist Friedrich Maier through Friedrich Nietzsche _́ s writings. Nietzsche represented the creative destruction of modernity through the mythical figure of Dionysus, a figure whom he saw as at one and the same time "destructively creative '' and "creatively destructive ''. In the following passage from On the Genealogy of Morality (1887), Nietzsche argues for a universal principle of a cycle of creation and destruction, such that every creative act has its destructive consequence:
But have you ever asked yourselves sufficiently how much the erection of every ideal on earth has cost? How much reality has had to be misunderstood and slandered, how many lies have had to be sanctified, how many consciences disturbed, how much "God '' sacrificed every time? If a temple is to be erected a temple must be destroyed: that is the law -- let anyone who can show me a case in which it is not fulfilled! -- Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality
Other nineteenth - century formulations of this idea include Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, who wrote in 1842, "The passion for destruction is a creative passion, too! '' Note, however, that this earlier formulation might more accurately be termed "destructive creation '', and differs sharply from Marx 's and Schumpeter 's formulations in its focus on the active destruction of the existing social and political order by human agents (as opposed to systemic forces or contradictions in the case of both Marx and Schumpeter).
The expression "creative destruction '' was popularized by and is most associated with Joseph Schumpeter, particularly in his book Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, first published in 1942. Already in his 1939 book Business Cycles, he attempted to refine the innovative ideas of Nikolai Kondratieff and his long - wave cycle which Schumpeter believed was driven by technological innovation. Three years later, in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Schumpeter introduced the term "creative destruction '', which he explicitly derived from Marxist thought (analysed extensively in Part I of the book) and used it to describe the disruptive process of transformation that accompanies such innovation:
Capitalism (...) is by nature a form or method of economic change and not only never is but never can be stationary. (...) The fundamental impulse that sets and keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new consumers ' goods, the new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organization that capitalist enterprise creates.
(...) The opening up of new markets, foreign or domestic, and the organizational development from the craft shop and factory to such concerns as U.S. Steel illustrate the process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one. This process of Creative Destruction is the essential fact about capitalism. It is what capitalism consists in and what every capitalist concern has got to live in.
(... Capitalism requires) the perennial gale of Creative Destruction.
In Schumpeter 's vision of capitalism, innovative entry by entrepreneurs was the disruptive force that sustained economic growth, even as it destroyed the value of established companies and laborers that enjoyed some degree of monopoly power derived from previous technological, organizational, regulatory, and economic paradigms. However, Schumpeter was pessimistic about the sustainability of this process, seeing it as leading eventually to the undermining of capitalism 's own institutional frameworks:
In breaking down the pre-capitalist framework of society, capitalism thus broke not only barriers that impeded its progress but also flying buttresses that prevented its collapse. That process, impressive in its relentless necessity, was not merely a matter of removing institutional deadwood, but of removing partners of the capitalist stratum, symbiosis with whom was an essential element of the capitalist schema. (... T) he capitalist process in much the same way in which it destroyed the institutional framework of feudal society also undermines its own.
Schumpeter nevertheless elaborated the concept, making it central to his economic theory, and it was later taken up as a major doctrine of the so - called Austrian School of free - market economic thought.
Schumpeter (1949) in one of his examples used "the railroadization of the Middle West as it was initiated by the Illinois Central. '' He wrote, "The Illinois Central not only meant very good business whilst it was built and whilst new cities were built around it and land was cultivated, but it spelled the death sentence for the (old) agriculture of the West. ''
Companies that once revolutionized and dominated new industries -- for example, Xerox in copiers or Polaroid in instant photography -- have seen their profits fall and their dominance vanish as rivals launched improved designs or cut manufacturing costs. In technology, the cassette tape replaced the 8 - track, only to be replaced in turn by the compact disc, which was undercut by downloads to MP3 players, which is now being usurped by web - based streaming services. Companies which made money out of technology which becomes obsolete do not necessarily adapt well to the business environment created by the new technologies.
One such example is the way in which online ad - supported news sites such as The Huffington Post are leading to creative destruction of the traditional newspaper. The Christian Science Monitor announced in January 2009 that it would no longer continue to publish a daily paper edition, but would be available online daily and provide a weekly print edition. The Seattle Post-Intelligencer became online - only in March 2009. At a national level in USA, employment in the newspaper business fell from 455,700 in 1990 to 225,100 in 2013. Over that same period, employment in internet publishing and broadcasting grew from 29,400 to 121,200. Traditional French alumni networks, which typically charge their students to network online or through paper directories, are in danger of creative destruction from free social networking sites such as Linkedin and Viadeo.
In fact, successful innovation is normally a source of temporary market power, eroding the profits and position of old firms, yet ultimately succumbing to the pressure of new inventions commercialised by competing entrants. Creative destruction is a powerful economic concept because it can explain many of the dynamics or kinetics of industrial change: the transition from a competitive to a monopolistic market, and back again. It has been the inspiration of endogenous growth theory and also of evolutionary economics.
David Ames Wells (1890), who was a leading authority on the effects of technology on the economy in the late 19th century, gave many examples of creative destruction (without using the term) brought about by improvements in steam engine efficiency, shipping, the international telegraph network, and agricultural mechanization.
These economic facts have certain social consequences. As the critics of the market economy nowadays prefer to take their stand on "social '' grounds, it may be not inappropriate here to elucidate the true social results of the market process. We have already spoken of it as a leveling process. More aptly, we may now describe these results as an instance of what Pareto called "the circulation of elites. '' Wealth is unlikely to stay for long in the same hands. It passes from hand to hand as unforeseen change confers value, now on this, now on that specific resource, engendering capital gains and losses. The owners of wealth, we might say with Schumpeter, are like the guests at a hotel or the passengers in a train: They are always there but are never for long the same people.
Geographer and historian David Harvey in a series of works from the 1970s onwards (Social Justice and the City, 1973; The Limits to Capital, 1982; The Urbanization of Capital, 1985; Spaces of Hope, 2000; Spaces of Capital, 2001; Spaces of Neoliberalization, 2005; The Enigma of Capital and the Crises of Capitalism, 2010), elaborated Marx 's thought on the systemic contradictions of capitalism, particularly in relation to the production of the urban environment (and to the production of space more broadly). He developed the notion that capitalism finds a "spatial fix '' for its periodic crises of overaccumulation through investment in fixed assets of infrastructure, buildings, etc.: "The built environment that constitutes a vast field of collective means of production and consumption absorbs huge amounts of capital in both its construction and its maintenance. Urbanization is one way to absorb the capital surplus ''. While the creation of the built environment can act as a form of crisis displacement, it can also constitute a limit in its own right, as it tends to freeze productive forces into a fixed spatial form. As capital can not abide a limit to profitability, ever more frantic forms of "time - space compression '' (increased speed of turnover, innovation of ever faster transport and communications ' infrastructure, "flexible accumulation '') ensue, often impelling technological innovation. Such innovation, however, is a double - edged sword:
The effect of continuous innovation (...) is to devalue, if not destroy, past investments and labour skills. Creative destruction is embedded within the circulation of capital itself. Innovation exacerbates instability, insecurity, and in the end, becomes the prime force pushing capitalism into periodic paroxysms of crisis. (...) The struggle to maintain profitability sends capitalists racing off to explore all kinds of other possibilities. New product lines are opened up, and that means the creation of new wants and needs. Capitalists are forced to redouble their efforts to create new needs in others (...). The result is to exacerbate insecurity and instability, as masses of capital and workers shift from one line of production to another, leaving whole sectors devastated (...). The drive to relocate to more advantageous places (the geographical movement of both capital and labour) periodically revolutionizes the international and territorial division of labour, adding a vital geographical dimension to the insecurity. The resultant transformation in the experience of space and place is matched by revolutions in the time dimension, as capitalists strive to reduce the turnover time of their capital to "the twinkling of an eye ''.
Globalization can be viewed as some ultimate form of time - space compression, allowing capital investment to move almost instantaneously from one corner of the globe to another, devaluing fixed assets and laying off labour in one urban conglommeration while opening up new centres of manufacture in more profitable sites for production operations. Hence, in this continual process of creative destruction, capitalism does not resolve its contradictions and crises, but merely "moves them around geographically ''.
In his 1987 book All That is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity, particularly in the chapter entitled "Innovative Self - Destruction '' (pp. 98 -- 104), Marshall Berman provides a reading of Marxist "creative destruction '' to explain key processes at work within modernity. The title of the book is taken from a well - known passage from The Communist Manifesto. Berman elaborates this into something of a Zeitgeist which has profound social and cultural consequences:
The truth of the matter, as Marx sees, is that everything that bourgeois society builds is built to be torn down. "All that is solid '' -- from the clothes on our backs to the looms and mills that weave them, to the men and women who work the machines, to the houses and neighborhoods the workers live in, to the firms and corporations that exploit the workers, to the towns and cities and whole regions and even nations that embrace them all -- all these are made to be broken tomorrow, smashed or shredded or pulverized or dissolved, so they can be recycled or replaced next week, and the whole process can go on again and again, hopefully forever, in ever more profitable forms. The pathos of all bourgeois monuments is that their material strength and solidity actually count for nothing and carry no weight at all, that they are blown away like frail reeds by the very forces of capitalist development that they celebrate. Even the most beautiful and impressive bourgeois buildings and public works are disposable, capitalized for fast depreciation and planned to be obsolete, closer in their social functions to tents and encampments than to "Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, Gothic cathedrals ''.
Here Berman emphasizes Marx 's perception of the fragility and evanescence of capitalism 's immense creative forces, and makes this apparent contradiction into one of the key explanatory figures of modernity.
The sociologist Manuel Castells, in his trilogy on The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture (the first volume of which, The Rise of the Network Society, appeared in 1996), reinterpreted the processes by which capitalism invests in certain regions of the globe, while divesting from others, using the new paradigm of "informational networks ''. In the era of globalization, capitalism is characterized by near - instantaneous flow, creating a new spatial dimension, "the space of flows ''. While technological innovation has enabled this unprecedented fluidity, this very process makes redundant whole areas and populations who are bypassed by informational networks. Indeed, the new spatial form of the mega-city or megalopolis, is defined by Castells as having the contradictory quality of being "globally connected and locally disconnected, physically and socially ''. Castells explicitly links these arguments to the notion of creative destruction:
The "spirit of informationalism '' is the culture of "creative destruction '' accelerated to the speed of the optoelectronic circuits that process its signals. Schumpeter meets Weber in the cyberspace of the network enterprise.
Developing the Schumpeterian legacy, the school of the Science Policy Research Unit of the University of Sussex has further detailed the importance of creative destruction exploring, in particular, how new technologies are often idiosyncratic with the existing productive regimes and will lead to bankruptcy companies and even industries that do not manage to sustain the rate of change. Chris Freeman and Carlota Perez have developed these insights. More recently, Daniele Archibugi and Andrea Filippetti have associated the 2008 economic crisis to the slow - down of opportunities offered by information and communication technologies (ICTs). Using as a metaphor the film Blade Runner, Archibugi has argued that of the innovations described in the film in 1982, all those associated to ICTs have become part of our everyday life. But, on the contrary, none of those in the field of Biotech have been fully commercialized. A new economic recovery will occur when some key technological opportunities will be identified and sustained.
Technological opportunities do not enter into economic and social life without deliberate efforts and choices. We should be able to envisage new forms of organization associated with emerging technology. ICTs have already changed our lifestyle even more than our economic life: they have generated jobs and profits, but above all they have transformed the way we use our time and interact with the world. Biotech could bring about even more radical social transformations at the core of our life. Why have these not yet been delivered? What can be done to unleash their potential? There are a few basic questions that need to be addressed.
In 1992, the idea of creative destruction was put into formal mathematical terms by Philippe Aghion and Peter Howitt, giving an alternative model of endogenous growth compared to Paul Romer 's expanding varieties model.
In 1995, Harvard Business School authors Richard L. Nolan and David C. Croson released Creative Destruction: A Six - Stage Process for Transforming the Organization. The book advocated downsizing to free up slack resources, which could then be reinvested to create competitive advantage.
More recently, the idea of "creative destruction '' was utilized by Max Page in his 1999 book, The Creative Destruction of Manhattan, 1900 -- 1940. The book traces Manhattan 's constant reinvention, often at the expense of preserving a concrete past. Describing this process as "creative destruction, '' Page describes the complex historical circumstances, economics, social conditions and personalities that have produced crucial changes in Manhattan 's cityscape.
In addition to Max Page, others have used the term "creative destruction '' to describe the process of urban renewal and modernization. T.C. Chang and Shirlena Huang referenced "creative destruction '' in their paper Recreating place, replacing memory: Creative Destruction at the Singapore River. The authors explored the efforts to redevelop a waterfront area that reflected a vibrant new culture while paying sufficient homage to the history of the region. Rosemary Wakeman chronicled the evolution of an area in central Paris, France known as Les Halles. Les Halles housed a vibrant marketplace starting in the twelfth century. Ultimately, in 1971, the markets were relocated and the pavilions torn down. In their place, now stand a hub for trains, subways and buses. Les Halles is also the site of the largest shopping mall in France and the controversial Centre Georges Pompidou.
The term "creative destruction '' has been applied to the arts. Alan Ackerman and Martin Puncher (2006) edited a collection of essays under the title Against Theater: Creative destruction on the modernist stage. They detail the changes and the causal motivations experienced in theater as a result of the modernization of both the production of performances and the underlying economics. They speak of how theater has reinvented itself in the face of anti-theatricality, straining the boundaries of the traditional to include more physical productions, which might be considered avant - garde staging techniques.
In his 1999 book, Still the New World, American Literature in a Culture of Creative Destruction, Philip Fisher analyzes the themes of creative destruction at play in literary works of the twentieth century, including the works of such authors as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, Mark Twain, and Henry James, among others. Fisher argues that creative destruction exists within literary forms just as it does within the changing of technology.
Neoconservative author Michael Ledeen argued in his 2002 book The War Against the Terror Masters that America is a revolutionary nation, undoing traditional societies: "Creative destruction is our middle name, both within our own society and abroad. We tear down the old order every day, from business to science, literature, art, architecture, and cinema to politics and the law. '' His characterization of creative destruction as a model for social development has met with fierce opposition from paleoconservatives.
Creative destruction has also been linked to sustainable development. The connection was explicitly mentioned for the first time by Stuart L. Hart and Mark B. Milstein in their 1999 article Global Sustainability and the Creative Destruction of Industries, in which he argues new profit opportunities lie in a round of creative destruction driven by global sustainability. (An argument which they would later on strengthen in their 2003 article Creating Sustainable Value and, in 2005, with Innovation, Creative Destruction and Sustainability.) Andrea L. Larson agreed with this vision a year later in Sustainable Innovation Through an Entrepreneurship Lens, stating entrepreneurs should be open to the opportunities for disruptive improvement based on sustainability. In 2005, James Hartshorn (et al.) emphasized the opportunities for sustainable, disruptive improvement in the construction industry in his article Creative Destruction: Building Toward Sustainability.
The following text appears to be the source of the phrase "Schumpeter 's Gale '' to refer to creative destruction:
The opening up of new markets and the organizational development from the craft shop and factory to such concerns as US Steel illustrate the process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one... (The process) must be seen in its role in the perennial gale of creative destruction; it can not be understood on the hypothesis that there is a perennial lull.
The film Other People 's Money (1991) provides contrasting views of creative destruction, presented in two speeches regarding the takeover of a publicly traded wire and cable company in a small New England town. One speech is by a corporate raider, and the other is given by the company CEO, who is principally interested in protecting his employees and the town.
|
describe the role of pancreatic juice in the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins in a mammal | Pancreatic juice - Wikipedia
Pancreatic juice is a liquid secreted by the pancreas, which contains a variety of enzymes, including trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastase, carboxypeptidase, pancreatic lipase, nucleases and amylase. The pancreas is located in the visceral region, and is a major part of the digestive system required for proper digestion and subsequent assimilation of macronutrient substances required for living.
Pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature due to the high concentration of bicarbonate ions. Bicarbonate is useful in neutralizing the acidic gastric acid, allowing for effective enzymic action.
Pancreatic juice secretion is principally regulated by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin, which are produced by the walls of the duodenum, and by the action of autonomic innervation.
The release of these hormones into the blood is stimulated by the entry of the acidic chyme into the duodenum.
The coordinated action of the forementioned hormones results in the secretion of a large volume of the pancreatic juice, which is alkaline and enzyme - rich, into duodenum. The pancreas also receives autonomic innervation. The blood flow into pancreas is regulated by sympathetic nerve fibers, while parasympathetic neurons stimulate the activity of acinar and centroacinar cells.
Pancreatic secretion is an aqueous solution of bicarbonate originating from the duct cells and enzymes originating from the acinar cells. The bicarbonate assists in neutralising the low pH of the chyme coming from the stomach, while the enzymes assist in the breakdown of the proteins, lipids and carbohydrates for further processing and absorption in the intestines.
Pancreatic juice is secreted into the duodenom through duodenal papilla. Some individuals have also an accessory duct, named accessory pancreatic duct, which may be functional (that is, it also empties the contents of the exocine pancreas into the duodenum) or non-functional.
|
in what ways are cuba and the us different | Foreign relations of Cuba - wikipedia
Cuba 's foreign policy has been fluid throughout history depending on world events and other variables, including relations with the United States. Without massive Soviet subsidies and its primary trading partner, Cuba was comparatively isolated in the 1990s after the fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War, but has since entered bilateral co-operation with several South American countries, most notably Venezuela and Bolivia. The United States used to stick to a policy of isolating Cuba until December 2014, when Barack Obama announced a new policy of diplomatic and economic engagement. The European Union accuses Cuba of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms ''. Cuba has developed a growing relationship with the People 's Republic of China and Russia. In all, Cuba continues to have formal relations with 160 nations, and provided civilian assistance workers -- principally medical -- in more than 20 nations. More than one million exiles have escaped to foreign countries. Cuba 's present foreign minister is Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla.
Cuba is currently a lead country on the United Nations Human Rights Council, and is a founding member of the organization known as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas, a member of the Latin American Integration Association and the United Nations. Cuba is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and hosted its September 2006 summit. In addition as a member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Cuba was re-appointed as the chair - of the special committee on transportation issues for the Caribbean region. Following a meeting in November 2004, several leaders of South America have attempted to make Cuba either a full or associate member of the South American trade bloc known as Mercosur.
Prior to achieving its independence, Cuba was a colony of Spain.
Prior to the triumph of the Cuban Revolution, Cuba maintained strong economic and political ties to the United States. From 1902 until its abrogation in 1934, the Platt Amendment authorized the US to use military force to preserve Cuba 's independence.
In 1917, Cuba entered World War I on the side of the allies.
Cuba joined the League of Nations in 1920.
In 1941, Cuba declared war on Italy, Germany, and Japan.
Cuba joined the United Nations in 1945.
Cuba joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1948.
During the Presidency of Fulgencio Batista, Cuba did not initially face trade restrictions. In mid-1958, the United States imposed an arms embargo on the Batista administration.
As early as September 1959, Vadim Kotchergin (or Kochergin), a KGB agent, was seen in Cuba.
Following the establishment of diplomatic ties to the Soviet Union, and after the Cuban Missile Crisis, Cuba became increasingly dependent on Soviet markets and military and economic aid. Castro was able to build a formidable military force with the help of Soviet equipment and military advisors. The KGB kept in close touch with Havana, and Castro tightened Communist Party control over all levels of government, the media, and the educational system, while developing a Soviet - style internal police force.
Castro 's alliance with the Soviet Union caused something of a split between him and Guevara. In 1966, Guevara left for Bolivia in an ill - fated attempt to stir up revolution against the country 's government.
On August 23, 1968, Castro made a public gesture to the USSR that caused the Soviet leadership to reaffirm their support for him. Two days after Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to repress the Prague Spring, Castro took to the airwaves and publicly denounced the Czech rebellion. Castro warned the Cuban people about the Czechoslovakian ' counterrevolutionaries ', who "were moving Czechoslovakia towards capitalism and into the arms of imperialists ''. He called the leaders of the rebellion "the agents of West Germany and fascist reactionary rabble. '' In return for his public backing of the invasion, at a time when some Soviet allies were deeming the invasion an infringement of Czechoslovakia 's sovereignty, the Soviets bailed out the Cuban economy with extra loans and an immediate increase in oil exports.
The relationship between the Soviet Union 's KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate was complex and marked by times of extremely close cooperation and times of extreme competition. The Soviet Union saw the new revolutionary government in Cuba as an excellent proxy agent in areas of the world where Soviet involvement was not popular on a local level. Nikolai Leninov, the KGB Chief in Mexico City, was one of the first Soviet officials to recognize Fidel Castro 's potential as a revolutionary and urged the Soviet Union to strengthen ties with the new Cuban leader. Moscow saw Cuba as having far more appeal with new revolutionary movements, western intellectuals, and members of the New Left with Cuba 's perceived David and Goliath struggle against US imperialism. Shortly after the Cuban missile crisis in 1963, Moscow invited 1,500 DI agents, including Che Guevara, to the KGB 's Moscow Center for intensive training in intelligence operations.
After the revolution of 1959, Cuba soon took actions inimical to American trade interests on the island. In response, the U.S. stopped buying Cuban sugar and refused to supply its former trading partner with much needed oil. Relations between the countries deteriorated rapidly. In April 1961, following air attacks preparing for the Bay of Pigs Invasion by CIA - trained Cuban exiles, prime minister Fidel Castro declared Cuba to be a socialist republic, and moved quickly to develop the growing relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union.
In 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States -- Thereafter, many nations throughout Latin America broke ties with Cuba.
Following the establishment of diplomatic ties, and after the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, Cuba became increasingly dependent on Soviet markets and military and economic aid. Cuba was able to build a large military force with the help of Soviet equipment and military advisors. The Soviets also kept in close touch with Havana, sharing varying close relations until the collapse of the bloc in 1990.
"Cuba has a unique symbolic allure. It is the small country that confronted the U.S. empire and has survived despite the attempts by all U.S. presidents since to subdue its communist government. It is the island with iconic leaders like Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, and the Latin American country that in the language of revolutionaries everywhere embodies the struggle of socialist humanism against the materialism of capitalist societies. Cuba is also the small nation that in the past sent its troops to die in faraway lands in Latin America and even Africa fighting for the poor. ''
During the cold war, Cuba 's influence in the Americas was inhibited by the Monroe Doctrine and the dominance of the United States. Despite this Fidel Castro became an influential figurehead for leftist groups in the region, extending support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, most notably aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979. In 1971, Fidel Castro took a month - long visit to Chile. The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that "The Chilean Way to Socialism '' was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.
Cuba 's intervention in Africa, which began in the mid-1970s, was more substantial leading to involvement in 17 African nations and three African insurgencies soon leading Cuban soldiers engaging in frontline military combat. In doing so Castro aligned Cuba with African insurgencies against colonial vestiges and specifically against South Africa. By providing military aid Cuba won trading partners for the Soviet bloc and potential converts to Marxism.
On November 4, 1975, Castro ordered the deployment of Cuban troops to Angola to aid the Marxist MPLA against UNITA forces, which were being supported by the People 's Republic of China, and later the United States, Israel, and South Africa (see: Cuba in Angola). After two months on their own, Moscow aided the Cuban mission with the USSR engaging in a massive airlift of Cuban forces into Angola. On this, Nelson Mandela is said to have remarked "Cuban internationalists have done so much for African independence, freedom, and justice. '' Cuban troops were also sent to Marxist Ethiopia to assist Ethiopian forces in the Ogaden War with Somalia in 1977. Cuba sent troops along with the Soviet Union to aid the FRELIMO and MPLA governments in Mozambique and Angola, respectively, while they were fighting U.S. and South African - backed insurgent groups RENAMO (supported by Rhodesia as well) and UNITA. He also aided the government of Mengistu Haile Mariam in Ethiopia during its conflict with Somalia. Overall, an estimated 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad. Castro never disclosed the amount of casualties in Soviet African wars, but one estimate is 14,000, a high number for the small country.
Cuban troops were also sent to Marxist Ethiopia to assist Ethiopian forces in the Ogaden War with Somalia in 1977. In addition, Castro extended support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, such as aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing the Somoza government in Nicaragua in 1979. It has been claimed by the Carthage Foundation - funded Center for a Free Cuba that an estimated 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad.
In the post -- Cold War environment Cuban support for guerrilla warfare in Latin America has largely subsided, though the Cuban government continued to provide political assistance and support for left leaning groups and parties in the developing Western Hemisphere.
When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Cuba in 1989, the comradely relationship between Havana and Moscow was strained by Gorbachev 's implementation of economic and political reforms in the USSR. "We are witnessing sad things in other socialist countries, very sad things '', lamented Castro in November 1989, in reference to the changes that were sweeping such communist allies as the Soviet Union, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland. The subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had an immediate and devastating effect on Cuba.
Cuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the "Washington consensus '', the American - led doctrine that free trade, open markets, and privatization will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation. The Cuban government have condemned neoliberalism as a destructive force in the developing world, creating an alliance with Presidents Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and Evo Morales of Bolivia in opposing such policies.
Currently, Cuba has diplomatically friendly relationships with Presidents Nicolás Maduro of Venezuela, Dilma Rousseff of Brazil, and Cristina Fernández of Argentina, with Maduro as perhaps his staunchest ally in the post-Soviet era. Cuba has sent thousands of teachers and medical personnel to Venezuela to assist Chávez 's socialist oriented economic programs. Chávez, in turn provides Cuba with lower priced petroleum. Cuba 's debt for oil to Venezuela is believed to be on the order of one billion US dollars.
Ties between the nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba have remained cordial over the course of the later half of the 20th century. Formal diplomatic relations between the CARICOM economic giants: Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago have existed since 1972, and have over time led to an increase in cooperation between the CARICOM Heads of Government and Cuba. At a summit meeting of sixteen Caribbean countries in 1998, Fidel Castro called for regional unity, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy. Cuba, for many years regionally isolated, increased grants and scholarships to the Caribbean countries.
To celebrate ties between the Caribbean Community and Cuba in 2002 the Heads of Government of Cuba and CARICOM have designated the day of December 8 to be called ' CARICOM - Cuba Day '. The day is the exact date of the formal opening of diplomatic relations between the first CARICOM - four and Cuba.
In December 2005, during the second CARICOM / CUBA summit held in Barbados, heads of CARICOM and Cuba agreed to deepen their ties in the areas of socio - economic and political cooperation in addition to medical care assistance. Since the meeting, Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This development makes Cuba the only nation to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community. CARICOM and Canadian politicians have jointly maintained that through the International inclusion of Cuba, a more positive change might indeed be brought about there (politically) as has been witnessed in the People 's Republic of China.
Cuban cooperation with the Caribbean was extended by a joint health programme between Cuba and Venezuela named Operación Milagro, set up in 2004. The initiative is part of the Sandino commitment, which sees both countries coming together with the aim of offering free ophthalmology operations to an estimated 4.5 million people in Latin America and the Caribbean over a ten - year period. According to Denzil Douglas, the prime minister of St. Kitts and Nevis and the current Caricom chairman, more than 1,300 students from member nations are studying in Cuba while more than 1,000 Cuban doctors, nurses and other technicians are working throughout the region. In 1998 Trinidad Prime Minister Patrick Manning had a heart valve replacement surgery in Cuba and returned in 2004 to have a pacemaker implanted.
Following Fidel Castro 's illness and temporary transfer of power Caribbean leaders sent get - well - soon messages to Castro. Leaders included Prime Minister Kenny Anthony of St. Lucia who announced: "We pray for President Castro and we wish him God 's blessings ''. Grenadan Prime Minister Keith Mitchell stated "Cuba has been a long - standing friend to the entire Caribbean '', and Trinidad Prime Minister Patrick Manning issued a statement extending Castro his "best wishes for a prompt recovery. '' Additionally the Cuban - Barbadian Friendship Association (CBFA) and the social movement known as the Clement Payne Movement also extended a press release stating "We will lead the process for all progressive organizations in Barbados to hold a solidarity meeting with the government and people of the Republic of Cuba on August 13 at the Clement Payne Cultural Centre ''. Both organizations stated they would be planning to send a delegation to Cuba to celebrate with Fidel Castro his 80th birthday, in addition to the annual observance on October 6 of Cubana Flight 455 which was bombed off the coast of Barbados in 1976 via a CIA - linked plot.
In December 2008 the CARICOM Heads of Government opened the third Cuba - CARICOM Summit in Cuba. The summit is to look at closer integration of the Caribbean Community and Cuba. During the summit the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bestowed Fidel Castro with the highest honour of CARICOM, The Honorary Order of the Caribbean Community which is presented in exceptional circumstances to those who have offered their services in an outstanding way and have made significant contributions to the region.
On a visit to South Africa, Fidel Castro was warmly received by President Nelson Mandela. President Mandela gave Castro South Africa 's highest civilian award for foreigners, the Order of Good Hope. In 2005 Castro fulfilled his promise of sending 100 medical aid workers to Botswana, according to the Botswana presidency. According to Anna Vallejera, Cuba 's first - ever Ambassador to Botswana, the health workers are part of her country 's ongoing commitment to proactively assist in the global war against HIV / AIDS. Cuba also has historically good ties with a number of other African countries, including Angola, Guinea - Bissau, Mozambique, Namibia and Algeria.
Angola - Cuba diplomatic relations are, for Angola, second only to relations with the United States. During Angola 's civil war, Cuban forces fought to install a Marxist -- Leninist MPLA - PT government; against Western - backed UNITA and FLNA guerrillas backed by the South African apartheid state. For the time being South African forces were repelled though the UNITA insurgency continued; eventually Cuban forces withdrew from the country, especially as Cuba faced tremendous economic difficulties as a result of the Soviet Union 's collapse. The outcome of Cuban withdrawal and the peace accords resulted in the MPLA changing from a Marxist -- Leninist party to a Multi-Party Democratic system based on free market principles (the MPLA also dropped the "PT '' extension to their name as a clear sign of dropping their Communist aspirations). From an economic stand point, Cuba has lost its preferred status in Angola and South Africa has become the biggest single investor and trading partner with Angola (outside of oil sales).
Cuban - Namibian relations began during the Namibian War of Independence when Cuba politically, militarily and diplomatically supported the Namibian rebel organization and future ruling party, South West Africa People 's Organization (SWAPO) against the military of Apartheid South Africa. Since independence, Namibia and Cuba have held joint meetings every two years for Economic, Scientific - Technical and Commercial Cooperation. In 2005, it was reported that 1,460 Cuban professionals had worked in Namibia, including 208 in 2005.
Cuba recognized the SADR on 20 January 1980 and formal diplomatic relations were established on 30 January 1980. A Sahrawi embassy was opened in Havana in April 1980 and the Cuban embassy in Algiers, Algeria is accredited to the SADR.
The Cuban government initially pledged to send one hundred and sixty five health workers to Sierra Leone to take part in combating the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. Later the Cuban government expanded this pledge with an additional three hundred health workers being sent throughout the region.
Cuba has supported a number of leftist groups and parties in Latin America and the Caribbean since the 1959 revolution. In the 1960s Cuba established close ties with the emerging Guatemalan social movement led by Luis Augusto Turcios Lima, and supported the establishment of the URNG, a militant organization that has evolved into one of Guatemala 's current political parties. In the 1980s Cuba backed both the Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the FMLN in El Salvador, providing military and intelligence training, weapons, guidance, and organizational support.
Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1995.
With the electoral win of the President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2002 ties between Cuba and Brazil have steadily warmed. Brazil continues to play its part in trying to revive and upgrade the offshore oil and gas infrastructure of Cuba. In addition, talks led by Brazil are underway seeking to develop a framework for Cuba to become a normalised affiliate member of the Mercosur bloc of countries.
Canada has always maintained consistently cordial relations with Cuba, in spite of considerable pressure from the United States, and the island is also one of the most popular travel destinations for Canadian citizens. Canada - Cuba relations can be traced back to the 18th century, when vessels from the Atlantic provinces of Canada traded codfish and beer for rum and sugar. Cuba was the first country in the Caribbean selected by Canada for a diplomatic mission. Official diplomatic relations were established in 1945, when Emile Vaillancourt, a noted writer and historian, was designated Canada 's representative in Cuba. Canada and Mexico were the only two countries in the hemisphere to maintain uninterrupted diplomatic relations with Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959.
In 1994, a joint venture was formed between the Cuban Nickel Union and the Canadian firm Sherritt International, which operates a mining and processing plant on the island in Moa. A second enterprise, Cobalt Refinery Co. Inc., was created in Alberta for nickel refining. Canada has been critical of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, and strongly objected to the Helms - Burton Act. In 1996 Foreign Affairs Minister Lloyd Axworthy stated: "Canada shares the U.S. objectives of improving human rights standards and moving to more representative government in Cuba. But we are concerned that the Helms - Burton Act takes the wrong approach. That is why we have been working with other countries to uphold the principles of international law ''. In 1996 a Private Member 's Bill was introduced, but not made law, in the Canadian Parliament; this law called the Godfrey -- Milliken Bill was in response to the extraterritoriality of the aforementioned Act.
Former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and Fidel Castro were personal friends. Castro was among Pierre Trudeau 's pallbearers at his funeral in 2000. Former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and Fidel Castro also maintained a close relationship.
Cuba has been since the 1960s a reference point to left wing politicians in Chile. Recently relations to Cuba has been hot subject in Concertación politics since the Christian Democrat Party of Chile, member of the Concertación, has supported a harder line in the diplomatic relations with Cuba while the Socialist Party of Chile has opposed this.
In 1971, despite an Organization of American States convention that no nation in the Western Hemisphere would have a relationship with Cuba (the only exception being Mexico, which had refused to adopt that convention), Castro took a month - long visit to Chile, following the re-establishment of diplomatic relations with Cuba. The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that "The Chilean Way to Socialism '' was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.
Cuba gave training, money, medicines, weapons and safe haven to members of Colombian guerrilla movements, especially to the ELN and also to members of the FARC, both of which were founded in the early 1960s. In the years leading up to his death, Fidel Castro made gestures of reconciliation with different Colombian government administrations, and has been considered responsible for facilitating talks between them and the opposing guerrilla groups.
Costa Rica broke relations with Cuba in 1961 to protest Cuban support of the left in Central America and renewed formal diplomatic ties with Fidel Castro 's government in March 2009. In 1995, Costa Rica established a consular office in Havana. Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in 2001, but relations continued to be difficult. In 2006, shortly after the death of Augusto Pinochet, Costa Rican President Óscar Arias compared Fidel Castro 's human rights record to that of the former Chilean president. In response, Cuban officials released a statement describing the Washington aligned Arias as a "vulgar mercenary '' of U.S. officials, and asserting that Washington "always had on hand another opportunistic clown ready to follow its aggressive plans against Cuba. ''
Cuba and El Salvador resumed diplomatic relations on June 1, 2009. El Salvador previously suspended diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 due to the Cuban Revolution. Diplomatic ties were resumed after El Salvador 's new president Mauricio Funes, who had pledged to reestablish them, was sworn into office. El Salvador is also the very last Latin American nation to resume diplomatic relations with Cuba.
Before the Cuban revolution, Mexico was the country where several Cubans were exiled fleeing political persecution by the government of Batista like Julio Antonio Mella, Juan Marinello, Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro.
After the Cuban revolution when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States, Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained, claiming a non-intervention policy. Relations were stable from 1934 to 1998.
Although the relationship between Cuba and Mexico remains strained, each side appears to make attempts to improve it. In 1998, Fidel Castro apologized when he said that "Mexican kids knew Mickey Mouse better than national heroes of their own country '', which led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana. Rather, he said, his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the US.
Mexican President Vicente Fox apologized to Fidel Castro in 2002 over statements by Castro, who had taped their telephone conversation, to the effect that Fox forced him to leave a United Nations summit in Mexico so that he would not be in the presence of President Bush, who also attended.
In 2004, Mexico suspended relations with Cuba after businessman Carlos Ahumada was arrested and deported to Mexico and the paperwork provided by the Cuban government proved that there was a plan from the Mexican government to make a complot against the potential presidential candidate from the opposition party Andrés Manuel López Obrador. In April 2012, Mexican president Felipe Calderón made a two - day visit to Havana. In January 2014, Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto paid an official visit to Cuba.
Cuba developed close relations with the 1979 Sandinista government in Nicaragua (having supported the Sandinista insurgency against Anastasio Somoza 's rule). Cuba proved to be the organization 's chief international ally in the civil war against the U.S. - backed Contras. Cuba transported weapons to Panama. From Panama, the Cuban weapons would be taken through Costa Rica to Nicaragua. Cuba continues to have close relations with the Sandinista National Liberation Front, since being re-elected in 2006 for the first time since 1984, they are again the governing party of Nicaragua.
Cuba and Panama have restored diplomatic ties after breaking them off in 2004 when Panama 's former president Mireya Moscoso pardoned four Cubans, including Luis Posada Carriles, who were accused of attempting to assassinate Cuban President Fidel Castro. The foreign minister of each country re-established official diplomatic relations in Havana by signing a document describing a spirit of fraternity that has long linked both nations. In March 2009, the governments of Costa Rica and El Salvador announced that they plan on re-establishing full diplomatic relations with Cuba.
The Cuban Revolution led to the deterioration of relations between the two countries, and diplomatic ties were broken on January 3, 1961 after the Eisenhower administration rejected a demand from Fidel Castro to reduce the number of US embassy personnel in Havana. However, since December 2014, relations have improved greatly, and on July 20, 2015, Cuba and the United States re-opened diplomatic relations, upgrading their "interest sections '' to embassies. In December 2014, US President Barack Obama and Cuban President Raul Castro announced the start of the process to normalize diplomatic relations between the two countries, following 18 months of secret negotiations in Canada and Vatican City. Although relations have greatly improved since then, the United States still holds a trade embargo against Cuba, making it illegal for American companies to do business in Cuba. However, Barack Obama has called for an end to the embargo, saying that it failed to get Cuba to abandon one - party rule.
Relations between Cuba and Venezuela significantly improved during the Presidency of Hugo Chávez. Chávez formed a major alliance with Cuban president Fidel Castro and significant trade relationship with Cuba since his election in 1999. The warm relationship between the two countries continued to intensify. Hugo Chávez described Castro as his mentor and called Cuba "a revolutionary democracy ''.
Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez was a close ally of Fidel Castro, and described the Fidel Castro -- Hugo Chávez -- Evo Morales relationship as an "Axis of good ''. Chávez 's formulation is a play on the "axis of evil '' phrase used by President Bush when describing governments such as those of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea in his 2002 State of the Union Address. The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela has agreed to barter Venezuelan oil, in exchange for Cuban medical assistance.
On December 15, 2004, an agreement called the ALBA (Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas) was signed to eliminate tariffs and import duties and promote investment as well as technical and educational cooperation between the two countries. Venezuela and Cuba have been close trading partners since a cooperative agreement was signed between them on October 30, 2000. The new agreement meant that Cuban goods and services were to be paid for with Venezuela products and currency. Venezuela will transfer technology, finance development projects in the agriculture, service, energy and infrastructures sectors. Cuba, in addition to providing over 15,000 medical professionals who participate in Barrio Adentro, a social program which provides Cuban healthcare treatment to Venezuelans and trains doctors and specialists, will grant 2,000 annual scholarships to Venezuelan students. Also, the agreement commits the two countries to work together with other Latin American countries to fight illiteracy.
In 2005 the two countries also signed cooperation agreements in the area of energy and electricity, an accord between Venezuela 's oil company PDVSA and its Cuban counterpart Cupet to buy and sell crude oil and a crude oil storage agreement between the two companies.
Hugo Chávez, who said he was one of the few people in the world who knew Castro 's illness from July 31, 2006, helped Cuba undermine a strict U.S. embargo by sending cheap oil and boosting commercial relations. Agreements between Cuba and Venezuela, the world 's No. 5 oil exporter, have brought more than 20,000 Cuban doctors to Venezuela to provide medical services for the poor. The program, one of numerous oil - funded social projects, helped Chávez build a strong political support base, and he won a reelection bid in December 2006.
A White House point man on plans for a post-Castro transition, Caleb McCarry, recently told The Miami Herald that U.S. estimates of total Venezuelan subsidies to Cuba per year "are up to the $2 billion figure. '' This is comparable to the $4 billion to $6 billion that the Soviet Union once pumped into Cuba per year.
As the economy of the Soviet Union fell into a decline during the 1990s which ultimately led to its collapse, the People 's Republic of China has emerged as a new key partner for Cuba 's foreign relations and the guardian of socialist countries around the world. Relations between Cuba and China continue to grow including deals for China to set up a possible military base in Cuba, similar to the Bejucal Base and an agreement was signed between China and Cuba for China open more factories producing local goods such as televisions. Cuba has also purchased from China a wide range of items including bicycles, rice cookers, energy - saving lightbulbs and diesel - electric locomotives with the aim of providing a boost to Cuba 's national infrastructure.
Relations between India and Cuba have generally been warm and cordial since the Cuban revolution. Both nations are part of the Non-Aligned Movement and Cuba has repeatedly called for a more "democratic '' representation of the United Nations Security Council, supporting India 's candidacy for permanent membership on a reformed Security Council. Fidel Castro had said that "The maturity of India..., its unconditional adherence to the principles which lay at the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement give us the assurances that under the wise leadership of Indira Gandhi (the former Prime Minister of India), the non-aligned countries will continue advancing in their inalienable role as a bastion for peace, national independence and development... ''
India provided Cuba with 10,000 tonnes of wheat and 10,000 tonnes of rice in 1992 when Cuba was undergoing hardship. Fidel Castro termed the donation as the "Bread of India '' because it was sufficient for one loaf of bread for each one of the then Cuban population of eleven million people. India also provided donations worth two million dollars during the Cuban earthquake.
India has an embassy in Havana, the capital of Cuba which had opened in January 1960. This had particular significance as it symbolised Indian solidarity with the Cuban revolution. India had been one of the first countries in the world to have recognised the new Cuban government after the Cuban Revolution Cuba has an embassy in New Delhi, the Indian capital.
Iran has a productive trade balance with Cuba. The two governments signed a document to bolster cooperation in Havana in January 2006. President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad called relations "firm and progressive '' over the past three decades. Ahmadinejad made an official visit to the island in January 2012 as part of a series of official visits to various countries in Latin America. During his brief stay in Cuba, Ahmadinejad met with Fidel Castro and said that the two countries were "fighting on the same front. ''
Cuba consistently supported Iraq at the United Nations against sanctions and threats made by the United States. The thirteen - year sanction against Iraq prevented much trade between Havana and Baghdad. Iraq has an embassy in Havana. Cuba has an embassy in Baghdad Both countries are full members of the Group of 77.
On 29 November 1947, Cuba voted against the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the Cuban delegation stating they would vote against partition because they could not be party to coercing the majority in Palestine. Nevertheless, Israel came into being on 14 May 1948, and Cuba recognised the State of Israel de facto on 14 January 1949. In March 1949 Cuba voted in the UN Security Council in favour of admission of Israel to the United Nations, and recognised Israel de jure on 18 April 1949. In May of that year Cuba also voted in favour of Israel 's admission to the UN in the UN General Assembly.
Israel - Cuba relations have been icy since the 1960s. Cuba did n't succumb to Arab pressure to sever relations with Israel, but sent troops to fight against Israel during the War of Attrition (1967 -- 70), and also joined the expeditionary forces during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, and broke diplomatic relations with Israel the same year. Israel has been the only country to consistently vote with the U.S. in the UN General Assembly against the annual resolution criticizing the embargo, which began in 1992.
In late 2010, Fidel Castro, who no longer held office in Cuba 's government, stated that he believes Israel has a "right to exist '', which is a shift from his regime 's earlier policy. Margalit Bejarano posed in 2015 that any future relationship between Israel and Cuba will not solely rest on the course that will take Havana - Washington ties, but will also factor in Cuba 's dependence on Iran, on Venezuela and its closeness to the Palestinians.
In the light of the thaw in US - Cuba relations, the Israeli government is re-examining the state of its relations with Cuba -- Israel is presently represented in Cuba through an interest section in the Canadian embassy.
The Republic of Cuba has had diplomatic relations with North Korea since 1960. Cuba maintains an embassy in Pyongyang and North Korea maintains an embassy in Havana. Che Guevara then a Cuban government minister visited North Korea in 1960 and proclaimed it a model for Cuba to follow. Cuban leader Fidel Castro visited in 1986. In 2013 a North Korean cargo ship seized while travelling through the Panama Canal and was found to be carrying weapons from Cuba, apparently to be repaired in North Korea. The ship was later returned to the North Korean government.
There is no official - level diplomatic relation between the Cuba and South Korea. Despite this there has been unofficial interactions in the economic level between the two countries. For instance South Korea 's Hyundai Heavy Industries sent Packaged power station mobile generators to Cuba for the country 's power grids. A picture of a PPS was later incorporated into the 10 Cuban convertible peso banknote.
The relations between the two countries strengthened after Cuba provided humanitarian assistance to the victims of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Both nations continue to strengthen the bilateral relations especially in the fields of higher education, agriculture, industry and science and technology and have also held talks for military cooperation. In March 2008 ambassador Gustavo Machin Gomez met Gen. Tariq Majid, the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) at Joint Staff Headquarters and discussed issues related to military cooperation. Both of them expressed positive views over the increasing relations between the two nations and were optimistic that the bilateral cooperation will expand in different fields. Majid stressed that Pakistan has formed strong defence infrastructure both in defence production and in shape of military academies to provide help and cooperation to the Military of Cuba. He also said that both countries should use their capacity for expanding military cooperation. In an interview with Overseas Pakistani Friends, Machin Gomez suggested further ways that Cuba and Pakistan might be able to help each other.
Like Cuba, the Philippines was once a Spanish possession, and Spanish rule in both colonies ended with the victory of the United States in the Spanish -- American War. Provisions in the subsequent 1898 Treaty of Paris gave Cuba independence while giving the Philippine Islands over to American control, which was gradually lessened until the country achieved full sovereignty on 4 July 1946. Cuba currently maintains an embassy in Manila, and the Philippines has an embassy in Havana. Despite the Philippines being a long - time American ally, it has denounced the American sanctions against Cuba. Among common cultural touchstones between the two countries is the similar design of their national flags, the Philippine flag having been influenced by the Cuban flag in its appearance and some of its symbolism.
Diplomatic relations between the two countries was established in December 1960. Since then, Vietnam has become Cuba 's second - largest trading partner in Asia, with Vietnam trailing behind China. Vietnam, just as Cuba is, is a socialist state.
European Union (EU) relations with Cuba are governed by the Common Position, as approved by the European Council of Ministers in 1996, which is updated every six months following regular evaluations. According to the Common Position "the objective of the European Union in its relations with Cuba is to encourage a process of transition to a pluralist democracy and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as sustainable recovery and improvement in the living standards of the Cuban people ''. Cuba rejects the Common Position as interference in its internal affairs. There is an EU Delegation in Havana that works under the responsibility of the EC Delegation in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
Cuba benefits from the GPS (Generalized Preference System) preferential treatment for its exports. Furthermore, Cuba does not benefit from the ACP - EU Sugar Protocol but from a sugar quota granted by the EU (some 59,000 tonnes per year; duty paid on this quota is EUR 98 / t).
Cuba - Netherlands Relations are diplomatic relations between Cuba and the Netherlands, The Netherlands is Cuba 's Trading Partner in the Caribbean While Cuba is the trading partner of the Netherlands in Europe.
Media reported in 2012 that Norway 's parliament 's "Cuba group '' has invited Regis Iglesias (an opponent of Cuba 's government) to Norway. Prior to this, Cuba 's ambassador (Rogerio Santana) to Norway has been called into Norway 's foreign ministry on several occasions, due to the use of colorful language -- and Jan Tore Sanner MP wants the ambassador called in again, due to the ambassador 's allegations that Sanner has ties to "terrorists and the Mafia ''.
Relations between the two countries suffered somewhat during the Boris Yeltsin administration, as Cuba was forced to look for new major allies, such as China, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Relations improved when Vladimir Putin was elected as the new Russian President. Putin, and later Dmitry Medvedev, emphasized re-establishing strong relations with old Soviet allies. In 2008, Medvedev visited Havana and Raúl Castro made a week - long trip to Moscow. In that same year the two governments signed multiple economic agreements and Russia sent tons of humanitarian aid to Cuba. Cuba, meanwhile, gave staunch political support for Russia during the 2008 South Ossetia war. Relations between the two nations are currently at a post-Soviet high, and talks about potentially re-establishing a Russian military presence in Cuba are even beginning to surface.
Cuba and Serbia have a long history of diplomatic relations from the period of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia when both countries were members of Non-Aligned Movement. Cuba supports Serbia in its stance towards Kosovo considering Kosovo 's independence an illegitimate act and a violation of international law and principles of the United Nations Charter. Serbia supports Cuba at the United Nations in condemning the United States embargo.
Cuba has two embassies in Oceania, located in Wellington (opened in November 2007) and also one in Canberra opened October 24, 2008. It also has a Consulate General in Sydney. However, Cuba has official diplomatic relations with Nauru since 2002 and the Solomon Islands since 2003, and maintains relations with other Pacific countries by providing aid.
In 2008, Cuba will reportedly be sending doctors to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Nauru and Papua New Guinea, while seventeen medical students from Vanuatu will study in Cuba. It may also provide training for Fiji doctors. Indeed, Fiji 's ambassador to the United Nations, Berenado Vunibobo, has stated that his country may seek closer relations with Cuba, and in particular medical assistance, following a decline in Fiji 's relations with New Zealand.
Australia and Cuba have a growing relationship on positive terms. Relations began in 1989. Relations were given a rebirth in 2009 when the foreign minister Stephen Smith visited Cuba. In 2010, Cuba 's foreign minister Bruno Rodríguez visited Australia. The ministers signed a memorandum of understanding in political cooperation between the foreign ministries and for closer bilateral relations. There is a Cuban embassy in Australia. It was opened on 24 October 2008. There are only two Australia -- Cuba bilateral treaties, extended to Australia by the British Empire covering extradition.
Relations between Cuba and Kiribati are nascent, having developed in the 2000s (decade). Like other countries in Oceania, Kiribati is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Tarawa and Havana should be viewed within the scope of Cuba 's regional policy in Oceania.
There are currently sixteen Cuban doctors providing specialised medical care in Kiribati, with sixteen more scheduled to join them. Cubans have also offered training to I - Kiribati doctors. Cuban doctors have reportedly provided a dramatic improvement to the field of medical care in Kiribati, reducing the child mortality rate in that country by 80 percent, and winning the proverbial hearts and minds in the Pacific. In response, the Solomon Islands began recruiting Cuban doctors in July 2007, while Papua New Guinea and Fiji considered following suit.
In June 2007, Nauru adopted the "Cuban literacy method '', reportedly used also in several other countries. In October 2007, Nauruan Foreign Minister and Trade Minister David Adeang travelled to Cuba to strengthen relations between the two island nations. This led to the creation of a Cuba - Nauru Joint Intergovernmental Commission for Economic Cooperation. An unspecified number of Cuban doctors are serving in Nauru.
Regarding relations with New Zealand, Cuban ambassador José Luis Robaina García said his country had "admiration for New Zealand 's independent foreign policy ''.
Relations between the Solomon Islands and Cuba have only a short history. The two countries moved to establish relations from the 2000s (decade), and particularly from 2007, within the context of Cuba 's growing interest in the Pacific Islands region. Like other countries in Oceania, Solomon Islands is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Havana and Honiara must be viewed within the scope of Cuba 's regional policy in Oceania.
In April 2007, the Solomon Star reported that the Solomon Islands ' High Commissioner to the United Nations was soon to be sworn in as Ambassador to Cuba. In September 2007, it was announced that 40 Cuban doctors would be sent to the Solomon Islands. The Solomons ' Minister of Foreign Affairs Patterson Oti said that Solomon Islander doctors would "learn from their Cuban colleagues in specialized areas ''. In addition to providing doctors, Cuba provided scholarships for 50 Solomon Islanders to study medicine in Cuba for free.
Relations between Tuvalu and Cuba are recent, having developed in the 2000s (decade). Like other countries in Oceania, Tuvalu is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Funafuti and Havana must be viewed within the scope of Cuba 's regional policy in Oceania.
Relations between the Republic of Vanuatu and Cuba began shortly after the former gained its independence from France and the United Kingdom in 1980, and began establishing its own foreign policy as a newly independent state. Vanuatu and Cuba established official diplomatic relations in 1983.
ACS ALBA AOSIS CELAC CTO ECLAC G33 G77 IAEA ICAO ICRM IFAD ILO IMO Interpol IOC ISO ITU LAES NAM OAS OPANAL OPCW PAHO Rio Group UN UNCTAD UNESCO UPU WCO WHO WIPO WMO
Cuba was formerly excluded from participation in the Organization of American States under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on 21 January 1962. The resolution stated that as Cuba had officially identified itself as a Marxist -- Leninist government, it was incompatible with "the principles and objectives of the inter-American system. '' This stance was frequently questioned by some member states. This situation came to an end on 3 June 2009, when foreign ministers assembled in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, for the OAS 's 39th General Assembly, passed a vote to lift Cuba 's suspension from the OAS. In its resolution (AG / RES 2438), the General Assembly decided that:
The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member had arisen regularly as a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) but most observers did not see it as a serious possibility while the Socialist government remained in power. On 6 May 2005, President Fidel Castro reiterated that the island nation would not "be part of a disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin American nations ''.
In an editorial published by Granma, Fidel Castro applauded the Assembly 's "rebellious '' move and said that the date would "be recalled by future generations. '' However, a Declaration of the Revolutionary Government dated 8 June 2009 stated that while Cuba welcomed the Assembly 's gesture, in light of the Organization 's historical record "Cuba will not return to the OAS ''.
Cuba joined the Latin American Integration Association becoming the tenth member (out of 12) on 26 August 1999. The organization was set up in 1980 to encourage trade integration association. Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region.
On September 15, 2006, Cuba officially took over leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement during the 14th summit of the organization in Havana.
Aided by a massive buildup of Soviet advisors, military personnel, and advanced weaponry during the Cold War, Cuba became a staunch ally of the USSR during Castro 's rule, modeling its political structure after that of the CPSU. Due to this huge amount of support, Cuba became a major sponsor of Marxist "wars of national liberation '' not only in Latin America, but worldwide.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Cuba openly supported the black nationalist and Marxist - oriented Black Panther Party of the U.S. Many members found their way into Cuba for political asylum, where Cuba welcomed them after they had been convicted of crimes in the U.S.
Cuba has also lent support to Palestinian nationalist groups against Israel. Fidel Castro claims Israel practices "Zionist Fascism. '' Cuba has also lent support to the prominent Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the lesser - known Marxist -- Leninist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) both received training from Cuba 's General Intelligence Directorate, as well as financial and diplomatic support from the Cuban government.
In 2010, Castro indicated that he strongly supported Israel 's right to exist. (dead link)
The Irish Republican political party, Sinn Féin is also known to have close political links to the Cuban government. In the past Fidel Castro expressed support for the Irish Republican cause of a United Ireland. The Cuban government supported and still supports the Republican cause, but opposed the attacks which took place on civilian targets by Sinn Féin 's paramilitary ally, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and of course attacks on civilians by their loyalist enemies such as the Ulster Volunteer Force and Ulster Defence Association.
Since the establishment of the Revolutionary Government of Cuba in 1959, the country has sent more than 52,000 medical workers abroad to work in needy countries, including countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. There are currently about 20,000 Cuban doctors working in 68 countries across three continents, including a 135 - strong medical team in Java, Indonesia.
Read more about Cuba 's medical collaboration in Africa at:
Cuba provides Medical Aid to Children Affected by Chernobyl Nuclear Accident:
Representations of other countries in Cuba
Cuban representations to other countries
Aspects of Cuba 's foreign policy
|
i know i've been changed tyler perry dvd | I Know I 've Been Changed - Wikipedia
I Know I 've Been Changed was the first major successful play from famed playwright Tyler Perry. The play focuses on critical issues including child abuse and rape and how they are overcome by a strong belief in God.
Soul musician Ryan Shaw got his start performing in this play in 1998. The play received its first staging in Atlanta in 1992. The play toured from 1998 to 2000.
Grammy award winning vocalist Ann Nesby of the musical and instrumental group Sounds of Blackness played a supporting role in this play / production.
This hard - hitting play used comedy and drama to tell a story of two adult survivors of child abuse who became the people that their abusive mother said they would be. It is also the story of how they overcame the power of God with a shocking twist at the end. Mary (Shirley Marie Graham), the lead character, married and had two children before she had the opportunity to become an adult herself. Emotionally and spiritually irresponsible, she sought the succor of drugs to alleviate the pressure of rearing her children. This drug abuse manifests itself in verbal, emotional and physical abuse toward her children. She is unable to see the beauty of her own children, and addicted to drugs, unable to alter the destructive path she has embarked upon. Compounding an already dysfunctional family situation, the husband is abusive to his wife and children as well, molesting his older son, Sam (Ryan Shaw), which results in a dramatic plot twist later in the play. Fanny (Ann Nesby), is a mother divorcing her husband after becoming a famous singer. In a bold move to pursue her dreams she had to leave her daughter Ellen (Jamecia Bennett), to be raised by her husband, Joe (Tyler Perry).
All songs written and produced by Tyler Perry and Elvin D. Ross.
|
who did julianne moore play in the hunger games | The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 - wikipedia
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 is a 2014 American dystopian science fiction adventure film directed by Francis Lawrence with a screenplay by Peter Craig and Danny Strong. It is the first of two films based on Suzanne Collins ' novel Mockingjay, the final book in The Hunger Games trilogy, and the third installment in The Hunger Games film series, produced by Nina Jacobson and Jon Kilik and distributed by Lionsgate. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Jennifer Lawrence, Josh Hutcherson, Liam Hemsworth, Woody Harrelson, Elizabeth Banks, Julianne Moore, Philip Seymour Hoffman, Jeffrey Wright, Stanley Tucci, and Donald Sutherland. Principal photography for both parts of the film began on September 23, 2013, in Atlanta, before moving to Paris for two weeks of filming and officially concluding on June 20, 2014, in Berlin.
The story continues to follow Katniss Everdeen; having twice survived the Hunger Games, Katniss finds herself in District 13. Under the leadership of President Coin and the advice of her trusted friends, Katniss reluctantly becomes the symbol of a mass rebellion against the Capitol and fights to save Peeta and a nation moved by her courage. It is the sequel to The Hunger Games: Catching Fire and was followed by the concluding entry, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2.
Mockingjay -- Part 1 was released on November 21, 2014 in the United States. Like its predecessors, the film was a commercial success grossing $55 million on its opening day, making it the largest opening day of 2014 and the sixth - largest in November. The film went to the No. 1 spot during its opening weekend with a $273.8 million worldwide gross, becoming the biggest opening of 2014 and marking The Hunger Games film series as the only franchise to have three films earn over $100 million in a weekend. The film earned over $755 million worldwide, making it the fifth highest - grossing film of 2014 and the second - highest - grossing entry in The Hunger Games series.
Part 1 received positive reviews from critics, who commended its acting and political subtext, but received criticism for its lack of action and for splitting the novel into two separate adaptations. It is the lowest - rated Hunger Games film of the franchise, according to review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. The film had garnered a nomination for Best Science Fiction Film at the 41st Saturn Awards. For her performance, Lawrence received a nomination for Best Actress in an Action Movie at the 20th Critics ' Choice Awards and a Saturn Award nomination. The song "Yellow Flicker Beat '' also received a nomination for Best Original Song at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards and Critics ' Choice Awards.
After being rescued from the destroyed arena in the 75th Hunger Games, Katniss Everdeen and fellow tributes Beetee and Finnick Odair are taken to District 13, now an underground district isolated from Panem that has been spearheading the rebellion. There Katniss is reunited with her mother and sister Prim. While recuperating, she is introduced to President Alma Coin, the rebel leader, and is told that immediately after the force field was destroyed by her arrow, riots erupted in over half the districts in Panem, which joined 13 in the rebel cause, though it also caused Snow to firebomb District 12 in retaliation. Coin asks her to become the "Mockingjay '' -- the symbol of the rebellion -- as part of their "hearts and minds '' strategy but Katniss declines. After seeing how Peeta is being manipulated by Capitol state television to quell the rebellion, Katniss reluctantly agrees to become Coin 's Mockingjay on the condition that Peeta and the other captured victors will be rescued and pardoned at the earliest opportunity. When Coin refuses, telling Katniss that the victors will be arrested and face severe punishment, Katniss angrily demands for them to be pardoned. Plutarch Heavensbee, the head Gamemaker who rescued Katniss from the arena, convinces Coin to meet Katniss 's demands.
After Haymitch notes that Katniss thrives on spontaneity, she meets her film team (led by Capitol escapee Cressida), is dressed up in a specially - designed outfit, and is given Effie Trinket as a stylist and close friend Gale as a bodyguard. They go out to District 8 to visit a hospital, but as the visit concludes, a Capitol bombing squadron arrives to attack the hospital. In reaction, Katniss and Gale shoot down two Capitol hovercrafts -- which crash into a tower which in turn falls on and destroys the hospital, killing everyone inside. In her rage, Katniss gives a rousing speech to the camera, which is broadcast when Beetee hijacks the Capitol 's news feed. After it is broadcast, strikers in District 7 kill an entire team of Peacekeepers with hidden land mines, with them climbing trees to safety.
After seeing a weakened Peeta on a TV propo (propaganda shots) the team return to District 12, where Gale reports on District 12 's destruction; Katniss is filmed singing "The Hanging Tree ''. Soon after, hundreds of protesters in District 5, singing the same anthem, launch a suicidal human wave attack against a hydroelectric dam that is the Capitol 's primary source of electricity. The attack destroys the dam, and causes a power cut in the Capitol, forcing the Capitol to revert to backup power generators and weakening their ability to broadcast propaganda.
That night, Katniss watches Peeta being interviewed by Caesar Flickerman, the Games ' former presenter, when Coin and Beetee hijack the signal to air a clip of Katniss. After seeing it, Peeta shouts a warning that the Capitol is about to attack District 13. Capitol officials immediately cut the broadcast, and Coin orders a mass evacuation into deep underground shelters and the facility survives the attack unharmed. Upon emerging, Katniss discovers the area littered with white roses, and realizes President Snow sent them to taunt her, presuming that whenever she speaks against the Capitol, they torture Peeta. As Peeta 's warning gave the District an additional eight minutes evacuation time, Coin dispatches an elite special forces team, which includes Gale and Boggs, to rescue him, along with Johanna Mason, Enobaria and Annie Cresta, the remaining Victors, from their prison in the Capitol 's Tribute center. Beetee hijacks the Capitol 's defense system to fill the frequencies with a propo narrated by Finnick, who explains how he had been forced to sell himself to the Capitol by Snow under the threat of having his loved ones tortured and executed. During a live conversation, Snow informs Katniss of his awareness of the rescue before cutting the broadcast. A terrified Katniss pleads with Plutarch to tell Gale 's team to flee, but he tells her the Capitol disabled their transmission. Gale 's team ends up escaping from the Capitol unharmed, indicating the Capitol reduced the security on purpose. When Katniss goes to greet a bruised and beaten Peeta (which was caused by the Capitol torturing him immediately after the last interview with Caesar), he unexpectedly attacks and strangles her into unconsciousness, before being knocked out by Boggs.
Katniss wakes up in the medical facility and is informed that Peeta has been "hijacked '' -- a form of physical and mental torture in which he is brainwashed into wanting to kill Katniss by associating memories of her with the psychological terror created by tracker jacker venom, which explains why the Capitol allowed Boggs 's team to escape unharmed. Peeta is restrained to a bed and placed in solitary confinement, while a serum is being developed to reverse the hijacking effects. Meanwhile, Coin announces that the Victors have been rescued; their next objective is the Capitol 's principal military stronghold in the ravines in District 2 -- the only remaining district still loyal to the Capitol. Katniss looks at Peeta as he thrashes, attempting to escape from his bindings.
On July 10, 2012, Lionsgate announced that the third and final installment in the series, Mockingjay, would be split into two parts. The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 was released on November 21, 2014 and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 was released on November 20, 2015. Many directors, including Rian Johnson, Francis Lawrence and Alfonso Cuarón were considered for the job. On November 1, 2012, Lawrence, director of Catching Fire, announced he would return to direct both final parts in the series.
On December 6, 2012, Danny Strong announced that he would be writing the third and fourth films. On February 15, 2013, Lionsgate confirmed the script for Part 1 was written by Strong, giving him permission to write Part 2. Later in August, Hemsworth confirmed that shooting of the film would begin in September 2013.
The film 's production began on September 16, 2013 in Boston, Atlanta, and Los Angeles. Studio Babelsberg co-produced and oversaw production services for the film. On November 13, 2013, Nina Jacobson revealed that Peter Craig was also hired to write the adaptations.
On August 26, 2013, it was announced that actress Stef Dawson had joined the cast and would portray Annie Cresta. Lionsgate announced on September 13, 2013 that Julianne Moore had joined the cast of both Mockingjay 's parts to play President Alma Coin. Over the next month, Patina Miller, Mahershala Ali, Wes Chatham, and Elden Henson joined the cast as Commander Paylor, Boggs, Castor, and Pollux, respectively. There was a casting call for extras on September 23. Robert Knepper was cast as Antonius, a character who does not appear in the books and is an addition to the adaptation. Knepper has stated that during his audition he knew that the lines he received were not what he would end up doing, adding that "they (Lionsgate) are so secretive about this. ''
Shooting began on September 23, 2013 in Atlanta and concluded on June 20, 2014 in Berlin. Part 1 was filmed back - to - back with Part 2. In mid-October, the crews were spotted filming in Rockmart. The crew and cast took a break to promote The Hunger Games: Catching Fire and filming resumed on December 2, 2013. On December 14, 2013 shooting took place at the Marriott Marquis in Atlanta. On December 18, shooting began at Caldwell Tanks in Newnan, Georgia.
Philip Seymour Hoffman, who plays Plutarch Heavensbee in the film, died on February 2, 2014 in New York. Lionsgate released a statement stating that Hoffman had completed filming most of his scenes prior to his death.
On April 18, 2014, producer Nina Jacobson announced that filming in Atlanta had just wrapped up, followed by director Francis Lawrence announcing the next day about moving production to Europe. It was announced that they would be filming battle scenes in Paris and at Berlin Tempelhof Airport in Berlin. They began filming in the streets of Paris and in the city of Ivry - sur - Seine on May 7, where Lawrence and Hemsworth were spotted during the filming of some scenes among extras.
On May 9, it was reported that filming was taking place in Noisy le Grand, Paris where Lawrence, Hemsworth, Hutcherson, and Claflin were spotted on the set which re-created the world of Panem. It is the same location where Brazil was filmed in 1984.
Christian Cordella, a costume illustrator on the first movie, returned to sketch the outfits for District 13.
The music was created to convey the dark feel of the film. On October 9, 2014, it was revealed that the Trinity School boys ' choir recorded tracks for the score, written by James Newton Howard. Jennifer Lawrence performed the film 's version of the song "The Hanging Tree '', originally featured in the novel, but was not thrilled about having to sing and cried the day of the performance. As of the evening of November 25, 2014, the song was # 4 on the Apple 's iTunes top 150 list. "The Hanging Tree '' also peaked at # 1 in Austria and Hungary and peaked at # 12 on Billboard Hot 100 in the U.S.
Tim Palen, the head of marketing for Lionsgate said, "When we started, we decided to look at this as one big movie that 's eight hours long. Otherwise, it 's going to be kind of overwhelming to do a new campaign for each movie. '' He also added that he saw the biggest potential in international growth and that they matched Iron Man 3 domestically, but were aiming to improve internationally for the two Mockingjay films. He revealed in an interview with Variety that there would be reveals of the marketing campaign at the Cannes Film Festival in May and San Diego Comic Con in July.
On May 14, 2014 TheHungerGamesExclusive.com was launched. It featured three stills from the movie, featuring Woody Harrelson, Julianne Moore, Philip Seymour Hoffman and Jeffrey Wright with an additional behind - the - scenes still of director Francis Lawrence and Mahershala Ali. The website also featured other content, including a short GIF image of Julianne Moore as President Coin and a video interview with Moore. There was also an in - depth interview with director Francis Lawrence, producer Nina Jacobson and screenwriter Peter Craig. A page from the script of Part 1 was also released in addition to a motion poster, with the tagline, "Fire burns brighter in the darkness. ''
On May 17, 2014, while principal photography was underway in Paris, some of the cast and crew including Lawrence, Hutcherson, Hemsworth, Claflin, Moore, Sutherland, Lawrence, and Jacobson attended the 2014 Cannes Film Festival for a photo shoot and party bash to excite international investors. Co-chairman of Lionsgate Rob Friedman said in response to why they would incur such big expense even though the film is n't actually playing at the festival that it was convenient as the cast were in Europe already and that "it 's a big opportunity for our international distributors to actually hear what the worldwide plans are for the film, which opens in November. Cannes is the best publicity opportunity from an international penetration perspective. ''
Kabam announced their partnership with Lionsgate to create a mobile game based on The Hunger Games: Mockingjay Part 1, to tie in with the film 's release. Kabam produced an exclusive role playing, card collection mobile game. In the game, players assume the identity of District members sent on a mission in order to build their alliance, liberate their District, and rebuild Panem. "Lionsgate has an unparalleled track record of developing and producing blockbuster movie franchises like The Hunger Games, '' said Kabam Chief Operating Officer Kent Wakeford. "Partnering with Lionsgate, Kabam will build a mobile game that 's as much fun to play as the movie is to watch. The game will be developed in Kabam 's China studio, the same place where the hit film - based game The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies was created and went on to generate more than $100 million in revenue during its first year. ''
The first teaser trailers for the film debuted in late June and early July and were unconventionally styled as in - universe viral video pieces (see Viral Marketing) below.
The film was not listed on the schedule for San Diego Comic - Con International 2014, which raised questions on their absence by fans and the press. Lionsgate announced on July 18, 2014, a week before the event, that the film would have a presence at the convention. Lionsgate partnered up with Samsung to debut the (including the viral videos which were considered ' teasers ', third) teaser trailer on Samsung 's new Galaxy Tab S at a special event on Friday, July 25, which was being hosted off - site at the Hard Rock Hotel. The partnership allowed Samsung users to view the trailer before the online release, download the first two movies for free as well as be given a free complimentary ticket to the movie. On July 28, the teaser trailer officially debuted online through the movie 's official Facebook page and YouTube account. Within minutes, # MockingjayTeaserTrailerToday, # OurLeadertheMockingjay, and # OfficialTeaserTrailer became trending topics worldwide on Twitter. A full worldwide official trailer was released on September 15. The final trailer was released on October 29 to mark the beginning of ticket pre-sales.
A viral marketing campaign began on June 21, 2014 with the return of TheCapitol.PN a "government '' website for Panem which was used throughout the promotion for the previous two films. In conjunction with Yahoo and their new partnership with Tumblr, they released the ' District Heroes Collection ' which featured several posters representing seven of the thirteen districts in Panem. The website opened registrations for "citizens of Panem '' to register with their email to receive updates for Capitol TV.
On June 25, TheCapitol.PN viral site released a video titled "President Snow 's Address - ' Together As One ' '' featuring a speech by Donald Sutherland, in character as President Snow addressing the citizens of Panem and warning them that if they fight the system, they will be the ones to face the repercussions. The video also briefly features Josh Hutcherson, in character as Peeta Mellark, who at the final events of the previous film was taken hostage by the Capitol. The video went viral on YouTube becoming the most watched trailer during the last week of June in the US while trending as the most "Popular Video on YouTube '' in Australia and Canada. The video, billed as a teaser trailer, was attached to screenings of Transformers: Age of Extinction beginning June 28.
Two weeks later on July 9, Capitol TV released a second viral video titled ' President Snow 's Address -- Unity ' featuring again another speech by President Snow with Peeta Mellark standing beside him, but this time accompanied by Jena Malone in character as Johanna Mason, who was also captured by the Capitol at the end of the previous film, and a group of peacekeepers. The speech, however, was interrupted by Jeffrey Wright, in character as Beetee Latier, a technician from District 13, to announce that "the Mockingjay lives. '' Within minutes, # TheMockingjayLives and ' # 2 - Unity ' became the top two trending topics worldwide on Twitter. The video, billed as the second teaser trailer for the film, was played with screenings of Dawn of the Planet of the Apes.
On July 24, shortly before the trailer 's official release, a teaser poster for the movie was posted on The Capitol 's Instagram account, but was quickly deleted. Shortly after the removal of the poster, the account issued an apology "(for the) technical issues '', presenting the poster 's posting as a hack from the District 13 rebellions.
On August 6, after few clues given on the official Facebook page, www.district13.co.in was launched. The website introduced new posters for the District 13 characters including Beetee, Coin, Plutarch, Finnick, Haymitch and Effie.
On November 20, 2014, some showings were reportedly canceled in Thailand because protestors were using the three - finger salute at demonstrations against the country 's military government.
On November 24, 2014, it was reported that in relation to the Ferguson unrest regarding the shooting of Michael Brown, a protester had scrawled graffiti reading "If we burn, you burn '' on an arch in St. Louis, Missouri. In the film and associated novel, the character Katniss Everdeen uses the phrase as a challenge to the ruling administration after she shoots down two of the planes with which it bombs a hospital. The cry is then taken up by various citizens in Panem as they commit acts of resistance.
On November 27, 2014, Hong Kong protestors used the three - finger salute while occupying Mong Kok.
On September 11, 2015, some Catalan pro-independence protestors were using the three - finger salute at the Free Way to the Catalan Republic against Spain 's government.
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 was released on November 19, 2014, in 9 territories including France, Greece, Scandinavia and Brazil, and then expanded to a further 59 on November 20, 2014, including the UK, Germany, Australia, Italy, Mexico and South Korea. With 17 more released on November 21, 2014 including the United States, the total launch was in 85 markets, making it the biggest release of the year and Lionsgate 's widest release ever. This was surpassed by its sequel across 87 markets in 2015. The film was released in China on February 8, 2015 in 2D and 3D, making it the first film in the franchise to be released in 3D in any territory and debuted in more than 4,000 screens. Director Francis Lawrence stated: "we recently saw the 3 - D version of Mockingjay -- Part 1 before its release in China, and the new level of immersion was really fantastic. ''
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay Part 1 was released on Digital HD on February 17, 2015, and was followed by a Blu - ray / DVD release on March 6, 2015. It topped the home video sales chart for two consecutive weeks despite facing competition from Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb. The entire Hunger Games series was released on 4K UHD Blu - Ray on November 8 2016.
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 grossed $337.1 million in the USA & Canada, and $415 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $752.1 million against $125 million budget ($190 million including promotion and advertising costs). Calculating in all expenses, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $211.61 million. Wordwide, it is the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2014. Its worldwide opening of $273.8 million is the sixteenth - largest of all time, the second - largest opening of 2014 behind Transformers: Age of Extinction ($302.1 million), and the largest among The Hunger Games franchise.
In the U.S. and Canada, the film was released across 3,200 theaters on Thursday night, November 20, 2014 and was widened to 4,151 theaters on Friday, November 21, 2014. The film earned $17 million from Thursday night previews which is the biggest of 2014 but was lower than its two predecessors. It earned $55 million in its opening day which is the largest opening day of 2014 and the sixth - largest in November but nevertheless still lower than its predecessors. It is the fifteenth film to debut on Friday with $50 million or more, and the nineteenth film to earn $50 million or more in a single day. The film topped the box office in its opening weekend with $121.9 million, and became the biggest opening of 2014 surpassing the $100 million record of Transformers: Age of Extinction as well as becoming the fifteenth - largest, the 28th film to debut atop with over $100 million, and the only franchise to have three films earn over $100 million in a weekend. Its opening weekend is also the sixth - largest of November. However, its opening weekend gross was still relatively lower than the openings of The Hunger Games ($152 million) and Catching Fire ($158 million). In its second weekend the film remained at the summit earning $56.9 million and set a record for the third - highest 5 - day Thanksgiving gross with $82.6 million behind The Hunger Games: Catching Fire ($109.9 million) and Frozen ($93.6 million) and the fifth - highest 3 - day Thanksgiving gross with $56.9 million. The film topped the box office for three consecutive weekends before being overtaken by Exodus: Gods and Kings in its fourth weekend. The film passed the $300 million mark in its 6th weekend (37 days later) and became the second film of 2014 to earn over $300 million at the box office after Guardians of the Galaxy. On Wednesday, January 21, 2015, sixty - one days after its initial release, the film surpassed Guardians of the Galaxy and became the highest - grossing film of 2014 in North America until it was surpassed by American Sniper in the next two months.
It earned $337.1 million at the North American box office making it the third - highest - grossing film in The Hunger Games franchise, the second - highest - grossing film of 2014 (behind American Sniper), the fourth - highest - grossing science fiction film based on a book, the fourth - highest - grossing young - adult adaptation. and the 36th - highest - grossing film in North America. It is also the first film to cross the $300 million mark without 3D or IMAX since Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), and also the highest - grossing non-3D, non IMAX film since Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest (2006).
Outside North America, Mockingjay -- Part 1 was also released on the same day in 85 other markets, with the notable exceptions of China, Japan, and India, making it the widest release of any film in 2014. The film earned over $33 million in two days (Wednesday -- Thursday) and $67.5 million in three days (Wednesday -- Friday) from 17,000 screens. In its opening weekend overseas, the film earned $154.3 million from 17,963 screens in 85 markets which is 4 % higher than Catching Fire. The film remained at number one in its second and third weekend overseas earning $67 million and $32.9 million, respectively. In its fourth weekend, the film fell to number two as a result of being overtaken by The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies.
The film 's top openings occurred in the UK, Ireland and Malta ($19.9 million), Germany ($13.7 million), Mexico ($12.1 million), Russia and the CIS ($11.1 million), France ($10.5 million), Australia ($10.1 million), Brazil ($8.8 million) and India ($5.1 million). The film also grossed $3.9 million in the Philippines. In China, where the film was released over two and a half months later -- on February 8, 2015, it had a strong opening day with $9.87 million and went on to earn $31.4 million through its opening week, which is more than what Catching Fire earned through its entire run. The film had an unsuccessful opening in Japan with $500,000 debuting at eighth place at the Japanese box office and ended up making a mere $1.6 million after its run.
It became the highest - grossing Hunger Games film of all time in 31 countries including Brazil, Italy, Chile, Venezuela, Central America, and Portugal.
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 received moderately positive reviews from critics, with praise aimed at its political subtext and acting performances (particularly that of Lawrence), but criticism for its lack of action and the makers ' splitting the source material for two separate adaptations. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 66 % approval rating, based on 259 reviews, with an average score of 6.3 / 10. The site 's consensus reads: "The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 sets up the franchise finale with a penultimate chapter loaded with solid performances and smart political subtext, though it comes up short on the action front. '' The film holds a Metacritic score of 64 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Both The Telegraph and the Los Angeles Times, however, reported a mixed to average reception. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an "A - '' grade, indicating positive reactions from paying viewers.
Cath Clarke of Time Out gave the film four out of five stars. She praised the politics as "tensely gripping '' and felt it had a lot to say about the "ethical ambiguities of war. '' She praised Lawrence 's performance as "strong, smart, stubborn, angry and full of heart '' and noted it had grown "deeper and darker. '' Kevin Harley, who reviewed the film for Total Film, also awarded the film four out of five stars. He felt the film held up due to Lawrence 's performance and solid supporting cast. He also offered praise to the action scenes and diverse story telling. He concluded that the movie was "gutsy '' and managed to successfully divide the novel into a film "less on scraps than strategy '' and "less on action than debates '' though he noted this threatened to "distance viewers. ''
Robbie Collin awarded the film three out of five stars. In his review for The Telegraph, he praised the film for being "intense, stylish, topical, well - acted '' and declared that it "remains one of the most fascinating, vividly realised fantasy landscapes in recent cinema. '' Despite praising Lawrence and Hoffman 's performance, he felt the it was overcrowded with "two hours of preamble with no discernible payoff. '' He concluded that the film "fell short '' and "could not be called satisfying. '' Henry Barnes of The Guardian also gave the film three out of five stars. He felt it offered "thrills '' despite "lacking a solid structure '' and featured "limp special effects. '' He was also critical of the "creaky script '' and felt it lacked some of the "terror '' of the previous installments. He did however praise the acting of Lawrence.
Todd McCarthy, who reviewed the film for The Hollywood Reporter, felt the installment was "disappointingly bland and unnecessarily protracted. '' He was critical of the film 's leisurely pace and noted it felt "like a manufactured product through and through, ironic and sad given its revolutionary theme. '' Richard Corliss of Time felt the film was a placeholder for the second installment and noted "Lawrence is n't given much opportunity to do anything spectacularly right here. ''
On July 10, 2012, Lionsgate announced that the second part of the Mockingjay adaptation was set for a release on November 20, 2015. Francis Lawrence announced that he would return to direct the final part as well. It is the fourth and final film in the Hunger Games series.
|
where is the executive branch located in canada | Government of Canada - wikipedia
Provincial and territorial executive councils
Constitution
The Government of Canada (French: Gouvernement du Canada), formally Her Majesty 's Government (French: Gouvernement de Sa Majesté), is the federal administration of Canada. In Canadian English, the term can mean either the collective set of institutions or specifically the Queen - in - Council. In both senses, the current construct was established at Confederation -- through the Constitution Act, 1867 -- as a federal constitutional monarchy, wherein the Canadian Crown acts as the core, or "the most basic building block, '' of its Westminster - style parliamentary democracy. The Crown is thus the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the Canadian government. Further elements of governance are outlined in the rest of the Canadian Constitution, which includes written statutes, court rulings, and unwritten conventions developed over centuries.
The monarch (presently Queen Elizabeth II) is personally represented by the Governor General of Canada (currently Julie Payette). The Queen 's Privy Council for Canada is the body that advises the sovereign or viceroy on the exercise of executive power. However, in practice, that task is performed only by the Cabinet, a committee within the Privy Council composed of ministers of the Crown, who are drawn from and responsible to the elected House of Commons in parliament. The Cabinet is headed by the prime minister (presently Justin Trudeau), who is appointed by the governor general after securing the confidence of the House of Commons.
In Canadian English, the word government is used to refer both to the whole set of institutions that govern the country (as in American usage, but where Britons would use state), and to the current political leadership (as in British usage, but where Americans would use administration).
In federal department press releases, the government has sometimes been referred to by the phrase (last name of prime minister) Government; this terminology has been commonly employed in the media. In late 2010, an informal instruction from the Office of the Prime Minister urged government departments to consistently use in all department communications the term (at that time Harper Government) in place of Government of Canada. The same cabinet earlier directed its press department to use the phrase Canada 's New Government.
As per the Constitution Acts of 1867 and 1982, Canada is a constitutional monarchy, wherein the role of the reigning sovereign is both legal and practical, but not political. The Crown is regarded as a corporation sole, with the monarch, vested as she is with all powers of state, at the centre of a construct in which the power of the whole is shared by multiple institutions of government acting under the sovereign 's authority. The executive is thus formally called the Queen - in - Council, the legislature the Queen - in - Parliament, and the courts as the Queen on the Bench.
Royal Assent is required to enact laws and, as part of the Royal Prerogative, the royal sign - manual gives authority to letters patent and orders in council, though the authority for these acts stems from the Canadian populace and, within the conventional stipulations of constitutional monarchy, the sovereign 's direct participation in any of these areas of governance is limited. The Royal Prerogative also includes summoning, proroguing, and dissolving parliament in order to call an election, and extends to foreign affairs: the negotiation and ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and declarations of war; the accreditation of Canadian, and receipt of foreign, diplomats; and the issuance of passports.
The person who is monarch of Canada (currently Queen Elizabeth II) is also the monarch of 15 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, though, he or she reigns separately as King or Queen of Canada, an office that is "truly Canadian '' and "totally independent from that of the Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms ''. On the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister, the sovereign appoints a federal viceregal representative -- the Governor General of Canada (currently Julie Payette) -- who, since 1947, is permitted to exercise almost all of the monarch 's Royal Prerogative, though there are some duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills that require assent by, the king or queen.
The government is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her privy council. However, the Privy Council -- consisting mostly of former members of parliament, chief justices of the supreme court, and other elder statesmen -- rarely meets in full. As the stipulations of responsible government require that those who directly advise the monarch and governor general on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative be accountable to the elected House of Commons, the day - to - day operation of government is guided only by a sub-group of the Privy Council made up of individuals who hold seats in parliament. This body of ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet.
One of the main duties of the Crown is to ensure that a democratic government is always in place, which means appointing a prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau) to thereafter head the Cabinet. Thus, the governor general must appoint as prime minister the person who holds the confidence of the House of Commons; in practice, this is typically the leader of the political party that holds more seats than any other party in that chamber, currently the Liberal Party. Should no party hold a majority in the commons, the leader of one party -- either the one with the most seats or one supported by other parties -- will be called by the governor general to form a minority government. Once sworn in by the viceroy, the prime minister holds office until he or she resigns or is removed by the governor general, after either a motion of no confidence or his party 's defeat in a general election.
The monarch and governor general typically follow the near - binding advice of their ministers. It is important to note, however, that the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of the ministers, who rule "in trust '' for the monarch and, upon losing the confidence of the commons, must relinquish the Crown 's power back to it, whereupon a new government, which can hold the lower chamber 's confidence, is installed by the governor general. The royal and viceroyal figures may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations. Politicians can sometimes try to use to their favour the complexity of the relationship between the monarch, viceroy, ministers, and parliament, and the public 's general unfamiliarity with it.
The Parliament of Canada, the bicameral national legislature located on Parliament Hill in the national capital of Ottawa, consists of the Queen (represented by the governor general), the appointed Senate (upper house), and the elected House of Commons (lower house). The governor general summons and appoints each of the 105 senators on the advice of the prime minister, while the 338 members of the House of Commons (Members of Parliament) are directly elected by eligible voters in the Canadian populace, with each member representing a single electoral district for a period mandated by law of not more than four years; the constitution mandates a maximum of five years. Per democratic tradition, the House of Commons is the dominant branch of parliament; the Senate and Crown rarely oppose its will. The Senate, thus, reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint.
The Constitution Act, 1867, outlines that the governor general is responsible for summoning parliament in the Queen 's name. A parliamentary session lasts until a prorogation, after which, without ceremony, both chambers of the legislature cease all legislative business until the governor general issues another royal proclamation calling for a new session to begin. After a number of such sessions, each parliament comes to an end via dissolution. As a general election typically follows, the timing of a dissolution is usually politically motivated, with the prime minister selecting a moment most advantageous to his or her political party. The end of a parliament may also be necessary, however, if the majority of Members of Parliament revoke their confidence in the Prime Minister 's ability to govern, or the legally mandated (as per the Canada Elections Act) four - year maximum is reached; no parliament has been allowed to expire in such a fashion.
The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice. However, she does not personally rule in judicial cases; instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust and in the Queen 's name by officers of Her Majesty 's courts.
The Supreme Court of Canada -- the country 's court of last resort -- has nine justices appointed by the governor general on recommendation by the prime minister and led by the Chief Justice of Canada, and hears appeals from decisions rendered by the various appellate courts from the provinces and territories. Below this is the Federal Court, which hears cases arising under certain areas of federal law. It works in conjunction with the Federal Court of Appeal and Tax Court of Canada.
The powers of the parliaments in Canada are limited by the constitution, which divides legislative abilities between the federal and provincial governments; in general, the legislatures of the provinces may only pass laws relating to topics explicitly reserved for them by the constitution, such as education, provincial officers, municipal government, charitable institutions, and "matters of a merely local or private nature, '' while any matter not under the exclusive authority of the provincial legislatures is within the scope of the federal parliament 's power. Thus, the parliament at Ottawa alone can pass laws relating to, amongst other things, the postal service, the census, the military, criminal law, navigation and shipping, fishing, currency, banking, weights and measures, bankruptcy, copyrights, patents, First Nations, and naturalization. In some cases, however, the jurisdictions of the federal and provincial parliaments may be more vague. For instance, the federal parliament regulates marriage and divorce in general, but the solemnization of marriage is regulated only by the provincial legislatures. Other examples include the powers of both the federal and provincial parliaments to impose taxes, borrow money, punish crimes, and regulate agriculture.
Polls have suggested Canadians generally do not have a solid understanding of civics, which has been theorised to be a result of less attention being given to the subject in provincial education curricula, beginning in the 1960s. By 2008, a poll showed only 24 % of respondents could name the Queen as head of state; Senator Lowell Murray wrote five years earlier: "The Crown has become irrelevant to most Canadian 's understanding of our system of Government. '' John Robson opined in 2015: "intellectually, voters and commentators succumb to the mistaken notion that we elect ' governments ' of prime ministers and cabinets with untrammelled authority, that indeed ideal ' democracy ' consists precisely in this kind of plebiscitary autocracy. '' Politicians have, on occasion, taken advantage of such misunderstandings, as when then members of the Cabinet, headed by Stephen Harper, suggested in 2008 a change of government by way of a non-confidence vote by a coalition of opposition parties was undemocratic and tantamount to a coup d'état and Harper in 2015 stated Canadian voters elect governments.
|
when did beyonce perform at the super bowl | List of Super Bowl halftime shows - wikipedia
Halftime shows are a tradition during American football games at all levels of competition. Entertainment during the Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), represents a fundamental link to pop culture, which helps broaden the television audience and nationwide interest. As the Super Bowl itself is typically the most - watched event on television in the United States annually, the halftime show has been equally - viewed in recent years: the halftime show of Super Bowl XLIX featuring Katy Perry was viewed by 118.5 million, as part of an overall telecast that peaked at 120.3 million at its conclusion -- the most - watched television broadcast in U.S. history. The NFL claims that the Super Bowl LI halftime show, with Lady Gaga was the "most - watched musical event of all - time, '' citing a figure of 150 million viewers based on the television audience, as well as unique viewership of video postings of the halftime show on the league 's platforms, and social media interactions (a metric that was never calculated prior to 2017). However, the show was seen by 117.5 million television viewers, making it the second - highest - rated halftime show.
Prior to the early 1990s, the halftime show was based around a theme, and featured university marching bands (the Grambling State University Marching Band has performed at the most Super Bowl halftime shows, featuring in six shows including at least one per decade from the 1960s to the 1990s), drill teams, and other performance ensembles such as Up with People. Beginning in 1991, the halftime show began to feature pop music acts such as New Kids on the Block and Gloria Estefan. In an effort to boost the prominence of the halftime show to increase viewer interest, Super Bowl XXVII featured a headlining performance by Michael Jackson. After Super Bowl XXXVIII, whose halftime show featured an incident where Justin Timberlake exposed one of Janet Jackson 's breasts, the halftime show began to feature classic rock acts until the return of headlining pop musicians in 2011.
During most of the Super Bowl 's first decade, the halftime show featured a college marching band. The show 's second decade featured a more varied show, often featuring drill teams and other performance ensembles; the group Up with People produced and starred in four of the performances. The middle of the third decade, in an effort to counter other networks ' efforts to counterprogram the game, saw the introduction of popular music acts such as New Kids on the Block, Gloria Estefan, Michael Jackson, Clint Black, Patti LaBelle, and Tony Bennett. Starting with Super Bowl XXXII, commercial sponsors presented the halftime show; within five years, the tradition of having a theme -- begun with Super Bowl III -- ended, replaced by major music productions by arena rock bands and other high - profile acts. In the six years immediately following an incident at Super Bowl XXXVIII where Justin Timberlake exposed one of Janet Jackson 's breasts in an alleged "wardrobe malfunction '', all of the halftime shows consisted of a performance by one artist or group, with the musicians in that era primarily being rock artists from the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. These shows were considered "family friendly '' and the time in which they took place has been described as "the age of reactionary halftime shows. Since Super Bowl XLV, the halftime show has returned to featuring popular contemporary musicians, with the typical format featuring a single headline artist collaborating with a small number of guest acts.
The NFL does not pay the halftime show performers an appearance fee, though it covers all expenses for the performers and their entourage of band members management, technical crew, security personnel, family, and friends. Super Bowl XXVII halftime show with Michael Jackson provided an exception, as the NFL and Frito - Lay agreed to make a donation and provide commercial time for Jackson 's Heal the World Foundation. According to Nielsen SoundScan data, the halftime performers regularly experience significant spikes in weekly album sales and paid digital downloads due to the exposure. For Super Bowl XLIX, it was reported by the Wall Street Journal that league officials asked representatives of potential acts if they would be willing to provide financial compensation to the NFL in exchange for their appearance, in the form of either an up - front fee, or a cut of revenue from concert performances made after the Super Bowl. While these reports were denied by an NFL spokeswoman, the request had, according to the Journal, received a "chilly '' response from those involved.
The following is a list of the performers, producers, themes, and sponsors for each Super Bowl game 's show.
U2 performed 3 songs: "Beautiful Day, '' "MLK, '' and "Where the Streets Have No Name. '' During the beginning of "MLK '' and continuing until the end of "Where The Streets Have No Name, '' a large banner behind the band displayed the names of all the people who lost their lives on the September 11 attacks. Bono ended the song by opening up his jacket, the inside of which displayed the American flag.
For The Rolling Stones, the stage was in the form of the group 's iconic tongue logo (John Pasche 's "Cunning Linguist '' first used in 1971 on their Sticky Fingers album). It was the largest stage ever assembled for a Super Bowl halftime show, with 28 separate pieces assembled in five minutes by a 600 - member volunteer stage crew. The group performed three songs: "Start Me Up, '' "Rough Justice, '' and "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction. '' The show was viewed by 89.9 million people, more than the audiences for the Oscars, Grammys and Emmy Awards combined. In the wake of the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy with Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake, ABC and the NFL imposed a five - second delay and censored lyrics considered too sexually explicit in the first two songs by briefly turning off Mick Jagger 's microphone -- censoring to which the group had previously agreed. However, the choice of The Rolling Stones sparked controversy in the Detroit community because the band did not represent the traditional Detroit "Motown Sound, '' and no artists from the area were included.
|
who does the voice of hans in frozen | Hans (Disney) - wikipedia
Prince Hans of the Southern Isles is a fictional character from Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 53rd animated film, Frozen. Hans is voiced by Santino Fontana in the film, and later portrayed by Tyler Jacob Moore in the live action television series Once Upon a Time.
Hans is the thirteenth prince of the Southern Isles. Knowing that he will be unable to inherit the throne of his own country, he concocts a scheme to usurp the throne of another kingdom through marriage. Although he is portrayed as honest and noble throughout most of the film, he is later revealed to be cold, calculating, and cruel in nature.
Hans ' villainy is a plot twist in Frozen, revealed in the film 's final act. Despite the acclaim that the film has received, Hans ' betrayal has been the subject of mixed reception from some critics. While the character 's mastery of trickery and Fontana 's performance have been praised, Hans ' villainous reveal has been criticized for being too upsetting and confusing for the film 's younger viewers. However, others have considered the character 's shift in personality to be a valuable lesson that children can learn from.
The Disney studio made their first attempts to adapt Hans Christian Andersen 's fairytale, The Snow Queen, as early as 1943, when Walt Disney considered the possibilities to produce a biography film of the author. However, the story and the characters proved to be too symbolic and implicit that they posed unsolvable problems to Disney and his animators. Later on, other Disney executives had made efforts to translate this material to the big screen, however these proposals were all shelved due to similar issues.
He is voiced in Frozen and Frozen Fever by Santino Fontana. On playing the role, Fontana stated "It 's pretty great... When I wanted to be an actor, I always think of like trying to get to the place of the floor is lava, that feeling of like you 're a little kid... If I can get to that place of finding like here 's what I 'm playing like a kid... And the great thing about animation is you 're not limited by anything physical or even logical. ''
Mustafa Rashad (Arabic) is Nesma Mahgoub 's (Arabic Elsa) fiancé, and he got chosen for Hans ' role accidentally: he was coming to pick Nesma up from the studio while she was still recording; Gihan Elnaser, dubbing director in charge of the Arabic version, asked him to do a test for Hans ' role, and chose him.
Guillaume Beaujolais (European French) originally auditioned for Olaf 's singing voice. Ninou Fratellini, French managing director, asked him to try Hans as she thought his voice was close to Santino Fontana 's, and he eventually got that role.
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages (namely: Albanian, Arabic TV, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog).
Usually the hero or heroine of the film undergoes a transformation (e.g. Aladdin goes from street rat to prince, Cinderella from servant to princess). In Frozen, Hans goes from a courtly charmer to power - hungry villain. According to Hyrum Osmond, one of the supervising animators for Hans, Hans initially appears as a handsome, dashing character. The crew wanted the audience to fall in love with him and the relationship he could have with Anna. Then they 'd got to turn him around towards the climax and make it a big shock. According to Lino Di Salvo, Hans is a chameleon who adapts to any environment to make the other characters comfortable. And one of the biggest challenges in designing Hans, according to Bill Schwab, character design supervisor, was to make sure that they covered all aspects of his personality without fully tipping their hand to the audience. He shares similar personalities with various Disney villains: Notably, Lady Tremaine for the way he treats Anna near the climax of the end. He shares Ratigan from The Great Mouse Detective, Frollo from The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Scar from The Lion King, and Jafar 's from Aladdin, intentions for wanting to murder their respective rulers and instill themselves as king (which only Ratigan, Frollo and Hans was able to almost fulfill, while Jafar decided he would force Jasmine to marry him and not kill her. On the other hand, Scar had succeeded in killing Mufasa and taking over as king until he was finally foiled by Simba who forced his confession during their fight). He shares similarities to Gaston from Beauty and the Beast in which they were the youngest villains to appear and having the towns fall in love with them. However, the main difference is that Belle quickly saw Gaston for who he is and distrusted him, whereas Hans gained Anna 's trust before betraying her. Afterwards, he left a lasting and negative impact on Anna when she realizes that the warning Elsa, and later Kristoff, originally gave her about falling in love with someone she does not know was true.
Hyrum Osmond, one of the film 's supervising animators, later revealed that during the "Love Is an Open Door '' musical sequence, a brief moment where Hans, belting out a high note under a waterfall, closes his eyes and raises his arm, was a parody of a signature move by Donny Osmond, of whom Hyrum is a nephew.
Once the Southern Isles is given word of Queen Elsa 's coronation, Hans is the royal representative that attends in honor of his kingdom. Along with the other invited royalty, he arrives on the day of the event and is first seen arriving in Arendelle on his horse, Sitron, who accidentally runs into Princess Anna when she crashes into his horse, and falls into a rowboat. Using grace and charm, Hans immediately woos the lovesick princess, with Anna almost immediately falling for him due to his wondrous looks and undeniable charisma. Moments later, Hans attends Queen Elsa 's crowning, waving to Anna as he watches alongside the other visiting royals and dignitaries. Later on that night, a ball is held in honor of the new queen and Hans appears at the celebration party, soon finding and inviting Anna for a romantic waltz after coincidentally bumping into her once again.
During their time together, Hans learns of Anna 's longing of having someone special in her life, with her sister apparently developing a dislike of being around her by suddenly shutting Anna out one day when they were kids, to which Hans openly relates to, only furthering Anna 's connection with him. And with this, Hans promises to never shut Anna out, unlike Elsa, much to the princess ' absolute joy. By the end of their tour, Hans works up the courage to propose, with Anna agreeing in a heartbeat. The two head back to the royal throne room, where the party is being held, to ask for Elsa 's blessing. Elsa coldly refuses, denying Anna marrying someone she just met, and subsequently ends the party. Suspecting he has an ulterior motive for wanting to marry Anna, she orders Hans to leave out of frustration. Heartbroken, Anna confronts her sister, but this accidentally exposes Elsa 's abilities to conjure up ice and snow, much to Hans ' shock, along with everyone else 's. The Duke of Weselton immediately declares Elsa a monster, and orders his men to capture her. Elsa flees, accidentally causing an eternal winter over Arendelle while doing so, with Anna and Hans chasing after her until she runs across the surface of the fjord. Anna volunteers to go after Elsa, but Hans objects to her going by herself, considering it too dangerous. However, Anna insists that Hans stay behind to take care of Arendelle during her absence, to which the prince eventually agrees.
It does not take long for Arendelle to turn into an icy wasteland. However, through it all, Hans proved to be a worthy ruler, winning the hearts of Arendelle 's citizens, gaining their trust and loyalty through his seemingly benevolent and caring ways. Hans does so by distributing free cloaks to the public and setting up soup lines in the palace. The Duke of Weselton is furious that Hans is giving away Arendelle 's tradeable goods. Scolding Hans, the Duke then openly expresses his suspicion over Anna and Elsa, believing they 're conspiring together to doom them all. Hans immediately snaps and threatens to punish the Duke for treason if he does n't silence himself. Just then, Anna 's horse returns, riderless, making Hans believe Anna is in danger. With the royal guards and the Duke 's men, Hans leads a rescue mission for Anna and a hunt for Elsa.
A few days later, the army arrives at Elsa 's ice palace. As they are approaching the front steps, Elsa 's snowlem bouncer, Marshmallow, disguised as a pile of snow by the staircase, suddenly attacks him. While Hans and his army battle Marshmallow, the Duke 's two guards make their way inside to take on Elsa. Hans manages to defeat Marshmallow by slicing his leg off, sending him plunging into a gorge. With him out of the way, Hans and the others rush inside to find Anna, but she is nowhere in sight. Instead, they find Elsa merely seconds away from killing the Duke 's two guards. Hans is able to stop her, freeing the two thugs. However, one of the thugs attempts to shoot her with his bolt, but Hans interferes and causes the bolt to shoot upward and shatter the hook on a massive chandelier, which crashes down and manages to knock Elsa unconscious. Captured, Elsa is imprisoned in Arendelle 's dungeon. Hans decides to pay Elsa a visit, asking her to put an end to the winter. However, Elsa confesses she has no idea how and asks to be released. Hans claims he will do what he can.
Anna suddenly returns and desperately begs Hans for a kiss. The two are given privacy, Anna explains that during her journey, Elsa froze her heart, and only an act of true love can save her from freezing to death. Hans smirks and rejects Anna. Confused, Anna tries to understand what 's going on, but Hans simply explains his entire plot to marry her, arrange an "accident '' for Elsa, and become king of Arendelle through marriage. Anna tries to stop him, but she is far too weak. After informing her his next move is to kill Elsa and bring back summer, Hans leaves Anna to die, locking the door and trapping her within to prevent others from finding her or prevent her from escaping and interfering. Hans then returns to the Duke and the other dignitaries. He tells them Anna was killed by Elsa, but is unaware that Olaf foiled him by helping Anna escape. He sentences Elsa to death for high treason.
Meanwhile, through her magic, Elsa manages to escape her cell by freezing her shackles until they become so brittle that they break, then freezing the wall of her cell until it collapses. Hans chases after her into the frozen fjords as a harsh blizzard consumes the kingdom. He eventually stumbles upon her, and claims to her she can not escape all the horrible things she has already done. Elsa pleads for mercy, and asks him to take care of her sister for her, to which Hans responds by telling her that Anna has died from Elsa freezing her heart (or so Hans thinks, since Olaf has found Anna and helped her escape). Elsa collapses, and whilst she is distracted, Hans pulls out his sword and prepares to stab her. As he is swinging, Anna suddenly arrives and jumps in front of Hans 's sword path, completely freezing solid just before Hans ' blade strikes her and shatters. Anna 's freezing causes a forceful blast, knocking Hans off his feet and rendering him unconscious.
When he awakens several moments later, he finds Arendelle thawed and peace restored. Enraged by what Hans did to Anna and what he was doing to Elsa, Kristoff approaches Hans intending to attack him, but Anna intervenes. Instead, Anna confronts Hans, and the sight of Anna alive and well confuses Hans, prompting him to ask how she survived the frozen heart curse. She turns her back to him, much to Hans ' disbelief, then, in a swift movement, turns around again and punches him in the face and off the side of a ship. Humiliated and defeated, Hans is last seen imprisoned on a ship heading back to the Southern Isles. According to the French dignitary, Hans is set to receive an ultimate (and unspecified) punishment from his older brothers.
Hans briefly makes an appearance in Frozen Fever where he is seen cleaning up horse manure in the Southern Isles as part of his punishment from his family in his actions against Queen Elsa and Arendelle. After Elsa sneezes, she creates a large snowball that flies over to the Southern Isles and accidentally catapults Hans into a pile of manure, causing all the horses in the stable to laugh at his misfortune.
Hans appears in the fourth season of Once Upon a Time and is played by Tyler Jacob Moore. In the fourth season premiere, "A Tale of Two Sisters '', Elsa reminds Anna that Hans and his older brothers still have a grudge against Arendelle for his treatment two years earlier and have been looking for a chance to repay Anna and Elsa for this ever since. In the third episode "Rocky Road, '' Hans and his brothers have gathered outside of Arendelle with an army and he reveals a plan to his brothers to capture Elsa with a magical urn. Hans finds Elsa and Kristoff in the cave with the urn and holds Kristoff hostage in order to force Elsa to give him the urn. After retrieving the urn, Hans tries to use it to imprison Elsa, but inadvertently releases the Snow Queen instead. The Snow Queen, upset that Hans called Elsa a monster, freezes him while his brothers flee the cave.
Elsa and Anna later discover his frozen body untouched in the palace 's east - wing room. He is later thawed out after 30 years (Arendelle was frozen by the Snow Queen.) and he becomes the new king of Arendelle. His first order was to have Anna and Kristoff arrested, and with help from Blackbeard he places the two into a trunk and sends them to their death at the bottom of the ocean, not knowing that Elsa, using Anna 's necklace as a locator spell, brings the two to Storybrooke. However, soon after the Snow Queen sacrifices herself hence breaking the spell of shattered sight, Elsa, Anna and Kristoff return to Arendelle via a magical portal and quickly retake their throne and kingdom (with it implied that Anna once again punches Hans in the face, this time in the eye).
While the film has largely received critical acclaim, critics were divided on the reveal of Hans ' duplicity. Gina Dalfonzo from The Atlantic questioned the reveal 's age - appropriateness, saying, "Children will, in their lifetimes, necessarily learn that not everyone who looks or seems trustworthy is trustworthy -- but Frozen 's big twist is a needlessly upsetting way to teach that lesson. '' Other critics disagreed - Melissa Leon from The Daily Beast said, "Anna is being ridiculous. But unlike Snow White or Sleeping Beauty, the world of Frozen knows that. It uses Anna 's ill - thought - out engagement to show exactly why the cliché is unrealistic and absurd -- in her case, it even proves dangerous as... her charming prince turns out to be a two - faced villain. '' Alyssa Rosenberg of ThinkProgress took a moderate position, arguing, "Rather than declaring Prince Charming fantasies good or bad, I think Frozen is part of a tradition of adding heft to Prince Charming himself. And that 's a good thing. (...) Frozen might have been a dud if Hans had only been a jerk. But, so help me, I found myself with some sympathy for the guy. ''
|
who plays in the rose bowl regular season | Rose Bowl (stadium) - wikipedia
The Rose Bowl is a United States outdoor athletic stadium, located in Pasadena, California, a northeast suburb of Los Angeles. Opened in October 1922, the stadium is recognized as a National Historic Landmark and a California Historic Civil Engineering landmark. At a modern capacity of an all - seated configuration at 90,888 (making it one of the rare stadiums in college football to have such a seating arrangement; many such stadiums have bench - style seating) the Rose Bowl is the 17th - largest stadium in the world, the 11th - largest stadium in the United States, and the 11th largest NCAA stadium.
One of the most famous stadiums in sporting history, the Rose Bowl is best known as a college football venue, specifically as the host of the annual Rose Bowl Game for which it is named. Since 1982, it has also served as the home stadium of the UCLA Bruins football team. The stadium has also hosted five Super Bowl games, second most of any venue. The Rose Bowl is also a noted soccer venue, having hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympic Gold Medal Match, as well as numerous CONCACAF and United States Soccer Federation matches.
The stadium and adjacent Brookside Golf and Country Club are owned by the city of Pasadena and managed by the Rose Bowl Operating Company, a non-profit organization whose board is selected by council members of the city of Pasadena. UCLA and the Pasadena Tournament of Roses also have one member on the company board.
The game now known as the Rose Bowl Game was played at Tournament Park though January 1922, about three miles (5 km) southeast, adjacent to the campus of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association, the game 's organizer, realized the temporary stands were inadequate for a crowd of more than 40,000, and sought to build a better, permanent stadium.
The stadium was designed by architect Myron Hunt in 1921. His design was influenced by the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut, which opened in 1914. The Arroyo Seco was selected as the location for the stadium. The Rose Bowl was under construction from Feb. 27, 1922 to October 1922. The nearby Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum also was under construction during this time and would be completed in May 1923 shortly before the Rose Bowl was completed. Originally built as a horseshoe, the stadium was expanded several times. The southern stands were completed in 1928, enclosing the stadium into a complete bowl.
The field 's alignment is nearly north - south, offset slightly northwest, and the elevation at street level is approximately 830 feet (255 m) above sea level.
The stadium 's name was alternatively "Tournament of Roses Stadium '' or "Tournament of Roses Bowl '', until being settled as "Rose Bowl '' before the 1923 Rose Bowl game, in reference to the unusually named (at the time) Yale Bowl.
The stadium is extremely difficult to access due to the traffic caused by single - lane residential street access. It has no dedicated parking lot for visitors and parking issues have routinely caused visitors to spend two to three hours completing the last mile to the stadium on game days. In 2016, Rose Bowl contracted ParkJockey to streamline parking in and around the stadium.
There are also shuttles to help visitors get to the stadium and mobile lights powered by generators to provide visibility for people walking on the golf course at night.
The first game was a regular season contest in 1922, when California defeated USC 12 -- 0 on October 28. This was the only loss for USC and Cal finished the season undefeated. California declined the invitation to the 1923 Rose Bowl game and USC went instead. The stadium was dedicated officially on January 1, 1923, when USC defeated Penn State 14 -- 3.
The stadium seating has been reconfigured several times since its construction in 1922. The South end was filled in to complete the bowl and more seats have been added. The original wooden benches were replaced by aluminum benches in 1969. All new grandstand and loge seats had been installed since 1971. New red seat backs had been added on 22,000 seats prior to the 1980 Rose Bowl. A Rose Bowl improvement was conducted because of UCLA 's 1982 move and the 1984 Summer Olympics. This resulted in new seat backs for 50,000 seats.
For many years, the Rose Bowl had the largest football stadium capacity in the United States, eventually being surpassed by Michigan Stadium (107,601). The Rose Bowl 's maximum stated seating capacity was 104,091 from 1972 to 1997. Some of the seats closest to the field were never used during this time for UCLA regular season games, and were covered by tarps. Official capacity was lowered following the 1998 Rose Bowl. Slightly different figures are given for the current capacity, for the lower level seats behind the team benches are not used for some events since the spectators can not see through the standing players or others on the field. UCLA reports the capacity at 91,136. The Tournament of Roses reports the capacity at 92,542. The 2006 Rose Bowl game, which was also the BCS championship game, had a crowd of 93,986. In the 2011 contest between TCU and Wisconsin, the listed attendance is 94,118. As of 2008, the Rose Bowl is the 11th largest football stadium, and is still the largest stadium that hosts post-season bowl games. For concerts held there, the Rose Bowl holds almost 60,000 people. The stadium 's 2014 remodeling removed the lower "lettered row '' seats on each side behind the players ' benches and provide access in and out of the stadium for the lower sections of the Rose Bowl, restoring its original design.
The press box was updated before the 1962 Rose Bowl with an elevator and two rows. The cost was $356,000. The Press Box was refurbished for UCLA 's move in 1982 and the 1984 Summer Olympics. In 2011 and 2012, the press box was undergoing renovation as part of the larger renovation originally budgeted at $152 million in 2010. Costs had increased to $170 million during construction. Work proceeded during the 2011 football season, and was expected to be completed before the UCLA Bruins ' first home game in 2012. Some unforeseen problems had been encountered due to the stadium 's age and some renovations done in the early 1990s. Most of the planned renovations were completed in 2013. Because of the increased construction cost, items deferred for the future are additional new restrooms, the historic field hedge, new entry gate structures, and additional new concession stands. The stadium has started "The Brick Campaign '' to help pay for some of the cost of the renovations. The Brick Campaign, completed in 2014, features a large logo of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses and the donor bricks arranged by universities in front of the south main entrance to the stadium. A large 30 feet tall by 77 feet wide LED video display board was added to the north end of the stadium as a part of the renovation.
The Court of Champions is at the stadium 's south end. Rose Bowl game records along with the names of the coaches and the MVP players, are shown on the plaques attached to the exterior wall. The Hall of Fame statue is also at the Court of Champions. The 2014 renovation allows more plaques to be placed on the wall and floor for future games.
The seven - story Terry Donahue Pavilion is named for the former UCLA football head coach, who is the most successful coach in UCLA and Pac - 12 history. It houses the press boxes, broadcast booths, premium seating, boxes and suites. The radio and TV booths will be renamed "The Keith Jackson Broadcast Center '' in December 2015. Jackson, the former ABC - TV sportscaster, coined the phrase "The Granddaddy of Them All '' for the Rose Bowl game. ''
In 1999, Sports Illustrated listed the Rose Bowl at number 20 in the Top 20 Venues of the 20th Century. In 2007, Sports Illustrated named the Rose Bowl the number one venue in college sports.
The Rose Bowl stadium is best known in the U.S. for its hosting of the Rose Bowl, a postseason college football game. The game is played after the Tournament of Roses Parade on New Year 's Day, or, if January 1 is a Sunday, on the following Monday January 2. The stadium 's name has given rise to the term "bowl game '' for postseason football games, regardless of whether they are played in a bowl - shaped or "Bowl '' - named stadium. The Rose Bowl Game is commonly referred to as "The Granddaddy of Them All '' because of its stature as the oldest of all the bowl games. Since its opening, the Rose Bowl stadium has hosted the bowl game every year except the 1942 Rose Bowl, when the game was moved to Durham, North Carolina, at the campus of Duke University. Duke, which played in the game on January 1, volunteered to host the contest because of security concerns on the West Coast in the weeks following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Since 1945, the Rose Bowl has been the highest attended college football bowl game.
Starting with the 1998 season, the Rose Bowl became part of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS). The 2002 and 2006 games also were the BCS Championship games, matching the # 1 and # 2 BCS teams in the nation. The 2010 BCS National Championship Game was played six days after the Rose Bowl game as a completely separate event from the Tournament of Roses, though it managed the event. The stadium hosted the 2014 BCS National Championship Game, the final game before the BCS was replaced by the current College Football Playoff, when it celebrated its 100th anniversary of the Rose Bowl game.
Note: * USC later vacated all wins during the season.
Though the Rose Bowl is eligible to bid on hosting the College Football Playoff Championship Game in years it is not hosting a semifinal, it has no plans to do so.
The Rose Bowl Game is one of the six primary bowls of the College Football Playoff (CFP), which replaced the BCS effective with the 2014 season. Every three years, the Rose Bowl will match two of the top four teams selected by the system 's selection committee to compete for a spot at the national championship game. The first CFP semifinal game at the Rose Bowl was the 2015 Rose Bowl, whose winner advanced to the championship game on January 12 at AT&T Stadium in Texas.
The Rose Bowl stadium has been the home football field for UCLA since 1982. The UCLA Bruins had played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum since 1928. There was an attempt to build a 44,000 seat stadium on campus, at the site where Drake Stadium eventually was built. However, the proposal was blocked by influential area residents, as well as other politicians.
At the start of the 1982 NFL season, with the Oakland Raiders scheduled to move in, UCLA decided to relocate its home games to the Rose Bowl Stadium. The Bruins went on to play two straight Rose Bowl games in their new home stadium, the 1983 Rose Bowl and the 1984 Rose Bowl. UCLA has participated in five Rose Bowl games since moving to the stadium. The stadium is the host of the UCLA -- USC rivalry football game on even numbered years, alternating with the Coliseum. In the first rivalry game at the stadium between UCLA and USC in 1982, USC fans sat on the west side of the stadium and UCLA fans sat on the east side of the stadium, mirroring an arrangement that existed when the teams shared the Coliseum. Both teams also wore their home uniforms. In 1984, USC fans were moved to the end zone seats, which ended the tradition of shared stadium. Because of the shared arrangement, and the participation of USC in a number of Rose Bowl games, both schools have winning records in each other 's home stadium. The Bruins travel 26 miles from campus to Pasadena to play home games, but only 14 miles to their biggest road game at USC every other year.
Caltech, a university located in Pasadena, played most home games in the Rose Bowl from the time of its construction until the school dropped football in 1993. Caltech jovially claimed to play before the greatest number of empty seats in the nation.
The stadium hosted the Junior Rose Bowl from 1946 to 1971 and 1976 to 1977. Between 1946 and 1966 and 1976 and 1977, the game pitted the California Junior College football champions against the NJCAA football champions for the national championship. It was organized by the Pasadena Junior Chamber of Commerce. The Junior Rose Bowl became the Pasadena Bowl from 1967 to 1971; it was billed as the Junior Rose Bowl the first two years, but instead two teams from the NCAA College Division competed (then later the University Division, usually featuring teams that were not invited to other major bowls).
The Rose Bowl stadium is the only site west of the Mississippi River to host an Army -- Navy Game (1983). The city of Pasadena paid for the traveling expenses of the all students and supporters of both the U.S. Naval Academy and U.S. Military Academy. The attendance was 81,000. The game was brought to the Rose Bowl as there are a large number of military installations and servicemen and women, along with many retired military personnel, on the West Coast.
The stadium has hosted the Super Bowl five times. The first was Super Bowl XI in January 1977, when the Oakland Raiders beat the Minnesota Vikings 32 -- 14. The game was also played there in 1980 (XIV), 1983 (XVII), 1987 (XXI) and 1993 (XXVII). The Rose Bowl is one of two venues (with Stanford Stadium) to host a Super Bowl though having never served as the full - time home stadium for an NFL or AFL team (Stanford Stadium hosted one San Francisco 49ers game after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake).
Because the NFL has a policy limiting the hosting of a Super Bowl to metropolitan areas with NFL teams, the Super Bowl has not been played at the Rose Bowl since the Rams and Raiders departed the Los Angeles area in 1995. The most recent Super Bowl held in southern California was XXXVII in San Diego in January 2003. The next L.A. - based Super Bowl (LVI) is scheduled for February 2022 at the Rams ' and Chargers ' new stadium in Inglewood (the Rams returned to Los Angeles in 2016, the Chargers the following year).
Though best known as an American football stadium, the Rose Bowl is also one of the most decorated soccer (association football) venues in the world. The stadium hosted the prestigious 1994 FIFA World Cup Final (an event watched by 700 million+ people worldwide), the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympic Gold Medal Match, making it the only venue in the world to host all 3 of international soccer 's major championship matches. The United States men 's national soccer team has played 17 games in the Rose Bowl, the fourth most of any venue. It has also hosted the 2002 and 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup Final, and the 1998 MLS Cup.
In the past, it was also the home ground of two North American Soccer League clubs, the Los Angeles Wolves in 1968 and the Los Angeles Aztecs in 1978 and 1979. From 1996 through 2002, the stadium was the home ground of Major League Soccer club Los Angeles Galaxy, who still host occasional matches there.
The Rose Bowl is one of two stadiums to have hosted the FIFA World Cup finals for both men and women. The Rose Bowl hosted the men 's final in the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the women 's final in the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup. (The only other stadium with this honor is the Råsunda Stadium near Stockholm, Sweden, which hosted the men 's final in 1958 and the women 's final in 1995.) Both Rose Bowl finals were scoreless after extra time and decided on penalty shootouts; Brazil defeating Italy in the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, and the United States defeating China in the 1999 women 's final.
The Rose Bowl also hosted group stage matches of the Copa América Centenario in 2016. It also hosted several matches including the final of the 1984 Olympics men 's soccer tournament. On July 27, 2016, the Rose Bowl hosted a 2016 International Champions Cup match between Chelsea and Liverpool. Chelsea won the match 1 - 0. It has also regularly featured CONCACAF Gold Cup matches including two finals.
The Rose Bowl will be one of the soccer venues used during the 2028 Summer Olympics.
The Rose Bowl has hosted the Pasadena "Americafest '' Independence Day celebration annually since 1927. The annual fireworks show is considered one of the top fireworks shows in the nation. Another local event is the Rose Bowl Flea Market held the second Sunday of each month, on the stadium parking lots. Hosted by promoter R.G. Canning, it claims to be the largest Flea market on the West Coast. The stadium host the annual "Turkey Tussle '' homecoming football game between John Muir High School and Pasadena High School, in early November. The Rose Bowl hosted its annual graduation ceremonies for Blair High School, John Muir High School and Pasadena High School until 1984, before staging it at the individual schools until 1998. Currently all three high schools along with John Marshall Fundamental School held their graduation ceremonies at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in early June.
The Rose Bowl was the track cycling venue for the 1932 Summer Olympics.
The stadium was used for midget car racing in the 1940s.
The stadium held its first country music festival in June 1981, named A Day in the Country The event was produced by Richard Flanzer of AtlanticPacific Music.
The stadium hosted the 2007 Drum Corps International World Championships August 7 through August 11, 2007. The Rose Bowl is the final stadium to host the championship before DCI moved their corporate offices to Indianapolis with the championships being held at Lucas Oil Stadium until at least 2018. This was the first time the DCI championships have ever been held west of Denver, Colorado in the 45 - year history of DCI.
It hosted auditions for the top American television show, American Idol, on August 8, 2006. The stadium has also been used as part of the music video shoot for the song "The Last Song '', the second single released by the American rock band The All - American Rejects, which features the band performing the song in the middle of the stadium to an empty crowd.
The stadium 's Court of Champions was the site of a "Roadblock '' from season 17 of the CBS reality TV show The Amazing Race where teams had to help decorate three sections of the theme float for the 2011 New Year 's Day Rose Parade.
In November 1997, the International Churches of Christ (Los Angeles) gathered at the Rose Bowl for their Worship Service, they had an attendance of 17,000.
The Rose Bowl and adjacent golf course are managed by the Rose Bowl Operating Company, a non-profit organization whose board is selected by council members of the City of Pasadena. UCLA and the Pasadena Tournament of Roses also have one member on the company board. The Rose Bowl stadium itself runs on a yearly operational loss. While it generates funds with the annual lease with UCLA ($1.5 million), the Tournament of Roses ($900,000), and a regularly hosted flea market ($900,000), it makes up the loss by relying on funds generated by the adjacent city - owned golf course ($2 million). While the stadium is able to keep operating in this financial set - up, it is unable to finance many of the capital improvements it needs to be considered a modern facility, including new seats, wider aisles, additional exits, a wider concourse, a renovated press box, a state - of - the - art video scoreboard, new field lighting, additional suites and a club. The estimated cost for such improvements ranges from $250 million and $300 million.
The stadium currently has long - term leases with its two major tenants, the Pasadena Tournament of Roses (2019) and UCLA (2023). In 2006, the Rose Bowl and the City of Pasadena launched a $16.3 million capital improvement program that will benefit both UCLA and the Tournament of Roses. New locker rooms for both UCLA and visiting teams, as well as a new media interview area were constructed.
In April 2009, The Rose Bowl Operating Company unveiled a Rose Bowl Strategic Plan, which addressed the objectives to improve public safety; enhance fan experience; maintain national historic landmark status; develop revenue sources to fund long - term improvements; and enhance facility operations. On October 11, 2010, the Pasadena City Council approved a $152 million financing plan for the major renovation of the stadium. Groundbreaking ceremonies for the first of three phases of the project was held on January 25, 2011. The newly constructed video board was used for the June 25, 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup Final.
Since losing both its local teams in the Los Angeles market in 1995, the National Football League had been looking to either start or relocate a franchise to the Los Angeles area. One of the strong candidates was a renovated Rose Bowl. However, after many years of varying offers, no deal could be struck between the NFL owners, the stadium 's owner, and the City of Pasadena, following a vote of disapproval by its residents in November 2006.
On November 19, 2012, Pasadena officials approved a proposal which could allow an NFL team to temporarily play in the Rose Bowl. The Rose Bowl, however, has not acted as a home field for an NFL team. When the Los Angeles Rams moved from St. Louis prior to the 2016 NFL season, the Rose Bowl was considered as a temporary home before the Rams ultimately settled on playing in USC 's Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Rams ' home from 1946 to 1979.
|
when was the computer invented and by whom | Computer - wikipedia
A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out arbitrary sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs, enables them to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.
Such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer assisted design, but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers.
Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then.
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input / output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s - era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of the word "computer '' was in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: "I haue (sic) read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer (sic) breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number. '' This usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.
The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of "computer '' in the "1640s, (meaning) "one who calculates, ''; this is an "... agent noun from compute (v.) ''. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean "calculating machine '' (of any type) is from 1897. '' The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the "modern use '' of the term, to mean "programmable digital electronic computer '' dates from "... 1945 under this name; (in a) theoretical (sense) from 1937, as Turing machine ''.
Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one - to - one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example.
The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer '', according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear - wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed - wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear - wheels, circa 1000 AD.
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.
The slide rule was invented around 1620 -- 1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand - operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time -- distance problems in light aircraft. To save space and for ease of reading, these are typically circular devices rather than the classic linear slide rule shape. A popular example is the E6B.
In the 1770s Pierre Jaquet - Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automata) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed '' to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.
The tide - predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel - and - disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball - and - disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer '', he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general - purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing - complete.
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand -- this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage 's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine 's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The first modern analog computer was a tide - predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel - and - disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H.L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H.W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).
By 1938 the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.
Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all - electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.
In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world 's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5 -- 10 Hz. Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Rather than the harder - to - implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage 's earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse 's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was Turing complete.
Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes. In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff -- Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer ''. This design was also all - electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.
During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro - mechanical bombes. To crack the more sophisticated German Lorenz SZ 40 / 42 machine, used for high - level Army communications, Max Newman and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the Colossus. He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus. After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February.
Colossus was the world 's first electronic digital programmable computer. It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper - tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing - complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.
The U.S. - built ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing - complete. Like the Colossus, a "program '' on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC 's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal 1936 paper, On Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine '' and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing 's design is the stored program, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing - complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.
Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine. With the proposal of the stored - program computer this changed. A stored - program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation. The theoretical basis for the stored - program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In 1945 Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored - program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator '' was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.
The Manchester Small - Scale Experimental Machine, nicknamed Baby, was the world 's first stored - program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948. It was designed as a testbed for the Williams tube, the first random - access digital storage device. Although the computer was considered "small and primitive '' by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As soon as the SSEM had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1.
The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world 's first commercially available general - purpose computer. Built by Ferranti, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam. In October 1947, the directors of British catering company J. Lyons & Company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The LEO I computer became operational in April 1951 and ran the world 's first regular routine office computer job.
The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation '' of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.
At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. Their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955, built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell.
The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit. The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on 7 May 1952.
The first practical ICs were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated ''. Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby 's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas Kilby 's chip was made of germanium.
This new development heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers and led to the invention of the microprocessor. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor '', it is largely undisputed that the first single - chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, designed and realized by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, and Stanley Mazor at Intel.
With the continued miniaturization of computing resources, and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s. The same developments that spurred the growth of laptop computers and other portable computers allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular phones. These so - called smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and have become the dominant computing device on the market, with manufacturers reporting having shipped an estimated 237 million devices in 2Q 2013.
Computers are typically classified based on their uses:
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects. Circuits, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice '' input devices are all hardware.
A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I / O). These parts are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1 '', and when off it represents a "0 '' (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand - operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of hand - operated input devices are:
The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer 's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.
The control system 's function is as follows -- note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps '' and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation -- although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65? ''). Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
A computer 's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address '' and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357 '' or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595. '' The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software 's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or − 128 to + 127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two 's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer 's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer 's initial start - up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer 's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.
In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer 's part.
I / O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I / O. I / O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I / O. A 2016 - era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn. One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time ''. then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time - sharing '' since each program is allocated a "slice '' of time in turn.
Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input / output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice '' until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.
Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower - end markets as a result.
Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored - program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high - speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large - scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so - called "embarrassingly parallel '' tasks.
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that can not easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible computer, it is sometimes called "firmware ''.
There are thousands of different programming languages -- some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.
This section applies to most common RAM machine - based computers.
In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer 's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump '' instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers '' the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language:
Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer 's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer 's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious and potentially error - prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember -- a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer 's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.
Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low - level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand - held videogame) can not understand the machine language of an x86 CPU that might be in a PC.
Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high - level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled '' into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler. High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem (s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.
These 4G languages are less procedural than 3G languages. The benefit of 4GL is that they provide ways to obtain information without requiring the direct help of a programmer. An example of a 4GL is SQL.
Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object - oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.
Errors in computer programs are called "bugs ''. They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to "hang '', becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer 's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program 's design. Admiral Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist and developer of the first compiler, is credited for having first used the term "bugs '' in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the Harvard Mark II computer in September 1947.
Firmware is the technology which has the combination of both hardware and software such as BIOS chip inside a computer. This chip (hardware) is located on the motherboard and has the BIOS set up (software) stored in it.
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military 's SAGE system was the first large - scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special - purpose commercial systems such as Sabre. In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that resulted was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high - tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless '' networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.
A computer does not need to be electronic, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word "computer '' is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, the modern definition of a computer is literally: "A device that computes, especially a programmable (usually) electronic machine that performs high - speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information. '' Any device which processes information qualifies as a computer, especially if the processing is purposeful.
Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors. However, conceptually computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); an often quoted example. More realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by quantum factoring) very quickly.
There are many types of computer architectures:
Of all these abstract machines, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church -- Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing - complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
|
where was american horror story season 5 filmed | American Horror Story: Hotel - wikipedia
American Horror Story: Hotel is the fifth season of the FX horror anthology television series American Horror Story. It premiered on October 7, 2015, and concluded January 13, 2016. The series was renewed in October 2014, with the subtitle Hotel being announced in February 2015. Hotel marks the first season to not feature series mainstays Jessica Lange and Frances Conroy. Returning cast from previous seasons of the series include: Evan Peters, Sarah Paulson, Denis O'Hare, Lily Rabe, Kathy Bates, Angela Bassett, Chloë Sevigny, Finn Wittrock, Wes Bentley, Gabourey Sidibe, Mare Winningham, Matt Bomer, Christine Estabrook, Matt Ross, John Carroll Lynch, and Anthony Ruivivar, along with new cast members Lady Gaga and Cheyenne Jackson. Breaking from the anthological format, like Freak Show, the season is interconnected to the first and third seasons, and features an appearance by the Murder House, its original owner Dr. Charles Montgomery (Ross), its realtor Marcy (Estabrook), and the psychic Billie Dean Howard (Paulson), as well as the appearance of the witch Queenie (Sidibe).
The plot centers around the enigmatic Hotel Cortez in Los Angeles, California, that catches the eye of an intrepid homicide detective (Bentley). The Cortez is host to the strange and bizarre, spearheaded by its owner, The Countess (Gaga), who is a bloodsucking fashionista. The hotel is loosely based on an actual hotel built in 1893 by H.H. Holmes in Chicago, Il. for the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition. It became known as the ' Murder Castle ' as it was built for Holmes to torture, murder, and dispose of evidence just as is the Cortez. This season features two murderous threats in the form of the Ten Commandments Killer, a serial offender who selects his victims in accordance with biblical teachings, and "the Addiction Demon '', who roams the hotel armed with a drill bit dildo.
According to creators Brad Falchuk and Ryan Murphy, thematically, Hotel is much darker than previous seasons. Inspiration came from old hotel horror films and actual hotels situated in downtown Los Angeles with a reputation for sinister events, including the Cecil. The cycle also marks a return to filming in Los Angeles, where the first two seasons were shot. Hotel features one of the most expansive sets in American Horror Story history, with production designer Mark Worthington building two stories on a soundstage, along with a working elevator and stairway. In July 2015, FX launched a marketing campaign for the series, with most trailers and teasers touting Gaga 's involvement.
Although Hotel was originally reported to consist of thirteen episodes (à la Asylum, Coven, and Freak Show), that number was later revised to twelve (à la Murder House). The season garnered a total of eight Emmy Award nominations, including two acting nominations for Paulson and Bates. It was the first time, however, that a season of American Horror Story was not nominated for Outstanding Limited Series. In addition, Gaga won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Mini-Series or Television Film while Hotel received a nomination for Best Mini-Series or Television Film.
The fifth season of American Horror Story focuses on the Downtown Los Angeles Hotel Cortez which has been recently purchased by a New York fashion designer, Will Drake (Cheyenne Jackson). The 90 year old hotel is haunted by demons and mysterious ghosts including the founder, James Patrick March (Evan Peters); heroin junkie Sally (Sarah Paulson); and the strap - on - wielding Addiction Demon. Staff and residents of the hotel include the 111 - year - old "vampire '', Elizabeth / The Countess (Lady Gaga), and her longtime paramour, the former drug - addict Donovan (Matt Bomer), as well as Donovan 's mother, the manager and front desk clerk Iris (Kathy Bates); the eccentric transgender bartender Liz Taylor (Denis O'Hare); and the Countess ' vengeance - obsessed lover, Ramona Royale (Angela Bassett).
As the season unfolds, the information and backstory of each character is revealed. Elizabeth was married to James March and had an illegal abortion at the Murder House (of AHS Season One) back in 1926. Ramona was a Hollywood actress who had a romantic past with Elizabeth, before the latter killed Ramona 's new boyfriend in a jealous rage. Liz was formerly known as Nick Pryor and lived in Topeka, Kansas up until 1984 when she was given a makeover and christened as Liz Taylor by Elizabeth. Sally, after supplying Donovan heroin, was shoved out a window by an angered Iris. Finally, James tortured and murdered many visitors to his hotel, which he built with a series of secret chutes and hallways used primarily for covertly disposing the bodies of his victims.
The present and past stories of the Hotel are interwoven with the present tale of Detective John Lowe (Wes Bentley), who is first drawn to the hotel by a series of murders committed by a serial killer the victims of whom each exemplify a sin in violation of one of the Ten Commandments, and his wife, Dr. Alex Lowe (Chloe Sevigny). As the season unfolds, it is revealed that certain past events -- including the earlier disappearance of Lowe 's young son Holden -- are also entangled in the stories of the Countess and the Hotel Cortez.
On October 13, 2014, FX renewed the series for a fifth season for an October 2015 premiere. Network president John Landgraf stated that the season would necessitate a "huge reinvention '' for the series. The season 's subtitle was confirmed as Hotel in February 2015. The theme and Gaga 's involvement were hinted in the previous installment as an image of a top hat, an arcane clue alluding to the 1935 screwball musical comedy film Top Hat, which is set in a hotel and features a song called "Cheek to Cheek '', also the title of Gaga 's duet album with Tony Bennett. Co-creator Ryan Murphy explained that the casting included a number of actors and singers, but would be a much darker season compared to the previous ones. Inspiration came from old hotel horror films and actual hotels situated in downtown Los Angeles, with horrific reputations. This included The Cecil, where the death of 21 - year - old Canadian student Elisa Lam occurred. Murphy had watched a surveillance video of Lam in the hotel, in which she displayed erratic behavior just hours prior to her supposed death. It was around this time that the writing for Hotel was conceptualized, which included Murphy 's personal phobia and fears, a fear that had not been explored since the first season.
The upcoming season that we 're doing is much more horror - based; it 's much more dark. It 's about a theme and an idea that 's very close to my heart that I 've always wanted to do that 's a little bloodier and grislier, I think, than anything that we 've done before; it 's straight horror this year. Murder House, I thought, was a very primal season because everybody 's great fear is about the bogeyman under the bed in their house, and this feels similar to me in that when you check into a hotel, there are certain things beyond your control... Other people have the keys to your room; they can come in there. You 're not exactly safe, it 's a very unsettling idea.
Murphy and some of the cast appeared at the 2015 Comic - Con International and revealed further information about the series. "(Angela Bassett, Kathy Bates, Matt Bomer, Sarah Paulson and Evan Peters) are bad boys and girls this time. '' Regarding the season having no primary character, Murphy confessed that "the thing that 's different about the season is that before we 've always been very driven by the Jessica Lange character. She was always the lead character... This year, it 's a true ensemble and I think we have more male parts and more male stories. The Wes Bentley part is really big, the Matt Bomer part is really big; Evan Peters and Finn Wittrock are really big. (But) that 's not to say that the women are n't either. ''
Co-creator Brad Falchuk explained that like the first and second season of the series, Hotel would explore the "trapped '' horror trope, though the actions would not be limited to just within the premises. "This season, the horror is sneaking out of the hotel, '' he added explaining that the plot would revolve around the hotel in the center, with a more noir like ambience. Named as Hotel Cortez, the titular structure was built by James March in 1930, who was created as a rich and charming but deeply psychotic character. The season features two tormentors, The Ten Commandments Killer, who is inspired by biblical teachings, and The Addiction Demon, who wields a drill bit dildo. They are in the vein of previous seasons ' Bloody Face and Rubber Man, respectively. The Halloween episode, "Devil 's Night '', features a dinner with "the biggest serial killers of all time '', including Wuornos and John Wayne Gacy.
The Hotel 's two - story lobby set, along with a working elevator, was constructed over the course of seven weeks. While no particular hotel served as inspiration, production designer Mark Worthington was influenced by Timothy Pflueger and William Van Alen when selecting patterns and schemes, stating, "Tonally, I thought Art Deco would make sense for the horror genre because it can be dark and spiky and odd and the composition is strange. It 's beautiful, but it is n't necessarily inviting. '' The hotel consists of labyrinthine structures housing March 's murderous fantasies with dead ends, secret rooms and includes plot - lines corresponding to it. A painting of Hernán Cortés, after whom the establishment is named, hangs in the reception area. Worthington and his team had a hand in creating even the smallest of details; such as hotel insignias for the light fixtures, bar coasters, and a venus flytrap column carving that reflects the nature of Gaga 's character. The staircase was structured in such a way as to not pull focus from the elevator, which will serve as prime location. The exterior of the set was inspired by the James Oviatt Building in Downtown Los Angeles, while the interior decorations were modeled from the Cicada restaurant situated inside the Oviatt.
In February 2015, it was announced that American singer Lady Gaga had joined the show. Murphy stated she wanted her role in the series to be "evil ''. He also explained that Hotel would be devoid of any musical numbers. Instead Gaga 's character, Elizabeth / The Countess, is a fashion icon and owner of the Hotel Cortez. Created as a glamorous socialite character, The Countess maintains her beauty by imbibing human blood. Murphy was so pleased with Gaga 's performance that he invited her back for the yet - to - be-confirmed sixth season of the series, before Hotel had even made its debut. In March 2015, series star Jessica Lange definitively announced that she would not be returning for the fifth season. During PaleyFest 2015, it was announced that Matt Bomer and Cheyenne Jackson would co-star. Afterwards, more castings were confirmed, including Sarah Paulson, Evan Peters, Kathy Bates, and Angela Bassett. Murphy tweeted about the latter 's involvement in Hotel, including a plotline with Gaga, as a character called Ramona Royale, an actress and former lover of The Countess returning to the titular hotel for revenge. Chloë Sevigny, who was a recurring special guest in Asylum, returned to the series for Hotel, playing the wife of Wes Bentley 's character, a detective.
In May 2015, it was announced that Max Greenfield would also be joining the cast, in a role later revealed to be that of an addict. Greenfield had to dye his hair platinum blond for the role. His is intertwined to that of Sally 's (Paulson) and together with The Addiction Demon feature "the most disturbing scene '' the show had ever produced, according to Murphy. In an interview with Vanity Fair, Paulson described Sally as someone who is "selfish and greedy '', with hygiene problems. The next month, Murphy announced that Denis O'Hare would return as a cross-dressing bar worker in the hotel. He also confirmed that Finn Wittrock would return in the new role of Tristan Duffy, a male model who is involved in a love triangle with Gaga and Bomer, and later a fated love of Liz 's. Wittrock explained that the character might have similarities to his previous Freak Show character, Dandy Mott. In July 2015, Murphy stated that Coven alum Emma Roberts would return for a few episodes toward the finale, after completing filming on her Fox series, Scream Queens. Her character would be associated with James March (Peters). While promoting Queens in September 2015, Roberts spoke about her role with less certainty, but optimism, stating, "... it 's just everything you could dream of and more. Everything you could nightmare about and more. Granted, things over there are always changing, but I definitely want to go back to it. If it still stands, what Ryan told me, everyone 's in for a great shock. '' However, she later confirmed that she would be unable to return, due to her demanding feature schedule. Furthermore, she did state that Murphy and her had already discussed about a "devilish '' role for her in the forthcoming season six.
Later in July, Richard T. Jones joined the cast as Detective Hahn, a homicide detective, for an eight - episode arc. That same day, Helena Mattsson announced that she had also joined the series in an unspecified role. Series alum Lily Rabe portrayed infamous serial killer Aileen Wuornos during the Halloween installment and the finale. With her appearance in the season, Rabe is one of three cast members to appear in all five seasons (along with Paulson and Peters) of the show. Naomi Campbell was cast as a fashion editor who does not get along with Gaga 's character. In August 2015, Murphy revealed that Mädchen Amick joined the season as a "mother of a boy who becomes ill '', and shares screen time with Alex Lowe (Sevigny). Later in the month, Darren Criss was announced to guest star as a hipster that has conflicts with Iris (Bates), while Mare Winningham joined as the laundress of the Cortez, who works closely with Mr. March, in the 1920s. Christine Estabrook returned to the series as Marcy; the realtor who sold the first season 's Murder House to the Harmons. Gabourey Sidibe appeared in the eleventh episode as her Coven persona Queenie. Paulson also reprised her first season role of psychic Billie Dean Howard, appearing in the final episode of the season.
Principal photography for the season began on July 14, 2015, in Los Angeles, California, marking a return to where the series shot its first two cycles (Murder House and Asylum). According to the Los Angeles Times, creative reasons, not economic factors, was the deciding key for moving the series from Louisiana back to Los Angeles since Hotel 's story is connected to the city. Murphy revealed a six - story hotel set was being built on the Fox lot. A dummy set of the hotel was built at Comic - Con, showing an Art Deco style building from the 1920s, inspired by the old Hollywood era. Murphy announced at the TCA Summer Press Tour in August 2015 that he would be directing the season 's Halloween episode, "Devil 's Night '', marking the first time in series history that he will helm more than the premiere. He stated he would direct it "because I love the script so much, when we finished it I said, ' I ca n't give this to anybody else '. '' However, ultimately Murphy did not direct the episode. In an interview with Entertainment Tonight, Murphy spoke about Gaga 's entrance scene, confirming it to be about six minutes long and describing it as "like a silent movie with no dialogue, and lots of blood and nudity ''.
Greenfield recalled that Murphy wanted to push the limits of the scenes between him, Paulson and The Addiction Demon, while admitting that it was scary. Paulson described it as a normal day of shooting for her since she was accustomed to the theatrics surrounding the show. She added, "None of it 's crazy to me. I walk in and I 'm like ' Hello conical dildo demon person '. I do n't even think twice. '' For The Countess and Donovan, who both suffer from blood lust, Murphy was insistent on chainmail gloves being used as their weapons of choice. Costume designer Lou Eyrich created the custom gloves in the mold of armor, deriving inspiration from artist Daphne Guinness; "We wanted it to look both rock - n - roll but old at the same time. But then the nail that pops out with diamonds on the edge to slice you, '' said Eyrich.
Filming also took place at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, in front of Chris Burden 's art installation called Urban Light, where Gaga was seen in a floor length pink gown shooting scenes. Media reported that the filming involved a party scene with Gaga walking through the installation while singer Dinah Washington 's "Coquette '' played in the background. Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack spent three days on set, where he witnessed the filming of a foursome / murder scene, involving Gaga and Bomer 's characters. Murphy recounted Gaga 's day of filming stating, "You write a foursome for her and you expect a lot of questions. She never did that. She showed up and she was wearing diamond pasties, a Band - Aid on her hoo - ha, heels, and a black veil that Alexander McQueen made for her on the day before his death. '' Additional filming for the exterior shots of the Hotel Cortez took place outside the James Oviatt Building. Other locations include the lower level of the Los Angeles Theatre at 615 South Broadway, The Majestic Downtown at 650 South Spring Street acting as John Lowe 's office, the Loews Hollywood Hotel at 1755 Highland Avenue filming The Ten Commandments Killer murder scene, and Hollywood Forever Cemetery, where scenes with Gaga and Bomer were shot. Also used was the house from the first season located at 1120 Westchester Place.
O'Hare revealed that he had filmed three episodes by September 2015, with his scenes involving Bomer, Sevigny and Bates mostly. "We 're kind of doing it piecemeal. You 'll do five days on this one, three days on that one. You know, they always start out rocking. There 's no warm - up. You 're in it, '' the actor explained. He later went on to compare the aesthetic to Murder House, stating, "It feels like season 1 in many ways... and I think it 's because we 're back in LA. You ca n't help it! '' He also revealed that his character, Liz Taylor, would be wearing a dress that Lange was supposed to wear in Coven. The actor explained that for his part, he had to shave his body including his head, and wear eye make - up, since the character was inspired by actress Elizabeth Taylor 's films like BUtterfield 8 (1960) and Cleopatra (1963).
In February 2015, Gaga tweeted a link to the first promotional video for the upcoming season with the caption "Make your reservation now. # GagaAHSHotel '' announcing her presence in the season and the official title. In July 2015, a promotional trading card was unveiled by Entertainment Weekly, available at Comic - Con, where after entering the hotel set built there, one could receive the trading card with a promotional key. The first official teaser for the season was released later that month, showing Gaga 's long - nailed hand ringing the bell at the front desk. In August 2015, FX revealed the premiere date of the season along with a new teaser poster, showing an Art Deco peephole on a wooden door, beyond which an obscure image revealed a blond woman putting a body to bed. Later that month, Entertainment Weekly exclusively unveiled two teaser trailers of the season, entitled "Beauty Rest '' and "Do Not Disturb '', set to singer Heidi Feek 's cover of Elvis Presley 's 1956 single, "Heartbreak Hotel ''.
On August 26, Entertainment Weekly revealed exclusive cast photos, along with character descriptions. Gaga also took to her Twitter account to release another photo, showing her as The Countess with three cherubic blond boys, who are seemingly sucking on bottles of blood. The singer captioned the image: "We are family. Meet my magical children. HOTEL # AHS. '' Murphy released three new teasers through his Twitter account, titled "Towhead '', "Sleepwalk '', and "Jeepers Peepers '', all set to "Heartbreak Hotel ''. Jef Rouner from Houston Press complimented the teasers, describing them as "things of fleeting, awful beauty. So far I 've seen six for this season and at least one of them is creepier than every episode of Coven combined... Each one of these is usually less than 15 seconds long and they are murderously effective. I find myself wanting to watch the show again. '' On September 10, 2015, an extended teaser was released, featuring a psychedelic tour of the hotel, with cameos by most of the cast. Few days later, two more trailers were released, one showed the hand of an addict, with a keyhole in place of the needle point, while the other, titled "Above & Below '', portrays Gaga as The Countess, with several psychedelic intercuts inside a hotel, featuring Rammstein 's "Du hast ''.
American retail chain Hot Topic announced on their Instagram account that starting September 28, 2015, they will launch a clothing and apparel line based on Hotel, that will be sold in - store and online. On September 16, 2015, a featurette was released, giving more details about the season and showing some footage. An actual scene from the season, released in October 2015, showed Bentley 's character resting in the Hotel, while Greenfield 's character hiding underneath his bed. Same day the title sequence of the season was released by Murphy, consisting of the same soundtrack like previous seasons, intercut with scenes of a dirty hotel and the Ten Commandments written across a wall. Jacob Bryant from Variety was impressed with the clip, saying that "The opening credits for (American Horror Story) have always managed to be unsettling, but season five 's creepy credits might top the list. ''
American Horror Story: Hotel initially received mixed reviews from critics, but, as the season progressed, the reviews became more positive. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the season a 63 % approval rating (average episode score of 75 %) with an average rating of 6.38 / 10 based on 43 reviews. The site 's consensus reads, "Favoring garish style over effective storytelling, the fifth American Horror Story strands a talented cast at Ryan Murphy 's Hotel. '' On Metacritic, the season was given a score of 60 out of 100 based on 24 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Dan Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter gave a positive review, writing, "Early on, Hotel has n't hooked me with its storytelling, but it 's always fun to see what the series does with its repertory acting company and with new additions. Throw in the normal grotesquerie and visual panache and that should keep me going for a while, even if all of the humor appears to have been funneled into Scream Queens. '' Amber Dowling of TheWrap also gave a positive review, saying, "It 's a visual, visceral romp into what is being set up to be another haphazard foray into the world of horror, as imagined by Murphy and his writing counterpart Brad Falchuk. The show has rarely made sense in terms of story, and this is no exception. '' Willa Paskin of Slate called this season a "promising new start '', saying, "AHS: Hotel more obviously resembles the first two, better seasons of American Horror Story than it does the latter, lesser two. ''
On the other hand, Matt Zoller Seitz of New York Magazine found the season "confusing, tedious, annoyingly precious, and often ostentatiously brutal '', but also praised it for being "darkly beautiful, deeply weird, and (sometimes) exhilarating. '' Although Scott D. Pierce from The Salt Lake Tribune praised the production design and the cinematography, he said "the storytelling is derivative; the scares are non-existent; and it 's all about style without much substance. '' Mike Hale from The New York Times complained that it "suffers from the absence of Jessica Lange ''. IGN 's Matt Fowler gave a rating of 5.9 out of 10, criticizing the season as "mediocre '' and concluding "all weight and meaning is gone ''.
Gaga 's performance has received mixed reviews from critics. Matt Zoller Seitz of Vulture called Gaga "terrible here in the way that Madonna was terrible in a lot of her ' 90s films, at once too poised and too blank. '' David Weiland of San Francisco Chronicle said Gaga "makes an enormous visual impact, but the minute she opens her mouth to deliver a line, it 's obvious that acting just is n't one of her many talents. '' Ben Travers of Indiewire wrote that he "would n't go so far as to say Gaga 's talent adds much to the proceedings, but her presence -- and the manner in which its captured -- certainly does. '' On the other hand, Emily L. Stephens from The A.V. Club and Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly both gave a B - rating. Stephens praised Gaga 's first appearance as "slickly exploitative and hellishly effective '' while Jensen described her as "the show 's most potent symbol for all of its themes about our Bad Romance with fame, fortune, sex, sex, and more sex, materialism and consumerism, the denial of death and the corrupt want for cultural immortality ''. Brian Lowry of Variety praised the look of Gaga 's character as "gloriously photographed '' and felt her addition to the show was "extraordinarily well - timed ''.
In its fifth season, the series has been nominated for 64 awards, 20 of which were won.
Hotel 's premiere episode, "Checking In '', was initially watched by 5.81 million viewers. After factoring in delayed viewing, the episode rose to 9.1 million, with 6.13 million in the 18 - 49 demographic, while combined linear, nonlinear and encore viewing, it drew 12.17 million viewers through October 11. Variety stated that "Checking In '' could become FX 's most - watched telecast, with the 60 full data tabulated. Through its first four episodes, Hotel averaged at 3.7 rating in 18 - 49 adult zone and 6.9 million viewers total, which is up by 7 % and 1 % from previous installment, Freak Show, respectively, pacing ahead of the average ratings of all prior installments on a Live + 3 basis. The season finale, "Be Our Guest '', initially watched by 2.24 million viewers, more than doubled its 18 - 49 rating with three days of delayed viewing, going from 1.1 million to 2.3 million, an 109 % of increase. The episode increased 94 % in total viewers, upping to 4.3 million.
|
when did the first winged insects and reptiles appear | Evolution of insects - wikipedia
The most recent understanding of the evolution of insects is based on studies of the following branches of science: molecular biology, insect morphology, paleontology, insect taxonomy, evolution, embryology, bioinformatics and scientific computing. It is estimated that the class of insects originated on Earth about 480 million years ago, in the Ordovician, at about the same time terrestrial plants appeared. Insects evolved from a group of crustaceans. The first insects were land bound, but about 400 million years ago in the Devonian period one lineage of insects evolved flight, the first animals to do so. The oldest definitive insect fossil, Rhyniognatha hirsti, is estimated to be 407 to 396 million years old. Global climate conditions changed several times during the history of Earth, and along with it the diversity of insects. The Pterygotes (winged insects) underwent a major radiation in the Carboniferous (356 to 299 million years ago) while the Endopterygota (insects that go through different life stages with metamorphosis) underwent another major radiation in the Permian (299 to 252 million years ago).
Most extant orders of insects developed during the Permian period. Many of the early groups became extinct during the mass extinction at the Permo - Triassic boundary, the largest extinction event in the history of the Earth, around 252 million years ago. The survivors of this event evolved in the Triassic (252 to 201 million years ago) to what are essentially the modern insect orders that persist to this day. Most modern insect families appeared in the Jurassic (201 to 145 million years ago).
In an important example of co-evolution, a number of highly successful insect groups -- especially the Hymenoptera (wasps, bees and ants) and Lepidoptera (butterflies) as well as many types of Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles) -- evolved in conjunction with flowering plants during the Cretaceous (145 to 66 million years ago).
Many modern insect genera developed during the Cenozoic that began about 66 million years ago; insects from this period onwards frequently became preserved in amber, often in perfect condition. Such specimens are easily compared with modern species, and most of them are members of extant genera.
Insect fossils are not merely impressions, but also appear in many other forms; While wings are indeed a common insect fossil, they do not readily decay or digest, which is why birds and spiders typically leave the wings after devouring the rest of an insect. Terrestrial vertebrates are almost always preserved just as bony remains (or inorganic casts thereof), the original bone usually having been replaced by the mineral apatite. Occasionally, mummified or frozen vertebrates are found, but their age is usually no more than several thousand years. Fossils of insects, in contrast, are preserved as three - dimensional, permineralized, and charcoalified replicas; and as inclusions in amber and even within some minerals. There is also abundant fossil evidence for the behavior of extinct insects, including feeding damage on fossil vegetation and in wood, fecal pellets, and nests in fossil soils. Dinosaur behavior, by contrast, is recorded mostly as footprints and coprolites.
The common denominator among most deposits of fossil insects and terrestrial plants is the lake environment. Those insects that became preserved were either living in the fossil lake (autochthonous) or carried into it from surrounding habitats by winds, stream currents, or their own flight (allochthonous). Drowning and dying insects not eaten by fish and other predators settle to the bottom, where they may be preserved in the lake 's sediments, called lacustrine, under appropriate conditions. Even amber, or fossil resin from trees, requires a watery environment that is lacustrine or brackish in order to be preserved. Without protection in anoxic sediments, amber would gradually disintegrate; it is never found buried in fossil soils. Various factors contribute greatly to what kinds of insects become preserved and how well, if indeed at all, including lake depth, temperature, and alkalinity; type of sediments; whether the lake was surrounded by forest or vast and featureless salt pans; and if it was choked in anoxia or highly oxygenated. There are some major exceptions to the lacustrine theme of fossil insects, the most famous being the Late Jurassic limestones from Solnhofen and Eichstätt, Germany, which are marine. These deposits are famous for pterosaurs and the earliest bird, Archaeopteryx. The limestones were formed by a very fine mud of calcite that settled within stagnant, hypersaline bays isolated from inland seas. Most organisms in these limestones, including rare insects, were preserved intact, sometimes with feathers and outlines of soft wing membranes, indicating that there was very little decay. The insects, however, are like casts or molds, having relief but little detail. In some cases iron oxides precipitated around wing veins, revealing better detail.
There are many different ways insects can be fossilized and preserved including compressions and impressions, concretions, mineral replication, charcoalified (fusainized) remains, and their trace remains. Compressions and Impressions are the most extensive types of insect fossils, occurring in rocks from the Carboniferous to Recent. Impressions are like a cast or mold of a fossil insect, showing its form and even some relief, like pleating in the wings, but usually little or no color from the cuticle. Compressions preserve remains of the cuticle, so color distinguishes structure. In exceptional situations, microscopic features such as microtrichia on sclerites and wing membranes are even visible, but preservation of this scale also requires a matrix of exceptionally fine grain, such as in micritic muds and volcanic tuffs. Because arthropod sclerites are held together by membranes, which readily decompose, many fossil arthropods are known only by isolated sclerites. Far more desirable are complete fossils. Concretions are stones with a fossil at the core whose chemical composition differs from that of the surrounding matrix, usually formed as a result of mineral precipitation from decaying organisms. The most significant deposit consists of various localities of the Late Carboniferous Francis Creek Shale of the Carbondale Formation at Mazon Creek, Illinois, which are composed of shales and coal seams yielding oblong concretions. Within most concretions is a mold of an animal and sometimes a plant that is usually marine in origin.
When an insect is partly or wholly replaced by minerals, usually completely articulated and with three - dimensional fidelity, is called Mineral replication. This is also called petrifaction, as in "petrified '' wood. Insects preserved this way are often, but not always, preserved as concretions, or within nodules of minerals that formed around the insect as its nucleus. Such deposits generally form where the sediments and water are laden with minerals, and where there is also quick mineralization of the carcass by coats of bacteria.
The insect fossil record extends back some 400 million years to the lower Devonian, while the Pterygotes (winged insects) underwent a major radiation in the Carboniferous. The Endopterygota underwent another major radiation in the Permian. Survivors of the mass extinction at the P-T boundary evolved in the Triassic to what are essentially the modern Insecta Orders that persist to modern times. Most modern insect families appeared in the Jurassic, and further diversity probably in genera occurred in the Cretaceous. By the Tertiary, there existed many of what are still modern genera; hence, most insects in amber are, indeed, members of extant genera. Insects diversified in only about 100 million years into essentially modern forms.
Insect evolution is characterized by rapid adaptation with selective pressures exerted by environment, with rapid adaptation being furthered by their high fecundity. It appears that rapid radiations and the appearance of new species, a process that continues to this day, result in insects filling all available environmental niches. Insect evolution is closely related to the evolution of flowering plants. Insect adaptations include feeding on flowers and related structures, with some 20 % of extant insects depending on flowers, nectar or pollen for their food source. This symbiotic relationship is even more paramount in evolution considering that about 2 / 3 of flowering plants are insect pollinated. Insects are also vectors of many pathogens that may even have been responsible for the decimation or extinction of some mammalian species. Compared to other organisms, insects have not left a particularly robust fossil record. Other than in amber, most insects are terrestrial and only preserved under very special conditions such as at the edge of freshwater lakes. Yet in amber, age is limited since large resin production by trees developed later than the ancient insects. Interestingly, while some 1 / 3 of known non-insect species are extinct fossils, due to the paucity of their fossil record, only 1 / 100th of known insects are extinct fossils.
The Devonian (419 to 359 million years ago) was a relatively warm period, and probably lacked any glaciers with reconstruction of tropical sea surface temperature from conodont apatite implying an average value of 30 ° C (86 ° F) in the Early Devonian. CO levels dropped steeply throughout the Devonian period as the burial of the newly evolved forests drew carbon out of the atmosphere into sediments; this may be reflected by a Mid-Devonian cooling of around 5 ° C (9 ° F). The Late Devonian warmed to levels equivalent to the Early Devonian; while there is no corresponding increase in CO concentrations, continental weathering increases (as predicted by warmer temperatures); further, a range of evidence, such as plant distribution, points to Late Devonian warming. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn, which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great atmospheric circulations, the Hadley cell and the Ferrel cell.
The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, estimated at 407 to 396 million years ago. This species already possessed dicondylic (with two condyles, articulations) mandibles, a feature associated with winged insects, suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time. Thus, the first insects probably appeared earlier, in the Silurian period. Like other insects of its time, Rhyniognatha presumably fed on plant sporophylls -- which occur at the tips of branches and bear sporangia, the spore - producing organs. The insect 's anatomy might also give clues as to what it ate. The creature had large mandibles which may or may not have been used for hunting.
In 2012, researchers found the first complete insect in the Late Devonian period (382 to 359 million years ago), in the Strud (Gesves, Belgium) environment from the Bois des Mouches Formation, Upper Famennian. It had unspecialized, ' orthopteroid ' mouthparts, indicating an omnivorous diet. This discovery reduces a previous gap of 45 million years in the evolutionary history of insects, part of the arthropod gap (the ' gap ' still occurs in the early Carboniferous, coinciding and extending past the Romer 's gap for tetrapods, which may have been caused by low oxygen levels in the atmosphere). Body segments, legs and antennae are visible; however, genitalia were not preserved. The new fossil was named Strudiella devonica; it represents a new species as well. The insect has no wings, but it may be a juvenile.
The Carboniferous (359 to 299 million years ago) is famous for its wet, warm climates and extensive swamps of mosses, ferns, horsetails, and calamites. Glaciations in Gondwana, triggered by Gondwana 's southward movement, continued into the Permian and because of the lack of clear markers and breaks, the deposits of this glacial period are often referred to as Permo - Carboniferous in age. The cooling and drying of the climate led to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (CRC). Tropical rain forests fragmented and then were eventually devastated by climate change.
Remains of insects are scattered throughout the coal deposits, particularly of wings from cockroaches (Blattodea); two deposits in particular are from Mazon Creek, Illinois and Commentry, France. The earliest winged insects are from this time period (Pterygota), including the aforementioned Blattodea, Caloneurodea, primitive stem - group Ephemeropterans, Orthoptera, Palaeodictyopteroidea. In 1940 (in Noble County, Oklahoma), a fossil of Meganeuropsis americana represented the largest complete insect wing ever found. Juvenile insects are also known from the Carboniferous Period.
Very early Blattopterans had a large, discoid pronotum and coriaceous forewings with a distinct CuP vein (a unbranched wing vein, lying near the claval fold and reaching the wing posterior margin). These were not true cockroaches, as they had an ovipositor, although through the Carboniferous, the ovipositor started to diminish. The orders Caloneurodea and Miomoptera are known, with Orthoptera and Blattodea to be among the earliest Neoptera; developing from the upper Carboniferous to the Permian. These insects had wings with similar form and structure: small anal lobes. Species of Orthoptera, or grasshoppers and related kin, is an ancient order that still exist till today extending from this time period. From which time even the distinctive synapomorphy of saltatorial, or adaptive for jumping, hind legs is preserved.
Palaeodictyopteroidea is a large and diverse group that includes 50 % of all known Paleozoic insects. Containing many of the primitive features of the time: very long cerci, an ovipositor, and wings with little or no anal lobe. Protodonata, as its name implies, is a primitive paraphyletic group similar to Odonata; although lacks distinct features such as a nodus, a pterostigma and an arculus. Most were only slightly larger than modern dragonflies, but the group does include the largest known insects, such as the late Carboniferous Meganeura monyi, Megatypus, and the even larger later Permian Meganeuropsis permiana, with wingspans of up to 71 centimetres (2.33 ft). They were probably the top predators for some 100 million years and far larger than any present - day insects. Their nymphs must also have reached a very impressive size. This gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen - levels (up to 80 % above modern levels during the Carboniferous) that allowed increased respiratory efficiency relative to today. The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor.
The Permian (299 to 252 million years ago) was a relatively short time period, during which all the Earth 's major land masses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa '', the "universal sea ''), and the Paleo - Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo - Tethys to shrink. At the end of the Permian, the biggest mass extinction in history occurred, collectively called the Permian -- Triassic extinction event: 30 % of all insect species became extinct; this is one of three known mass insect extinctions in Earth 's history.
2007 study based on DNA of living beetles and maps of likely beetle evolution indicated that beetles may have originated during the Lower Permian, up to 299 million years ago. In 2009, a fossil beetle was described from the Pennsylvanian of Mazon Creek, Illinois, pushing the origin of the beetles to an earlier date, 318 to 299 million years ago. Fossils from this time have been found in Asia and Europe, for instance in the red slate fossil beds of Niedermoschel near Mainz, Germany. Further fossils have been found in Obora, Czech Republic and Tshekarda in the Ural mountains, Russia. However, there are only a few fossils from North America before the middle Permian, although both Asia and North America had been united to Euramerica. The first discoveries from North America were made in the Wellington formation of Oklahoma and were published in 2005 and 2008. Some of the most important fossil deposits from this era are from Elmo, Kansas (260 mya); others include New South Wales, Australia (240 mya) and central Eurasia (250 mya).
During this time, many of the species from the Carboniferous diversified, and many new orders developed, including: Protelytroptera, primitive relatives of Plecoptera (Paraplecoptera), Psocoptera, Mecoptera, Coleoptera, Raphidioptera, and Neuroptera. The last four being the first definitive records of the Holometabola. By the Pennsylvanian and well into the Permian, by far the most successful were primitive Blattoptera, or relatives of cockroaches. Six fast legs, two well - developed folding wings, fairly good eyes, long, well - developed antennae (olfactory), an omnivorous digestive system, a receptacle for storing sperm, a chitin skeleton that could support and protect, as well as a form of gizzard and efficient mouth parts, gave it formidable advantages over other herbivorous animals. About 90 % of insects were cockroach - like insects ("Blattopterans ''). The dragonflies Odonata were the dominant aerial predator and probably dominated terrestrial insect predation as well. True Odonata appeared in the Permian and all are amphibian. Their prototypes are the oldest winged fossils, go back to the Devonian, and are different from other wings in every way. Their prototypes may have had the beginnings of many modern attributes even by late Carboniferous and it is possible that they even captured small vertebrates, for some species had a wing span of 71 cm.
The oldest known insect that resembles species of Coleoptera date back to the Lower Permian (270 million years ago), though they instead have 13 - segmented antennae, elytra with more fully developed venation and more irregular longitudinal ribbing, and an abdomen and ovipositor extending beyond the apex of the elytra. The oldest true beetle would have features that include 11 - segmented antennae, regular longitudinal ribbing on the elytra, and having genitalia that are internal. The earliest beetle - like species had pointed, leather like forewings with cells and pits. Hemiptera, or true bugs had appeared in the form of Arctiniscytina and Paraknightia. The later had expanded parapronotal lobes, a large ovipositor, and forewings with unusual venation, possibly diverging from Blattoptera. The orders Raphidioptera and Neuroptera are grouped together as Neuropterida. The one family of putative Raphidiopteran clade (Sojanoraphidiidae) has been controversially placed as so. Although the group had a long ovipositor distinctive to this order and a series of short crossveins, however with a primitive wing venation. Early families of Plecoptera had wing venation consistent with the order and its recent descendants. Psocoptera was first appeared in the Permian period, they are often regarded as the most primitive of the hemipteroids.
The Triassic (252 to 201 million years ago) was a period when arid and semiarid savannas developed and when the first mammals, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs also appeared. During the Triassic, almost all the Earth 's land mass was still concentrated into Pangaea. From the east a vast gulf entered Pangaea, the Tethys sea. The remaining shores were surrounded by the world - ocean known as Panthalassa. The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic -- especially late in the period -- but had not yet separated. The climate of the Triassic was generally hot and dry, forming typical red bed sandstones and evaporites. There is no evidence of glaciation at or near either pole; in fact, the polar regions were apparently moist and temperate, a climate suitable for reptile - like creatures. Pangaea 's large size limited the moderating effect of the global ocean; its continental climate was highly seasonal, with very hot summers and cold winters. It probably had strong, cross-equatorial monsoons.
As a consequence of the P - Tr Mass Extinction at the border of Permian and Triassic, there is only little fossil record of insects including beetles from the Lower Triassic. However, there are a few exemptions, like in Eastern Europe: At the Babiy Kamen site in the Kuznetsk Basin numerous beetle fossils were discovered, even entire specimen of the infraorders Archostemata (i.e., Ademosynidae, Schizocoleidae), Adephaga (i.e., Triaplidae, Trachypachidae) and Polyphaga (i.e., Hydrophilidae, Byrrhidae, Elateroidea) and in nearly a perfectly preserved condition. However, species from the families Cupedidae and Schizophoroidae are not present at this site, whereas they dominate at other fossil sites from the Lower Triassic. Further records are known from Khey - Yaga, Russia in the Korotaikha Basin.
Around this time, during the Late Triassic, mycetophagous, or fungus feeding species of beetle (i.e., Cupedidae) appear in the fossil record. In the stages of the Upper Triassic representatives of the algophagous, or algae feeding species (i.e., Triaplidae and Hydrophilidae) begin to appear, as well as predatory water beetles. The first primitive weevils appear (i.e., Obrienidae), as well as the first representatives of the rove beetles (i.e., Staphylinidae), which show no marked difference in physique compared to recent species. This was also around the first time evidence of diverse freshwater insect fauna appeared. Some of the oldest living families also appear around during the Triassic, including from Hemiptera: Cercopidae, Cicadellidae, Cixiidae, and Membracidae; from Coleoptera: Carabidae, Staphylinidae, and Trachypachidae; from Hymenoptera: Xyelidae; From Diptera: Anisopodidae, Chironomidae, and Tipulidae. The first flies (Diptera), Hymenoptera, and true dragonflies (Odonata), Heteroptera, and Thysanoptera. The first true species of Diptera are known from the Middle Triassic, becoming widespread during the Middle and Late Triassic. A single large wing from a species of Diptera in the Triassic (10 mm instead of usual 2 -- 6 mm) was found in Australia (Mt. Crosby). This family Tilliardipteridae, despite of the numerous ' tipuloid ' features, should be included in Psychodomorpha sensu Hennig on account of loss of the convex distal 1A reaching wing margin and formation of the anal loop.
The Jurassic (201 to 145 million years ago) was important in the development of birds, one of the insects ' major predators. During the early Jurassic period, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico 's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The global climate during the Jurassic was warm and humid. Similar to the Triassic, there were no larger landmasses situated near the polar caps and consequently, no inland ice sheets existed during the Jurassic. Although some areas of North and South America and Africa stayed arid, large parts of the continental landmasses were lush. The laurasian and the gondwanian fauna differed considerably in the Early Jurassic. Later it became more intercontinental and many species started to spread globally.
There are many important sites from the Jurassic, with more than 150 important sites with beetle fossils, the majority being situated in Eastern Europe and North Asia. In North America and especially in South America and Africa the number of sites from that time period is smaller and the sites have not been exhaustively investigated yet. Outstanding fossil sites include Solnhofen in Upper Bavaria, Germany, Karatau in South Kazakhstan, the Yixian formation in Liaoning, North China as well as the Jiulongshan formation and further fossil sites in Mongolia. In North America there are only a few sites with fossil records of insects from the Jurassic, namely the shell limestone deposits in the Hartford basin, the Deerfield basin and the Newark basin. Numerous deposits of other insects occur in Europe and Asia. Including Grimmen and Solnhofen, German; Solnhofen being famous for findings of the earliest birds (i.e. Archaeopteryx). Others include Dorset, England; Issyk - Kul, Kirghizstan; and the most productive site of all, Karatau, Kazakhstan.
During the Jurassic there was a dramatic increase in the known diversity of family - level Coleoptera. This includes the development and growth of carnivorous and herbivorous species. Species of the superfamily Chrysomeloidea are believed to have developed around the same time, which include a wide array of plant host ranging from cycads and conifers, to angiosperms. Close to the Upper Jurassic, the portion of the Cupedidae decreased, however at the same time the diversity of the early plant eating, or phytophagous species increased. Most of the recent phytophagous species of Coleoptera feed on flowering plants or angiosperms.
The Cretaceous (145 to 66 million years ago) had much of the same insect fauna as the Jurassic until much later on. During the Cretaceous, the late - Paleozoic - to - early - Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its tectonic breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent - margin orogenies that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies. Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous, it broke up as South America, Antarctica and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide. To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central North America (the Western Interior Seaway) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one - third of Earth 's present land area was submerged. The Berriasian epoch showed a cooling trend that had been seen in the last epoch of the Jurassic. There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher latitudes and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic. Glaciation was however restricted to alpine glaciers on some high - latitude mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther south. Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous but evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the Eromanga Basin in southern Australia.
There are a large number of important fossil sites worldwide containing beetles from the Cretaceous. Most of them are located in Europe and Asia and belong to the temperate climate zone during the Cretaceous. A few of the fossil sites mentioned in the chapter Jurassic also shed some light on the early cretaceous beetle fauna (e.g. the Yixian formation in Liaoning, North China). Further important sites from the Lower Cretaceous include the Crato Fossil Beds in the Araripe basin in the Ceará, North Brazil as well as overlying Santana formation, with the latter was situated near the paleoequator, or the position of the earth 's equator in the geologic past as defined for a specific geologic period. In Spain there are important sites near Montsec and Las Hoyas. In Australia the Koonwarra fossil beds of the Korumburra group, South Gippsland, Victoria is noteworthy. Important fossil sites from the Upper Cretaceous are Kzyl - Dzhar in South Kazakhstan and Arkagala in Russia.
During the Cretaceous the diversity of Cupedidae and Archostemata decreased considerably. Predatory ground beetles (Carabidae) and rove beetles (Staphylinidae) began to distribute into different patterns: whereas the Carabidae predominantly occurred in the warm regions, the Staphylinidae and click beetles (Elateridae) preferred many areas with temperate climate. Likewise, predatory species of Cleroidea and Cucujoidea, hunted their prey under the bark of trees together with the jewel beetles (Buprestidae). The jewel beetles diversity increased rapidly during the Cretaceous, as they were the primary consumers of wood, while longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) were rather rare and their diversity increased only towards the end of the Upper Cretaceous. The first coprophagous beetles have been recorded from the Upper Cretaceous, and are believed to have lived on the excrement of herbivorous dinosaurs, however there is still a discussion, whether the beetles were always tied to mammals during its development. Also, the first species with an adaption of both larvae and adults to the aquatic lifestyle are found. Whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae) were moderately diverse, although other early beetles (i.e., Dytiscidae) were less, with the most widespread being the species of Coptoclavidae, which preyed on aquatic fly larvae.
The Paleogene (66 to 23 million years ago) comprises the first part of the Cenozoic, which during this time the continents assumed their modern shapes. The fragments of Gondwana (South America, Africa, India and Australia) began to drift northwards. The collision of India with the Eurasian landmass led to the folding and formation of the Himalayas. Similarly, the Alps were folded in Central Europe by the collision of the African plate with Europe. A land bridge between North America and South America did not yet exist. The Atlantic Ocean continued to widen during the Paleogene. In the North, the last land bridge between North America and Europe broke up during the Eocene. Climate during the Paleogene was warm and tropical as most time during the Mesozoic. The climate in the beginning was drier and cooler than in the preceding Cretaceous, but the temperature strongly increased during the Eocene and subtropical vegetation spread up to Greenland and Patagonia. The climate near the poles was cool temperate, in Europe, North America, Australia and the southern part of South America warm temperate. Near the equator there was tropical climate, flanked by hot and arid zones in the north and the south. In the Oligocene, global cooling started. Antarctica was covered by an ice sheet and subsequently, sea levels dropped. Except an intermittent warm period during the late Oligocene, global cooling continued and finally led to the Pleistocene ice age.
There are many fossils of beetles known from this era, though the beetle fauna of the Paleocene is comparatively poorly investigated. In contrast, the knowledge on the Eocene beetle fauna is very good. The reason is the occurrence of fossil insects in amber and clay slate sediments. Amber is fossilized tree resin, that means it consists of fossilized organic compounds, not minerals. Different amber is distinguished by location, age and species of the resin producing plant. For the research on the Oligocene beetle fauna, Baltic and Dominican amber is most important. Even with the insect fossils record in general lacking, the most diverse deposit being from the Fur Formation, Denmark; including giant ants and primitive moths (Noctuidae).
The first butterflies are from the Upper Paleogene, while most, like beetles, already had recent genera and species already existed during the Miocene, however, their distribution differed considerably from today 's.
During the Neogene (23 to 0 million years ago), the continents assumed the positions they are in today. The South American continent drifted to the west towards the subduction zone in the Pacific, during this process the Andes were folded. During the Pliocene (5 million years ago) the land bridge between South America and North America was formed, and the fauna exchange started. The formation of this land bridge also affected global climate. The Indian subcontinent continued its collision with Asia, but added a westward movement as well, leading to the folding of the Caucasus. The folding of the Himalaya continues until today. The collision of Africa with Europe and the rise of the lithosphere under the Alborán Sea (westernmost Mediterranean) lead to the separation of the Mediterranean from the Atlantic Ocean. During this period, that lasted 600,000 years (6 to 5.3 million years ago), the Mediterranean desiccated nearly completely (Messinian salinity crisis). Only at the end of this period the desiccated basin was flooded through a narrow canal near Gibraltar, according to today 's view quickly, but without catastrophic effects. The Neogene was a period of global cooling, which finally led to the Pleistocene ice age. At the beginning of the Miocene, temperatures in the northern hemisphere initially were still temperate. However, by the formation of the land bridge between South America and North America, the warm ocean current was cut off and the polar caps cooled down dramatically. During the Gelasian period ice sheets began to form both in the Arctic and Antarctic region. This marked the starting point of a new ice age which continues until today, with glacial cycles and intermittent warmer periods (interglacials). During the glacials the continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some regions and covered major parts of North America, Europe and Siberia. Each glacial advance tied up large volumes of water and the sea levels dropped globally by around 100 m. During the interglacials, the sea level rose again and coastal flooding was common during this time.
The most important sites for beetle fossils of the Miocene are situated in the warm temperate and to subtropical zones. Many recent genera and species already existed during the Miocene, however, their distribution differed considerably from today 's. One of the most important fossil sites for insects of the Pliocene is Willershausen near Göttingen, Germany with excellently preserved beetle fossils of various families (longhorn beetles, weevils, ladybugs and others) as well as representatives of other orders of insects. In the Willershausen clay pit so far 35 genera from 18 beetle families have been recorded, of which six genera are extinct. The Pleistocene beetle fauna is relatively well known, who used the composition of the beetle fauna to reconstruct climate conditions in the Rocky Mountains and on Beringia, the former land bridge between Asia and North America.
A report in November 2014 unambiguously places the insects in one clade, with the remipedes as the nearest sister clade. This study resolved insect phylogeny of all extant insect orders, and provides "a robust phylogenetic backbone tree and reliable time estimates of insect evolution. '' Finding strong support for the closest living relatives of the hexapods had proven challenging due to convergent adaptations in a number of arthropod groups for living on land.
Hexapoda (Insecta, Collembola, Diplura, Protura)
Crustacea (crabs, shrimp, isopods, etc.)
Pauropoda
Diplopoda (millipedes)
Chilopoda (centipedes)
Symphyla
Arachnida (spiders, scorpions and allies)
Eurypterida (sea scorpions: extinct)
Xiphosura (horseshoe crabs)
Pycnogonida (sea spiders)
Trilobites (extinct)
In 2008, researchers at Tufts University uncovered what they believe is the world 's oldest known full - body impression of a primitive flying insect, a 300 million - year - old specimen from the Carboniferous Period. The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, from the 396 million year old Rhynie chert. It may have superficially resembled a modern - day silverfish insect. This species already possessed dicondylic mandibles (two articulations in the mandible), a feature associated with winged insects, suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time. Thus, the first insects probably appeared earlier, in the Silurian period. There have been four super radiations of insects: beetles (evolved around 300 million years ago), flies (evolved around 250 million years ago), moths and wasps (evolved around 150 million years ago). These four groups account for the majority of described species. The flies and moths along with the fleas evolved from the Mecoptera. The origins of insect flight remain obscure, since the earliest winged insects currently known appear to have been capable fliers. Some extinct insects had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs. As of 2009, there is no evidence that suggests that the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they evolved to have wings.
Insects are prey for a variety of organisms, including terrestrial vertebrates. The earliest vertebrates on land existed 350 million years ago and were large amphibious piscivores, through gradual evolutionary change, insectivory was the next diet type to evolve. Insects were among the earliest terrestrial herbivores and acted as major selection agents on plants. Plants evolved chemical defenses against this herbivory and the insects in turn evolved mechanisms to deal with plant toxins. Many insects make use of these toxins to protect themselves from their predators. Such insects often advertise their toxicity using warning colors. This successful evolutionary pattern has also been utilized by mimics. Over time, this has led to complex groups of coevolved species. Conversely, some interactions between plants and insects, like pollination, are beneficial to both organisms. Coevolution has led to the development of very specific mutualisms in such systems.
Traditional morphology - based or appearance - based systematics has usually given Hexapoda the rank of superclass, and identified four groups within it: insects (Ectognatha), springtails (Collembola), Protura and Diplura, the latter three being grouped together as Entognatha on the basis of internalized mouth parts. Supraordinal relationships have undergone numerous changes with the advent of methods based on evolutionary history and genetic data. A recent theory is that Hexapoda is polyphyletic (where the last common ancestor was not a member of the group), with the entognath classes having separate evolutionary histories from Insecta. Many of the traditional appearance - based taxa have been shown to be paraphyletic, so rather than using ranks like subclass, superorder and infraorder, it has proved better to use monophyletic groupings (in which the last common ancestor is a member of the group). The following represents the best supported monophyletic groupings for the Insecta.
Insects can be divided into two groups historically treated as subclasses: wingless insects, known as Apterygota, and winged insects, known as Pterygota. The Apterygota consist of the primitively wingless order of the silverfish (Thysanura). Archaeognatha make up the Monocondylia based on the shape of their mandibles, while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. It is possible that the Thysanura themselves are not monophyletic, with the family Lepidotrichidae being a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota and the remaining Thysanura).
Paleoptera and Neoptera are the winged orders of insects differentiated by the presence of hardened body parts called sclerites; also, in Neoptera, muscles that allow their wings to fold flatly over the abdomen. Neoptera can further be divided into incomplete metamorphosis - based (Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera) and complete metamorphosis - based groups. It has proved difficult to clarify the relationships between the orders in Polyneoptera because of constant new findings calling for revision of the taxa. For example, Paraneoptera has turned out to be more closely related to Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. The recent molecular finding that the traditional louse orders Mallophaga and Anoplura are derived from within Psocoptera has led to the new taxon Psocodea. Phasmatodea and Embiidina have been suggested to form Eukinolabia. Mantodea, Blattodea and Isoptera are thought to form a monophyletic group termed Dictyoptera.
It is likely that Exopterygota is paraphyletic in regard to Endopterygota. Matters that have had a lot of controversy include Strepsiptera and Diptera grouped together as Halteria based on a reduction of one of the wing pairs -- a position not well - supported in the entomological community. The Neuropterida are often lumped or split on the whims of the taxonomist. Fleas are now thought to be closely related to boreid mecopterans. Many questions remain to be answered when it comes to basal relationships amongst endopterygote orders, particularly Hymenoptera.
The study of the classification or taxonomy of any insect is called systematic entomology. If one works with a more specific order or even a family, the term may also be made specific to that order or family, for example systematic dipterology.
The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, estimated at 396 - 407 million years old. This species already possessed dicondylic mandibles, a feature associated with winged insects, suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time. Thus, the first insects probably appeared earlier, in the Silurian period.
The subclass Apterygota (wingless insects) is now considered artificial as the silverfish (order Thysanura) are more closely related to Pterygota (winged insects) than to bristletails (order Archaeognatha). For instance, just like flying insects, Thysanura have so - called dicondylic mandibles, while Archaeognatha have monocondylic mandibles. The reason for their resemblance is not due to a particularly close relationship, but rather because they both have kept a primitive and original anatomy in a much higher degree than the winged insects. The most primitive order of flying insects, the mayflies (Ephemeroptera), are also those who are most morphologically and physiologically similar to these wingless insects. Some mayfly nymphs resemble aquatic thysanurans.
Modern Archaeognatha and Thysanura still have rudimentary appendages on their abdomen called styli, while more primitive and extinct insects known as Monura had much more developed abdominal appendages. The abdominal and thoracic segments in the earliest terrestrial ancestor of the insects would have been more similar to each other than they are today, and the head had well - developed compound eyes and long antennae. Their body size is not known yet. As the most primitive group today, Archaeognatha, is most abundant near the coasts, it could mean that this was the kind of habitat where the insect ancestors became terrestrial. But this specialization to coastal niches could also have a secondary origin, just as could their jumping locomotion, as it is the crawling Thysanura who are considered to be most original (plesiomorphic). By looking at how primitive cheliceratan book gills (still seen in horseshoe crabs) evolved into book lungs in primitive spiders and finally into tracheae in more advanced spiders (most of them still have a pair of book lungs intact as well), it is possible the trachea of insects was formed in a similar way, modifying gills at the base of their appendages.
So far, no published research suggests that insects were a particularly successful group prior to their evolution of wings.
The Odonata (dragonflies) are also a good candidate as the oldest living member of the Pterygota. Mayflies are morphologically and physiologically more basal, but the derived characteristics of dragonflies could have evolved independently in their own direction for a long time. It seems that orders with aquatic nymphs or larvae become evolutionarily conservative once they had adapted to water. If mayflies made it to the water first, this could partly explain why they are more primitive than dragonflies, even if dragonflies have an older origin. Similarly, stoneflies retain the most basal traits of the Neoptera, but they were not necessarily the first order to branch off. This also makes it less likely that an aquatic ancestor would have the evolutionary potential to give rise to all the different forms and species of insects that we know today.
Dragonfly nymphs have a unique labial "mask '' used for catching prey, and the imago has a unique way of copulating, using a secondary male sex organ on the second abdominal segment. It looks like abdominal appendages modified for sperm transfer and direct insemination have occurred at least twice in insect evolution, once in Odonata and once in the other flying insects. If these two different methods are the original ways of copulating for each group, it is a strong indication that it is the dragonflies who are the oldest, not the mayflies. There is still not agreement about this. Another scenario is that abdominal appendages adapted for direct insemination have evolved three times in insects; once Odonata, once in mayflies and once in the Neoptera, both mayflies and Neoptera choosing the same solution. If so, it is still possible that mayflies are the oldest order among the flying insects. The power of flight is assumed to have evolved only once, suggesting sperm was still transferred indirectly in the earliest flying insects.
One possible scenario on how direct insemination evolved in insects is seen in scorpions. The male deposits a spermatophore on the ground, locks its claws with the female 's claws and then guides her over his packet of sperm, making sure it comes in contact with her genital opening. When the early (male) insects laid their spermatophores on the ground, it seems likely that some of them used the clasping organs at the end of their body to drag the female over the package. The ancestors of Odonata evolved the habit of grabbing the female behind her head, as they still do today. This action, rather than not grasping the female at all, would have increased the male 's chances of spreading its genes. The chances would be further increased if they first attached their spermatophore safely on their own abdomen before they placed their abdominal claspers behind the female 's head; the male would then not let the female go before her abdomen had made direct contact with his sperm storage, allowing the transfer of all sperm.
This also meant increased freedom in searching for a female mate because the males could now transport the packet of sperm elsewhere if the first female slipped away. This ability would eliminate the need to either wait for another female at the site of the deposited sperm packet or to produce a new packet, wasting energy. Other advantages include the possibility of mating in other, safer places than flat ground, such as in trees or bushes.
If the ancestors of the other flying insects evolved the same habit of clasping the female and dragging her over their spermathophore, but posterior instead of anterior like the Odonata does, their genitals would come very close to each other. And from there on, it would be a very short step to modify the vestigial appendages near the male genital opening to transfer the sperm directly into the female. The same appendages the male Odonata use to transfer their sperm to their secondary sexual organs at the front of their abdomen. All insects with an aquatic nymphal or larval stage seem to have adapted to water secondarily from terrestrial ancestors. Of the most primitive insects with no wings at all, Archaeognatha and Thysanura, all members live their entire life cycle in terrestrial environments. As mentioned previously, Archaeognatha were the first to split off from the branch that led to the winged insects (Pterygota), and then the Thysanura branched off. This indicates that these three groups (Archaeognatha, Thysanura and Pterygota) have a common terrestrial ancestor, which probably resembled a primitive model of Apterygota, was an opportunistic generalist and laid spermatophores on the ground instead of copulating, like Thysanura still do today. If it had feeding habits similar to the majority of apterygotes of today, it lived mostly as a decomposer.
One should expect that a gill breathing arthropod would modify its gills to breathe air if it were adapting to terrestrial environments, and not evolve new respiration organs from bottom up next to the original and still functioning ones. Then comes the fact that insect (larva and nymph) gills are actually a part of a modified, closed trachea system specially adapted for water, called tracheal gills. The arthropod trachea can only arise in an atmosphere and as a consequence of the adaptations of living on land. This too indicates that insects are descended from a terrestrial ancestor.
And finally when looking at the three most primitive insects with aquatic nymphs (called naiads: Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Plecoptera), each order has its own kind of tracheal gills that are so different from one another that they must have separate origins. This would be expected if they evolved from land - dwelling species. This means that one of the most interesting parts of insect evolution is what happened between the Thysanura - Pterygota split and the first flight.
The origin of insect flight remains obscure, since the earliest winged insects currently known appear to have been capable fliers. Some extinct insects (e.g. the Palaeodictyoptera) had an additional pair of winglets attached to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs.
The wings themselves are sometimes said to be highly modified (tracheal) gills. And there is no doubt that the tracheal gills of the mayfly nymph in many species look like wings. By comparing a well - developed pair of gill blades in the naiads and a reduced pair of hind wings on the adults, it is not hard to imagine that the mayfly gills (tergaliae) and insect wings have a common origin, and newer research also supports this. The tergaliae are not found in any other order of insects, and they have evolved in different directions with time. In some nymphs / naiads the most anterior pair has become sclerotized and works as a gill cover for the rest of the gills. Others can form a large sucker, be used for swimming or modified into other shapes. But it does n't have to mean that these structures were originally gills. It could also mean that the tergaliae evolved from the same structures which gave rise to the wings, and that flying insects evolved from a wingless terrestrial species with pairs of plates on its body segments: three on the thorax and nine on the abdomen (mayfly nymphs with nine pairs of tergaliae on the abdomen exist, but so far no living or extinct insects with plates on the last two segments have been found). If these were primary gills, it would be a mystery why they should have waited so long to be modified when we see the different modifications in modern mayfly nymphs.
When the first forests arose on Earth, new niches for terrestrial animals were created. Spore - feeders and others who depended on plants and / or the animals living around them would have to adapt too to make use of them. In a world with no flying animals, it would probably just be a matter of time before some arthropods who were living in the trees evolved paired structures with muscle attachments from their exoskeleton and used them for gliding, one pair on each segment. Further evolution in this direction would give bigger gliding structures on their thorax and gradually smaller ones on their abdomen. Their bodies would have become stiffer while thysanurans, which did n't evolve flight, kept their flexible abdomen.
Mayfly nymphs must have adapted to water while they still had the "gliders '' on their abdomen intact. So far there is no concrete evidence to support this theory either, but it is one that offers an explanation for the problems of why presumably aquatic animals evolved in the direction they did.
Leaping and arboreal insects seems like a good explanation for this evolutionary process for several reasons. Because early winged insects were lacking the sophisticated wing folding mechanism of neopterous insects, they must have lived in the open and not been able to hide or search for food under leaves, in cracks, under rocks and other such confined spaces. In these old forests there were n't many open places where insects with huge structures on their back could have lived without experiencing huge disadvantages. If insects got their wings on land and not in water, which clearly seems to be the case, the tree canopies would be the most obvious place where such gliding structures could have emerged, in a time when the air was a new territory.
The question is if the plates used for gliding evolved from "scratch '' or by modifying already existing anatomical details. The thorax in Thysanura and Archaeognatha are known to have some structures connected to their trachea which share similarities to the wings of primitive insects. This suggests the origin of both the wings and the spiracles are related.
Gliding requires universal body modifications, as seen in present - day vertebrates such as some rodents and marsupials, which have grown wide, flat expansions of skin for this purpose. The flying dragons (genus Draco) of Indonesia has modified its ribs into gliders, and even some snakes can glide through the air by spreading their ribs. The main difference is that while vertebrates have an inner skeleton, primitive insects had a flexible and adaptive exoskeleton.
Some animals would be living in the trees, as animals are always taking advantage of all available niches, both for feeding and protection. At the time, the reproductive organs were by far the most nutritious part of the plant, and these early plants show signs of arthropod consumption and adaptations to protect themselves, for example by placing their reproductive organs as high up as possible. But there will always be some species who will be able to cope with that by following their food source up the trees. Knowing that insects were terrestrial at that time and that some arthropods (like primitive insects) were living in the tree crowns, it seems less likely that they would have developed their wings down on the ground or in the water.
In a three dimensional environment such as trees, the ability to glide would increase the insects ' chances to survive a fall, as well as saving energy. This trait has repeated itself in modern wingless species such as the gliding ants who are living an arboreal life. When the gliding ability first had originated, gliding and leaping behavior would be a logical next step, which would eventually be reflected in their anatomical design. The need to navigate through vegetation and to land safely would mean good muscle control over the proto - wings, and further improvements would eventually lead to true (but primitive) wings. While the thorax got the wings, a long abdomen could have served as a stabilizer in flight.
Some of the earliest flying insects were large predators: it was a new ecological niche. Some of the prey were no doubt other insects, as insects with proto - wings would have radiated into other species even before the wings were fully evolved. From this point on, the arms race could continue: the same predator / prey co-evolution which has existed as long as there have been predators and prey on earth; both the hunters and the hunted were in need of improving and extending their flight skills even further to keep up with the other.
Insects that had evolved their proto - wings in a world without flying predators could afford to be exposed openly without risk, but this changed when carnivorous flying insects evolved. It is unknown when they first evolved, but once these predators had emerged they put a strong selection pressure on their victims and themselves. Those of the prey who came up with a good solution about how to fold their wings over their backs in a way that made it possible for them to live in narrow spaces would not only be able to hide from flying predators (and terrestrial predators if they were on the ground) but also to exploit a wide variety of niches that were closed to those who could n't fold their wings in this way. And today the neopterous insects (those that can fold their wings back over the abdomen) are by far the most dominant group of insects.
The water - skimming theory suggests that skimming on the water surface is the origin of insect flight. This theory is based on the fact that the first fossil insects, the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, is thought to have possessed wings, even though the insects ' closest evolutionary ties are with crustaceans, which are aquatic.
Another primitive trait of the mayflies are the subimago; no other insects have this winged yet sexually immature stage. A few specialized species have females with no subimago, but retain the subimago stage for males.
The reasons the subimago still exists in this order could be that there has n't been enough selection pressure to get rid of it; it also seems specially adapted to do the transition from water to air.
The male genitalia are not fully functional at this point. One reason for this could be that the modification of the abdominal appendages into male copulation organs emerged later than the evolution of flight. This is indicated by the fact that dragonflies have a different copulation organ than other insects.
As we know, in mayflies the nymphs and the adults are specialized for two different ways of living; in the water and in the air. The only stage (instar) between these two is the subimago. In more primitive fossil forms, the preadult individuals had not just one instar but numerous ones (while the modern subimago do not eat, older and more primitive species with a subimagos were probably feeding in this phase of life too as the lines between the instars were much more diffuse and gradual than today). Adult form was reached several moults before maturity. They probably did n't have more instars after becoming fully mature. This way of maturing is how Apterygota do it, which moult even when mature, but not winged insects.
Modern mayflies have eliminated all the instars between imago and nymph, except the single instar called subimago, which is still not (at least not in the males) fully sexually mature. The other flying insects with incomplete metamorphosis (Exopterygota) have gone a little further and completed the trend; here all the immature structures of the animal from the last nymphal stage are completed at once in a single final moult. The more advanced insects with larvae and complete metamorphosis (Endopterygota) have gone even further. An interesting theory here is that the pupal stage is actually a strongly modified and extended stage of subimago, but so far it is nothing more than a theory. Interestingly enough there are some insects within the Exopterygota, thrips and whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), who have evolved pupae - like stages too.
The distant ancestor of flying insects, a species with primitive proto - wings, had a more or less ametabolous life - cycle and instars of basically the same type as thysanurans with no defined nymphal, subimago or adult stages as the individual became older. Individuals developed gradually as they were grew and moulting, but probably without major changes inbetween instars.
Modern mayfly nymphs do not acquire gills until after their first moult. Before this stage they are so small that they need no gills to extract oxygen from the water. This could be a trait from the common ancestor of all flyers. An early terrestrial insect would have no need for paired outgrowths from the body before it started to live in the trees (or in the water, for that matter), so it would not have any.
This would also affect the way their offspring looked like in the early instars, resembling earlier ametabolous generations even after they had started to adapt to a new way of living, in a habitat where they actually could have some good use for flaps along their body. Since they matured in the same way as thysanurans with plenty of moultings as they were growing and very little difference between the adults and much younger individuals (unlike modern insects, which are hemimetabolous or holometabolous), there probably was n't much room for adapting into different niches depending on age and stage. Also, it would have been difficult for an animal already adapted to a niche to make a switch to a new niche later in life based on age or size differences alone when these differences were not significant.
So proto - insects had to specialize and focus their whole existence on improving a single lifestyle in a particular niche. The older the species and the single individuals became, the more would they differ from their original form as they adapted to their new lifestyles better than the generations before. The final body - structure was no longer achieved while still inside the egg, but continued to develop for most of a lifetime, causing a bigger difference between the youngest and oldest individuals. Assuming that mature individuals most likely mastered their new element better than did the nymphs who had the same lifestyle, it would appear to be an advantage if the immature members of the species reached adult shape and form as soon as possible. This may explain why they evolved fewer but more intense instars and a stronger focus on the adult body, and with greater differences between the adults and the first instars, instead of just gradually growing bigger as earlier generations had done. This evolutionary trend explains how they went from ametabolous to hemimetabolous insects.
Reaching maturity and a fully - grown body became only a part of the development process; gradually a new anatomy and new abilities - only possible in the later stages of life - emerged. The anatomy insects were born and grew up with had limitations which the adults who had learned to fly did n't have. If they could n't live their early life the way adults did, immature individuals had to adapt to the best way of living and surviving despite their limitations till the moment came when they could leave them behind. This would be a starting point in the evolution where imago and nymphs started to live in different niches, some more clearly defined than others. Also, a final anatomy, size and maturity reached at once with a single final nymphal stage meant less waste of time and energy, and also made a more complex adult body structure. These strategies obviously became very successful with time.
|
last man on earth season 3 episode 20 | List of the last Man on Earth episodes - wikipedia
The Last Man on Earth is an American post-apocalyptic comedy television series created by and starring Will Forte. The series premiered on Fox on March 1, 2015. On April 8, 2015, the show was renewed for a second season, which premiered on September 27, 2015. On March 24, 2016, the show was renewed for a third season, which premiered on September 25, 2016.
As of May 7, 2017, 49 episodes of The Last Man on Earth have aired, concluding the third season. On May 10, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a fourth season, which is set to premiere on October 1, 2017.
|
what is the mass of 2 molecules of nitrogen dioxide | Nitrogen dioxide - wikipedia
Dinitrogen tetroxide Dinitrogen trioxide Nitric oxide Nitrous oxide
Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO 2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. NO 2 is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year. At higher temperatures it is a reddish - brown gas that has a characteristic sharp, biting odor and is a prominent air pollutant. Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic, bent molecule with C point group symmetry.
Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish - brown gas above 21.2 ° C (70.2 ° F; 294.3 K) with a pungent, acrid odor, becomes a yellowish - brown liquid below 21.2 ° C (70.2 ° F; 294.3 K), and converts to the colorless dinitrogen tetroxide (N 2O 4) below − 11.2 ° C (11.8 ° F; 261.9 K).
The bond length between the nitrogen atom and the oxygen atom is 119.7 pm. This bond length is consistent with a bond order between one and two.
Unlike ozone, O, the ground electronic state of nitrogen dioxide is a doublet state, since nitrogen has one unpaired electron, which decreases the alpha effect compared with nitrite and creates a weak bonding interaction with the oxygen lone pairs. The lone electron in NO 2 also means that this compound is a free radical, so the formula for nitrogen dioxide is often written as NO 2.
Nitrogen dioxide typically arises via the oxidation of nitric oxide by oxygen in air:
Nitrogen dioxide is formed in most combustion processes using air as the oxidant. At elevated temperatures nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide:
In the laboratory, NO 2 can be prepared in a two - step procedure where dehydration of nitric acid produces dinitrogen pentoxide, which subsequently undergoes thermal decomposition:
The thermal decomposition of some metal nitrates also affords NO 2:
Alternatively, reduction of concentrated nitric acid by metal (such as copper).
Or finally by adding concentrated nitric acid over tin; hydrated tin dioxide is produced as byproduct.
NO 2 is highly reactive.
NO 2 exists in equilibrium with the colourless gas dinitrogen tetroxide (N 2O 4):
The equilibrium is characterized by ΔH = − 57.23 kJ / mol, which is exothermic. NO is favored at higher temperatures, while at lower temperatures, dinitrogen tetroxide (N O) predominates. Dinitrogen tetroxide (N 2O 4) can be obtained as a white solid with melting point − 11.2 ° C. NO is paramagnetic due to its unpaired electron, while N O is diamagnetic.
The chemistry of nitrogen dioxide has been investigated extensively. At 150 ° C, NO 2 decomposes with release of oxygen via an endothermic process (ΔH = 14 kJ / mol):
As suggested by the weakness of the N -- O bond, NO 2 is a good oxidizer. Consequently, it will combust, sometimes explosively, with many compounds, such as hydrocarbons.
It hydrolyses to give nitric acid and nitrous acid:
This reaction is one step in the Ostwald process for the industrial production of nitric acid from ammonia. Nitric acid decomposes slowly to nitrogen dioxide, which confers the characteristic yellow color of most samples of this acid:
NO 2 is used to generate anhydrous metal nitrates from the oxides:
Alkyl and metal iodides give the corresponding nitrites:
NO 2 is introduced into the environment by natural causes, including entry from the stratosphere, bacterial respiration, volcanos, and lightning. These sources make NO 2 a trace gas in the atmosphere of Earth, where it plays a role in absorbing sunlight and regulating the chemistry of the troposphere, especially in determining ozone concentrations.
NO 2 is used as an intermediate in the manufacturing of nitric acid, as a nitrating agent in manufacturing of chemical explosives, as a polymerization inhibitor for acrylates, as a flour bleaching agent., and as a room temperature sterilization agent. It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket fuel, for example in red fuming nitric acid; it was used in the Titan rockets, to launch Project Gemini, in the maneuvering thrusters of the Space Shuttle, and in unmanned space probes sent to various planets.
For the general public, the most prominent sources of NO 2 are internal combustion engines burning fossil fuels. Outdoors, NO 2 can be a result of traffic from motor vehicles.
Indoors, exposure arises from cigarette smoke, and butane and kerosene heaters and stoves.
Workers in industries where NO 2 is used are also exposed and are at risk for occupational lung diseases, and NIOSH has set exposure limits and safety standards. Astronauts in the Apollo -- Soyuz Test Project were almost killed when NO 2 was accidentally vented into the cabin. Agricultural workers can be exposed to NO 2 arising from grain decomposing in silos; chronic exposure can lead to lung damage in a condition called "Silo - filler 's disease ''.
Historically, nitrogen dioxide was also produced by atmospheric nuclear tests, and was responsible for the reddish colour of mushroom clouds.
Gaseous NO 2 diffuses into the epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the respiratory epithelium and dissolves, and chemically reacts with antioxidant and lipid molecules in the ELF; NO 2 's health effects are caused by the reaction products or their metabolites, which are reactive nitrogen species and reactive oxygen species that can drive bronchoconstriction, inflammation, reduced immune response, and may have effects on the heart.
Acute harm due to NO 2 exposure is only likely to arise in occupational settings. Direct exposure to the skin can cause irritations and burns. Only very high concentrations of the gaseous form cause immediate distress: 10 -- 20 ppm can cause mild irritation of the nose and throat, 25 -- 50 ppm can cause edema leading to bronchitis or pneumonia, and levels above 100 ppm can cause death due to asphyxiation from fluid in the lungs. There are often no symptoms at the time of exposure other than transient cough, fatigue or nausea, but over hours inflammation in the lungs causes edema.
For skin or eye exposure, the affected area is flushed with saline. For inhalation, oxygen is administered, bronchodilators may be administered, and if there are signs of methemoglobinemia, a condition that arises when nitrogen - based compounds affect the hemoglobin in red blood cells, methylene blue may be administered.
It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right - to - Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and it is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.
For the public, chronic exposure to NO 2 can cause respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. NO 2 creates ozone which causes eye irritation and exacerbates respiratory conditions, leading to increased visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory issues, especially asthma.
The effects of toxicity on health have been examined using questionnaires and inperson interviews in an effort to understand the relationship between (NO 2) and asthma. The influence of indoor air pollutants on health is important because the majority of people in the world spend more than 80 % of their time indoors. The amount of time spent indoors depends upon on several factors including geographical region, job activities, and gender among other variables. Additionally, because home insulation is improving, this can result in greater retention of indoor air pollutants, such as (NO 2). With respect to geographic region, the prevalence of asthma has ranged from 2 to 20 % with no clear indication as to what 's driving the difference. This may be a result of the "hygiene hypothesis '' or "western lifestyle '' that captures the notions of homes that are well insulated and with fewer inhabitants. Another study examined the relationship between nitrogen exposure in the home and respiratory symptoms and found a statistically significant odds ratio of 2.23 (95 % CI: 1.06, 4.72) among those with a medical diagnosis of asthma and gas stove exposure.
A major source of indoor exposure to (NO 2) is from the use of gas stoves for cooking or heating in homes. According to the 2000 census, over half of US households use gas stoves and indoor exposure levels of (NO 2) are, on average, at least three times higher in homes with gas stoves compared to electric stoves with the highest levels being in multifamily homes. Exposure to (NO 2) is especially harmful for children with asthma. Research has shown that children with asthma who live in homes with gas stoves have greater risk of respiratory symptoms such as wheezing, cough and chest tightness. Additionally, gas stove use was associated with reduced lung function in girls with asthma, although this association was not found in boys. Using ventilation when operating gas stoves may reduce the risk of respiratory symptoms in children with asthma.
In a cohort study with inner - city minority African American Baltimore children to determine if there was a relationship between (NO 2) and asthma for children aged 2 to 6 years old, with an existing medical diagnosis of asthma, and one asthma related visit. Families of lower socioeconomic status were more likely to have gas stoves in their homes. The study concluded that that higher levels of (NO 2) within a home were linked to a greater level of respiratory symptoms among the study population. This further exemplifies that (NO 2) toxicity is dangerous for children.
While using a gas stove, it is advised to also use ventilation. Studies show that in homes with gas stoves, if ventilation is used while using gas stoves, then children have lower odds of asthma, wheezing and bronchitis as compared to children in homes that never used ventilation. If venting is n't possible, then replacing gas stoves with electric stove could be another option. Replacing gas stoves with electric ranges could greatly reduce the exposure to indoor NO and improve the respiratory function of children with asthma. It is important to keep gas stoves and heaters in good repair so they are not polluting extra NO. 2015 International Residential Code that requires that vent hoods are used for all stoves and set standards for residential buildings. This requires that all range hoods have a vent that discharges outside. You can also prevent NO exposure by avoiding cigarette smoking and not idling your car whenever possible.
The U.S. EPA has set safety levels for environmental exposure to NO 2 at 100 ppb, averaged over one hour, and 53 ppb, averaged annually. As of February 2016, no area of the US was out of compliance with these limits and concentrations ranged between 10 -- 20 ppb, and annual average ambient NO concentrations, as measured at area - wide monitors, have decreased by more than 40 % since 1980.
However, NO 2 concentrations in vehicles and near roadways are appreciably higher than those measured at monitors in the current network. In fact, in - vehicle concentrations can be 2 -- 3 times higher than measured at nearby area - wide monitors. Near - roadway (within about 50 metres (160 ft)) concentrations of NO have been measured to be approximately 30 to 100 % higher than concentrations away from roadways. Individuals who spend time on or near major roadways can experience short - term NO exposures considerably higher than measured by the current network. Approximately 16 % of U.S. housing units are located within 300 feet (91 m) of a major highway, railroad, or airport (approximately 48 million people). This population likely includes a higher proportion of non-white and economically - disadvantaged people. Studies show a connection between breathing elevated short - term NO concentrations, and increased visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory issues, especially asthma. NO exposure concentrations near roadways are of particular concern for susceptible individuals, including asthmatics, children, and the elderly.
For limits in other countries see the table in the Ambient air quality criteria article.
|
what is the name of the vacuum in teletubbies | Teletubbies - wikipedia
Teletubbies is a British pre-school children 's television series created by Ragdoll Productions ' Anne Wood and Andrew Davenport. The programme focuses on four multi-coloured creatures known as "Teletubbies '', named after the television screens implanted in their abdomens. Recognised throughout popular culture for the uniquely shaped antenna protruding from the head of each character, the Teletubbies communicate through gibberish and were designed to bear resemblance to toddlers.
Particularly notable for its high production values, the series rapidly became a commercial success in Britain and abroad. It won multiple BAFTA awards and was nominated for two Daytime Emmys throughout its run. A single based on the show 's theme song reached number 1 in the UK Singles Chart in December 1997 and remained in the Top 75 for 32 weeks, selling over a million copies. By October 2000, the franchise generated over £ 1 billion ($1.61 billion) in merchandise sales.
Though the original run ended in 2001, sixty new episodes were ordered in 2014. They are currently aired on CBeebies in the United Kingdom and on Nick Jr. in the United States. Re-runs of the original 1997 -- 2001 series continue to be shown on relevant television channels worldwide.
The programme takes place in a grassy, floral landscape populated by rabbits with bird calls audible in the background. The main shelter of the four Teletubbies is an earth house known as the "Tubbytronic Superdome '' implanted in the ground and accessed through a hole at the top or an especially large semicircular door at the dome 's foot. The creatures co-exist with a number of strange contraptions such as the Noo - noo, the group 's anthropomorphic blue vacuum cleaner, and the Voice Trumpets. The show 's colourful, psychedelic setting was designed specifically to appeal to the attention spans of infants and unlock different sections of the mind while also educating young children of transitions that can be expected in life.
An assortment of rituals are performed throughout the course of every episode, such as the playful interactions between the Teletubbies and the Voice Trumpets, the mishaps caused by the Noo - noo, the footage of live children displayed on the screens in the Teletubbies ' stomachs, and the magical event that occurs once per episode. The event differs each time; it is often caused inexplicably and is frequently strange yet whimsical. Each episode is closed by the Voice Trumpets and the narrator. The disappointed, reluctant, but eventually obedient Teletubbies bid farewell to the viewer as they go back to the Tubbytronic Superdome while the Sun Baby sets.
On 31 March 1997, the first episode of Teletubbies aired on BBC2. It filled a timeslot previously held by Playdays. This schedule change initially received backlash from parents, but the show was not moved. The programme 's unconventional format quickly received attention from the media, and it was attracting two million viewers per episode by August. In February 1998, The Sydney Morning Herald noted that it had "reached cult status '' in less than a year on the air.
Teletubbies has been aired in over 120 countries in 45 different languages. In the United States, the series airs on Nickelodeon as part of the Nick Jr. block. Episodes are also released through the Nick Jr. mobile application and on - demand services. The original series is available as part of the Noggin subscription service in North America. It had aired on PBS Kids until 2008. BBC Worldwide channels carry the series in most of Africa, Asia and Poland. A Spanish dub airs on Clan in Spain. In Greece, the series airs on Nickelodeon Greece. NPO Zappelin carries the show in the Netherlands and MTVA airs it in Hungary. In Australia and New Zealand, the series airs on CBeebies Australia and ABC Kids. JimJam 's Benelux feed airs the series and Ultra airs it in Serbia. Teletubbies also airs on SIC in Portugal and e-Junior in the Middle East.
Golden Bear Toys distributed the first line of Teletubbies dolls shortly after the programme 's debut. They were sold internationally, with talking toys available in multiple languages. Hasbro signed on to develop a new range of products in 1998. In 1999, Microsoft UK released a set of interactive "ActiMates '' toys based on the characters. The Rasta Imposta company introduced Teletubbies costumes for children and adults in the same year. Two educational video games featuring the characters were also released throughout the series ' run.
Teletubbies dolls were the top - selling Christmas toy in 1997. Demand outstripped supply at most retailers, reportedly prompting many shops to ration them to one per customer. In some cases, shoppers camped outside stores overnight in hopes of purchasing Teletubbies merchandise. Fights over the toys broke out among parents and collectors on occasion. Over one million dolls were sold in Britain by 25 December of that year, with Golden Bear representatives estimating that sales could have reached three million if supplies had been available. The plush toys were named "Toy of the Year '' by the British Association of Toy Retailers in 1998.
Kids ' meal tie - ins have been released at fast - food restaurants throughout North America. In May 1999, Burger King distributed a set of six Teletubbies plush toys. They also included chicken nuggets shaped like the characters on their menu for a brief period of time. Keychains modelled after the characters were available at McDonald 's in April 2000. These promotions became controversial among adults who believed they were intended to attract toddlers to high - fat food. Psychiatrist Alvin Francis Poussaint considered the deals "troubling. '' He voiced his opinion on the matter publicly, but did not take action against the companies.
Two kiddie rides featuring the characters were manufactured by Jolly Roger. They were available at select amusement parks and arcades, such as Chuck E. Cheese 's and Fantasy Island.
Overseas Teletubbies merchandise sales throughout the 1990s delivered € 136 million in profits for the BBC. By the time of the programme 's cancellation, Teletubbies toys had generated over £ 200 million in revenue for co-creator Anne Wood alone. In 2005, Chris Hastings and Ben Jones of The Daily Telegraph called Teletubbies "the most lucrative show in BBC television history. ''
To commemorate the tenth anniversary of the premiere of Teletubbies, a series of events took place from March to April 2007. The characters headlined an invitation - only event in London on 21 March 2007. They appeared in New York City 's Times Square, Grand Central Terminal, and Apollo Theater. They were also interviewed on The Today Show in an episode that included the first televised appearance of the actors without their costumes. A partnership was formed with Isaac Mizrahi in which Mizrahi designed Teletubbies - inspired bags to be auctioned off to benefit charities. A new line of clothing was launched at the Pop - Up Shop and other specialty stores. New York City mayor Mike Bloomberg announced 28 March 2007 "Teletubbies Day '' and gave the key to the city to the Teletubbies. Following their show in New York, the Teletubbies went on their first live European tour, performing in London, Paris, Bremen, Darmstadt, Halle, Hamburg, Köln, and Hannover.
In January 2016, costumed Teletubbies characters appeared at the American International Toy Fair. In April 2016, the series ' premiere on the Greek Nickelodeon channel was advertised with a series of appearances by the Teletubbies at malls throughout Athens. This began with a live show at Avenue Mall on 16 April, which featured both the Teletubbies and a host from the network. Throughout May 2016, the characters appeared on various breakfast television programmes to promote the upcoming series ' debut on Nickelodeon in the United States.
In November 2017, the show was given its first ever live show / musical entitled Teletubbies Live!, which toured the UK beginning the weekend of November 17th, 2017. In October 2018, DHX Media announced a second Teletubbies live show / musical and the first Christmas themed one entitled Teletubbies Live! 2: The Christmas Show which would be performed at Hyde Park UK as part of theyr annual Winter Wonderland event and will tour from Thursday November 22nd, 2018 until Sunday January 6th, 2019.
Common Sense Media 's Emily Ashby found that "while the show 's examples of cooperative play, wonder, and simple joys are gentle and pleasing, the creatures can still be a little grating to parents watching along. '' Caryn James of The New York Times stated in her review that the episodes "offer a genuinely appealing combination: cute and slightly surreal. ''
Upon the show 's release, some critics feared that the characters ' use of babbling in place of complete sentences would negatively affect young viewers ' ability to communicate. The Daily Mirror reported in 1997 that many parents objected to its "goo - goo style '' and "said the show was a bad influence on their children. '' Marina Krcmar, a professor of communication at the Wake Forest University, told interviewers in 2007 that "toddlers learn more from an adult speaker than they do from a program such as Teletubbies. '' However, Paul McCann of The Independent defended this aspect of the show, stating that "Teletubbies upsets those who automatically assume that progressive and creative learning is trendy nonsense. Those who believe that education should be strictly disciplined and functional, even when you 're 18 months old. Thankfully Teletubbies is n't for them. It 's for kids. ''
Tinky Winky started a controversy in 1999 because of his carrying a bag that looks much like a woman 's handbag (although he was first "outed '' by the academic and cultural critic Andy Medhurst in a letter of July 1997 to The Face). He aroused the interest of Jerry Falwell in 1999 when Falwell alleged that the character was a "gay role model ''. Falwell issued an attack in his National Liberty Journal, citing a Washington Post "In / Out '' column which stated that lesbian comedian Ellen DeGeneres was "out '' as the chief national gay representative, while trendy Tinky Winky was "in ''. He warned parents that Tinky Winky could be a covert homosexual symbol, because "he is purple, the gay pride colour, and his antenna is shaped like a triangle: the gay pride symbol. '' The BBC made an official response, explaining that "Tinky Winky is simply a sweet, technological baby with a magic bag. '' Ken Viselman of Itsy - Bitsy Entertainment commented, "He 's not gay. He 's not straight. He 's just a character in a children 's series. ''
In May 2007, Polish Ombudsman for Children, Ewa Sowińska revisited the matter, and planned to order an investigation. "I noticed that he has a woman 's handbag, but I did n't realise he 's a boy, '' Sowińska said in a public statement. She asked her office 's psychologists to look into the allegations. After the research in late 2007, she stated: "The opinion of a leading sexologist, who maintains that this series has no negative effects on a child 's psychology, is perfectly credible. As a result I have decided that it is no longer necessary to seek the opinion of other psychologists. ''
Despite the objections, the Independent on Sunday 's editors included Tinky Winky as the only fictional character in the 2008 inaugural "Happy List '', alongside 99 real - life adults recognised for making Britain a better and happier place.
Although the programme is aimed at children between the ages of one and four, it had a substantial cult following with older generations, mainly university and college students. The mixture of bright colours, unusual designs, repetitive non-verbal dialogue, ritualistic format, and occasional forays into physical comedy appealed to many who perceived the programme as having psychedelic qualities.
Adam Roberts suggests that Teletubbies constitutes an example of radical utopian fiction. In this reading, the Teletubbies are an advanced culture which has eliminated all need to work, worry, or struggle in any way, and regressed into a childlike state. Roberts positions the Teletubbies as the endpoint of the science - fictional idea of paradise based on infantilisation -- a more extreme version of the future humans in Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World and the Eloi in H.G. Wells 's The Time Machine (who are mentally childlike, but still physically and sexually adult). Following Sigmund Freud 's insight that adult pleasure must mediate id and super-ego -- gratification and anxiety -- the only way to completely attain life is to surrender the super-ego, including sex. It follows that the broadcasts shown on the Teletubbies ' in - set televisions are historical documentaries suggesting infantile existence as the paradigm, with the baby in the sun likely being the society 's central machine intelligence. Roberts concludes:
In other words, the toddler - oriented aspect of the show can be read not in clumsily production - intention terms (' the show is designed to appeal to toddlers '), but as a commentary upon the necessary infantilisation implicit in any utopian fantasy. It poses a question: to achieve a total happiness for all on the planet, once technology has removed the practical barriers, how far along the road towards infantile consciousness will it be necessary to travel? Will we become like the citizens of Huxley 's Brave New World? Or more infantile, like Wells 's Eloi? Or will we go the whole hog, and subsume our angst - ridden adult consciousnesses completely in the bright colours and satisfying repetitions of Teletubbyland? The enduring appeal of the Teletubbies to adults suggests, perhaps, this latter. ''
In December 1997, BBC Worldwide released a CD single from the series, based on the show 's theme song, called "Teletubbies say ' Eh - oh! ' '' It is the only single from Teletubbies, making the characters a one - hit wonder in the United Kingdom. The song was written by Andrew McCrorie - Shand and Andrew Davenport, and produced by McCrorie - Shand and Steve James. The single reached number 1 in the UK Singles Chart in December 1997, and remained in the Top 75 for 32 weeks after its release.
In December 2017, Teletubbies Play Time was released worldwide for mobile devices by Built Games.
|
what is the song thank you by led zeppelin about | Thank You (Led Zeppelin song) - wikipedia
"Thank You '' is a song by the English rock band Led Zeppelin from their 1969 album Led Zeppelin II, written by Robert Plant and Jimmy Page.
"Thank You '' signalled a deeper involvement in songwriting by singer Robert Plant: it was the first Led Zeppelin song for which he wrote all the lyrics. According to various Led Zeppelin biographies, this is also the song that made Jimmy Page realise that Plant could now handle writing the majority of the lyrics for the band 's songs. Plant wrote the song as a tribute to his then - wife Maureen.
The song features Hammond organ playing by John Paul Jones, which fades into a false ending before concluding with a crescendo roughly ten seconds later. This has created a problem for radio stations wishing to play the track, which must decide whether to accept the dead air or cut it off. Some stations run an edited version with the silence eliminated. For the recording of this track, Page played on a Vox 12 - string guitar. It was also one of the few Led Zeppelin songs on which Page sang backing vocals.
When "Thank You '' was performed at Led Zeppelin concerts, it featured Jones ' extended keyboard solo (either on the Hammond organ or on some 1972 - 73 versions, the Mellotron) as an introduction to the song. The piece was eventually dropped from the band 's standard live setlist following the 1973 tour of the United States, when it was only occasionally used as an encore, for example, at the tour 's final concert in Madison Square Garden.
Robert Plant sang a part of "Thank You '' at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992, before combining the song with "Crazy Little Thing Called Love ''.
In a retrospective review of Led Zeppelin II (Deluxe Edition), Michael Madden of Consequence of Sound praised the remastering of "Thank You '', believing the track now sounds "mellow and well - balanced ''. Madden further praised the remastering, writing the track "breathes easy during the verses and ascends elsewhere in the song '', along with "illuminating Page 's touch and Bonham 's haymakers ''. When reviewing the added bonus tracks of the Deluxe Edition, Madden further praised the new version of "Thank You '', titled "Thank You (Backing Track) '', writing the track "magnifies the song 's tasteful sheen, popping with Bonham 's drums and Jones ' organ, which seems to have a mind of its own. ''
Record producer Rick Rubin has remarked on the song 's structure, "The delicacy of the vocals is incredible; the acoustic guitar and the organ work together to create an otherworldly presence. ''
In November 2010, "Thank You '' topped Gibson 's list of "Top 10 Thanksgiving Songs ''. The song was recorded by Page and Plant for the No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded album. It was released as a single and reached number eight on Billboard magazine 's Album Rock Tracks chart in 1995.
|
list of local government area in ondo state | Ondo State - Wikipedia
Ondo or Ondo State is a state in Nigeria created on 3 February 1976 from the former Western State. It originally included what is now Ekiti State, which was split off in 1996. Akure is the state capital. Each Nigerian state has several ministerial offices representing the federal government. Ondo state borders Ekiti state to the North, Kogi State to the Northeast, Edo State to the East, Delta State to the Southeast, Ogun State to the Southwest, and Osun State to the Northwest.
The state contains eighteen Local Government Areas, the major ones being Akoko, Akure, Okitipupa, Ondo, and Owo. The majority of the state 's citizens live in urban centers. The big government universities in Ondo state are the Federal University of Technology Akure, Akure and the Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko.
The ethnic composition of Ondo State is largely from the Yoruba subgroups of the Akoko, Akure, Okitipupa, Ilaje, Ondo, and Owo peoples. Ijaw such as Apoi and Arogbo populations inhabit the coastal areas; while a sizable number of the Ondo State people who speak a variant of the Yoruba language similar to Ife dialect reside in Oke - Igbo.
Ondo State consists of eighteen (18) Local Government Areas. They are:
(Headquarters in Okeagbe)
(Headquarters in Isua)
Media related to Ondo State at Wikimedia Commons
|
what happens in season 2 of scream queens | Scream Queens (Season 2) - Wikipedia
On January 15, 2016, Fox renewed the comedy horror television series Scream Queens, for a second season. Emma Roberts, Abigail Breslin, Billie Lourd, Lea Michele, Keke Palmer, Niecy Nash, Glen Powell, Oliver Hudson and Jamie Lee Curtis reprised their roles while John Stamos, Taylor Lautner, James Earl and Kirstie Alley were added to the main cast. The second season took place in a hospital.
Season two of Scream Queens aired on Fox. It premiered on September 20, 2016 and concluded on December 20, 2016. On May 15, 2017, Fox announced the cancellation of the series, making this the final season of the show.
After the events at Wallace University, Dean Cathy Munsch becomes a global icon and purchases the C.U.R.E. Institute in order to reform America 's health care system and to cure incurable diseases. Hester confesses her crimes, leading to the Chanels ' release from prison. However, the Chanels remain hated in the nation. Cathy then casts two doctors -- Dr. Cassidy Cascade and Dr. Brock Holt -- to fulfill the mission of the hospital, and installs Zayday Williams and the Chanels as medical students. Meanwhile, flashbacks back to 1985 show the hospital 's dark past, as a new serial killer surfaces: the Green Meanie.
In June 2016, John Stamos, Taylor Lautner and James Earl joined the cast of the series, portraying doctors and employees at the hospital, respectively.
In July 2016, Colton Haynes and Cecily Strong were announced to guest star in the season. That same month, Jerry O'Connell and Laura Bell Bundy were announced to have recurring roles. In August 2016, it was announced Cheri Oteri would also guest star. In September 2016, Kirstie Alley was cast in the series. In November 2016, Brooke Shields was announced to guest star in the series.
The second season of Scream Queens has received positive reviews, with critics labelling it a big improvement over the previous season. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 83 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.12 / 10 based on 6 reviews.
|
who went home on next food network star | Food Network Star - Wikipedia
Food Network Star is a reality television series that premiered June 5, 2005. It was produced by CBS EYEtoo Productions for seasons 1 -- 8 and by Triage Entertainment for subsequent seasons. It airs on the Food Network in the United States. Prior to season seven, the series was known as The Next Food Network Star.
The first season of The Next Food Network Star series was taped in February 2005, and was composed of five episodes in June 2005. Chicago area caterers Dan Smith and Steve McDonagh emerged as the winners, and went on to host a show called Party Line with Dan & Steve, now titled Party Line with The Hearty Boys, which premiered on September 18, 2005.
The runner - up, Deborah Fewell, was chosen to host a special on food at beaches, Surf N Turf, which aired in June 2006. Michael Thomas was the recurring chef on The Tyra Banks Show. Susannah Locketti made an appearance on The Tony Danza Show, and is also an on - air chef for Publix grocery stores in the southern United States.
The second season of The Next Food Network Star series was taped in December 2005 and began airing in March 2006. Guy Fieri was announced as the winner on April 23, 2006, beating Reggie Southerland.
Fieri has achieved considerable success at Food Network since his victory, and is still regularly on air as of July 2018. Guy 's Big Bite premiered in June 2006 and was picked up for a second season in 2008 and remains in production. Originally intended as a one - hour special, Fieri 's second series, Diners, Drive - Ins and Dives, premiered April 23, 2007. He went on to the series, Ultimate Recipe Showdown, premiering February 17, 2008, and Guy Off The Hook on September 14, 2008. He has also started a new successful show called Guy 's Grocery Games.
Fourth - place contestant Nathan Lyon began hosting his own series, A Lyon In the Kitchen, on the Discovery Health Channel in March 2007.
The third season began on June 3, 2007, and the winner was announced on Sunday, July 22. In season 3, judges sent 1 or 2 contestants home weekly. Once the field was down to 2 final contestants, the viewers picked the winner. Marc Summers (host of the first 2 seasons) only returned for this season 's finale. Bobby Flay would host subsequent season finales.
During the season, the contestants lived in a shared house in New York City. The contestants ' challenges included cooking concession food for an NBA game (with guest Darryl Dawkins) to a mini version of Food Network 's Iron Chef America (with guest judges Bobby Flay and Cat Cora). The Selection Committee consisted of Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson along with one guest. Guest judges included Alton Brown, Giada De Laurentiis, Duff Goldman, season two winner Guy Fieri, and Robert Irvine.
Paula Deen and Rachael Ray participated in contestant challenges, and Bobby Flay also played a role in the guidance and selection process. Amy Finley was chosen by America as The Next Food Network Star on July 22, 2007. Her new show The Gourmet Next Door premiered on October 14, 2007 and ran for six episodes. Finley later declined to continue with the series, citing relocation to France for family reasons.
^ Note 1: Amy Finley was eliminated Week 7, and the original finalists were Rory Schepisi and Joshua "JAG '' Garcia. After the final elimination episode was aired, evidence came to light that JAG had lied about both his culinary training and his military service, representing both as more extensive than they actually were. Food Network allowed him to withdraw from the competition and reinstated Amy Finley, who was voted The Next Food Network Star.
Season four of The Next Food Network Star premiered on Sunday, June 1, 2008. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson are joined by Bobby Flay as the selection committee for this season. Each new episode aired on Sundays at 10: 00 PM EDT. For this season, the viewers no longer received the chance to vote for the winner; producers instead made the final decision. This led to an error by FoodNetwork.com, which briefly posted the winning moment video on their website three days before the finale aired. The winner for the fourth season was Aaron McCargo Jr. His winning show idea, Big Daddy 's House, first aired August 3, 2008.
Finalist Adam Gertler was hired to host a Food Network show called Will Work for Food, which debuted on January 19, 2009 and was cancelled after one season. He hosted the Food Network show Kid in a Candy Store, which aired two seasons.
Kelsey Nixon co-hosted a web show on food2.com (a Food Network sister site aka Cooking Channel) and also appeared in the premiere of Chefs vs. City in 2009. In 2010, Gertler and Nixon became co-hosts of The Next Food Network Star After Party, a half - hour recap / interview show following that night 's episode of Star, on Cooking Channel. Nixon stars in Kelsey 's Essentials, a program on kitchen and cooking basics for The Cooking Channel that ran November, 2010 - 2013.
Season five of The Next Food Network Star premiered on June 7, 2009. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were joined by Bobby Flay as the Selection Committee for this season, which was filmed early 2009 in New York, New York and Miami, Florida. Melissa D'Arabian was declared the winner on August 2, 2009 with the title for her show being Ten Dollar Dinners. Her show premiered on August 9, 2009. (1)
On August 17, 2009, Food Network announced Jeffrey Saad would return in a series of online videos based on his pilot, now called "The Spice Smuggler. '' The program premiered with four 4 - 1 / 2 minute videos featuring one spice and a recipe incorporating it. Saad was named the national representative for the American Egg Board. In November, 2010, Saad debuted in a new show for The Cooking Channel titled United Tastes of America, which explores multiple aspects of traditional American food.
Finalist Debbie Lee has carried her "Seoul to Soul '' concept to the streets of L.A., opening a lunch truck, Ahn - Joo, featuring a range of Korean food.
The sixth season of the series premiered on Sunday, June 6, 2010. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were again joined by Bobby Flay as judges; in addition, Giada De Laurentiis served as an on - set mentor. On July 17, 2010, a post-competition recap and discussion show premiered on The Cooking Channel. Shows were filmed in Los Angeles, California and New York, New York.
On August 15, 2010, Aarti Sequeira was declared the winner, and her new show Aarti Party premiered on Sunday, August 22, 2010 and features American style cuisine with unique Indian flair. Season 2 of Aarti Party premiered that December.
The Food Network also signed runner - up Tom Pizzica to host a new show called Outrageous Food, which premiered in November 2010. The last new episodes of Aarti Party aired in mid-2013.
For the seventh season, the reality television series was renamed, after the first episode, Food Network Star, dropping the word "Next ''. It premiered Sunday, June 5, 2011. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were joined again by Bobby Flay and Giada De Laurentiis as the judges for this season. The series was filmed in Los Angeles, California and New York, New York.
Season seven winner Jeff Mauro 's show "Sandwich King '' premiered on Sunday, August 21, 2011. In spring 2013, Jeff hosted $24 in 24, a show in which he went to several cities and ate an entire day 's worth of meals on 24 dollars.
Season 8 started May 13, 2012. For season 8, the format changed, with the contestants divided into three five - member teams, each coached by a Food Network host, either Bobby Flay, Alton Brown, or Giada De Laurentiis. Coaches worked with the teams as they prepared for and completed their tasks. The winner 's coach would also be the producer of the winner 's show.
Each week, a winning team was selected, and one member of the teams that did not win was up for elimination in a new feature called Producers ' Challenge. Each challenge was hosted by current Food Network personalities.
The final winner was decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com between July 15 -- 17, 2012 and the winner was announced on July 22, 2012. The winner was Justin Warner, who hosted a one - hour special on The Food Network, but did not have a series produced. He has become a blogger on foodnetwork.com, makes appearances at Food Network events, and is an active Twitter presence.
Season 9 started on June 2, 2013. For season 9, Alton Brown, Bobby Flay, and Giada De Laurentiis mentored and judged twelve Food Network Star competitors, although the contestants were not divided into teams as in season 8. Many of this season 's contestants had previously appeared on other Food Network shows. The winner was Damaris Phillips, decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com and announced live on August 11, 2013.
The winner was Lenny McNab, decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com and announced live on August 10, 2014. It is the last season to date where the finale aired live -- all subsequent season finales would be filmed months in advance prior to airing.
Beginning with this season, Alton Brown no longer appeared as a judge. The winner was Eddie Jackson.
Martita Jara originally competed in the eighth season of the series; she returned after winning the pre-season competition Comeback Kitchen.
Matthew Grunwald originally competed in season 11. He returned for a second chance after winning the Comeback Kitchen competition.
Amy Pottinger originally competed in season 13. She returned for a second chance after winning the Comeback Kitchen competition, along with Adam Gertler, who originally competed in season four. Palak Patel also competed on Beat Bobby Flay, where she defeated him in the Chicken Curry episode.
|
can you put ps2 games in a ps3 | List of PlayStation and PlayStation 2 games compatible with PlayStation 3 - wikipedia
This is a list of PlayStation games compatible with all models of PlayStation 3, along with PlayStation 2 games compatible with certain earlier models of PlayStation 3. Initial PlayStation 3 models released in North America, Japan, and Asia contained both the PlayStation 2 's CPU and GPU, while subsequent models contained only the GPU, and the PlayStation 2 backwards compatibility with physical discs was removed entirely in later models. However, all PlayStation 3 models can play some PlayStation 1 games via physical discs. This is accomplished entirely via software emulation and does not differ between models.
Although the Guitar Hero games themselves are compatible, the connector mounted on its special controller is not, due to the PS3 's lack of ports for PS2 accessories. As a sidenote for PS2 titles, the upscaling and smoothing options do not work when certain PS2 titles have been selected to run in progressive scan (480p).
Working Designs
SLUS - 20745GH (Greatest Hits)
(PAL Version also unknown)
|
when did the detroit tigers win the world series | Detroit Tigers - wikipedia
The Detroit Tigers are an American professional baseball team based in Detroit, Michigan. The Tigers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the American League (AL) Central division. One of the AL 's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Detroit in 1901. They are the oldest continuous one - name, one - city franchise in the AL. The Tigers have won four World Series championships (1935, 1945, 1968, and 1984), 11 AL pennants (1907, 1908, 1909, 1934, 1935, 1940, 1945, 1968, 1984, 2006, 2012), and four AL Central division championships (2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014). The Tigers also won division titles in 1972, 1984 and 1987 while members of the AL East. The team currently plays its home games at Comerica Park in Downtown Detroit.
The Tigers constructed Bennett Park at the corner of Michigan Avenue and Trumbull Avenue in Corktown (just west of Downtown Detroit) and began playing there in 1901. In 1912, the team moved into Navin Field, which was built on the same location. It was expanded in 1938 and renamed Briggs Stadium. It was renamed Tiger Stadium in 1961 and the Tigers played there until moving to Comerica Park in 2000.
The Tigers were established as a charter member of the American League in 1901. They played their first game as a major league team at home against the Milwaukee Brewers on April 25, 1901, with an estimated 10,000 fans at Bennett Park. After entering the ninth inning behind 13 -- 4, the team staged a dramatic comeback to win 14 -- 13. The team finished third in the eight - team league.
In 1905, the team acquired 18 - year - old Ty Cobb, a fearless player with a mean streak, who came to be regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. The addition of Cobb to an already talented team that included Sam Crawford, Hughie Jennings, Bill Donovan and George Mullin quickly yielded results.
Behind the hitting of outfielders Ty Cobb (. 350) and Sam Crawford (. 323), and the pitching of Bill Donovan and Ed Killian (25 wins each), the Tigers went 92 -- 58 to win the AL pennant in 1907 by 1.5 games over the Philadelphia Athletics. They moved on to their first World Series appearance against the Chicago Cubs.
Game 1 ended in a rare 3 -- 3 tie, called due to darkness after 12 innings. The Tigers scored only three runs in the succeeding four games, never scoring more than one run in a game, and lost the Series, 4 -- 0.
The Tigers won the AL by just a half - game over the 90 -- 64 Cleveland Naps with a 90 -- 63 record. Cobb hit. 324, while Sam Crawford hit. 311 with 7 home runs, which was enough to lead the league in the "dead ball '' era.
The Cubs, however, would defeat the Tigers again in the 1908 World Series, this time in five games. This would be the Cubs ' last World Championship until 2016.
In 1909, Detroit posted a 98 -- 54 season, winning the AL pennant by 3.5 games over the Athletics. Ty Cobb won the batting triple crown in 1909, hitting. 377 with 9 home runs (all inside - the - park) and 107 RBIs. He also led the league with 76 stolen bases. George Mullin was the pitching hero, going 29 -- 8 with a 2.22 ERA, while fellow pitcher Ed Willett went 21 -- 10. Mullin 's 11 -- 0 start in 1909 was a Tiger record for 104 years, finally being broken by Max Scherzer 's 13 -- 0 start in 2013.
It was hoped that a new opponent in the 1909 Series, the Pittsburgh Pirates, would yield different results. The Tigers performed better in the Fall Classic, taking Pittsburgh to seven games, but they were blown out 8 -- 0 in the decisive game at Bennett Park.
The Tigers dropped to third place in the American League in 1910 with an 86 - 68 record. They posted 89 wins in 1911 to finish second, but were still well behind a powerhouse Philadelphia Athletics team that won 101 games. The team sunk to a dismal sixth place in both the 1912 and 1913 seasons. A bright spot in 1912 was George Mullin pitching the franchise 's first no - hitter in a 7 -- 0 win over the St. Louis Browns on July 4, his 32nd birthday.
Cobb went into the stands in a May 15, 1912, game to attack a fan that was abusing him, and was suspended. The Tigers protested the suspension by fielding a team of replacement players and some coaches, and lost 24 - 2, to the Philadelphia Athletics. During this five - season stretch, Cobb posted batting averages of. 383,. 420,. 409,. 390 and. 368, winning the AL batting title every year.
In 1915, the Tigers won a then - club record 100 games but narrowly lost the American League pennant to the Boston Red Sox who won 101 games. The 1915 Tigers were led by an outfield consisting of Ty Cobb, Sam Crawford, and Bobby Veach that finished # 1, # 2, and # 3 in RBIs and total bases. Cobb also set a stolen base record with 96 steals in 1915 that stood until 1962, when it was broken by Maury Wills. Baseball historian Bill James has ranked the 1915 Tigers outfield as the greatest in the history of major league baseball. The only team in Tigers ' history with a better winning percentage than the 1915 squad was the 1934 team that lost the World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals.
The Tigers dropped to third place in 1916 with an 87 - 67 record, and would remain mired in the middle of the AL standings the rest of the decade, never winning more than 80 games. In the late teens and into the 1920s, Cobb continued to be the marquee player, though he was pushed by budding star outfielder Harry Heilmann, who went on to hit. 342 for his career.
Hughie Jennings left the Tigers after the 1920 season, having accumulated 1,131 wins as a manager. This stood as a Tiger record until 1992, when it was broken by Sparky Anderson. Cobb himself took over managerial duties in 1921, but during his six years at the helm, the Tigers topped out at 86 wins and never won a pennant.
In 1921, the Tigers amassed 1,724 hits and a team batting average of. 316 -- the highest team hit total and batting average in American League history. (The Elias Book of Baseball Records, 2008, p. 88) That year, outfielders Harry Heilmann and Ty Cobb finished # 1 and # 2 in the American League batting race with batting averages of. 394 and. 389. As early proof of the baseball adage that good pitching beats good hitting, the downfall of the 1921 Tigers was the absence of good pitching. The team ERA was 4.40, and they allowed nine or more runs 28 times. Without pitching to support the offense, the 1921 Tigers finished in sixth place in the American League at 71 - 82, 27 games behind the Yankees.
On August 19, 1921, Cobb collected his 3,000 th career hit off Elmer Myers of the Boston Red Sox. Aged 34 at the time, he is still the youngest player to reach that milestone, also reaching it in the fewest at - bats (8,093).
The Tigers continued to field good teams during Ty Cobb 's tenure as player - manager, finishing as high as second in 1923, but lack of quality pitching kept them from winning a pennant. Harry Heilmann hit. 403 in 1923, becoming the last AL player to top. 400 until Ted Williams hit. 406 in 1941. In the 1925 season, the 38 - year - old Cobb nearly won his 12th batting title (or 13th depending on the source). But he was again edged out by teammate Heilmann, who collected six hits in a season - ending doubleheader to finish at. 393 to Cobb 's. 389.
Cobb announced his retirement in November 1926 after 22 seasons and 3,900 hits as a Tiger, though he would return to play two more seasons with the Philadelphia Athletics.
Though the Tigers struggled with mediocre records in the seven years following Cobb 's departure, they were building a solid foundation, adding slugging first baseman Hank Greenberg and pitchers Tommy Bridges and Schoolboy Rowe to a lineup that already included consistent Charlie Gehringer, "The Mechanical Man '', at second base.
In 1927, Harry Heilmann flirted with a. 400 batting average all year, eventually finishing at. 398 and winning his fourth AL batting title.
Following the 1933 season, the Tigers added perhaps the final piece of the puzzle, acquiring catcher "Black Mike '' Mickey Cochrane from the Philadelphia Athletics to serve as player - manager.
The Tigers won the 1934 AL Pennant with a 101 -- 53 record, at the time a team record for wins, and still the best win percentage (. 656) in team history. The Tigers infield (Hank Greenberg and Charlie Gehringer, along with shortstop Billy Rogell and third baseman Marv Owen) accumulated 769 hits during the season, with Gehringer (214 hits,. 356 average) leading the way. Schoolboy Rowe led a strong pitching staff, winning 16 straight decisions at one point of the season and finishing with a 24 -- 8 record.
The Tigers would fall in the 1934 World Series in seven games to the "Gashouse Gang '' St. Louis Cardinals. After winning a tight battle in Game 5 with a 3 -- 1 decision over Dizzy Dean, Detroit took a 3 -- 2 series lead, but would lose the next two games at Navin Field (Tiger Stadium). For the second time in a World Series Game 7, Detroit folded. St. Louis scored seven times in the third inning off starter Elden Auker and a pair of relievers, while Dizzy Dean baffled the Tiger hitters en route to an 11 -- 0 victory. The final game was marred by an ugly incident. After spiking Tiger third baseman Marv Owen in the sixth inning, the Cardinals ' Joe "Ducky '' Medwick had to be removed from the game for his own safety by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis after being pelted with fruit and garbage from angry fans in the large temporary bleacher section in left field.
The Tigers 1935 lineup featured four future Hall of Famers (Hank Greenberg, Mickey Cochrane, Goose Goslin and Charlie Gehringer). Though they did n't challenge the 1934 team 's 101 wins, their 93 -- 58 record was good enough to give them the AL pennant by three games over the New York Yankees. Hank Greenberg was named AL MVP after hitting. 328 and leading the league in home runs (36), extra-base hits (98) and RBIs (170). Incredibly, Greenberg 's RBI total was 51 higher than the next closest player (Lou Gehrig, with 119). The Tigers also got strong contributions from Charlie Gehringer (. 330), Mickey Cochrane (. 319) and starting pitchers Tommy Bridges (21 -- 10) and Elden Auker (18 -- 7).
The Tigers finally won their first World Series, defeating the Chicago Cubs, 4 games to 2. Game 6 concluded with Goslin 's dramatic walk - off RBI single, scoring Cochrane for a 4 -- 3 victory.
After team owner Frank Navin died during the 1935 season, auto body manufacturing magnate and plumbing fixture manufacturer Walter Briggs, Sr. took control of the team.
Despite being forecast to win the American League title again in 1936 the Tigers fell to a distant second place behind the New York Yankees both that season and in 1937. In 1938 and 1939, the team fell to fourth place with identical 84 - 70 records each year. Hank Greenberg nevertheless provided some excitement for Tiger fans in 1938 by challenging the single - season home run record held by Babe Ruth (60). Hank went into the season 's final weekend against the Cleveland Indians with 58 home runs, tied with Jimmie Foxx for the most by a right - handed batter, but he failed to homer on Saturday or Sunday.
At the close of the 1938 season, the Tigers presciently held out doubts about a pennant in 1939, but figured that 1940 would be their year.
In a tight three - team race, the 90 -- 64 Tigers won the 1940 AL pennant by one game over the Cleveland Indians and two games over the New York Yankees. Prior to the season, first baseman Hank Greenberg was persuaded to move to left field to make room for slugging first baseman Rudy York. The move proved successful. York hit. 316 with 33 home runs and 134 RBIs. Greenberg batted. 340 and slammed 41 home runs while driving in 150. Hank won his second AL MVP award, becoming the first major leaguer to win the award at two different fielding positions. Charlie Gehringer, now 37, batted. 313 while collecting 101 walks and scoring 108 runs.
Bobo Newsom was the ace of the Tiger pitching staff in 1940, going 21 -- 5 with a 2.83 ERA. An unlikely hero on the mound this season was 30 - year - old rookie Floyd Giebell. Making just his third major league start on September 27, Giebell was called upon to pitch the pennant - clinching game against the legendary Bob Feller of the Indians. Feller surrendered just three hits, one being a 2 - run homer by Rudy York, while Giebell blanked the Tribe for a 2 -- 0 victory.
The Tigers lost the 1940 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds in seven games. Despite a heroic effort by Bobo Newsom, the Tigers came up short in the deciding game, losing 2 -- 1. Newsom 's father had died in a Cincinnati hotel room after watching his son win Game 1. An inspired Newsom won Game 5 and pitched Game 7 on just one day 's rest. This was the third time the Tigers had lost a World Series in a deciding seventh game.
With Hank Greenberg serving in World War II for all or parts of the 1941 -- 44 seasons, the Tigers struggled to recapture the glory of 1940. They finished no higher than fifth place in 1941 -- 43, but did manage a second - place finish in 1944, largely on the strength of pitchers Hal Newhouser and Dizzy Trout, who won 29 and 27 games respectively. Newhouser, who was 29 - 9 with a 2.22 ERA, won the first of his two consecutive AL MVP awards this season. The Tigers were in first place as late as September 18, but would finish one game behind the St. Louis Browns for the AL Pennant.
With the end of World War II and the timely return of Hank Greenberg and others from the military, the 88 -- 65 Tigers took the 1945 American League pennant by just 1.5 games over the Washington Senators. Hal Newhouser became the first pitcher in the history of the American League to win the MVP Award in two consecutive seasons. "Prince Hal '' won the pitching triple crown, leading the AL in wins (25, against nine losses), ERA (1.81) and strikeouts (212).
With Newhouser, Virgil Trucks and Dizzy Trout on the mound and Greenberg leading the Tiger bats, Detroit responded in a World Series Game 7 for the first time, staking Newhouser to a 5 -- 0 lead before he threw a pitch en route to a 9 -- 3 victory over the Cubs. Because many baseball stars had not yet returned from the military, some baseball scholars have deemed the ' 45 Series to be among the worst - played contests in Series history. For example, prior to the Series, Chicago sportswriter Warren Brown was asked who he liked, and he answered, "I do n't think either one of them can win it! '' But the Cubs had no answer to Greenberg, who hit the Tigers ' only two home runs of the Series and drove in seven, and the Series went Detroit 's way.
After their 1945 Series win, the Tigers continued to have winning records for the remainder of the decade, finishing second in the AL three times but never winning the pennant. The 1950 season was particularly frustrating, as the Tigers posted a 95 - 59 record for a. 617 winning percentage, the fourth best in team history at the time. But they finished that season three games behind a strong New York Yankees team that went on to sweep the Philadelphia Phillies in the World Series.
During the 1946 season, the Tigers acquired George Kell, a third baseman who was a 10 - time all - star and future Hall of Famer. He batted over. 300 in eight straight seasons (1946 -- 53), and finished with a career. 306 mark. Kell won a batting title in a very close race with Ted Williams in 1949, going 2 - for - 3 on the last day of the season to edge out the Red Sox slugger,. 3429 to. 3427.
Over the next 10 years, the Tigers sank to the middle and lower ranks of the American League. The team had only three winning records over this span and never finished higher than fourth place. The last - place 1952 team went 50 - 104 (. 325), which was the worst season in Tigers history until the 2003 team lost 119 games. Despite the dismal season, starter Virgil Trucks threw two no - hitters in 1952, only the third time in major league history that a pitcher had accomplished that feat. Also, team owner Walter Briggs, Sr. died in 1952. His son Walter Briggs, Jr. inherited the team, but he was forced to sell it in 1956 to broadcast media owners John Fetzer and Fred Knorr.
Notwithstanding Detroit 's fall in the standings, the decade saw the debut of outfielder Al Kaline in 1953. One of the few Major League players who never played a day in the minor leagues, he would hit over. 300 nine times in his career. He also made 15 All - Star teams, won 10 Gold Gloves, and featured one of the league 's best arms in right field. In 1955, the 20 - year - old Kaline hit. 340 to become the youngest - ever batting champion in major league history.
1958 saw the Tigers become the 15th of the then 16 MLB teams to field an African - American player. In the Tigers ' case, it was an Afro - Caribbean player, Ozzie Virgil, Sr. who finally broke the team 's color barrier. Only the Boston Red Sox trailed the Tigers in integrating their roster.
As the American League expanded from 8 to 10 teams, Detroit began its slow ascent back to success with an outstanding 1961 campaign. The Tigers won 101 games, a whopping 30 - game improvement over the 71 - 83 1960 team, but still finished eight games behind the Yankees. This marked one of the few times in major league history that a team failed to reach the postseason despite winning 100 or more games, though it had happened once before to the Tigers (1915). First baseman Norm Cash had the best batting average in the American League, a remarkably high. 361, while teammate Al Kaline finished second. Cash never hit over. 286 before or after the 1961 season, and would later say of the accomplishment: "It was a freak. Even at the time, I realized that. '' Cash 's plate heroics, which also included 41 home runs and 132 RBI, might have earned him MVP honors that season were it not for New York 's Roger Maris bashing a record 61 homers the same year. Cash also drew 124 walks that season for a league - leading. 487 on - base percentage.
The 1961 club featured two nonwhite starters, Jake Wood and Bill Bruton, and later in the 1960s, black players such as Willie Horton, Earl Wilson, and Gates Brown would contribute to Detroit 's rise in the standings.
As a strong nucleus developed, Detroit repeatedly posted winning records throughout the 1960s. Pitchers Mickey Lolich and Denny McLain entered the rotation during the middle of the decade, with outfielders Willie Horton (1963), Mickey Stanley (1964) and Jim Northrup (1964) also coming aboard at this time.
The team managed a third - place finish during a bizarre 1966 season, in which manager Chuck Dressen and acting manager Bob Swift were both forced to resign their posts because of health problems. Thereafter, Frank Skaff took over the managerial reins until the end of the season. Both Dressen and Swift died during the year -- Dressen in August because of a kidney infection, Swift in October due to cancer. Skaff was replaced by Mayo Smith in 1967, perhaps the last step before World Series contention.
Indeed, in 1967 the Tigers were involved in one of the closest pennant races in history. Because of rainouts, the Tigers were forced to play back - to - back doubleheaders against the California Angels over the final two days of the season. They needed to sweep the doubleheader on the last day of the season to force a one - game playoff with the Boston Red Sox. The Tigers won the first game but lost the second, giving the Red Sox the flag with no playoff. Detroit finished the season at 91 -- 71, a single game behind Boston. Starter Earl Wilson, acquired the previous season from the Red Sox, led the Tigers with 22 wins and would form a strong 1 -- 2 -- 3 combination with Denny McLain and Mickey Lolich over the next few years.
The Tigers finally returned to the World Series in 1968. The team grabbed first place from the Baltimore Orioles on May 10 and would not relinquish the position, clinching the pennant on September 17 and finishing with a 103 -- 59 record. In a year that was marked by dominant pitching, starter Denny McLain went 31 -- 6 (with a 1.96 ERA), the first time a pitcher had won 30 or more games in a season since the St. Louis Cardinals ' Dizzy Dean accomplished the feat in 1934; no pitcher has accomplished it since. McLain was unanimously voted American League Most Valuable Player and Cy Young Award winner for his efforts.
In the 1968 World Series, the Tigers met the defending World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals, led by starter Bob Gibson (who had posted a modern - era record 1.12 ERA during the regular season) and speedy outfielder Lou Brock. This was the first time the Tigers and Cardinals had met in the World Series since 1934, when as it was said, they were choked by the Gashouse Gang. The series was predicated with a bold decision by manager Mayo Smith to play center fielder Mickey Stanley at shortstop, replacing the slick fielding but weak hitting of Ray Oyler. Stanley had never played shortstop before, but was a gold glover in the outfield and an excellent athlete. Smith started him at short for the final nine games of the regular season and all seven World Series games, with Oyler only appearing as a late - inning defensive replacement. This allowed Smith to play an outfield of Willie Horton, Jim Northrup and Al Kaline in every Series game.
In Game 1, Gibson completely shut down the Detroit lineup, striking out 17 batters, still a World Series record, en route to an easy 4 -- 0 win. However, due in no small part to pitcher Mickey Lolich 's victories in Games 2 and 5, the Tigers climbed back into the Series. Many fans believe the turning point in the Series came in the fifth inning of Game 5, with the Tigers down three games to one, and trailing in the game, 3 -- 2. Left fielder Willie Horton made a perfect throw to home plate to nail Lou Brock (who tried to score from second base standing up), as catcher Bill Freehan blocked the plate with his foot. The Tigers came back with three runs in the seventh to win that game, 5 -- 3, and stay alive in the Series. The Cardinals would not threaten to score the rest of this game, and scored only two more meaningless runs over the remainder of the series. In Game 6, McLain ensured a Game 7 by notching his only win of the Series, a 13 -- 1 blowout, despite pitching on only two days ' rest.
In Game 7 at Busch Memorial Stadium, Lolich, also pitching on two days ' rest, faced Gibson. Both men pitched brilliantly, putting zeros up on the scoreboard for much of the game. In the bottom of the sixth inning, the Cardinals looked primed to take the lead as Lou Brock singled to lead off the inning, only to be promptly picked off first base by Lolich. One out later, Curt Flood followed with another single, and was also picked off first by Lolich. In the top of the seventh, an exhausted Gibson finally cracked, giving up two - out singles to Norm Cash and Willie Horton. Jim Northrup then struck the decisive blow, lashing a triple to center field over the head of Flood, who appeared to misjudge how hard the ball was hit. That scored both Cash and Horton; Northrup himself was then brought home by a Bill Freehan double. Detroit added an insurance run in the ninth. A solo home run by Mike Shannon was all the Cardinals could muster against Lolich as the Tigers took the game, 4 -- 1, and the Series, 4 -- 3. For his three victories that propelled the Tigers to the World championship, Lolich was named the World Series Most Valuable Player. Through 2015, Lolich is the last pitcher to have three complete - game victories in a single World Series. Also, at the time, Detroit was only the third team ever to come back from being down 3 games to 1 and win a World Series title. The others were the 1925 Pittsburgh Pirates (defeated Washington Senators) and the 1958 New York Yankees (defeated Milwaukee Braves). Since the advent of divisional baseball in 1969 there have been quite a few post-season 3 - 1 comebacks.
1969 saw further expansion as both leagues realigned into two divisions of six teams, and the Tigers were placed in the American League East. That year, Detroit failed to defend its ' 68 title, despite Denny McLain having another outstanding season with a 24 - 9 campaign, earning him his second straight Cy Young Award (co-winner with Baltimore 's Mike Cuellar). The Tigers ' 90 wins placed them a distant second in the division to a very strong Baltimore Orioles team, which had won 109 games.
McLain, suspended three times in 1970, was only 3 - 5 that season and was traded after the season was done. Mayo Smith was also let go after a disappointing fourth - place finish in 1970, to be replaced by Billy Martin. In a playing career that was primarily spent with the New York Yankees, Martin played his final games with the Minnesota Twins and stayed in that organization after his retirement. He managed the Twins to an AL West Division title in 1969, but was fired after that season due to rocky relationships with his players which included a legendary fight with pitcher Dave Boswell in an alley behind Detroit 's Lindell AC sports bar. He would spend the 1970 season out of baseball.
After the 1970 regular season, Denny McLain was part of a seven - player deal with the Washington Senators in what would turn out to be a heist for Detroit. The Tigers acquired pitcher Joe Coleman, shortstop Eddie Brinkman and third baseman Aurelio Rodríguez. Coleman paid immediate dividends for Detroit, winning 20 games in 1971, while McLain went 10 - 22 for the Senators and was out of baseball by age 29.
Martin 's Tigers posted 91 wins in 1971, but again had to settle for a second - place finish behind the Orioles, who won 101 games to take their third straight AL East Division crown. The season was highlighted by Mickey Lolich 's 308 strikeouts, which led the AL and is still the Detroit Tigers single - season record as of 2015. Lolich also won 25 games and posted a 2.92 ERA while throwing an incredible 376 innings and completing 29 of his 45 starts.
The Tigers post-1970 acquisitions (Joe Coleman, Eddie Brinkman and Aurelio Rodríguez) all played critical roles in 1972, when the Tigers captured their first AL East division title. Oddities of the schedule due to an early - season strike allowed the 86 - 70 Tigers to win the division by just 1⁄2 game, just as they had won the pennant in 1908. Brinkman was named Tiger of the Year by the Detroit Baseball Writers, despite a. 203 batting average, as he committed just 7 errors in 728 chances (. 990 fielding percentage) and had a 72 - game errorless streak during the season. Mickey Lolich was his steady self for the Tigers, winning 22 games with a sparkling 2.50 ERA, while Coleman won 19 and had a 2.80 ERA. Starter Woodie Fryman, acquired on August 2, was the final piece of the puzzle as he went 10 -- 3 over the last two months of the regular season and posted a minuscule 2.06 ERA. Fryman was also the winning pitcher in the division - clinching game against the Boston Red Sox, a 3 - 1 victory on October 3.
In the 1972 American League Championship Series, Detroit faced the American League West division champion Oakland Athletics, who had become steadily competitive ever since the 1969 realignment. In Game 1 of the ALCS in Oakland, Mickey Lolich, the hero of ' 68, took the hill and allowed just one run over nine innings. The Athletics ' ace, Catfish Hunter, matched Lolich, surrendering only a solo home run to Norm Cash, and the game went into extra innings. Al Kaline hit a solo homer to break a 1 -- 1 tie in the top of the 11th inning, only to be charged with a throwing error on Gonzalo Marquez 's game - tying single in the bottom half of the frame that allowed Gene Tenace to score the winning run. Blue Moon Odom shut down Detroit 5 -- 0 in Game 2. The end of Game 2 was marred by an ugly incident in which Tiger reliever Lerrin Lagrow hit A 's shortstop and leadoff hitter Bert Campaneris on the ankle with a pitch. An angered Campaneris threw the bat at Lagrow, and Lagrow ducked just in time for the bat to sail over his head. Both benches cleared, and though no punches were thrown, both Lagrow and Campaneris were suspended for the remainder of the series. It was widely thought (and years later confirmed by Lagrow) that Martin had ordered the pitch that hit Campaneris, who had three hits, two stolen bases and two runs scored in the game.
As the series shifted to Detroit, the Tigers caught their stride. Joe Coleman held the A 's scoreless on seven hits in Game 3, striking out 14 batters in a 3 -- 0 Tiger victory. Game 4 was another pitchers ' duel between Hunter and Lolich, resulting again in a 1 - 1 tie at the end of nine innings. Oakland scored two runs in the top of the 10th and put the Tigers down to their last three outs. Detroit pushed two runs across the plate to tie the game before Jim Northrup came through in the clutch again. His single off Dave Hamilton scored Gates Brown to give the Tigers a 4 - 3 win and even the series at two games apiece.
A first - inning run on an RBI ground out from Bill Freehan, set up by a Gene Tenace passed ball that allowed Dick McAuliffe to reach third, gave Detroit an early lead in the deciding fifth and final game in Detroit. Reggie Jackson 's steal of home in the second inning tied it up, though Jackson was injured in a collision with Freehan and had to leave the game. Tenace 's two - out single to left field plated George Hendrick to give Oakland a 2 -- 1 lead in the fourth inning. The run was controversial to many Tiger fans, as Hendrick was ruled safe at first base two batters prior to the Tenace hit. Hendrick appeared to be out by two steps on a grounder to short, but umpire John Rice ruled that Norm Cash pulled his foot off first base. Replays and photos, however, show that Cash did not pull his foot. Thanks to that play and four innings of scoreless relief from Vida Blue, the A 's took the American League pennant and a spot in the World Series.
The 1973 season saw the Tigers drop to third place in the division, with an 85 - 77 record. Joe Coleman posted another 23 wins, but the other Tiger starters had subpar seasons. Willie Horton hit. 316, but injuries limited him to just 111 games. Jim Northrup posted the best batting average of his career (. 307) but was inexplicably limited to part - time duty (119 games played), which Northrup attributed to an ongoing feud with Billy Martin that had actually started in the 1972 ALCS. Northrup even proclaimed to the press that Martin "took the fun out of the game. '' Martin did not survive the 1973 season as manager. He was fired that September after ordering his pitchers to throw spitballs (and telling the press that he did so) in protest of opposing Cleveland Indians pitcher Gaylord Perry, whom Martin was convinced was doing the same. Base coach Joe Schultz served as interim manager for the final 28 games of the season.
A bright spot for the Tigers in 1973 was relief pitcher John Hiller, who marked his first full season since suffering a heart attack in 1971 by collecting a league - leading 38 saves and posting a brilliant 1.44 ERA. Hiller 's saves total would stand as a Tiger record until 2000, when it was broken by Todd Jones ' 42 saves. (Jones ' record would later be broken by José Valverde 's 49 saves in 2011.)
The Tigers spent the remainder of the 1970s in the middle or lower ranks of the AL East. In 1974, Ralph Houk, who managed the dominant Yankee teams of the early 1960s, was named manager of the Tigers. "The Major '' served in that capacity for five full seasons, through the end of the 1978 season. The roster of players who played under Houk were mostly aging veterans from the 1960s, whose performance had slipped from their peak years. The Tigers did not have a winning season from 1974 to 1977, and their 57 wins in the 1975 season was the team 's lowest since 1952. Perhaps the biggest signal of decline for the Tigers was the retirement of Kaline following the 1974 season, after he notched his 3,000 th career hit. Kaline finished with 3,007 hits and was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1980.
Tiger fans were provided a glimmer of hope when 21 - year - old rookie Mark Fidrych made his debut in 1976. Fidrych, known as "The Bird '', was a colorful character known for talking to the baseball and other eccentricities. During a game against the Yankees, Graig Nettles responded to Fidrych 's antics by talking to his bat. After making an out, he later lamented that his Japanese - made bat did n't understand him. Fidrych entered the All - Star break at 9 - 2 with a 1.78 ERA, and was the starting pitcher for the American League in the All Star Game played that year in Philadelphia to celebrate the American Bicentennial. He finished the season with a record of 19 -- 9 and an American League - leading ERA of 2.34. Fidrych, the AL Rookie of the Year, was one of the few bright spots that year with the Tigers finishing next to last in the AL East in 1976.
Aurelio Rodríguez won the Gold Glove Award for 1976 at third base, snapping a 16 - season streak in which Hall of Famer Brooks Robinson had won every award at the position.
Injuries to his knee, and later his arm, drastically limited Fidrych 's appearances in 1977 -- 78. Perhaps more important, however, was the talent coming up through the Tigers farm system at the time. Jack Morris, Lance Parrish, Alan Trammell and Lou Whitaker all made their Tiger debuts in 1977, and would help the team to 88 wins in 1978, the only winning season under Houk.
Houk 's immediate successor as Tiger manager in 1979 was Les Moss, but Moss would only last until June of that year. From June 14, 1979 until the end of the 1995 season, the team was managed by George "Sparky '' Anderson, one of baseball 's winningest managers and owner of two World Series rings as manager of the Cincinnati Reds during their peak as The Big Red Machine. When Anderson joined the Tigers in 1979 and assessed the team 's young talent, he boldly predicted that it would be a pennant winner within 5 years.
Acerbic sports anchor Al Ackerman of Detroit 's WXYZ - TV (and later WDIV - TV) initiated the phrase "Bless You Boys '' whenever the Tigers would win a game -- sarcastically at first, because the team still was n't winning enough to be respectable. But the Tigers became steadily competitive, with winning records in each of Anderson 's first four full seasons (1980 -- 83), and Ackerman 's phrase would take on a new meaning in 1984.
As in 1968, the Tigers ' next World Series season would be preceded by a disappointing second - place finish, as the 1983 Tigers won 92 games to finish six games behind the Baltimore Orioles in the AL East.
The first major news of the 1984 season actually came in late 1983, when broadcasting magnate John Fetzer, who had owned the club since 1957, sold the team to Domino 's Pizza founder and CEO Tom Monaghan for $53 million. The sale of the franchise caught everyone by surprise, as the negotiations culminating in the sale of the franchise were conducted in total secrecy. There were no rumors or even speculation that Fetzer had put the franchise up for sale.
The 1984 team got off to a 9 - 0 start highlighted by Jack Morris tossing a nationally televised no - hitter against Chicago in the fourth game of the season. They stayed hot for most of the year, posting a 35 - 5 record over their first forty games and cruising to a franchise - record 104 victories. The Tigers led the division from opening day until the end of the regular season and finished a staggering 15 games ahead of the second - place Toronto Blue Jays. Closer Willie Hernández, acquired from the 1983 NL champion Philadelphia Phillies in the offseason, won both the AL Cy Young and AL Most Valuable Player awards, a rarity for a relief pitcher.
The Tigers faced the Kansas City Royals in the American League Championship Series, which would prove to be no contest, not surprising given the fact the Royals won 20 fewer games during the season. In Game 1, Alan Trammell, Lance Parrish and Larry Herndon went deep to crush the Royals 8 -- 1 at Royals Stadium (now Kauffman Stadium). In Game 2, the Tigers scored twice in the 11th inning when Johnny Grubb doubled off Royals closer Dan Quisenberry en route to a 5 -- 3 victory. The Tigers completed the sweep at Tiger Stadium in Game 3. Marty Castillo 's third - inning RBI fielder 's choice would be all the help Detroit would need. Milt Wilcox outdueled Charlie Leibrandt, and after Hernandez got Darryl Motley to pop out to preserve the 1 -- 0 win, the Tigers were returning to the World Series.
In the NLCS, a San Diego rally from 2 -- 0 down prevented a fifth Cubs - Tigers series and meant the Tigers would open the 1984 World Series against the San Diego Padres in Trammell 's hometown.
In Game 1, Larry Herndon hit a two - run home run that gave the Tigers a 3 -- 2 lead. Morris pitched a complete game with 2 runs on 8 hits, and Detroit drew first blood. The Padres evened the series the next night despite pitcher Ed Whitson being chased after pitching 2⁄3 of an inning and giving up three runs on five Tiger hits. Tiger starter Dan Petry exited the game after 4 ⁄ innings when Kurt Bevacqua 's three - run homer gave San Diego a 5 -- 3 lead they would hold onto.
When the series shifted to the Motor City, the Tigers took command. In Game 3, a two - out rally in the second inning, highlighted by Marty Castillo 's 2 - run homer, led to four runs and the yanking of Padre starter Tim Lollar after 1 ⁄ innings. The Padres, plagued by poor starting pitching throughout the series, never recovered and lost 5 -- 2. Eric Show continued the parade of bad outings in Game 4, getting bounced after 2 ⁄ innings upon giving up home runs to Series MVP Trammell in his first two at - bats. Trammell 's homers held up with the help of another Morris complete game, and the Tigers ' 4 -- 2 win gave them a commanding lead in the series.
In Game 5, Gibson 's two - run shot in the first inning would be the beginning of another early end for the Padres ' starter Mark Thurmond. Though the Padres would pull back even at 3 -- 3, chasing Dan Petry in the fourth inning in the process, the Tigers retook the lead on a Rusty Kuntz sacrifice fly (actually a pop - out to retreating second baseman Alan Wiggins that the speedy Gibson was able to score on), and doubled it on a solo homer by Parrish.
A "Sounds of the Game '' video was made during the Series by MLB Productions and played on TV a number of times since then. Kirk Gibson came to bat in the eighth inning with runners on second and third and the Tigers clinging to a 5 -- 4 lead. Padres manager Dick Williams was shown in the dugout flashing four fingers (ordering an intentional walk), before San Diego reliever Goose Gossage summoned him to the mound. Anderson was seen and heard yelling to Gibson, "He do n't want to walk you! '', and making a swing - the - bat gesture. As Anderson had suspected, Gossage threw a 1 -- 0 fastball on the inside corner, and Gibson was ready. He launched a hard smash into Tiger Stadium 's right field upper deck, effectively clinching the game and the series.
Aurelio López pitched 2 ⁄ innings of relief without putting a runner on base for the win. Despite allowing a rare run in the top of the 8th inning, Willie Hernández got the save as Tony Gwynn flew out to Larry Herndon to end the game, sending Detroit into a wild victory celebration.
The Tigers led their division wire - to - wire, from opening day and every day thereafter, culminating in the World Series championship. This had not been done in the major leagues since the 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers. With the win Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win the World Series in both leagues.
After a pair of third - place finishes in 1985 and 1986, the 1987 Tigers faced lowered expectations -- which seemed to be confirmed by an 11 -- 19 start to the season. However, the team hit its stride thereafter and gradually gained ground on its AL East rivals, eventually finishing with the best record in the Majors (98 -- 64). This charge was fueled in part by the acquisition of pitcher Doyle Alexander from the Atlanta Braves in exchange for minor league pitcher John Smoltz. Alexander started 11 games for the Tigers, posting a 9 -- 0 record and a 1.53 ERA. Smoltz, a Lansing, Michigan native, went on to have a long and productive career, mostly with the Braves, winning the Cy Young Award in 1996, and ultimately being inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2015. The Tigers won the division this year but possibly gave up some of their future. Despite the Tigers great season, they entered September neck - and - neck with the Toronto Blue Jays. The two teams would square off in seven hard - fought games during the final two weeks of the season. All seven games were decided by one run, and in the first six of the seven games, the winning run was scored in the final inning of play. At Exhibition Stadium, the Tigers dropped three in a row to the Blue Jays before winning a dramatic extra-inning showdown.
The Tigers entered the final week of the 1987 season 3.5 games behind. After a series against the Baltimore Orioles, the Tigers returned home trailing by a game and swept the Blue Jays. Detroit clinched the division in a 1 -- 0 victory over Toronto in front of 51,005 fans at Tiger Stadium on Sunday afternoon, October 4. Frank Tanana went all nine innings for the complete game shutout, and outfielder Larry Herndon gave the Tigers their lone run on a second - inning home run. Detroit finished the season two games ahead of Toronto.
In what would prove to be their last postseason appearance until 2006, the Tigers were upset in the 1987 American League Championship Series by the 85 -- 77 Minnesota Twins (who in turn won the World Series that year) four games to one. The Twins clinched the Series in Game 5 at Tiger Stadium, 9 -- 5.
Despite their 1987 division title victory, the Tigers proved unable to build on their success. The team lost Kirk Gibson to free agency in the offseason, but still spent much of 1988 in first place in the AL East. A late - season slump left the team in second at 88 -- 74, one game behind division - winning Boston.
In 1989, the team collapsed to a 59 -- 103 record, worst in the majors. The franchise then attempted to rebuild using a power - hitting approach, with sluggers Cecil Fielder, Rob Deer and Mickey Tettleton joining Trammell and Whitaker in the lineup (fitting for the team with the most 200 + home run seasons in baseball history). In 1990, Fielder led the American League with 51 home runs (becoming the first player to hit 50 since George Foster in 1977, and the first AL player since Roger Maris and Mickey Mantle in 1961), and finished second in the voting for AL Most Valuable Player. He hit 44 home runs and collected 132 RBI in 1991, again finishing second in the AL MVP balloting, and would hit at least 28 HR in each of the next four seasons. Behind the hitting of Fielder and others, the Tigers improved by 20 wins in 1990 (79 - 83), and posted a winning record in 1991 (84 -- 78). However, the team lacked quality pitching, despite Bill Gullickson 's 20 wins in 1991, and its core of key players began to age, setting the franchise up for decline. Their minor league system was largely barren of talent as well, producing only a few everyday players (Travis Fryman, Bobby Higginson) during the 1990s. Adding insult to injury, the Tigers and radio station WJR announced in December 1990, that they were not renewing the contract of long - time Hall of Fame play - by - play announcer Ernie Harwell, and that the 1991 season would be Harwell 's last with the team. The announcement was met with resounding protests from fans, both in Michigan and around the baseball world.
1992 saw the Tigers win only 75 games, with Fielder being one of the few bright spots as he won the AL RBI title for a third straight season (124). But late in the season, Sparky Anderson won his 1,132 nd game as a Tiger manager, passing Hughie Jennings for the most all - time wins in franchise history. Following the 1992 season, the franchise was sold to Mike Ilitch, the President and CEO of Little Caesars Pizza who also owns the Detroit Red Wings. Ilitch made it one of his first priorities to re-hire Ernie Harwell. The team also responded with an 85 - 77 season in 1993, but it would be their last winning season for a number of years.
On October 2, 1995, manager Sparky Anderson chose to not only end his career with the Tigers, but retire from baseball altogether.
From 1994 to 2005, the Tigers did not post a winning record. This is by far the longest sub -. 500 stretch in franchise history; prior to this, the team had not gone more than four consecutive seasons without a winning record. In fact, the only team in the majors to have a longer stretch without a winning season during this time is the Pittsburgh Pirates, which did not have a winning record in the years spanning 1993 to 2012. The Tigers ' best record over this span was 79 -- 83, recorded in 1997 and 2000. In 1996, the Tigers lost a then - team record 109 games, under new general manager Randy Smith, who served the team from 1996 to 2002.
In 1998, the Tigers moved from the American League 's Eastern Division, where they had been since divisions were created in 1969, to the Central Division, as part of a realignment necessitated by the addition of the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays. The Tigers were not an original member of the Central, which had been created in 1994.
In 2000, the team left Tiger Stadium, then tied with Fenway Park as the oldest active baseball stadium, in favor of the new Comerica Park. This capped an argument among Detroiters, lasting more than a decade, about whether or not a new stadium was needed to keep the club competitive.
Soon after it opened, Comerica Park drew criticism for its deep dimensions, which made it difficult to hit home runs; the distance to left - center field (395 ft), in particular, was seen as unfair to hitters. This led to the nickname "Comerica National Park. '' The team made a successful bid to bring in slugger Juan Gonzalez from the Texas Rangers for the inaugural 2000 season at Comerica Park. Gonzalez hit a meager (for him) 22 home runs that season, and many cited Comerica Park 's dimensions as a major reason he turned down multi-millions to re-sign with the club in 2001. In 2003, the franchise largely quieted the criticism by moving in the left - center fence to 370 feet (110 m), taking the flagpole in that area out of play, a feature carried over from Tiger Stadium. In 2005, the team moved the bullpens to the vacant area beyond the left - field fence and filled the previous location with seats.
In late 2001, Dave Dombrowski, former general manager of the 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins, was hired as team president. In 2002, the Tigers started the season 0 -- 6, prompting Dombrowski to fire the unpopular Smith, as well as manager Phil Garner. Dombrowski then took over as general manager and named bench coach Luis Pujols to finish the season as interim manager. The team finished 55 -- 106. After the season was over, Pujols was let go.
Dombrowski hired popular former shortstop Alan Trammell to manage the team in 2003. With fellow ' 84 teammates Kirk Gibson and Lance Parrish on the coaching staff, the rebuilding process began. In 2003, still playing with mostly players Smith had drafted or acquired, the Tigers shattered their 1996 mark for team futility by losing an American League - record 119 games. This eclipsed the previous AL record of 117 losses set by the 1916 Philadelphia Athletics, and was just. 030 ahead of the 1916 A 's. 235 win percentage. On August 30, 2003, the Tigers ' defeat at the hands of the Chicago White Sox caused them to join the 1962 New York Mets (who were a first year expansion club) as the only modern MLB teams to lose 100 games before September. They avoided tying the 1962 Mets ' modern MLB record of 120 losses only by winning five of their last six games of the season, including three out of four against the Minnesota Twins who had already clinched the Central Division, and were resting their stars.
Mike Maroth went 9 -- 21 for the 2003 Tigers and became the first pitcher to lose 20 games in more than 20 years. Tigers ' pitchers Maroth, Jeremy Bonderman (6 -- 19), and Nate Cornejo (6 -- 17) were # 1, # 2, and # 3 in the major leagues in losses for 2003 -- the only time in major league history that one team has had the top three losers.
While the 2003 Tigers rank as the third worst team in major league history based on loss total, they fare slightly better based on winning percentage. Their. 265 win percentage was the majors ' sixth - worst since 1900. The Tigers went 43 -- 119 that season, 47 games behind division - winner Minnesota.
Although the 2003 season was a complete morass, Dombrowski gave Trammell a chance to finish the remaining two years of his contract over the 2004 and 2005 seasons. Under Dombrowski, the Tigers demonstrated a willingness to sign marquee free agents. In 2004, the team signed or traded for several talented but high - risk veterans, such as Fernando Viña, Iván Rodríguez, Ugueth Urbina, Rondell White and Carlos Guillén, and the gamble paid off. The 2004 Tigers finished 72 -- 90, a 29 - game improvement over the previous season, and the largest improvement in the American League since Baltimore 's 33 - game improvement from 1988 to 1989. However, the team was still sub -. 500.
Prior to the 2005 season, the Tigers spent a large sum for two prized free agents, Magglio Ordóñez and Troy Percival. On June 8, 2005, the Tigers traded pitcher Ugueth Urbina and infielder Ramón Martínez to the Philadelphia Phillies for Plácido Polanco (and later signed him for 4 years). The Tigers stayed on the fringes of contention for the American League wild card for the first four months of the season, but then faded badly, finishing 71 -- 91. The collapse was perceived as being due both to injuries and to a lack of player unity; Rodriguez in particular was disgruntled, taking a leave of absence during the season to deal with a difficult divorce. Trammell, though popular with the fans, took part of the blame for the poor clubhouse atmosphere and lack of continued improvement, and he was fired at the end of the season.
A highlight of the 2005 campaign was Detroit 's hosting of the Major League Baseball All - Star Game, its first since 1971. In the Home Run Derby, Rodriguez finished second, losing to the Phillies ' Bobby Abreu.
In October 2005, Jim Leyland, who managed Dombrowski 's 1997 World Series -- winning Marlins club, replaced Trammell as manager; two months later, in response to Troy Percival 's ' 05 arm problems, closer Todd Jones, who had spent five seasons in Detroit (1997 -- 2001), signed a two - year deal to return to the Tigers. Veteran left - hander Kenny Rogers also joined the Tigers from Texas in late 2005. These offseason additions set the stage for the resurgence of "Tiger Fever '' in Detroit and its environs the following year.
After years of futility, the 2006 season showed signs of hope. The impressive rookie campaigns of eventual American League Rookie of the Year Justin Verlander, centerfielder Curtis Granderson, and flamethrowing relief pitcher Joel Zumaya, coupled with a well - publicized early - season tirade by Leyland, helped the team explode and quickly rise to the top of the AL Central. The team reached a high point when they were 40 games over. 500, but a second half swoon started to raise questions about the team 's staying power. On August 27, a 7 -- 1 victory over the Cleveland Indians gave the Tigers their 82nd victory and their first winning season since 1993. On September 24, the Tigers beat the Kansas City Royals 11 -- 4 to clinch their first playoff berth since 1987. A division title seemed inevitable. All that was required was one win in the final five games of the season, which included three games against the Royals, whom the Tigers had manhandled much of the season. However, the Tigers lost all five games to finish 95 -- 67, and the division title went to the 96 -- 66 Minnesota Twins. The Tigers were the AL wild card winner, the first time a team from the AL Central had won the honor.
The playoffs saw the Tigers beat the heavily favored New York Yankees 3 games to 1 in the ALDS and sweep the Oakland Athletics in the 2006 ALCS, thanks to a walk - off home run in Game 4 by right fielder Magglio Ordóñez. They advanced to the World Series, where they lost to the underdog St. Louis Cardinals in five games.
The Tigers would field competitive teams over the next four years, but struggles in the second half of all four years kept them from repeating their 2006 playoff appearance.
In 2007, the Tigers returned 22 of 25 players from their 2006 World Series roster, and traded for outfielder Gary Sheffield, who had been a part of the 1997 Marlins World Series team managed by Jim Leyland. In addition to acquisitions, Dombrowski developed a productive farm system. Justin Verlander and Joel Zumaya, the most notable rookie contributors to the 2006 team, were followed by Andrew Miller, who was drafted in 2006 and called up early in the 2007 campaign, and minor - leaguer Cameron Maybin, an athletic five - tool outfielder ranked # 6 in Baseball America 's 2007 Top - 100 Prospects. The Tigers suffered from injuries in the 2007 season, especially to their pitching staff. Kenny Rogers did not start until late June because of surgery to remove a blood - clot in his throwing arm. Other pitchers who were injured included Tim Byrdak, Fernando Rodney, Jair Jurrjens and Joel Zumaya.
On June 12, Justin Verlander threw the Tigers ' first no - hitter since 1984 (Jack Morris) and the first in Comerica Park history, in a 4 - 0 win over the Milwaukee Brewers. The Tigers had the best record in baseball in mid-July, but lost a few players to injuries and started to play poorly in the second half and fade from contention. This pattern of good starts followed by a poor second half would be repeated over the next three seasons. The Tigers gave up their division lead to the Cleveland Indians in early September and were officially eliminated from playoff competition on September 26, 2007, when the New York Yankees clinched a wild card berth. The Tigers, at 88 - 74, finished second in the AL Central.
Magglio Ordóñez captured the American League batting title in 2007 with a. 363 average. This marked the highest batting average for a Tiger hitter since Charlie Gehringer posted a. 371 mark in 1937.
Going into the 2008 season, the franchise traded for prominent talent in Édgar Rentería (from the Atlanta Braves) and Miguel Cabrera and Dontrelle Willis (from the Florida Marlins). However, the Tigers (who now boasted the second - highest team payroll in the majors at over $138 million) began the regular season by losing seven straight games. The Tigers climbed back, and at the midway point of the season, they were 42 -- 40. In the end, the team finished miserably, slumping to a 74 -- 88 record. Justin Verlander finished with his worst season as a pro, as he went 11 -- 17 with a 4.84 ERA. The Tigers also lost closer Todd Jones to retirement on September 25, 2008. Despite the disappointing season, the team set an attendance record in 2008, drawing 3,202,654 customers to Comerica Park.
The Tigers started 2009 very hot, quickly gaining the lead in the AL Central and keeping it for much of the year. This was fueled primarily by the combination of pitching and defense.
The Tigers acquired starter Edwin Jackson from the 2008 AL Champion Tampa Bay Rays, and called up rookie and former # 1 draft pick Rick Porcello. Jackson was outstanding in the first half, making his first All - Star team, while Porcello was solid most of the year, posting a 14 -- 9 record with a 3.96 ERA and displaying grit and maturity beyond his 20 years of age. Tigers ace Justin Verlander bounced back from an off 2008 to win 19 games. He posted a 3.45 ERA and led the AL in strikeouts (269) to finish third in the AL Cy Young balloting. Fernando Rodney assumed the closer role in spring training, replacing the retired Todd Jones. Rodney responded with 37 saves in 38 tries, while Bobby Seay, Brandon Lyon and young Ryan Perry shored up the middle relief that plagued the team in 2007 -- 08.
Despite the improvements, the Tigers again found themselves struggling to hold a lead in the AL Central during the second half of the season, and in particular, the final month. The offense they were known for in recent years slumped badly and was unable to support strong outings by the pitching staff. The team entered September with a 7 - game lead on its AL Central rivals, but wound up tied with the Minnesota Twins at 86 wins by the final day of the regular season. The season ended on October 6 with a 6 -- 5 loss in 12 innings to the Twins in the tie - breaker game, leaving the Tigers with an 86 -- 77 record. The Tigers spent 146 days of the 2009 season in first place, but became the first team in Major League history to lose a three - game lead with four games left to play.
Entering 2010, the Tigers parted ways with Curtis Granderson and Edwin Jackson as part of a three - way trade with the New York Yankees and Arizona Diamondbacks; in return they picked up outfield prospect Austin Jackson and pitchers Phil Coke, Max Scherzer and Daniel Schlereth. Austin Jackson made the Tigers opening day roster, and was American League Rookie of the Month for April. 2010 also saw the debut of Brennan Boesch, who was named the AL Rookie of the Month for May and June.
At the All - Star break, the Tigers were a half - game out of first place in the AL Central, behind the Chicago White Sox. But a slow start after the break and injuries to three key players sent the Tigers into yet another second - half tailspin. The Tigers finished the season in third place with an 81 -- 81 record, 13 games back of the division - winning Minnesota Twins. While playing outstanding baseball at home, the Tigers were just 29 -- 52 on the road. Only the Seattle Mariners had fewer road wins than the Tigers among American League teams.
Among the 2010 season highlights were Miguel Cabrera hitting. 328 with 38 home runs and an AL - best 126 RBI, earning the American League Silver Slugger Award at first base and finishing second in the AL MVP race (earning 5 of 28 first - place votes). Austin Jackson (. 293 average, 103 runs, 181 hits, 27 stolen bases) finished second in the AL Rookie - of - the - Year voting. Justin Verlander enjoyed another strong season (18 -- 9 record, 3.37 ERA, 219 strikeouts).
On June 2, 2010, Armando Galarraga was pitching a perfect game against the Cleveland Indians with 2 outs in the top of the ninth inning when first base umpire Jim Joyce made a controversial call, ruling Jason Donald safe at first. Video replay showed he was out. A tearful Joyce later said "I just cost that kid a perfect game. I thought he beat the throw. I was convinced he beat the throw, until I saw the replay. '' Later Galarraga told reporters Joyce apologized to him directly and gave him a hug. The next day, with Joyce umpiring home plate, Galarraga brought out the Tigers lineup card and the two hugged again. Despite large fan support for overturning the call, commissioner Bud Selig let the call stand, but said he would look into expanding instant replay for the future.
The Tigers returned much of their roster from 2010, while adding catcher / DH Victor Martinez, relief pitcher Joaquín Benoit and starting pitcher Brad Penny. The Tigers sent five players to the 2011 All - Star Game. Catcher Alex Avila was voted in as a starter, while Justin Verlander, José Valverde and Miguel Cabrera were added as reserves. (Verlander was unavailable to play in the game due to the scheduling of his regular - season starts.) Shortstop Jhonny Peralta was later added to the All - Star team when the Yankees ' Derek Jeter was unable to play due to injury.
On May 7, Justin Verlander took a perfect game against the Toronto Blue Jays into the 8th inning. After a walk to J.P. Arencibia, Verlander coaxed a double - play grounder and went on to the 9th inning to complete his second career no - hitter by facing the minimum 27 batters. It was the seventh no - hitter in Tigers history. On August 27, Verlander defeated the Minnesota Twins, 6 -- 4, to become the first Tiger since Bill Gullickson in 1991 to win 20 games in a season. Verlander also became the first major league pitcher since Curt Schilling in 2002 to reach 20 wins before the end of August.
In May, the Tigers were as many as eight games back of the first - place Cleveland Indians, but slowly pulled back to near - even by the All - Star break. As a three - way battle for the division title developed between the Tigers, Indians, and Chicago White Sox, the Tigers put together an 18 -- 10 record in August to begin to pull away. Starter Doug Fister, acquired via trade on July 30, provided an immediate spark, going 8 -- 1 over the final two months of the season with a sparkling 1.79 ERA. After a loss on September 1, the Tigers reeled off a 12 - game winning streak to put any thoughts of another late - season collapse to rest. The streak consisted of four consecutive three - game sweeps over their AL Central Division rivals. It was the Tigers longest winning streak since the 1934 team won 14 straight. On September 16, the Tigers clinched the AL Central Division title with a 3 -- 1 win over the Oakland Athletics. It was their first AL Central title since joining the division in 1998, and first division title of any kind since 1987. The Tigers clinched the division with 11 games left to play, tying the franchise record set by the 1984 team.
Members of the 2011 Tigers won multiple statistical awards in 2011. Justin Verlander won the triple crown of pitching, leading the American League in wins (24), ERA (2.40) and strikeouts (250). On November 15, Verlander was a unanimous selection for the AL Cy Young Award. In a much closer vote six days later, Verlander also won the AL MVP Award, becoming the first pitcher to do so since Dennis Eckersley in 1992. José Valverde was the AL saves leader with 49 (in 49 save opportunities), winning the 2011 MLB Delivery Man of the Year Award. Miguel Cabrera won the AL batting title with a. 344 average, while also leading the AL in on - base percentage (. 448) and doubles (48).
The Tigers beat the New York Yankees by a score of 3 -- 2 in Game 5 of the ALDS, winning the series 3 -- 2. They advanced to the ALCS, but they lost to the defending AL Champion Texas Rangers, 4 games to 2.
In 2012, the Tigers looked to defend their 2011 AL Central Division title, with the hopes of earning a second consecutive playoff appearance. On January 24, the Tigers signed free - agent all - star first baseman Prince Fielder to a 9 - year, $214 million contract. The move came shortly after the Tigers learned that Víctor Martínez had torn his anterior cruciate ligament during offseason training in Lakeland, Florida, and would likely miss the entire 2012 season. Miguel Cabrera moved back to his original position of third base, leading to the eventual release of veteran Brandon Inge on April 26. On July 23, the Tigers acquired veteran second baseman Omar Infante (who played for Detroit in 2003 -- 07) and starting pitcher Aníbal Sánchez from the Miami Marlins in exchange for starting pitcher Jacob Turner and two other minor leaguers.
At the midway point of the 2012 season, the Tigers were three games under. 500 (39 - 42). The team played much better in the second half and, after a fierce battle down the stretch with the Chicago White Sox, the Tigers clinched the AL Central Division title on October 1 with a 6 - 3 win against the Kansas City Royals. Coupled with the Tigers ' division title in 2011, it marked the first back - to - back divisional titles in team history, and first back - to - back postseason appearances since 1934 -- 35. The Tigers concluded the 2012 regular season with an 88 - 74 record.
On the final day of the season, Miguel Cabrera earned the American League Triple Crown in batting, leading the league in three key statistical categories during the season: batting average (. 330), home runs (44), and runs batted in (139). No player had accomplished this feat since Carl Yastrzemski in 1967. On the mound, starters Justin Verlander and Max Scherzer finished first and second among the American League strikeout leaders, with 239 and 231, respectively. Verlander (17 -- 8, 2.64 ERA) finished second in the Cy Young Award balloting to David Price of the Tampa Bay Rays.
In the American League Division Series, the Tigers defeated the Oakland Athletics, 3 games to 2, earning their second straight trip to the American League Championship Series. The Tigers completed a four - game sweep of the New York Yankees in the ALCS to win their 11th American League Pennant and earn a trip to the World Series. The Tigers lost the 2012 World Series to the San Francisco Giants, four games to none. They were shut out twice (in Games 2 and 3), the same number as in the entire 162 - game regular season, and had a team batting average of. 159.
On November 15, 2012, Miguel Cabrera was named the AL 's Most Valuable Player.
The Tigers entered the 2013 season looking to defend their 2012 American League Pennant. Key acquisitions in the offseason included signing free agent outfielder Torii Hunter to a two - year, $26 million contract, while also signing their 2012 trade deadline acquisition, pitcher Aníbal Sánchez, to a five - year, $80 million deal. The Tigers also signed free agent catcher Brayan Peña to a one - year contract. Moreover, ace starter Justin Verlander signed a $180 million contract extension, which would have kept him with the team until 2019 had he not been traded to the Houston Astros in 2017. The Tigers placed six players on the 2013 American League All - Star team: Miguel Cabrera, Prince Fielder, Jhonny Peralta, Torii Hunter, Max Scherzer and Justin Verlander.
On September 25, the Tigers clinched their third consecutive AL Central Division title, and eventually finished the season at 93 -- 69. The last time the Tigers won three consecutive regular - season titles was 1907 -- 1909. Detroit Tigers pitchers struck out 1,428 batters during the regular season, breaking the old major league record of 1,404 held by the 2003 Chicago Cubs. Miguel Cabrera (. 348 average, 44 HR, 139 RBI) was voted the AL Most Valuable Player for the second straight season, while Max Scherzer (21 -- 3, 2.90 ERA, 240 strikeouts) won the AL Cy Young Award.
The Tigers played the Oakland Athletics for the second straight year in the ALDS, and defeated the A 's, 3 games to 2. The Tigers set a record for a best - of - five playoff series by striking out 57 Oakland batters in the ALDS, topping the old mark of 55 set by the 2010 Texas Rangers (against the Tampa Bay Rays). With his Game 5 gem, Justin Verlander ran his postseason scoreless streak against Oakland to 30 innings, topping the record against one team in the postseason previously held by Christy Mathewson (28 innings against the Philadelphia Athletics in 1905 and 1911).
The Tigers advanced to their third straight ALCS, where they played the Boston Red Sox for the first ever time in the postseason. The Tigers won Games 1 and 4 in the ALCS, but ultimately lost the AL Championship to the Red Sox in Game 6.
Jim Leyland stepped down from his managerial position after eight years with Detroit, and the Tigers hired Brad Ausmus as Leyland 's successor. On November 20, 2013, the Tigers traded Prince Fielder to the Texas Rangers for three - time All - Star second baseman Ian Kinsler plus cash considerations with regard to Fielder 's remaining contract amount. The Tigers later traded starting pitcher Doug Fister to the Washington Nationals for infielder Steve Lombardozzi, Jr. and pitchers Ian Krol and Robbie Ray.
In an effort to improve a bullpen that often struggled in 2013 the Tigers signed veteran closer Joe Nathan to a two - year, $20 million contract, with a club option for 2016, and later signed Joba Chamberlain to a one - year, $2.5 million deal. On May 2, 2014, a month into the season, with the bullpen having a combined 5.37 ERA (29th out of 30 in the MLB) the Tigers signed free agent reliever Joel Hanrahan to a one - year contract, but he never came off the disabled list to pitch for the team in 2014. The team further bolstered the bullpen near the MLB trading deadline, dealing pitchers Corey Knebel and Jake Thompson to the Texas Rangers in exchange for former All - Star closer Joakim Soria on July 23.
On July 31, with just hours left before the end of the MLB non-waiver trade deadline, the Tigers traded pitcher Drew Smyly and shortstop Willy Adames to the Tampa Bay Rays, and Austin Jackson to the Seattle Mariners in a three - team deal to acquire pitcher David Price from the Rays. With the acquisition of Price, the Tigers became the first team in major league history with three consecutive Cy Young Award winners in its starting rotation.
On September 28, the last day of the regular season, Price pitched a 3 -- 0 gem against the Minnesota Twins, and the Tigers clinched their fourth consecutive AL Central Division title. The 90 -- 72 Tigers finished one game ahead of the Kansas City Royals.
The Detroit Tigers faced the Baltimore Orioles in the 2014 American League Division Series and lost the series 0 -- 3. J.D. Martinez became the first player in franchise history to hit home runs in his first two career postseason games. Both were part of back - to - back homers, with Víctor Martínez and Nick Castellanos in Games 1 and 2, respectively.
Brad Ausmus continued to manage the Detroit Tigers for a second season. Free agents Max Scherzer and Torii Hunter left for other teams at the end of the year while Rick Porcello, Eugenio Suárez, Robbie Ray, and prospect Devon Travis were all lost through trades. On the receiving end, the Tigers traded for slugger Yoenis Céspedes, relief pitcher Alex Wilson, speedy outfielder Anthony Gose and starting pitchers Alfredo Simón and Shane Greene.
After winning the first six games of the year in record - breaking fashion the Tigers season slowly went downhill. Inconsistent pitching, division rivals outperforming expectations, and injuries to multiple players, including Joe Nathan (only appeared in one game), Victor Martinez, and career first stints on the disabled list for Justin Verlander and Miguel Cabrera, sent the team below the. 500 mark as the trade deadline came and the decision was made to "reboot '' the team. Within a two - day span in late July, the Tigers traded David Price, Joakim Soria and Cespedes, receiving six well regarded prospects in return, including Daniel Norris.
On August 4, longtime Tigers General Manager Dave Dombrowski was released by the team, with Assistant GM Al Avila being promoted to General Manager and Vice President of Baseball Operations.
Despite difficulties, the Tigers still ended up sending four players to the 2015 MLB All - Star Game: Miguel Cabrera received his 10th career All - Star selection and the starting nod, but could not play due to injury; David Price received his 5th career selection as well as the credit for the win for the American League; and J.D. Martinez and Jose Iglesias both received their first career All - Star selections.
The Tigers ended the season in last place in the AL Central Division with a record of 74 - 87. The pitching staff was one of the worst in the MLB, ending 27th in ERA, 28th in FIP, and 27th in WHIP. But the team also ended with a team batting average of. 270, the best in the MLB, while Miguel Cabrera finished with the highest player batting average in the American League and the MLB (. 338), earning his fourth batting title in five years.
Brad Ausmus and the Tigers entered the 2016 season with new pitching coach Rich Dubee and 9 out of 25 members of the 2015 roster being replaced through trades and free agency. Prominent additions include two highly sought free agents, the starting pitcher Jordan Zimmermann and outfielder Justin Upton, as well as players acquired through trades, outfielder Cameron Maybin, and the veteran closer Francisco Rodriguez, who leads a totally revamped bullpen. The Tigers lost two 2016 draft picks due to free agent compensation but, because of their bottom - ten finish in 2015, they kept their first round pick. Key veteran losses include catcher Alex Avila and outfielder Rajai Davis, who both signed free agent deals with other teams in the division.
The Tigers finished the 2016 season with a record of 86 - 75 and in second place in the AL Central, eight games behind the first - place Cleveland Indians. Detroit was the final team to fall out of contention for a Wild Card playoff spot, losing Saturday and Sunday games to the Atlanta Braves while the two teams they were chasing (Baltimore and Toronto) got needed wins. In the previous series the final Detroit home game of the season, against the Indians, was rained out and rescheduled for the Monday after the regular end of the season, but only to be played if it had play - off implications for either team. With the Indians ' place in the playoffs determined and the Tigers more than a game out of Wild Card contention (2.5 games out), the game was left unplayed and both teams ended one short of a full schedule.
Mike Ilitch, the Tigers owner since 1992, died at the age of 87 on February 10, 2017. The team remains in an Ilitch family trust, under the leadership of Mike 's son, Christopher Ilitch. Like the Detroit Red Wings, the Tigers honored their owner in multiple ways, the most prominent being a "Mr. I '' uniform patch.
After a disappointing record through the All - Star break, the Tigers began committing to a rebuild, trading J.D. Martinez, Alex Avila and Justin Wilson in July, plus Justin Upton and Justin Verlander in August. On September 22, the Tigers announced that the team would not extend manager Brad Ausmus 's contract past the 2017 season, ending his four - year tenure as the Tigers manager. Under the management of Ausmus, the Tigers had a record of 314 -- 332 (. 486 winning percentage) and won one AL Central division title in 2014. The Tigers went 6 -- 24 in September, ending the season in a tie for the worst record in MLB with the San Francisco Giants, but gaining the number one pick in the 2018 MLB Draft.
On October 20, 2017, the Tigers announced that Ron Gardenhire and the team had reached a three - year agreement for the former Minnesota Twins skipper to succeed Brad Ausmus as the team 's manager.
There are various legends about how the Tigers got their nickname. One involves the orange stripes they wore on their black stockings. Tigers manager George Stallings took credit for the name; however, the name appeared in newspapers before Stallings was manager. Another legend concerns a sportswriter equating the 1901 team 's opening day victory with the ferocity of his alma mater, the Princeton Tigers.
Richard Bak, in his 1998 book, A Place for Summer: A Narrative History of Tiger Stadium, pp. 46 -- 49, explains that the name originated from the Detroit Light Guard military unit, who were known as "The Tigers ''. They had played significant roles in certain Civil War battles and in the 1898 Spanish -- American War. The baseball team was still informally called both "Wolverines '' and "Tigers '' in the news. The earliest known use of the name "Tigers '' in the media was in the Detroit Free Press on April 16, 1895. Upon entry into the majors, the ballclub sought and received formal permission from the Light Guard to use its trademark. From that day forth, the team has been officially called the Tigers.
The Tigers ' rivalries with other baseball franchises have changed throughout the years, with no one rivalry standing out. The most notable of them are with regional neighbors Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox, and these are notable for brawls and division races between them.
The others are with nearby teams such as the Kansas City Royals, Minnesota Twins and the Toronto Blue Jays -- the latter a holdover from when the Tigers competed in the AL East. There are numerous Tigers fans throughout the state of Michigan, northwestern Ohio, Chicago, southwestern Ontario, as well as a small fan base in and around the Erie, Pennsylvania area, due in part to Detroit 's proximity to these regions as well as the presence of the Tigers ' Double - A affiliate Erie SeaWolves in northwestern Pennsylvania. The Detroit Tigers have their Triple - A affiliate Toledo Mud Hens in Toledo, Ohio in addition to their Double - A affiliate in Erie, Pennsylvania. The cities of Windsor and Sarnia, Ontario, have large fanbases of loyal Tigers fans. The Detroit Tigers continue to develop a strong and long line of baseball fans in Ontario; the majority of baseball fans in southwestern Ontario are considered Tigers loyalists.
Some are rivalries for first place during the regular season, with all American League teams until 1969, with American League East teams from 1969 to 1997, and with American League Central teams from 1998 until the present. Finally, some are rivalries with National League teams the Tigers have faced repeatedly in the World Series, such as the Chicago Cubs (four times) and St. Louis Cardinals (three times). Had the Cubs beaten the San Diego Padres in the 1984 NLCS, they would have faced the Tigers for a fifth time in the World Series.
The Pittsburgh Pirates, whom the Tigers faced in the 1909 World Series, is the team 's "natural rival '' in interleague play. It has become a popular rivalry for fans of both teams, due to Tigers ex-manager Jim Leyland having managed the Pirates from 1986 to 1996 (his two immediate successors in Pittsburgh, Gene Lamont and Lloyd McClendon, served on Leyland 's staff with the Tigers), the close proximity of Detroit to Pittsburgh, and the NHL rivalry between the Detroit Red Wings (who, like the Tigers, were owned by Mike Ilitch) and the Pittsburgh Penguins.
The Cleveland Indians have the Ohio Cup against the Cincinnati Reds, but prefer the rivalry within the American League Central division with the Detroit Tigers or, as the fans and Tom Hamilton like to call them, "Motown Kitty Cats ''. The rivalry with the Indians came to a head when the Tigers played the Indians at Progressive Field in Cleveland on August 7, 2013, with the teams 1 - 2 in the AL Central standings. Many Tigers fans who made the short trip to Cleveland started several "Let 's go Tigers! '' chants while the game was tied in the 9th inning. Irritated that their rivals were "taking over '' their home stadium, many Indians fans decided to combat the chant with a "Detroit 's bankrupt! '' chant, in reference to the city 's 2013 bankruptcy. Footage of the game from SportsTime Ohio that had the chants clearly audible quickly went viral, with many baseball fans on social media criticizing the Indians fans for the chant due to the circumstances of Detroit 's financial situation. The Tigers ended up defeating the Indians 6 - 5 in 14 innings.
During the 1968 season, the team was cheered on by the phrase, "Go Get ' Em Tigers '', which was made popular by a song of the same name written and recorded by Artie Fields. The previous year, "Sock It To ' Em, Tigers! '' was also popular in the city as the Tigers ' close pennant race with Boston coincided with the release of the single "Sock It To Me, Baby! '' by Mitch Ryder & The Detroit Wheels.
During the 1984 World Series championship run, the team was cheered on to the cry, "Bless You Boys, '' a phrase coined by sports caster Al Ackerman.
For the 2006 season, with the team going into July with the best record in baseball, the phrase "Restore the Roar '' (a phrase first introduced in 1990 by then - Detroit Lions Head Coach Wayne Fontes) began to catch on, referring to the fact that the Tigers had not had a winning season since 1993 and seem to be returning to their former glory. Another 2006 phrase found in several Detroit commercials was "Who 's your Tiger? '' A popular rally cry for the Detroit Pistons has also been adapted for the Tigers, resulting in "Deee - troit Base - ball! ''
A second rally cry also caught on in the Tigers ' dugout in 2006. In a June game versus the New York Yankees, Tigers pitcher Nate Robertson was featured on FSN Detroit 's "Sounds of the Game '', in which the TV station will mic a player on the bench or a coach. To appease the fans, Nate began to stuff Big League Chew bubble gum into his mouth, hoping to spark a late - inning rally. The trend caught on, with Jeremy Bonderman, Zach Miner and Justin Verlander all chewing from time to time. The Tigers came back to tie the game, and the phrase "It 's Gum Time '' became the new "Rally - cap '' for all of Tigertown.
Additionally, the chant of a local man, the late James Earl Van Horn, who patrolled the streets around Comerica Park yelling out "Eat ' Em Up Tigers! Eat ' Em Up! '', has begun to make its way into the park. The chant originated in 1968 when the Tigers won their third World Series, "Eat ' em Up '' referring to the St. Louis Cardinals. People have even been seen wearing James Van Horn 's homemade shirts with the cheer written on the back as far away as Miller Park in Milwaukee.
During the 2006 playoffs the phrase "Team of Destiny '' appeared on several homemade signs, and became a rallying cry for the post season. The signs featured the "Olde English '' (blackletter) "D '' in place of the standard "D '' in destiny.
In 2009, the team used the phrase "Always a Tiger '' as its slogan. This slogan remained in effect for 2010, even though the team lost many key players in the offseason. With the deaths of George Kell, Mark Fidrych, Ernie Harwell and Sparky Anderson, the slogan has new appreciation, for players and personalities of the team 's history.
In 2011, the slogan was switched back to Who 's Your Tiger?
The Tigers have worn essentially the same home uniform since 1934 -- solid white jersey with navy blue piping down the front and an Old English "D '' on the left chest, white pants, navy blue hat with a white letter D in the blackletter or textur / textualis typeface associated with Middle and Early Modern English and popularly referred to as "Old English '' even though it was not used for that language. When the Tigers are the visiting team, the D on their hats is orange and the word "DETROIT '' appears across the shirt. A version of the team 's blackletter D was first seen on Tigers uniforms in 1904, after using a simple block D in 1903. The blackletter D appeared frequently after that until being established in 1934. In 1960, the Tigers changed their uniform to read "Tigers '', but the change only lasted one season before the traditional uniform was reinstated.
In 1995, the Tigers introduced an alternate jersey, solid navy blue with the team 's alternate logo (a tiger stepping through the "D '') on the chest. It was worn for one home game, paired with new white pants with navy blue pinstripes. After the loss, the uniform was retired and never worn again.
The Tigers use slightly different versions of the initial logo on the cap and jersey.
In 2018, the Tigers changed the classic curved Old English D logo on their home uniforms to match that of the sharp cornered hat logo; additionally, the size of the logo on the cap also became enlarged.
Unique characteristics of Tigers uniform:
Alternate jerseys:
The Tigers wear a white and navy blue home jersey with "Tigres '' across the chest for their annual "¡ Fiesta Tigres! '' game to recognize and honor the contributions of Hispanic and Latino players and coaches to the game of baseball.
Like all of MLB, the Tigers wear a highly stylized and brightly colored jersey for Players Weekend. In the inaugural games from August 25 -- 27, 2017, their away jerseys were grey with bright orange with "Tigers '' on the chest, the orange cap had a tiger instead of the Old English "D '' on it. Players are also encouraged to use nicknames on the back of their jerseys.
Sparky Anderson Earl Averill Ed Barrow Jim Bunning Ty Cobb Mickey Cochrane Sam Crawford
Larry Doby Billy Evans Rick Ferrell Charlie Gehringer Joe Gordon Goose Goslin
Hank Greenberg Bucky Harris Harry Heilmann Whitey Herzog Waite Hoyt
Hughie Jennings Al Kaline George Kell Heinie Manush Eddie Mathews Jack Morris
Hal Newhouser Iván Rodríguez Al Simmons Sam Thompson Alan Trammell
Ernie Harwell
This is how the retired numbers and Honored names are displayed on the outfield walls at Comerica Park:
In left field:
In right field:
Players with retired numbers (and Ty Cobb) also have statues of themselves that sit behind their names, which are painted on the left - center field wall.
National Avenue, which runs behind the third - base stands at the Tigers ' previous home Tiger Stadium, was renamed Cochrane Avenue for Mickey Cochrane. Cherry Street, which runs behind the left - field stands at Tiger Stadium, was renamed Kaline Drive for Al Kaline.
While Cochrane was honored in 2000, the ceremony honoring Cochrane and Kell did not include the retirement of Cochrane 's number 3; the number 3 had not been retired for Dick McAuliffe or Alan Trammell either, although number 3 had only been issued three times since Trammell retired as a player after the 1996 season: to Trammell himself when he managed the Tigers from 2003 to 2005, Gary Sheffield (after Trammell approved of it from 2007 until he was released prior to the 2009 season). Sheffield had previously worn the numbers 1, 5, 10, and 11. The number was most recently worn by Ian Kinsler, who was acquired after the 2013 season in a trade with the Texas Rangers for Prince Fielder; he wore 3 until being traded to the Los Angeles Angels after the 2017 season. Similarly, the number 1 was last worn by Lou Whitaker in 1995, the year Whitaker retired as a player. It was not reissued again until 2013, when mid-season acquisition José Iglesias requested it. The number 47, last worn by Jack Morris, had not been issued since 1990, Morris ' last year with the Tigers.
The Tigers announced that they will retire Trammell 's No. 3 on August 26, 2018 and Morris ' No. 47 on August 12, 2018.
Pitchers Starting rotation
Bullpen
Closer
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Designated hitters
Pitchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
60 - day disabled list
7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated June 16, 2018 Transactions Depth chart
The Tigers ' current flagship radio stations are Detroit sister stations WXYT (1270 AM) and WXYT - FM (97.1 FM). Dan Dickerson does play - by - play and former Tigers catcher Jim Price does color commentary. Games are carried on both stations unless a conflict with Detroit Lions, or Detroit Red Wings coverage arises, in which case only WXYT (the AM station) serves as the Tigers ' flagship. Games are syndicated throughout Michigan and in portions of Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin.
The Tigers ' current exclusive local television rights holder is Fox Sports Detroit. Mario Impemba does play - by - play with former outfielder Rod Allen handling color commentary. Impemba can be joined by former outfielder Kirk Gibson instead of Allen. During the 2016 season, the Tigers averaged a 7.56 rating and 138,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts.
|
who choreographed i'm a slave 4 u | I 'm a Slave 4 U - wikipedia
"I 'm a Slave 4 U '' is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her third and eponymous studio album, Britney (2001). It was released on September 24, 2001 through Jive Records as the lead single off the record. The track was written and produced by Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams, known collectively as The Neptunes.
"I 'm a Slave 4 U '' garnered mixed reception from music critics. Some critics argued it was the singer 's most mature sound at the time compared to her previous singles, while other noticed the song 's attempt to leave behind Spears ' girl next door image and said her vocals were unnatural. "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' achieved commercial success, peaking inside the top - ten in almost every country that it charted on. However, the song peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number 85 in Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs, both being the lowest chart positions of the single worldwide.
A music video for the single, which was directed by Francis Lawrence, was released along with the single released. It features Spears dancing in a sauna. Spears ' performance of the song at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards in New York City was highly criticized by animal rights group PETA for the inclusion of exotic animals. Spears performed the song on every tour since its release, including the promotional The M + M 's Tour. The song was also featured on the 2002 compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music! 9.
"I 'm a Slave 4 U '' was written and produced by Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo, also known as The Neptunes, who also collaborated with Spears on another track from Britney, "Boys '' (2002). Both recordings were originally intended for American singer Janet Jackson 's seventh studio album, All for You (2001), with her recording an unreleased demo version of the latter before handing the track to Spears. "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' was recorded by Andrew Cleman at Master Sound Studios in Virginia Beach, Virginia and by Brian Garten at Right Track Studios in New York City, being later mixed by Serban Ghenea in New York City. Audio engineering was done by Ryan Smith and Tim Roberts. After reading the lyrics for the first time, Spears stated it talks "about me just wanting to go out and forget who I am and dance and have a good time. That 's kinda where I am now right now. I love working, but at the same time, I love having a good time. ''
The urban song is backed with breathy and moaning vocals and scratching. The soundscape of the song has been noted to be similar to Vanity 6 's 1982 's song "Nasty Girl. ''
The song was met with mixed reviews by critics. A review from NME magazine stated that "the song is funk the way God intended -- hypnotic, insistent, mysterious, suggestive -- and if Prince was a nineteen - year - old former Disney Club host and virgin, he 'd be proud to create such a record ''. Another review from and Allmusic agreed that "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' was a step towards a more mature sound. Bill Lamb from About.com listed at number nine, on her Top 10 Songs, saying: "By the time of this single off her third album, it was obvious Britney Spears was becoming an adult. This song is a radical shift from the "not quite innocent '' 16 - year - old schoolgirl of Britney 's first album. Slinky and sexy have crept into the Britney Spears style ".
"I 'm a Slave 4 U '' received several comparisons to Janet Jackson, with one critic noting "Spears ' main musical and visual influence has not been Madonna but Janet Jackson ''. "But Jackson 's not the only influence to appear on "Slave: '' the Neptunes ' minimal, electronic production and Spears ' breathy, cooing delivery create a track that smacks of Prince. '' "Spears, on the other hand, became more and more interesting -- and enjoyable -- as she continued to explore elements of Janet Jackson and Prince throughout her career. '' Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo! Music wrote "' Slave, ' written and produced by the Neptunes and originally intended for OG pop bombshell Janet Jackson, evoked the old - school sexcapades of Prince and his protégés Vanity 6 -- and in many ways, it was a real artistic leap. ''
"I 'm a Slave 4 U '' peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the issue date of December 1, 2001, becoming Spears ' first lead single from an album not to crack the U.S. top ten. The track also became a top 30 hit on the Hot 100 Airplay, but just barely made into the Hot 100 Singles Sales peaking at number 73. The low sales points are due mostly because of the song 's 12 - inch single release instead of a competitive regular CD single. Despite the little sales, "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' became Spears ' first dance hit, reaching number four on the Hot Dance Club Play chart. It is also her first and, so far, only song to appear on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart, peaking at number 85. In Europe "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' was more successful, becoming a top ten hit in nearly every country that it charted in, including big markets such as Germany and France, where it was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique for selling over 125,000 copies. The track spent two weeks at number - five on the European Hot 100 Singles chart provided by magazine Music and Media at the time. "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' peaked at number - four on the official UK Singles Chart and spent a total of 14 weeks within the top 75 and sold over 150,000 copies. In the Pacific, the track was somewhat successful, debuting at number seven on the Australian Singles Chart. Despite spending a very short period on the chart, eight weeks, it was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 35,000 units. In New Zealand, "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' debuted at number 46 on November 4, 2001 and missed the top ten, peaking at number 13 in its third week. The song spent just six weeks on the chart.
The music video was shot on a soundstage in Universal City, California, over Labor Day weekend (Sep. 1 -- 2), under the direction of Francis Lawrence, and is one of Britney 's most risqué videos ever. It made its world premiere on MTV 's Making the Video on September 24 at 5 p.m. EST, the same day the song officially hit the American radio stations, and debuted at number one on Total Request Live two days later. The video also made its world premiere on BET 's 106 & Park on October 16, 2001, making Spears the only white artist to get rotation on an African - American show. It was choreographed by Wade Robson and Crystal Chewning, though some of the dancing was choreographed by Puerto - Rican dancer and Prince 's ex-wife Mayte Garcia, who taught Spears bellydancing for the video.
In the video, Spears and fifteen dancers employ the same choreography seen in her with Spears looking over a balcony whilst singing with cars down in the distance. Spears is portrayed as a slave to the music who dances all day until she and the other dancers are sweaty and near dehydration, forcing them to search for water, Spears is standing by a mirror at the sink. Two alternative versions of the video clip can be found on the Greatest Hits: My Prerogative DVD released on November 9, 2004. The music video was nominated in three categories at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Female Video, Best Dance Video, and Best Choreography. The video clip for "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' was noted for its influence from Janet Jackson, with one review saying "Spears ' main musical and visual influence has not been Madonna but Janet Jackson, particularly in her visual element. The Jackson influence can be seen in the video for ' I 'm A Slave 4 U ', and it continues through ' Me Against the Music, ' ' Boys, ' and ' My Prerogative, ' as well as her live performances in general. '' The video ranked # 1 in the list of the "50 Sexiest Music Videos of All - Time '' published by Canadian music channel MuchMusic in 2007. An official remix video used the "Miguel Migs Petalpusher Vocal Mix '' was also released. There are another 2 unreleased remix videos using the Thunderpuss Club Mix and the Thunderpuss Dark Mix. Nearly 10 years later in 2011, the video would be compared to her "Till The World Ends '' music video. Several references from the "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' video were made in the video for "Till The World Ends '', such as the dancers crowding around her and the sweaty dancers scene.
Spears first performed "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City on September 6, 2001. The performance featured a number of exotic animals, including a white tiger and a live albino Burmese Python on her shoulders. The inclusion of the animals in the performance brought a great deal of criticism from animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). In August 2008, MTV named the performance the most memorable moment in VMA history. Other performances include several television appearances to promote her third album, Britney. She performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on October 11, The Rosie O'Donnell Show on November 5 and the Late Show with David Letterman on November 6. A special named Total Britney was made by MTV on November 3, where the singer performed the song with "Stronger '' and "I 'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman ''. A month later, Spears opened the 2001 Billboard Music Awards in Las Vegas on December 4 with a performance of the track on a stage inside the fountains of the Bellagio Hotel. 15 years later, at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards, the song was once again performed at the award show as part of a medley, on May 22, 2016. The song was also included in Spears 's setlist for the iHeartRadio Music Festival on September 24, 2016. She also performed the song as part of her Apple Music Festival performance in London on September 27, 2016.
Notably, the song was performed at the National Mall in Washington, D.C., to kick off the 2003 National Football League season. Spears performed the track on her latest five tours, Dream Within a Dream (2001 - 2002), The Onyx Hotel (2004), The M + M 's Tour (2007), The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009), The Femme Fatale Tour (2011), and on her residency concert Britney: Piece of Me (2013 - 2017).
"I 'm a Slave 4 U '' was covered by the musical television show Glee in the episode "Britney / Brittany '' sung by Heather Morris in her singing debut. In a dream sequence, Morris 's character Brittany S. Pierce sings the number, while recreating several iconic looks from Spears 's videos: the red catsuit from "Oops!... I Did It Again '', the outfit with a snake from Spears 's "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' performance at the VMA 's, and the white diamond bodysuit from "Toxic ''. Morris also performed the song during the live 2011 Glee Tour.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
|
which commonwealth countries can vote in the uk | Commonwealth citizen - wikipedia
In general, a Commonwealth citizen is a person who has that status under British nationality law and may enjoy some privileges in the United Kingdom and less commonly, other Commonwealth countries. Each country can determine what special rights, if any, are accorded to non-nationals who are Commonwealth citizens. The term is largely confined to British nationality law and is not used in many other Commonwealth countries such as Australia.
In British nationality law, a Commonwealth citizen is a person who is either a British citizen, British Overseas Territories citizen, British Overseas citizen, British subject, British National (Overseas) or a national of a country listed in Schedule 3 of the British Nationality Act 1981 (see below). Under the law, British protected persons are not Commonwealth citizens. The list of countries in Schedule 3 at any time may not accurately reflect the countries actually within the Commonwealth at that time. For example, when Fiji left the Commonwealth in 1987 and 1990, its name was not removed from Schedule 3. This may have happened because the British Government at the time wished to avoid the consequences of Fijian citizens in the United Kingdom suddenly losing the benefits of Commonwealth citizenship.
In the United Kingdom, Commonwealth citizens (together with Irish citizens and British protected persons) are in law considered not to be "foreign '' or "aliens '', although British protected persons do not have all the civic rights that are enjoyed by Commonwealth and Irish citizens. This reasoning has not carried over to some other Commonwealth countries -- for example, in the High Court of Australia case of Sue v Hill, other Commonwealth countries were held to be foreign powers, while in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be ' aliens '. In the United Kingdom, Commonwealth and Irish citizens enjoy the same civic rights as British citizens, namely:
The disabilities of Commonwealth citizens who are not British citizens are few but, in the case of immigration control, very important. Commonwealth citizens (including British nationals who are not British citizens) who do not have the right of abode are subject to immigration control, including control on the right to work and carry out business. In addition, Commonwealth citizens who are not British citizens may not be engaged in certain sensitive occupations, e.g., in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, in the intelligence services, and some positions within the armed forces.
Nevertheless, under the United Kingdom 's immigration arrangements Commonwealth citizens enjoy certain advantages:
Countries whose citizens are Commonwealth citizens under Schedule 3 of the British Nationality Act 1981, although the list may not reflect the actual current membership in the Commonwealth, are as follows:
For electoral purposes, the whole of Cyprus is considered to be a Commonwealth country; hence, anyone who holds a Cypriot passport or a Northern Cypriot passport is considered to be a Commonwealth citizen (but not a person who is solely a Turkish citizen without any form of Cypriot nationality).
The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013 and was removed from the schedule on 12 November 2015 by virtue of The British Nationality (The Gambia) Order 2015. The new Gambian government elected in 2017 has stated that it will apply to re-join.
Although the rights and privileges (if any) for non-national Commonwealth citizens differ from country to country, a number of Commonwealth countries grant them more privileges than ' aliens ' (i.e. non-Commonwealth foreign nationals), but not the full privileges enjoyed by the country 's own nationals.
The following Commonwealth countries allow citizens from other Commonwealth countries to vote:
All British Crown Dependencies allow citizens from Commonwealth countries to vote:
The following Overseas Territories of the United Kingdom allow citizens from Commonwealth countries to vote:
Some Commonwealth countries offer visa - free entry for short visits made by Commonwealth citizens. Some Commonwealth countries continue to allow Commonwealth citizens from other countries to become nationals / local citizens by registration rather than naturalisation, upon preferential terms, e.g. with a shorter required period of residency, although this practice has been discontinued in some countries such as New Zealand and Malta.
In March 2013, it was announced by Nigeria 's Foreign Affairs Minister, Ambassador Olugbenga Ashiru, that a visa free regime is being contemplated by Commonwealth countries for its members to strengthen trade and investment among member nations. As a prelude to accomplishing this, the council of ministers is to present a proposal for the exemption of holders of official and diplomatic passports from visa requirements at the next Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, CHOGOM, scheduled to hold in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
The announcement came in the wake of a meeting between Ashiru and the Secretary General of the Commonwealth, Kamalesh Sharma, in Abuja. At the meeting Ashiru and Sharma discussed proposals to make the Commonwealth more relevant to its citizens across the globe including ways the Commonwealth could ease free movement across member countries, strengthen institutions, enhance education, create job opportunities, facilitate development and enhance the living standard of the citizens across the countries of the Commonwealth.
Ashiru said, "We also discussed the issue of free movement to promote people to people contact within the Commonwealth. In the past, it used to be that holders of Commonwealth passports could travel within the Commonwealth countries easily without having to go and queue for visas. We are now thinking for ways to ensure that we bring back this old tradition of the Commonwealth. Already, the council of ministers have recommended for approval at the next CHOGOM meeting in Colombo the exemption of holders of official and diplomatic passports within the Commonwealth from the requirement of a visa if they are travelling within the Commonwealth. ''
When approved, he said, other categories of professionals and businessmen would be recommended for similar privileges.
In foreign (i.e. non-Commonwealth) countries, the British embassy or consulate is traditionally responsible for Commonwealth citizens whose governments are not represented in the country concerned. A few Commonwealth governments have made alternative arrangements to share the burden, such as the Canada - Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement, hence for Canadian and Australian citizens, the British embassy or consulate only provides assistance if neither country is represented. In return, there are a few Australian consulates that are responsible for British nationals because there is no British consulate there. Some Commonwealth governments, such as Singapore and Tanzania, have opted not to receive consular assistance from the United Kingdom.
In other Commonwealth countries, British High Commissions accept no responsibility for unrepresented Commonwealth citizens, who should look to the host Commonwealth government for quasi-consular assistance. Canadian and Australian citizens are still able to seek consular assistance from each other 's high commissions. Additionally, Canadian citizens can seek consular assistance at any British embassy or high commission where Canada is not represented.
Commonwealth citizens outside the UK are eligible to apply for a British emergency travel document if they need to travel urgently and their passport has been lost / stolen / expired (as long as the FCO has cleared this with the government of the Commonwealth citizen 's home country).
When a British embassy or consulate in a foreign country is required to provide a replacement passport to a Commonwealth citizen whose government is unrepresented in that country, it will issue a British passport with the nationality of the holder marked as "Commonwealth citizen ''.
Some Commonwealth governments issue travel documents to Commonwealth citizens resident in their countries who are unable to obtain national passports. For example, the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade issues Documents of Identity (DOI) for compassionate reasons to Commonwealth citizens resident in Australia who are unable to obtain a valid travel document for the country or countries of which he / she has nationality when he / she needs to travel urgently.
Open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Nagorno - Karabakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
|
functions of the different parts of the kidney | Kidney - wikipedia
The kidneys are two bean - shaped organs found on the left and right sides of the body in vertebrates. They are located at the back of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space. In adults they are about 11 centimetres (4.3 in) in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder...
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult kidney contains around one million nephrons. The nephron utilizes four processes to alter the blood plasma which flows to it: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion. Via one or more of these mechanisms, the kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluid compartments, fluid osmolality, acid - base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one - fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute - free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid. Examples of substances that are excreted are urea, ammonium, and uric acid. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephron. For example, they convert a precursor of vitamin D to its active form - calcitriol - and synthesize the hormones erythropoietin and renin.
Renal physiology is the study of kidney function. Nephrology is the medical specialty which addresses diseases of kidney function: these include chronic kidney disease, nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, acute kidney injury, and pyelonephritis. Urology addresses diseases of kidney (and urinary tract) anatomy: these include cancer, renal cysts, kidney stones and ureteral stones, and urinary tract obstruction.
Procedures used in the management of kidney disease include chemical and microscopic examination of the urine (urinalysis), measurement of kidney function by calculating the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) using the serum creatinine; and kidney biopsy and CT scan to evaluate for abnormal anatomy. Dialysis and kidney transplantation are used to treat renal failure; one (or both sequentially) of these are almost always used when renal function drops below 15 %. Nephrectomy is frequently used to cure renal cell carcinoma.
In humans, the kidneys are located high in the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the spine, and lie in a retroperitoneal position at a slightly oblique angle. The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the liver, typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney. The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3, and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver. The left sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen. On top of each kidney is an adrenal gland. The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the perirenal fat present between renal fascia and renal capsule and pararenal fat superior to the renal fascia.
The kidney is a bean - shaped structure with a convex and a concave border. A recessed area on the concave border is the renal hilum, where the renal artery enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule, which is itself surrounded by perirenal fat, renal fascia, and pararenal fat. The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) surface is the transversalis fascia.
The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver. For the left kidney, it is next to the spleen. Both, therefore, move down upon inhalation.
In adult males, the kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115 and 155 grams. A Danish study measured the median renal length to be 11.2 cm (4.4 in) on the left side and 10.9 cm (4.3 in) on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm on the left and 134 cm on the right.
The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone - shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid. Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns. Nephrons, the urine - producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct.
The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx; minor calyces empty into major calyces, and major calyces empty into the renal pelvis. This becomes the ureter. At the hilum, the ureter and renal vein exit the kidney and the renal artery enters. Hilar fat and lymphatic tissue with lymph nodes surrounds these structures. The hilar fat is contiguous with a fat - filled cavity called the renal sinus. The renal sinus collectively contains the renal pelvis and calyces and separates these structures from the renal medullary tissue.
The kidneys possess no overtly moving structures
The renal circulation supplies the blood to the kidneys via the renal arteries, left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20 % of the cardiac output.
Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli.
After filtration occurs, the blood moves through a small network of venules that converge into interlobular veins. As with the arteriole distribution, the veins follow the same pattern: the interlobular provide blood to the arcuate veins then back to the interlobar veins, which come to form the renal vein exiting the kidney for transfusion for blood.
The table below shows the path that blood takes when it travels through the glomerulus, traveling "down '' the arteries and "up '' the veins. However, this model is greatly simplified for clarity and symmetry. Some of the other paths and complications are described at the bottom of the table. The interlobar artery and vein (not to be confused with interlobular) are between two renal lobes, also known as the renal column (cortex region between two pyramids).
The kidney and nervous system communicate via the renal plexus, whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney. Input from the sympathetic nervous system triggers vasoconstriction in the kidney, thereby reducing renal blood flow. The kidney also receives input from the parasympathetic nervous system, by way of the renal branches of the vagus nerve; the function of this is yet unclear. Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10 - 11 levels of the spinal cord and is sensed in the corresponding dermatome. Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney.
Renal histology studies the microscopic structure of the kidney. Distinct cell types include:
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 70 % of these genes are expressed in normal, adult kidneys. Just over 300 genes are more specifically expressed in the kidney, with only some 50 genes being highly specific for the kidney. Many of the corresponding kidney specific proteins are expressed in the cell membrane and function as transporter proteins. The highest expressed kidney specific protein is uromodulin, the most abundant protein in urine with functions that prevent calcification and growth of bacteria. Specific proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the kidney with podocin and nephrin expressed in glomeruli, Solute carrier family protein SLC22A8 expressed in proximal tubules, calbindin expressed in distal tubules and aquaporin 2 expressed in the collecting duct cells.
The mammalian kidney develops from intermediate mesoderm. Kidney development, also called nephrogenesis, proceeds through a series of three successive developmental phases: the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. The metanephros are primordia of the permanent kidney.
The microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It processes the blood supplied to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of those processes is the production of urine.
Filtration, which takes place at the renal corpuscle, is the process by which cells and large proteins are filtered from the blood to make an ultrafiltrate that eventually becomes urine.It should be noted that untreated, dirty blood goes through glomurulus (arteriole network) where blood is pushed into the Bowman 's capsule. The kidney generates 180 liters of filtrate a day. The process is also known as Hydrostatic filtration as a lot of pressure by heart and artery forces water plasma to rush inside the tube (by Talal Arshad)
Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the peritubular capillary. It is accomplishedselective receptors on th luminal cell membrane. Water is 99 % reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. Glucose at normal plasma levels is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The mechanism for this is the Na / glucose cotransporter. A plasma level of 350 mg / dL will fully saturate the transporters and glucose will be lost in the urine. A plasma glucose level of approximately 160 is sufficient to allow glucosuria, which is an important clinical clue to diabetes mellitus. Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule. Hartnup disease is a deficiency of the tryptophan amino acid transporter, which results in pellagra.
Secretion is the reverse of reabsorption: molecules are transported from the peritubular capillary through the interstiial fluid, then through the renal tubular cell and into the ultrafiltrate.
The kidney participates in whole - body homeostasis, regulating acid - base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide, among others.
The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism into the urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate countercurrent multiplication mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive countercurrent exchange by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.
Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid - base homeostasis, which is the maintenance of pH around a relatively stable value. The lungs contribute to acid - base homeostasis by regulating carbon dioxide (CO) concentration. The kidneys have two very important roles in maintaining the acid - base balance: to reabsorb and regenerate bicarbonate from urine, and to excrete hydrogen ions and fixed acids (anions of acids) into urine.
Maintaining water and salt level of the body. Any significant rise in plasma osmolality is detected by the hypothalamus, which communicates directly with the posterior pituitary gland. An increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels.
ADH binds to principal cells in the collecting duct that translocate aquaporins to the membrane, allowing water to leave the normally impermeable membrane and be reabsorbed into the body by the vasa recta, thus increasing the plasma volume of the body.
There are two systems that create a hyperosmotic medulla and thus increase the body plasma volume: Urea recycling and the ' single effect. '
Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However, when plasma blood volume is low and ADH is released the aquaporins that are opened are also permeable to urea. This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla creating a hyperosmotic solution that ' attracts ' water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not.
The ' single effect ' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to sodium chloride. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the collecting duct be opened by ADH.
Although the kidney can not directly sense blood, long - term regulation of blood pressure predominantly depends upon the kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the extracellular fluid compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma sodium concentration. Renin is the first in a series of important chemical messengers that make up the renin - angiotensin system. Changes in renin ultimately alter the output of this system, principally the hormones angiotensin II and aldosterone. Each hormone acts via multiple mechanisms, but both increase the kidney 's absorption of sodium chloride, thereby expanding the extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When renin levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and aldosterone increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption, expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood pressure. Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and aldosterone levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid compartment, and decreasing blood pressure.
The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, and the enzyme renin. Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow. Calcitriol, the activated form of vitamin D, promotes intestinal absorption of calcium and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Part of the renin -- angiotensin -- aldosterone system, renin is an enzyme involved in the regulation of aldosterone levels.
Calculations of kidney performance are an important part of physiology and can be estimated using the calculations below.
The filtration fraction is the amount of plasma that is actually filtered through the kidney. This can be defined using the equation:
FF = GFR / RPF
Normal human FF is 20 %.
Renal clearance is the volume of plasma from which the substance is completely cleared from the blood per unit time.
C = (U) V / P
The kidney is a very complex organ and mathematical modelling has been used to better understand kidney function at several scales, including fluid uptake and secretion.
Kidney disease, is kidney disease or damage to a kidney. Nephrosis is non-inflammatory nephropathy and nephritis is inflammatory kidney disease. Nephrology is the speciality that deals with kidney function and disease. Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as renal and the prefix nephro -. The adjective renal, meaning related to the kidney, is from the Latin rēnēs, meaning kidneys; the prefix nephro - is from the Ancient Greek word for kidney, nephros (νεφρός). For example, surgical removal of the kidney is a nephrectomy, while a reduction in kidney function is called renal dysfunction.
Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop chronic kidney disease. Renal replacement therapy, in the form of dialysis or kidney transplantation, is indicated when the glomerular filtration rate has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.
Many renal diseases are diagnosed on the basis of a detailed medical history, and physical examination. The medical history takes into account present and past symptoms, especially those of kidney disease; recent infections; exposure to substances toxic to the kidney; and family history of kidney disease.
Kidney function is tested for using blood tests and urine tests. A usual blood test is for urea and electrolytes, known as a U and E. Creatinine is also tested for. Urine tests such as urinalysis can evaluate for pH, protein, glucose, and the presence of blood. Microscopic analysis can also identify the presence of urinary casts and crystals. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) can be calculated.
Imaging studies are important in the evaluation of structural renal disease caused by urinary tract obstruction, renal stones, renal cyst, mass lesions, renal vascular disease, and vesicoureteral reflux.
Imaging techniques used most frequently include renal ultrasound and helical CT scan. Patients with suspected vesicoureteral reflux may undergo voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG).
The role of the renal biopsy is to diagnose renal disease in which the etiology is not clear based upon noninvasive means (clinical history, past medical history, medication history, physical exam, laboratory studies, imaging studies). In general, a renal pathologist will perform a detailed morphological evaluation and integrate the morphologic findings with the clinical history and laboratory data, ultimately arriving at a pathological diagnosis. A renal pathologist is a physician who has undergone general training in anatomic pathology and additional specially training in the interpretation of renal biopsy specimens.
Ideally, multiple core sections are obtained and evaluated for adequacy (presence of glomeruli) intraoperatively. A pathologist / pathology assistant divides the specimen (s) for submission for light microscopy, immunofluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy.
The pathologist will examine the specimen using light microscopy with multiple staining techniques (hematoxylin and eosin / H&E, PAS, trichrome, silver stain) on multiple level sections. Multiple immunofluorescence stains are performed to evaluate for antibody, protein and complement deposition. Finally, ultra-structural examination is performed with electron microscopy and may reveal the presence of electron - dense deposits or other characteristic abnormalities that may suggest an etiology for the patient 's renal disease.
In the majority of vertebrates, the mesonephros persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced metanephros; only in amniotes is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of fish and amphibians are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an archinephric duct, which is homologous with the vas deferens of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in cartilaginous fish and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.
In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfish and lampreys, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys '', but, even in Amphioxus, these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as nephridia. In amphibians, kidneys and the urinary bladder harbour specialized parasites, monogeneans of the family Polystomatidae.
The kidneys of reptiles consist of a number of lobules arranged in a broadly linear pattern. Each lobule contains a single branch of the ureter in its centre, into which the collecting ducts empty. Reptiles have relatively few nephrons compared with other amniotes of a similar size, possibly because of their lower metabolic rate.
Birds have relatively large, elongated kidneys, each of which is divided into three or more distinct lobes. The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals.
The human kidney is fairly typical of that of mammals. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short intermediate segment between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney '' shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds and cetaceans.
Kidneys of various animals show evidence of evolutionary adaptation and have long been studied in ecophysiology and comparative physiology. Kidney morphology, often indexed as the relative medullary thickness, is associated with habitat aridity among species of mammals, and diet (e.g., carnivores have only long loops of Henle).
The kidneys, like other offal, can be cooked and eaten.
Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed, but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor. In many preparations, kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver, as in mixed grill. Dishes include the British steak and kidney pie, the Swedish hökarpanna (pork and kidney stew), the French rognons de veau sauce moutarde (veal kidneys in mustard sauce) and the Spanish riñones al Jerez (kidneys stewed in sherry sauce).
The Latin term renes is related to the English word "reins '', a synonym for the kidneys in Shakespearean English (e.g. Merry Wives of Windsor 3.5), which was also the time when the King James Version of the Bible was translated. Kidneys were once popularly regarded as the seat of the conscience and reflection, and a number of verses in the Bible (e.g. Ps. 7: 9, Rev. 2: 23) state that God searches out and inspects the kidneys, or "reins '', of humans, together with the heart. Similarly, the Talmud (Berakhoth 61. a) states that one of the two kidneys counsels what is good, and the other evil.
According to studies in modern and ancient Hebrew, various body organs in humans and animals served also an emotional or logical role, today mostly attributed to the brain and the endocrine system. The kidney is mentioned in several biblical verses in conjunction with the heart, much as the bowels were understood to be the "seat '' of emotion - grief, joy and pain.
In the sacrifices offered at the biblical Tabernacle and later on at the temple in Jerusalem, the priests were instructed to remove the kidneys and the adrenal gland covering the kidneys of the sheep, goat and cattle offerings, and to burn them on the altar, as the holy part of the "offering for God '' never to be eaten.
In ancient India, according to the Ayurvedic medical systems, the kidneys were considered the beginning of the excursion channels system, the ' head ' of the Mutra Srotas, receiving from all other systems, and therefore important in determining a person 's health balance and temperament by the balance and mixture of the three ' Dosha 's - the three health elements: Vatha (or Vata) - air, Pitta - bile, and Kapha - mucus. The temperament and health of a person can then be seen in the resulting color of the urine.
Modern Ayurveda practitioners, a practice which is characterized as pseudoscience, have attempted to revive these methods in medical procedures as part of Ayurveda Urine therapy. These procedures have been called "nonsensical '' by skeptics.
In ancient Egypt, the kidneys, like the heart, were left inside the mummified bodies, unlike other organs which were removed. Comparing this to the biblical statements, and to drawings of human body with the heart and two kidneys portraying a set of scales for weighing justice, it seems that the Egyptian beliefs had also connected the kidneys with judgement and perhaps with moral decisions.
Kidney Posterior View
Anterior relation of Left Kidney
Structure of a Kidney
Kidney Anatomy
Kidneys of a mammal after the technique of vinylite and corrosion.
Kidney Cross Section
Right Kidney
Kidney
Right Kidney
Right kidney
Left kidney
Kidneys
Left kidney
|
what was the title of george’s 1st #1 song at country radio | George Strait - wikipedia
George Harvey Strait (born May 18, 1952) is an American country music singer, songwriter, actor, and music producer. He is known as the "King of Country '' and is considered one of the most influential and popular recording artists of all time. He is known for his neotraditionalist country style, cowboy look, and being one of the first and main country artists to bring country music back to its roots and away from the pop country era in the 1980s.
Strait 's success began when his first single "Unwound '' was a hit in 1981. During the 1980s, seven of his albums reached number one on the country charts. In the 2000s, Strait was named Artist of the Decade by the Academy of Country Music, was elected into the Country Music Hall of Fame, and won his first Grammy award for the album Troubadour. Strait was named CMA Entertainer of the Year in 1989, 1990 and 2013, and ACM Entertainer of the Year in 1990 and 2014. He has been nominated for more CMA and ACM awards and has more wins in both categories than any other artist.
By 2009, he broke Conway Twitty 's previous record for the most number - one hits on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart when his 44 number one singles surpassed Twitty 's 40. Counting all music charts, Strait has amassed a total of 60 number - one hits, breaking a record also previously set by Twitty, and giving him more number one songs than any other artist in any genre of music.
Strait is also known for his touring career when he designed a 360 - degree configuration and introduced festival style tours. For example, the Strait Tours earned $99 million in three years. His concert at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, TX in June 2014 drew 104,793 people, marking a new record for largest indoor concert in North America. Strait was successful innovating country music and in numerous aspects of being a part of popular music.
Strait has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making him one of the best - selling music artists of all time. His certifications from the RIAA include 13 multi-platinum, 33 platinum, and 38 gold albums. His best - selling album is Pure Country (1992), which sold 6 million (6 × platinum). His highest certified album is Strait Out of the Box (1995), which sold 2 million copies (8 × Platinum due to being a box set with four CDs). According to the RIAA, Strait is the 12th best - selling album recording artist in the United States overall.
George Harvey Strait was born on May 18, 1952, in Poteet, Texas, to John Byron Strait, Sr. (January 11, 1922 -- June 4, 2013), and Doris Jean Couser (June 26, 1930 -- January 30, 2010). He grew up in nearby Pearsall, in Frio County, where his father was a junior high school mathematics teacher and the owner of a 2,000 - acre (810 ha) cattle ranch outside of Big Wells, Texas. The family worked at the ranch on the weekends and in the summers. When George was in the fourth grade, his father and mother were divorced, and his mother moved away with his sister, Pency. George and his brother John, Jr., or "Buddy '' (1950 -- 2009), were raised by their father.
Strait began his musical interest while attending Pearsall High School, where he played in a rock and roll garage band. The Beatles were popular when Strait was in high school. "The Beatles were big '', Strait confirmed. "I listened to them a lot and that whole bunch of groups that were popular then ''. His musical preference soon turned to country with singers Hank Thompson, Lefty Frizzell, Merle Haggard, George Jones, Bob Wills, Hank Williams, and Frank Sinatra influencing his style. Strait did not tune to the country music radio often as a youth, usually listening to the news and the farmer 's report. His introduction to country music came mostly by way of live performances, which, according to Strait, could be heard in every town in Texas. He eloped with his high school sweetheart, Norma. The couple initially married in Mexico on December 4, 1971. That same year, he enlisted in the United States Army. While stationed at Schofield Barracks in Hawaii as a part of the 25th Infantry Division, Strait began performing with a U.S. Army - sponsored band, "Rambling Country '', which played off - base under the name "Santee ''. On October 6, 1972, while still in Hawaii, George and Norma had their first child, Jennifer.
After Strait was honorably discharged from the Army in 1975, he enrolled at Southwest Texas State University in San Marcos and graduated with a degree in agriculture.
During his college years, Strait joined the country band Stoney Ridge, answering a flyer the band posted around campus looking for a new vocalist. Strait renamed the group the Ace in the Hole Band and quickly became the lead; they began to perform at different honky - tonks and bars around south and central Texas, traveling as far east as Huntsville and Houston. They gained a regional following and opened for national acts such as The Texas Playboys. Soon, his band was given the opportunity to record several Strait - penned singles including "That Do n't Change The Way I Feel About You, '' and "I Ca n't Go On Dying Like This '' for the Houston - based D label. However, the songs never achieved wide recognition, and Strait continued to manage his family cattle ranch during the day in order to make some extra cash.
While he continued to play with his band, without any real connections to the recording industry, Strait became friends with Erv Woolsey, who operated one of the bars in which the Ace in the Hole band played, and who had previously worked for the major label MCA Records. Woolsey convinced some of his Music Row (Nashville, TN) connections to come to Texas and to listen to Strait and his band play. Impressed with the performance, but concerned that they could n't market the Western Swing sound that the band featured, they left without a deal. After several unsuccessful trips to Nashville in search of a record deal in which Strait was turned down by every label in town, he considered giving up music altogether. He was offered a job designing cattle pens and decided to take it. He gave the band notice that he was leaving, but after a discussion with his wife, she convinced him to give music one more year. Not long afterward, MCA signed Strait to a recording contract in February 1981. The initial deal was for one song. If the single did well, the label would then consider doing an album. The Ace in the Hole band remained with Strait, performing as the backup and touring band for the now solo act.
In the spring of 1981, Strait released his first single for MCA Records, entitled "Unwound '', which climbed to # 6 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart that year, and was included on his debut album Strait Country. The record featured two more singles including "Down and Out '', a No. 16 hit for Strait, and "If You 're Thinking You Want a Stranger (There 's One Coming Home) '', which reached number three early in 1982, sparking a string of Top Ten hits that ran well into the 1990s. Strait Country was hailed by critics as a traditionalist breakthrough that broke the trend of pop - influenced country prevalent at the time. The year 1982 also saw the release of Strait 's second album, the critically acclaimed Strait from the Heart, which featured the first number one single of his career, "Fool Hearted Memory '', and the top five "Amarillo by Morning '', regarded by many as one of the greatest country songs of all - time. In 1983, Strait made his first appearance at the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo when the headlining star, Eddie Rabbitt, came down sick with the flu. Performing at that rodeo has since become a mainstay throughout his career, making more than twenty appearances at the Rodeo, and playing to a total of more than one million fans.
Strait recorded 17 subsequent No. 1 's in the decade, including a string of five that lasted from 1983 -- 84 from his next two albums Right or Wrong, his first number one album and the CMA award - winning Does Fort Worth Ever Cross Your Mind. The next year, he won the CMA award for top male vocalist, and released his first Greatest hits compilation, which featured songs from his first three albums. Also in 1985, Strait released Something Special, the third straight number - one album of his career, featuring the number - one single "The Chair ''. In 1986, Strait repeated as the CMA vocalist of the year and released his fourth No. 1 album # 7.
Strait and his family were struck with tragedy when his 13 - year - old daughter, Jenifer, was killed in a one - car non-alcohol - related accident. She was riding in a Ford Mustang driven by Gregory Wilson Allen, 18, of Staples, Texas. He was subsequently charged with a Class A misdemeanor for vehicular homicide. Mike Cox, spokesman for the Texas Department of Public Safety in Austin, said "The responding trooper determined the cause of accident to be excessive speed and that the car did not negotiate the turn properly. Jenifer was riding in the front passengers seat and none of the four occupants were wearing seat belts at the time. When the vehicle flipped over onto its passenger 's side, Jenifer was partially ejected, causing her to be dead upon impact. The incident caused Strait to greatly limit his contact with the media. He stopped doing interviews for many years after the accident as he and his family did not wish to discuss Jenifer 's death.
His grief did not hinder his performance, however, or his output, as he went on to release 11 straight No. 1 hits, starting with "Nobody in His Right Mind Would 've Left Her '' in 1986 and ending with "Ace in the Hole '' in 1989. The singles spanned four albums, including # 7, Ocean Front Property in 1987, If You Ai n't Lovin ' You Ai n't Livin ' in 1988 and 1989 's Beyond the Blue Neon, all of which reached the number one spot on country album charts. Ocean Front Property was the first country album to ever debut at No. 1 on the charts by any artist. The streak included such songs as "Ocean Front Property '', "All My Ex 's Live in Texas '', "Famous Last Words of a Fool '' and "Baby Blue ''. Strait finished the decade by winning the CMA Entertainer of the Year award in 1989. A year later, he won the award again.
Strait began the decade with the release of his tenth studio album, Livin ' It Up, which featured two No. 1 hits including "Love Without End, Amen '', his first multi-week hit, and "I 've Come to Expect It From You ''. Both songs remained No. 1 for five weeks in 1990. Chill of an Early Fall shortly followed in 1991, and received positive reviews. Entertainment Weekly noted that the album marked a shift for Strait from "repeating himself '' in his previous works to producing different material. It produced the No. 1 's "If I Know Me '' and "You Know Me Better Than That '', but ended his streak of 31 straight top ten hits with the cover of "Lovesick Blues '', which peaked at No. 24. The record blocked his run of eight top charting albums with its peak of No. 4. In the spring of 1992, Holding My Own was released. It did not produce any No. 1s but did include two top five songs including "So Much Like My Dad ''.
Later in 1992, Strait played the main character in the movie Pure Country, and released the film 's soundtrack. It was his most successful studio album, producing such hits as "Heartland '', "I Cross My Heart '', and "When Did You Stop Loving Me '', and peaked at No. 1 and No. 6 respectively on the Country and Billboard 200 album charts. The success continued with his next album, Easy Come, Easy Go in 1993, which reached the top five on the Billboard 200 and featured the hits "I 'd Like to Have That One Back '', "The Man in Love with You '', and the No. 1 title track. His next four albums, including Lead On in 1994, Blue Clear Sky in 1996, Carrying Your Love with Me in 1997, and 1998 's One Step at a Time, all charted at No. 1, with Blue Clear Sky claiming the spot on its debut week, and Carrying Your Love with Me peaking at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 for the first time in Strait 's career. This series of albums produced eight number one singles for Strait, including "You Ca n't Make a Heart Love Somebody '', "Carried Away '', "One Night at a Time '', and "I Just Want to Dance with You ''.
During this period, Strait also released a four - disc box set career retrospective, Strait Out of the Box, in 1995, which became the second - best - selling box set ever with shipments of 8 million in the United States. He also was named as the CMA 's Top Male Vocalist in 1997 and 1998. Starting in ' 97, and continuing until the first year of the 21st century, Strait headlined the George Strait Country Music Festival, which included artists such as Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Kenny Chesney, Alan Jackson, and others. In an effort to introduce these acts to as many fans as possible, the festival promised not to visit any market more than twice. It played only a small number of dates, usually no more than twenty a year, but still managed to be the ninth - biggest - grossing tour of 1998. In 2009, the George Strait Country Music Festival was voted the most important tour in the history of country music and the best selling country music tour in the 90s.
Strait completed the decade with the album Always Never the Same in 1999, which peaked at No. 2 on country charts and matched the cross-over success of Pure Country by reaching No. 6 on the Billboard 200. The record produced the hits "What Do You Say to That '', "Meanwhile '', and the No. 1 "Write This Down ''. Reviews of the album 's material were generally moderate, but Entertainment Weekly observed that at this point in his career, Strait could record the "most lightweight '' material and "make it soar '' on the radio with his "grace ''. All in all, Strait scored 17 No. 1 hits on the Billboard country airplay charts in the decade, and carried his successes into the next century.
Strait released a self - named album in 2000, which despite a No. 1 and No. 7 showing on the country and Billboard 200 album charts, produced no No. 1 singles, and was the first studio album of his career to not be certified platinum. The singles "Go On '' and "If You Can Do Anything Else '' were released from the record, with both peaking in the top five. In May 2001, The Road Less Traveled was released. Reviews for the album were mostly positive, Rolling Stone described it as sticking to the formula "but adds a few twists that make it superior to his last few releases. '' It featured "vocal processing '', and was considered by some critics as an experimental album.
Three singles were released from it, two of which reached No. 1, including "She 'll Leave You with a Smile '', his 50th on combined charts and "Living and Living Well '', both of which reached the top 30 of Billboard Hot 100, with the former peaking at No. 23, Strait 's highest rank on the chart. The single "Run '' peaked at No. 2 and reached No. 34 on the Billboard 100. Strait released two records in 2003. For the Last Time: Live from the Astrodome was a recording of the last Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo to take place in the Astrodome. The performance itself, set the record for paid attendance at the venue, with 68,266 people, breaking Latin superstar Selena 's previous record of approximately 67,000 in 1995.
His next album, Honkytonkville was described as "a fiery set of hard country '', and was praised "for its mixture of the old Strait with his modern, superstar self. '' It did n't produce any No. 1 's for Strait but included the hits "Cowboys Like Us '' and a cover of Bruce Robison 's "Desperately ''. His 2004 performance at Reliant Stadium set a new Rodeo attendance record, with 68,679 spectators. That year he issued a Greatest Hits package billed as 50 Number Ones, chronicling the No. 1 hits of his career from all charts, starting with "Fool Hearted Memory '' and ending with "She 'll Leave You With a Smile. '' A new track, "I Hate Everything '', was also included, and became his 51st overall Number One in 2004. The next year, Somewhere Down in Texas arrived, which produced the hit "You 'll Be There, '' marking Strait 's first appearance on the Adult Contemporary chart. The next year, he embarked on a tour that included only 18 performances but grossed over $15 million. He attributed this success to the fact that he and his band are "musically very tight, '' have a large pool of songs to draw from, and perform those songs very similarly to how they sound on their albums.
On October 3, 2006, Strait marked his 30th year in the music industry with the release of a new album titled It Just Comes Natural. The album was recorded in Key West, Fla. in Jimmy Buffett 's Shrimp Boat Sound Studio (said to be a better recording location due to lack of allergy flare ups during recording process), which was also the recording location of "Troubadour ''. It featured fifteen new songs. Strait 's long - time friend and songwriter, Dean Dillon co-wrote two of the songs on the album. It received generally positive reviews from critics. People, in their four - star review, remarked that "If ever there was a natural in country music, it 's Strait, '' while USA Today raved that "he continues to make such consistent quality look easy ''. The first single from the album, "Give It Away '' reached No. 1, making one of its co-writers, country legend "Whispering Bill '' Anderson, the first songwriter to have a # 1 hit in five different decades. The title track, "It Just Comes Natural '' became his 42nd Billboard No. 1.
In 2007, "Wrapped '' reached No. 1 on the Mediabase 24 / 7 country music charts, giving Strait his 55th overall number - one single. From January through April of that year, Strait headlined a 23 - date arena tour with country music legend Ronnie Milsap and then newcomer Taylor Swift. He released a new album titled Troubadour on April 1, 2008. The CD contained 12 tracks, including a duet with Patty Loveless and another with long - time songwriter Dean Dillon. The lead single from the album, "I Saw God Today '', debuted at No. 19 on the Radio and Records and Billboard charts. It is the highest debut ever for a single from Strait and the fourth highest debut for a song in country music history. Troubadour debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Top 200 album charts, selling over 160,000 copies in its first week of release. "River of Love '' the 3rd single from the album became his 57th number - one song in 2009.
In April 2009, Strait was honored by the Academy of Country Music with the Artist of the Decade Award, which was presented to Strait by the previous ACM Artist of the Decade, Garth Brooks. In June of that year he headlined the first event at the new Dallas Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas. Strait 's single "Living for the Night '' was released on May 28, 2009, and was written by Strait, his son Bubba, and Dean Dillon. The song was the lead single from his album Twang, released on August 11, 2009. Twang was certified gold for selling over 500,000 copies. In 2010, Billboard ranked Strait No. 1 in the top 25 country artists of the past 25 years.
On September 6, 2011, Strait released the album, Here for a Good Time, which yielded two No. 1 singles -- "Here for a Good Time '' and "Love 's Gonna Make It Alright '' -- bringing Strait 's No. 1 singles total to 59. The album 's third single, "Drinkin ' Man '', was less successful, peaking at No. 37.
In October 2012, Strait released the single "Give It All We Got Tonight '', which was included on his album Love Is Everything, released on May 14, 2013. The song initiated a "60 for 60 '' movement by Strait 's label, to make the song his sixtieth number - one single on all country charts while he was still 60 years old. The song reached the top of the Mediabase charts in May 2013. The album 's next single "I Believe '' reached No. 50 on The U.S. Country Airplay chart, making it Strait 's first single to miss the Top 40. Strait won the 2013 CMA Entertainer of the Year award.
In November 2013, Billboard presented Strait with its Legend of Live honor during the 10th annual Billboard Touring Awards ceremony. The award honors the concert industry 's top artist based on Billboard 's Boxscore chart and box office performance. Strait is the first country artist to receive Billboard 's highest touring accolade. On April 19, 2015, Strait made a guest appearance at the 2015 ACM Awards, he performed "All My Ex 's Lives In Texas '' and his new single "Let it Go ''.
In 2016, Strait was selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country '', a mash - up track of Take Me Home, Country Roads, On the Road Again and I Will Always Love You which celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards.
On September 26, 2012, Strait announced that he was retiring from touring, and that his Cowboy Rides Away Tour would be his last. Tickets for both arenas and stadiums on the Cowboy Rides Away Tour sold out in a matter of hours. The tour started on January 18, 2013 in Lubbock, Texas and was divided into two legs: 21 concerts in 2013 and 26 concerts in 2014, for a total of 47 concerts. The tour ended in Arlington, Texas on June 7, 2014. Strait was supported on the tour by his longtime eleven - member touring group, the Ace in the Hole Band. For the 2013 leg, Martina McBride was the opening performer.
On January 9, 2014, Strait initiated the second leg of the tour, which featured the opening performers Jason Aldean, Eric Church, Martina McBride, Miranda Lambert, Little Big Town, Vince Gill, Sheryl Crow, Lee Ann Womack, Merle Haggard, Chris Young, Ronnie Dunn, Luke Bryan, Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Kenny Chesney, Alan Jackson, and Asleep at the Wheel. Many of these performers gathered together for the tour 's final concert in Arlington, Texas, before 104,793 fans -- the largest ticketed attendance at a single - show concert in the United States. The concert also set a record for the largest gross at a single - show country concert, $18,194,374.
A live album recorded from the final concert in Arlington titled The Cowboy Rides Away: Live from AT&T Stadium was released on September 16, 2014, with a DVD / CDs of the concert being released on November 10, 2014, with Wal - mart exclusively releasing a Deluxe edition including 2 cd 's as well. This Deluxe DVD is the entire 3 + hour concert and the accompanying 2 cd 's have 28 of the 40 songs sung that night. On August 29, 2014, the Country Music Television channel broadcast a two - hour concert special of the event titled George Strait: The Cowboy Rides Away. This CMT concert special had 1 - 1 / 4 hours of music from the 3 + hour concert, and interviews.
Strait eloped to Mexico with his high school sweetheart Norma in December 1971. Their first child, Jenifer, was born on October 6, 1972. Their son, George Strait Jr., known as "Bubba '', was born in 1981. Jenifer was killed in an automobile accident in San Marcos on June 25, 1986, at age 13. The family set up the Jenifer Lynn Strait Foundation, which donates money to children 's charities in the San Antonio area. Bubba, who is a graduate of Texas A&M in College Station, used to compete as a Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) team roping competitor. Strait was able to watch his son compete at the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo in 2006 shortly before taking the stage for his own performance.
Strait enjoys fishing, skiing, and playing golf. Along with his son, he is a member of the PRCA and partners in team roping competitions. George and his elder brother John Jr., known as Buddy, hosted the annual George Strait Team Roping Classic, in which they competed against some of the best team ropers in the world. Strait has also said that he very seldom picks up a guitar when not in the studio or touring. He and his wife live in northwest San Antonio in a master - planned community known as The Dominion. He also owns a ranch near Cotulla in La Salle County between San Antonio and Laredo. Strait is a fan of the NBA 's San Antonio Spurs and can be seen court - side at many of the Spurs ' home basketball games.
Since 2010, Strait has served as spokesman for the Wrangler National Patriot program, a campaign designed to raise awareness and funds for America 's wounded and fallen military veterans and their families. Strait says, "I 've been a part of the Wrangler family for a long time... when they came to me with the idea for supporting fallen and wounded American veterans and their families, I knew I wanted to get involved. '' In February 2012, Strait became a grandfather when George Strait, Jr. and his wife Tamara had their first child, a son. According to reports, he was named George H. Strait, III as a tribute to his famous grandfather. The grandson is known as Harvey, from the middle name he shares with father and grandfather, but is also called "Bubba ''.
Strait owns a Bombardier Challenger 300 business jet and carries a personal registration N518GS. His personal aircraft is housed at the Landmark Aviation facility in San Antonio. Strait was raised in the Baptist Church. He is believed to be a Republican but does not discuss political issues in public.
In more than 30 years of recording, all of which have been spent with MCA Records, George Strait has garnered 61 No. 1 songs on all country charts (including Mediabase 24 / 7, the former Radio & Records chart, and the now - defunct Gavin Report chart), and has more No. 1 hits than any other artist in any genre. His 45 Billboard country number 1 hits are a record, four more than Conway Twitty 's total that includes several duets with Loretta Lynn. Additionally, Strait is also the first artist in the history of Billboard to have at least one single enter the Top 10 of a Billboard chart for 30 consecutive years, starting in 1981 when his debut single "Unwound '' peaked at No. 6 on the Hot Country Singles chart. All of his Top 10 singles have been on that chart. Strait has sold more than 68 million records in the United States alone and his certifications from the RIAA include 13 multi-platinum, 33 platinum, and 38 gold albums.
Strait has acted in several films. He had a bit part in The Soldier (1982) and starred in Pure Country (1992). He also appeared as himself in Grand Champion (2002).
The film Pure Country featured George Strait in the lead role as Dusty Chandler, a famous country singer who strays too far from his country roots and traditional sound. It provided the opportunity for Strait to branch out from his own traditional country sound for a more rock - and - roll approach. The film saw little success at the box office, taking in only $15 million, but the soundtrack, also called Pure Country, produced several hit singles for Strait, and has become his best - selling album to date. Strait had a limited role in the sequel to Pure Country, Pure Country 2: The Gift.
Strait holds the record for most number one albums and singles, gold albums, platinum albums, and multi-platinum in the history of country music, and is eleventh in the most number one albums in all other genres. Strait is third only to Elvis Presley and The Beatles with the most gold and platinum albums in the history of music. Strait has been certified as the twelfth best selling artist in American history, with career record sales of 70 million.
Strait has recorded the most number one songs and top five songs in the history of music of any kind, and is the only artist in the history of music of any kind to have a top ten hit every year for 30 years. He is also second all - time in top ten hits in the history of music, currently 5 away from breaking the all - time record held by Eddy Arnold who had 92 in his historic career. Strait has also won 22 CMA Awards, including consecutive Entertainer of the Year honors in 1989 and 1990, and also just recently won that same honor in 2013 (and is the only artist to win the top honor in three different decades) and holds the career record for CMA nominations (as a whole) and the most consecutively of all time.
As of 2009 he holds the record for the most CMA awards. Strait also holds those same records for wins and nominations for the ACM Awards. Strait was elected into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2006, performing his then - latest No. 1 hit "Give it Away '' right before accepting his replica Hall of Fame plaque at the 40th CMA Awards. He was only the second artist (after Eddy Arnold in 1966) to be inducted into the Hall of Fame while still actively recording and producing chart - topping hits and albums.
As of June 8, 2010, Strait was named the top country music artist of the past 25 years according to Billboard. In October 2008, the Academy of Country Music Awards named Strait their Artist of the Decade for the 2000s. He was presented the award by the previous winner Garth Brooks. Past winners of the award are Marty Robbins (1960s), Loretta Lynn (1970s), Alabama (1980s) and Garth Brooks (1990s). And with the win of the entertainer of the year award in 2013 he is the only artist to ever win the entertainer of the year in three different decades and also was the oldest winner. The win is currently the longest span between wins for that award as well. Strait is also tied with Merle Haggard for the most male vocalist of the year awards.
On June 1, 2013, Strait appeared in The Alamodome, in San Antonio, Texas, before seventy thousand fans in the last concert of the first half of his two - year farewell tour. Governor Rick Perry, who was in attendance with First Lady Anita Thigpen Perry, announced that henceforth May 18, Strait 's birthday, would be "George Strait Day '' in Texas.
|
when does the transfer window open in scotland | Transfer window - wikipedia
The transfer window is the period during the year in which a football club can transfer players from other countries into their playing staff. Such a transfer is completed by registering the player into the new club through FIFA. "Transfer window '' is the unofficial term commonly used by the media for the concept of "registration period '' as described in the FIFA Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Player. According to the rules, each national football association decides on the time (such as the dates) of the ' window ' but it may not exceed 12 weeks. The second registration period occurs during the season and may not exceed four weeks.
The transfer window of a given football association governs only international transfers into that football association. International transfers out of an association are always possible to those associations that have an open window. The transfer window of the association that the player is leaving does not have to be open.
The window was introduced in response to negotiations with the European Commission. The system has been used in many European leagues before being brought into compulsory effect by FIFA during the 2002 -- 03 season. English football was initially behind the plans when they were proposed in the early 1990s, in the hope that it would improve teams ' stability and prevent agents from searching for deals all year around, but by the time it was eventually introduced they had to be persuaded that it would work. However, the exact regulations and possible exceptions are established by each competition 's governing body rather than by the national football association.
FIFA regulates in general that there shall be two windows, a longer one (max. twelve weeks) in the break between seasons and a shorter one (max. one month) in the middle of a season. The specific periods depend on the league 's season cycle and are determined by the national football authorities.
Most major European leagues commence in the second half of the year (e.g. August or September) and stretch over two calendar years to the first half of the next year (e.g. May), resulting in a close season window in the Summer ending in August, and a mid-season window in January.
The periods are different when a league runs throughout a single calendar year, as in most Nordic countries due to weather constraints, Major League Soccer due to both weather and competition from other locally popular sports (notably basketball and American football), or as the traditional season in the Southern Hemisphere. The first window generally opens from 1 March until midnight of 30 April, followed by the in - season window from 1 to 31 August.
Premier League clubs in England voted to end the summer window on the Thursday before the start of the season - on August 9 in 2018, instead of August 31. Because FIFA demands the window must be open for 12 weeks, the window will open around May 17, shortly after the final games of the season on May 13. Clubs will be able to sell players until August 31 but not buy replacements after the deadline of August 9.
Although, in England, transfers between clubs in the same league can take place as soon as the last competitive fixtures for the season have been played, many transfers will not be completed until 1 July because many players ' contracts expire on 30 June. International transfers into the English leagues (including the Premier League) can not be made until the window has opened on 17 May. Outside the transfer window, a club may still sign players on an emergency basis, usually if they have no goalkeeper available. Special dispensation from their competition 's governing body, for example the Premier League, is required. The transfer window restriction does not apply to clubs below the National League division.
If the last day of a transfer window is on a weekend, the deadline can be extended to the following Monday at the request of those involved for business reasons. The first shift of the deadline since its inception took place in summer 2008, when the deadline was extended by 24 hours to fall on Monday 1 September at midnight. The transfer deadline in England was similarly extended to 5 pm 1 September 2009, due to the August Bank Holiday. The German football league announced an extension of the January 2009 deadline to 2 February.
Free agents can be signed by a club at any time during the season, if they had been released by their previous club before the end of the transfer window. A club can request to sign a player on emergency basis, e.g. if several goalkeepers are injured at the same time. Outside the transfer window in England, once seven days have passed following the end of a transfer window, clubs from the English Football League (Regulation 53.3. 4) and (provided the player is not registered with a club from any league below the National League division) National League division (Rule 6.6. 4) can loan in players i) in the first half of the season, until 5.00 pm on the fourth Thursday in November and ii) in the second half of the season, until 5.00 pm on the fourth Thursday in March. An existing loan deal can be made permanent at any time outside the transfer window.
The day upon which a window closes is known as transfer deadline day, and is usually one of the busiest days of the window, generating a flurry of transfers, often because a number of interdependent transfers are completed resembling a housing chain, generating much media interest.
Steve Coppell, former manager of Reading in England 's Premier League, and others have called for the transfer window to be scrapped in favour of the previous system, where deals could be struck throughout the season until the closing weeks. Coppell said that the transfer window breeds panic and encourages "scurrilous '' transfer activity adding that "I can not see the logic in a transfer window. It brings on a fire - sale mentality, causes unrest via the media and means clubs buy too many players '' adding that "The old system, where if you had a problem you could look at loans or make a short - term purchase, was far better than this system we have at the moment ''. Former England Manager Sven - Göran Eriksson has also questioned the value of the transfer window, commenting: "You do wonder at times if it is right to have a window, it was easier when it was open all the time and perhaps fairer for the players. I am sure much of the business being done on the last day is a little bit desperate and that is not right. I think it was better before, but then I am old ''.
In January 2013 Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger asked for the January transfer window to be limited to two transfers per window and claimed it is "unfair '' in its current form. He cited Newcastle United transfer activity as an example. The following year, Wenger hit out at Manchester United 's £ 37m purchase of Juan Mata from rivals Chelsea. Wenger argued that the transfer was unfair because United and Chelsea had already played each other twice during the season, but United would still have to play Arsenal, and said that "the rules should be adapted more for fairness ''. Manchester City manager Manuel Pellegrini backed the sentiment of Wenger, disagreeing that a player "can go from one team to another team in the same league at this part of the year '' and also said that the winter transfer window was unbalanced in favour of big clubs, saying "a club with money can take the best players from the other teams ''.
Former Crystal Palace manager Alan Pardew questioned why the Premier League transfer window remains open after the start of the season after Arsenal made a bid for midfielder Yohan Cabaye during his time as Newcastle United manager in August 2013.
In January 2015, FIFPro said that the current transfer window system is "failing football and its players '', one of the main issues being that players are released from clubs without explanation or compensation.
|
what year did the audi rs7 come out | Audi A7 - wikipedia
The Audi A7 Sportback is an executive car / mid-size luxury car (E-segment) produced by Audi since 2012. A five - door hatchback, it features a fastback - like sloping roofline with a steeply raked rear window and integrated boot lid (forming the so - called "Sportback ''), and four frameless doors.
Audi Sportback concept is a concept vehicle with 3.0 - litre V6 TDI clean diesel engine rated 225 PS (165 kW; 222 hp) and 550 N m (405.66 lb ft), 7 - speed S - tronic transmission, quattro permanent all - wheel - drive system, five - link front suspension, continuous damping control shock absorbers, electromechanical steering, ceramic brake discs (380 - millimeter front and 356 millimeters rear), front 6 - piston monobloc aluminum brake calipers, rear floating - caliper brakes, 21 - inch wheels.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2009 Detroit Auto Show.
The A7 is in essence, a five - door hatchback coupé version of the C7 - series Audi A6, based on the Volkswagen Group MLB platform. The A7 was released before the more conventional A6 saloon / estate. Both cars share the same core structure, drivetrain, chassis, dashboard and interior, whilst the A7 has its own unique exterior panelwork. It also differs from the A6 in that it uses aluminium for much of its front body structure.
The vehicle was unveiled in Pinakothek der Moderne art museum in Munich on 26 July 2010, and later in 2010 Paris Motor Show, 2011 New York Auto Show, Wörthersee Tour 2011 (in Misano Red)
The vehicles went on sale in fall 2010. Early models include 2.8 FSI (204PS) with multitronic, 3.0 TFSI quattro (300PS) with seven - speed S tronic, 3.0 TDI quattro (245PS) with seven - speed S tronic; followed by 3.0 TDI (204PS) with multitronic.
US models went on sale 2012 model year vehicles. Early models include 3.0 TFSI quattro (310PS) with an 8 - speed automatic transmission.
The 2011 model year A7 introduces FlexRay high speed databus that controls all the driver assistance systems from the A8, but it adds head - up display and active lane assist. Full LED headlamps with Automatic high beam switching or Audi adaptive light (Xenon) with variable headlight range control.
The S7 is a version of A7 with a 4.0 biturbo T FSI V8 engine rated 420 PS (309 kW; 414 bhp) and 550 N m (405.66 ft lbf), quattro four wheel drive system, 7 - speed S Tronic gearbox. The S7 can accelerate from 0 to 100 km / h (62 mph) in 4.7 seconds.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2011 Frankfurt Auto Show, and later in 2012 Audi quattro Cup.
Delivery of the S7 began in spring 2012.
Reviewers have cited the Mercedes - Benz CLS - Class as the inspiration to the Audi A7 in the four - door executive coupé market.
The following internal combustion engines are available, with variations dependent on market.
In the ICOTY Awards, the Audi A7 was named the International Car of the Year in 2012.
AutoWeek magazine named the Audi A7 as the Best of the Best / Car for 2012.
Esquire magazine named the Audi A7 as the 2011 Esquire Car of the Year.
Automobile Magazine named the Audi A7 "2012 Automobile of the Year ''.
As part of the A7 Sportback product launch, a launch campaign was created in collaboration with the London advertising agency bbh. The birth story of the A7 Sportback became the inspiration of the Paper Liberation spot.
As part of A7 launch in the US, a papercraft version of 2012 Audi A7 was produced.
As part of S7 launch in the US, a Super Bowl commercial was produced.
A7 3.0 TDI quattro (313PS) (as A7 3.0 BiTDI quattro) was added to the UK market.
Early Germany models include A7 2.8 FSI (204 PS), 2.8 FSI quattro (204PS), 3.0 TFSI quattro (310PS), 3.0 TDI (204PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (204PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (245PS), 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (245 PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (313PS).
A7 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (245PS) was unveiled in 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show.
US model of A7 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (245PS) was set to go on sale in fall 2013 as 2014 model year vehicle.
It is a version of A7 (excluding 3.0 TDI (204PS), S7) for the UK market. It included 21 - inch rotor - design alloy wheels with a dark titanium finish with further lowered S line sports suspension, black grille and number plate surrounds and the window frame strips, and by privacy glass extending from the B - pillar rearwards; Piano Black inlays, sports seats upholstered in black Valcona leather, black headlining, BOSE audio system with DAB radio and AMI from SE specification and above, S line equipment package (satellite navigation, light and rain sensors, Xenon all - weather headlights and LED rear lights, Audi drive select adaptive dynamics system, Audi parking system plus, keyless go), powered tailgate operation, electrically adjustable front seats, a powered retractable rear spoiler.
Sales began in November 2012, with deliveries began in early 2013.
The RS7 has a 4.0 TFSI twin scroll twin turbo V8 engine rated 412 kW (560 PS; 553 bhp) and 700 N m (516 lbf ft), cylinder on demand system deactivates intake and exhaust valves of 4 cylinders (2, 3, 5 and 8), eight - speed tiptronic transmission with D and S driving modes, quattro with torque vectoring with self - locking center differential with a high locking rate and oil cooler (optional quattro with sport differential with two superposition gears), polished 20 - inch forged wheels in a seven twin - spoke design (optional 21 - inch cast wheels in a choice of three designs), four internally vented diameter brake discs with 390 mm (15.35 in) diameter front discs and black (optional red) painted six - piston calipers (optional 420 mm (16.54 in) carbon fiber ceramic discs with anthracite gray calipers), electronic stabilization control with Sport and off modes, adaptive air suspension lowering body by 20 mm (0.79 in) (optional tauter sport suspension plus with Dynamic Ride Control), optional Dynamic all - wheel steering with continuously variable steering boost and ratio, high - gloss black protective grille with honeycomb structure at the front of the car, add - on parts in matte aluminum, power extending spoiler, two elliptical tailpipe trims, a choice of 10 body colours (including Nardo gray, exclusive finish Daytona gray, matt effect), optional matt aluminum and carbon styling packages, footrest, pedals and soft keys in the standard MMI navigation plus terminal in an aluminum - look finish; decorative trim below the retractable monitor in piano finish, carbon inlays (four optional additional materials), headlining in black cloth (optional lunar silver or black Alcantara), RS sport seats with side bolsters and integrated head restraints and RS 7 logos upholstered in black Alcantara and leather with diamond quilting at center sections (optional honeycomb - quilted Valcona leather in either black or lunar silver), optional power - adjustable comfort seats with memory function, contoured rear seats, xenon plus headlights, a tire pressure monitoring system, the parking system plus, three - zone automatic air conditioning, cruise control, Audi sound system, MMI navigation plus, adaptive cruise control with stop & go function including Audi pre sense front.
The RS 7 can sprint from 0 to 100 km / h (62.14 mph) in 3.9 seconds and is limited to 250 km / h (155.34 mph). Optional dynamic package and dynamic package plus increase top speeds to 280 km / h (173.98 mph) and 305 km / h (189.52 mph) respectively.
Other options include the exterior mirrors with exposed carbon housings and the all - LED headlights, head - up display, a comfort package, the dynamic package, the dynamic package plus, Bluetooth online car phone, Bang & Olufsen Advanced Sound System.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2013 NAIAS.
Audi announced the RS7 performance along with the RS6 performance on October 22, 2015. It is powered by the same 4.0 - litre twin - turbo V8 engine as the standard RS7, but now with 605 PS (445 kW; 597 bhp), and 750 N m (553 lbf ft). The top speed remains limited to 250 km / h (155.3 mph) as standard, and there are optional Dynamic and Dynamic Plus packages that raise the top speed to 280 km / h (174.0 mph) and 305 km / h (189.5 mph) respectively. The RS7 performance will accelerate from 0 to 100 km / h (62.1 mph) in 3.7 seconds and 0 to 200 km / h (124.3 mph) in 12.1 seconds. Despite the improved performance, the fuel economy and CO are unchanged from the standard RS6 Avant.
Audi unveiled the 2015 A7 facelift in May 2014. Changes include:
MY15 facelift
MY15 facelift
Interior (facelift)
A3 Sportback e-tron
|
ski mask the slump god the book of eli wiki | BEWARE the BOOK OF ELI - Wikipedia
Beware the Book of Eli (stylized as BEWARE THE BOOK OF ELI) is the debut studio album by American rapper Ski Mask the Slump God. It was originally released at May 1, 2018 on Soundcloud, but quickly taken down by his old management. It was finally released on May 11, 2018 (with some tracks removed) by Victor and Republic Records. The album features guest appearances from Rich the Kid, Ronny J, Danny Towers, and SahBabii. It features production from Murda Beatz, Timbaland, Jimmy Duval, and Natra Average, among others.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
The songs that were deleted were "SKIMeetsWorld '', "With Vengence '' (featuring Offset), and "Worldwide ''. All tracks are stylized in all caps, except "DoIHaveTheSause? ''. For example, "Suicide Season '' is stylized as "SUICIDE SEASON ''.
|
what are the stages of the demographic transition model | Demographic transition - wikipedia
Demographic transition (DT) refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country or region develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system. The theory was proposed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson, who observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years. Most developed countries have completed the demographic transition and have low birth rates; most developing countries are in the process of this transition. The major (relative) exceptions are some poor countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and some Middle Eastern countries, which are poor or affected by government policy or civil strife, notably, Pakistan, Palestinian territories, Yemen, and Afghanistan.
The demographic transition model, in isolation, can be taken to predict that birth rates will continue to go down as societies grow increasingly wealthy; however, recent data contradicts this, suggesting that beyond a certain level of development birth rates increase again. In addition, in the very long term, the demographic transition should be reversed via evolutionary pressure for higher fertility and higher mortality.
The existence of some kind of demographic transition is widely accepted in the social sciences because of the well - established historical correlation linking dropping fertility to social and economic development. Scholars debate whether industrialization and higher incomes lead to lower population, or whether lower populations lead to industrialization and higher incomes. Scholars also debate to what extent various proposed and sometimes inter-related factors such as higher per - capita income, higher female income, lower mortality, old - age security, and rise of demand for human capital are involved.
The theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson (1887 -- 1973). Adolphe Landry of France made similar observations on demographic patterns and population growth potential around 1934. In the 1940s and 1950s Frank W. Notestein developed a more formal theory of demographic transition. By 2009, the existence of a negative correlation between fertility and industrial development had become one of the most widely accepted findings in social science.
The transition involves four stages, or possibly five.
As with all models, this is an idealized picture of population change in these countries. The model is a generalization that applies to these countries as a group and may not accurately describe all individual cases. The extent to which it applies to less - developed societies today remains to be seen. Many countries such as China, Brazil and Thailand have passed through the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) very quickly due to fast social and economic change. Some countries, particularly African countries, appear to be stalled in the second stage due to stagnant development and the effect of AIDS.
In pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates were both high, and fluctuated rapidly according to natural events, such as drought and disease, to produce a relatively constant and young population. Family planning and contraception were virtually nonexistent; therefore, birth rates were essentially only limited by the ability of women to bear children. Emigration depressed death rates in some special cases (for example, Europe and particularly the Eastern United States during the 19th century), but, overall, death rates tended to match birth rates, often exceeding 40 per 1000 per year. Children contributed to the economy of the household from an early age by carrying water, firewood, and messages, caring for younger siblings, sweeping, washing dishes, preparing food, and working in the fields. Raising a child cost little more than feeding him or her; there were no education or entertainment expenses. Thus, the total cost of raising children barely exceeded their contribution to the household. In addition, as they became adults they become a major input to the family business, mainly farming, and were the primary form of insurance for adults in old age. In India, an adult son was all that prevented a widow from falling into destitution. While death rates remained high there was no question as to the need for children, even if the means to prevent them had existed.
During this stage, the society evolves in accordance with Malthusian paradigm, with population essentially determined by the food supply. Any fluctuations in food supply (either positive, for example, due to technology improvements, or negative, due to droughts and pest invasions) tend to translate directly into population fluctuations. Famines resulting in significant mortality are frequent. Overall, population dynamics during stage one are comparable to those of animals living in the wild. According to Edward, Revocatus. (2016) This is the earlier stage of demographic transition in the world and also characterized by primary activities such as small fishing activities, farming practices, pastoralism and petty businesses.
This stage leads to a fall in death rates and an increase in population. The changes leading to this stage in Europe were initiated in the Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century and were initially quite slow. In the 20th century, the falls in death rates in developing countries tended to be substantially faster. Countries in this stage include Yemen, Afghanistan, the Palestinian territories, Bhutan and Laos and much of Sub-Saharan Africa (but do not include South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, Namibia, Kenya and Ghana, which have begun to move into stage 3).
The decline in the death rate is due initially to two factors:
A consequence of the decline in mortality in Stage Two is an increasingly rapid growth in population growth (a.k.a. "population explosion '') as the gap between deaths and births grows wider and wider. Note that this growth is not due to an increase in fertility (or birth rates) but to a decline in deaths. This change in population occurred in north - western Europe during the 19th century due to the Industrial Revolution. During the second half of the 20th century less - developed countries entered Stage Two, creating the worldwide rapid growth of number of living persons that has demographers concerned today. In this stage of DT, countries are vulnerable to become failed states in the absence of progressive governments.
Another characteristic of Stage Two of the demographic transition is a change in the age structure of the population. In Stage One, the majority of deaths are concentrated in the first 5 -- 10 years of life. Therefore, more than anything else, the decline in death rates in Stage Two entails the increasing survival of children and a growing population. Hence, the age structure of the population becomes increasingly youthful and start to have big families and more of these children enter the reproductive cycle of their lives while maintaining the high fertility rates of their parents. The bottom of the "age pyramid '' widens first where children, teenagers and infants are here, accelerating population growth rate. The age structure of such a population is illustrated by using an example from the Third World today.
In Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM), death rates are low and birth rates diminish, as a rule accordingly of enhanced economic conditions, an expansion in women 's status and education, and access to contraception. The decrease in birth rate fluctuates from nation to nation, as does the time span in which it is experienced. Stage Three moves the population towards stability through a decline in the birth rate. Several fertility factors contribute to this eventual decline, and are generally similar to those associated with sub-replacement fertility, although some are speculative:
The resulting changes in the age structure of the population include a decline in the youth dependency ratio and eventually population aging. The population structure becomes less triangular and more like an elongated balloon. During the period between the decline in youth dependency and rise in old age dependency there is a demographic window of opportunity that can potentially produce economic growth through an increase in the ratio of working age to dependent population; the demographic dividend.
However, unless factors such as those listed above are allowed to work, a society 's birth rates may not drop to a low level in due time, which means that the society can not proceed to stage Three and is locked in what is called a demographic trap.
Countries that have witnessed a fertility decline of over 50 % from their pre-transition levels include: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Panama, Jamaica, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Lebanon, South Africa, India, Saudi Arabia, and many Pacific islands.
Countries that have experienced a fertility decline of 25 - 50 % include: Guatemala, Tajikistan, Egypt, and Zimbabwe.
Countries that have experienced a fertility decline of less than 25 % include: Sudan, Niger, Afghanistan.
This occurs where birth and death rates are both low, leading to a total population stable. Death rates are low for a number of reasons, primarily lower rates of diseases and higher production of food. The birth rate is low because people have more opportunities to choose if they want children; this is made possible by improvements in contraception or women gaining more independence and work opportunities. The DTM is only a suggestion about the future population levels of a country, not a prediction.
Countries that are at this stage (Total Fertility Rate of < 2.5 in 1997) include: United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, the majority of Europe, Bahamas, Puerto Rico (US territory), Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil, Sri Lanka, South Korea, Singapore, Iran, China, Turkey, Thailand, and Mauritius.
The original Demographic Transition model has just four stages, but additional stages have been proposed. Both more - fertile and less - fertile futures have been claimed as a Stage Five.
Some countries have sub-replacement fertility (that is, below 2.1 - 2.2 children per woman). Replacement fertility is typically 2.1 - 2.2 because this replaces the two parents and boys are born more often than girls (somewhat 1.05 - 1.1 to 1) and adds population to compensate for deaths (i.e. members of the population who die without full reproducing, for example, in the age of 30 - 35, giving a birth just to one baby) with approx. 0.1 additional. Many European and East Asian countries now have higher death rates than birth rates. Population aging and population decline may eventually occur, assuming that the fertility rate does not change and sustained mass immigration does not occur.
In an article in the August 2009 issue of Nature, Myrskylä, Kohler and Francesco Billari argue that the previously negative relationship between "development '', as measured by the Human Development Index (HDI), and birth rates has become J - shaped. The HDI is a composite of life expectancy, income, and level of education. Development promotes fertility decline at HDI levels below 0.9 but further advances in HDI cause a small rebound in birth rate. In many countries with very high levels of development, fertility rates are now approaching two children per woman -- although there are exceptions, notably Germany, Italy and Japan.
In the current century, most developed countries have increased fertility. From the point of view of evolutionary biology, wealthier people having fewer children is unexpected, as natural selection would be expected to favor individuals who are willing and able to convert plentiful resources into plentiful fertile descendants. This may be the result of a departure from the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. Thus, from the perspective of evolutionary psychology, the modern environment is exerting evolutionary pressure for higher fertility.
Jane Falkingham of Southampton University has noted that "We 've actually got population projections wrong consistently over the last 50 years... we 've underestimated the improvements in mortality... but also we 've not been very good at spotting the trends in fertility. '' In 2004 a United Nations office published its guesses for global population in the year 2300; estimates ranged from a "low estimate '' of 2.3 billion (tending to - 0.32 % per year) to a "high estimate '' of 36.4 billion (tending to + 0.54 % per year), which were contrasted with a deliberately "unrealistic '' illustrative "constant fertility '' scenario of 134 trillion (obtained if 1995 - 2000 fertility rates stay constant into the far future). In stage 5 of the demographic transition, a country encounters misfortune as a whole this is because the death rate becomes higher than the birth rate. There will be a negative population growth rate which will have an impact on the country. This will take a generation or two before the population grows back up.
The decline in death rate and birth rate that occurs during the demographic transition may transform the age structure. When the death rate declines during the second stage of the transition, the result is primarily an increase in the child population. The reason being that when the death rate is high (stage one), the infant mortality rate is very high, often above 200 deaths per 1000 children born. When the death rate falls or improves, this may include lower infant mortality rate and increased child survival. Over time, as individuals with increased survival rates age, there may also be an increase in the number of older children, teenagers, and young adults. This implies that there is an increase in the fertile population proportion which, with constant fertility rates, may lead to an increase in the number of children born. This will further increase the growth of the child population. The second stage of the demographic transition, therefore, implies a rise in child dependency and creates a youth bulge in the population structure. As a population continues to move through the demographic transition into the third stage, fertility declines and the youth bulge prior to the decline ages out of child dependency into the working ages. This stage of the transition is often referred to as the golden age, and is typically when populations see the greatest advancements in living standards and economic development. However, further declines in both mortality and fertility will eventually result in an aging population, and a rise in the aged dependency ratio. An increase of the aged dependency ratio often indicates that a population has reached below replacement levels of fertility, and as result does not have enough people in the working ages to support the economy, and the growing dependent population.
Between 1750 and 1975 England experienced the transition from high levels of both mortality and fertility, to low levels. A major factor was the sharp decline in the death rate due to infectious diseases, which has fallen from about 11 per 1,000 to less than 1 per 1,000. By contrast, the death rate from other causes was 12 per 1,000 in 1850 and has not declined markedly. The agricultural revolution and the development of transport, initiated by the construction of canals, led to greater availability of food and coal, and enabled the Industrial Revolution to improve the standard of living. Scientific discoveries and medical breakthroughs did not, in general, contribute importantly to the early major decline in infectious disease mortality, and the decline in fertility occurred before efficient contraception became available.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, the Irish demographic status converged to the European norm. Mortality rose above the European Community average, and in 1991 Irish fertility fell to replacement level. The peculiarities of Ireland 's past demography and its recent rapid changes challenge established theory. The recent changes have mirrored inward changes in Irish society, with respect to family planning, women in the work force, the sharply declining power of the Catholic Church, and the emigration factor.
France displays real divergences from the standard model of Western demographic evolution. The uniqueness of the French case arises from its specific demographic history, its historic cultural values, and its internal regional dynamics. France 's demographic transition was unusual in that the mortality and the natality decreased at the same time, thus there was no demographic boom in the 19th century.
France 's demographic profile is similar to its European neighbors and to developed countries in general, yet it seems to be staving off the population decline of Western countries. With 62.9 million inhabitants in 2006, it was the second most populous country in the European Union, and it displayed a certain demographic dynamism, with a growth rate of 2.4 % between 2000 and 2005, above the European average. More than two - thirds of that growth can be ascribed to a natural increase resulting from high fertility and birthrates. In contrast, France is one of the developed nations whose migratory balance is rather weak, which is an original feature at the European level. Several interrelated reasons account for such singularities, in particular the impact of pro-family policies accompanied by greater unmarried households and out - of - wedlock births. These general demographic trends parallel equally important changes in regional demographics. Since 1982 the same significant tendencies have occurred throughout mainland France: demographic stagnation in the least - populated rural regions and industrial regions in the northeast, with strong growth in the southwest and along the Atlantic coast, plus dynamism in metropolitan areas. Shifts in population between regions account for most of the differences in growth. The varying demographic evolution regions can be analyzed though the filter of several parameters, including residential facilities, economic growth, and urban dynamism, which yield several distinct regional profiles. The distribution of the French population therefore seems increasingly defined not only by interregional mobility but also by the residential preferences of individual households. These challenges, linked to configurations of population and the dynamics of distribution, inevitably raise the issue of town and country planning. The most recent census figures show that an outpouring of the urban population means that fewer rural areas are continuing to register a negative migratory flow - two - thirds of rural communities have shown some since 2000. The spatial demographic expansion of large cities amplifies the process of peri-urbanization yet is also accompanied by movement of selective residential flow, social selection, and sociospatial segregation based on income.
McNicoll (2006) examines the common features behind the striking changes in health and fertility in East and Southeast Asia in the 1960s -- 1990 's, focusing on seven countries: Taiwan and South Korea ("tiger '' economies), Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia ("second wave '' countries), and China and Vietnam ("market - Leninist '' economies). Demographic change can be seen as a byproduct of social and economic development together with, in some cases, strong governmental pressures. The transition sequence entailed the establishment of an effective, typically authoritarian, system of local administration, providing a framework for promotion and service delivery in health, education, and family planning. Subsequent economic liberalization offered new opportunities for upward mobility -- and risks of backsliding --, accompanied by the erosion of social capital and the breakdown or privatization of service programs.
As of year 2013, India is in the later half of the third stage of the demographic transition, with a population of 1.23 billion. It is nearly 40 years behind in the demographic transition process compared to EU countries, Japan, etc. The present demographic transition stage of India along with its higher population base will yield rich demographic dividend in future decades.
Cha (2007) analyzes a panel data set to explore how industrial revolution, demographic transition, and human capital accumulation interacted in Korea from 1916 -- 38. Income growth and public investment in health caused mortality to fall, which suppressed fertility and promoted education. Industrialization, skill premium, and closing gender wage gap further induced parents to opt for child quality. Expanding demand for education was accommodated by an active public school building program. The interwar agricultural depression aggravated traditional income inequality, raising fertility and impeding the spread of mass schooling. Landlordism collapsed in the wake of de-colonization, and the consequent reduction in inequality accelerated human and physical capital accumulation, hence leading to growth in South Korea.
Campbell has studied the demography of 19th - century Madagascar in the light of demographic transition theory. Both supporters and critics of the theory hold to an intrinsic opposition between human and "natural '' factors, such as climate, famine, and disease, influencing demography. They also suppose a sharp chronological divide between the precolonial and colonial eras, arguing that whereas "natural '' demographic influences were of greater importance in the former period, human factors predominated thereafter. Campbell argues that in 19th - century Madagascar the human factor, in the form of the Merina state, was the predominant demographic influence. However, the impact of the state was felt through natural forces, and it varied over time. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Merina state policies stimulated agricultural production, which helped to create a larger and healthier population and laid the foundation for Merina military and economic expansion within Madagascar. From 1820, the cost of such expansionism led the state to increase its exploitation of forced labor at the expense of agricultural production and thus transformed it into a negative demographic force. Infertility and infant mortality, which were probably more significant influences on overall population levels than the adult mortality rate, increased from 1820 due to disease, malnutrition, and stress, all of which stemmed from state forced labor policies. Available estimates indicate little if any population growth for Madagascar between 1820 and 1895. The demographic "crisis '' in Africa, ascribed by critics of the demographic transition theory to the colonial era, stemmed in Madagascar from the policies of the imperial Merina regime, which in this sense formed a link to the French regime of the colonial era. Campbell thus questions the underlying assumptions governing the debate about historical demography in Africa and suggests that the demographic impact of political forces be reevaluated in terms of their changing interaction with "natural '' demographic influences.
Russia entered stage two of the transition in the 18th century, simultaneously with the rest of Europe, though the effect of transition remained limited to a modest decline in death rates and steady population growth. The population of Russia nearly quadrupled during the 19th century, from 30 million to 133 million, and continued to grow until the First World War and the turmoil that followed. Russia then quickly transitioned through stage three. Though fertility rates rebounded initially and almost reached 7 children / woman in the mid-1920s, they were depressed by the 1931 - 33 famine, crashed due to the Second World War in 1941, and only rebounded to a sustained level of 3 children / woman after the war. By 1970 Russia was firmly in stage four, with crude birth rates and crude death rates on the order of 15 / 1000 and 9 / 1000 respectively.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Russia underwent a unique demographic transition; observers call it a "demographic catastrophe '': the number of deaths exceeded the number of births, life expectancy fell sharply (especially for males) and the number of suicides increased. From 1992 through 2011, the number of deaths exceeded the number of births.
Greenwood and Seshadri (2002) show that from 1800 to 1940 there was a demographic shift from a mostly rural US population with high fertility, with an average of seven children born per white woman, to a minority (43 %) rural population with low fertility, with an average of two births per white woman. This shift resulted from technological progress. A sixfold increase in real wages made children more expensive in terms of forgone opportunities to work and increases in agricultural productivity reduced rural demand for labor, a substantial portion of which traditionally had been performed by children in farm families.
A simplification of the DTM theory proposes an initial decline in mortality followed by a later drop in fertility. The changing demographics of the U.S. in the last two centuries did not parallel this model. Beginning around 1800, there was a sharp fertility decline; at this time, an average woman usually produced seven births per lifetime, but by 1900 this number had dropped to nearly four. A mortality decline was not observed in the U.S. until almost 1900 -- a hundred years following the drop in fertility.
However, this late decline occurred from a very low initial level. During the 17th and 18th centuries, crude death rates in much of colonial North America ranged from 15 to 25 deaths per 1000 residents per year (levels of up to 40 per 1000 being typical during stages one and two). Life expectancy at birth was on the order of 40 and, in some places, reached 50, and a resident of 18th century Philadelphia who reached age 20 could have expected, on average, additional 40 years of life.
This phenomenon is explained by the pattern of colonization of the United States. Sparsely populated interior of the country allowed ample room to accommodate all the "excess '' people, counteracting mechanisms (spread of communicable diseases due to overcrowding, low real wages and insufficient calories per capita due to the limited amount of available agricultural land) which led to high mortality in the Old World. With low mortality but stage 1 birth rates, the United States necessarily experienced exponential population growth (from less than 4 million people in 1790, to 23 million in 1850, to 76 million in 1900.)
The only area where this pattern did not hold was the American South. High prevalence of deadly endemic diseases such as malaria kept mortality as high as 45 - 50 per 1000 residents per year in 18th century North Carolina. In New Orleans, mortality remained so high (mainly due to yellow fever) that the city was characterized as the "death capital of the United States '' - at the level of 50 per 1000 population or higher - well into the second half of the 19th century.
Today, the U.S. is recognized as having both low fertility and mortality rates. Specifically, birth rates stand at 14 per 1000 per year and death rates at 8 per 1000 per year.
It must be remembered that the DTM is only a model and can not necessarily predict the future. It does however give an indication of what the future birth and death rates may be for an underdeveloped country, together with the total population size. Most particularly, of course, the DTM makes no comment on change in population due to migration. It is not applicable for high levels of development, as it has been shown that after a HDI of 0.9 the fertility increases again.
DTM does not account for recent phenomena such as AIDS; in these areas HIV has become the leading source of mortality. Some trends in waterborne bacterial infant mortality are also disturbing in countries like Malawi, Sudan and Nigeria; for example, progress in the DTM clearly arrested and reversed between 1975 and 2005.
DTM assumes that population changes are induced by industrial changes and increased wealth, without taking into account the role of social change in determining birth rates, e.g., the education of women. In recent decades more work has been done on developing the social mechanisms behind it.
DTM assumes that the birth rate is independent of the death rate. Nevertheless, demographers maintain that there is no historical evidence for society - wide fertility rates rising significantly after high mortality events. Notably, some historic populations have taken many years to replace lives after events such as the Black Death.
Some have claimed that DTM does not explain the early fertility declines in much of Asia in the second half of the 20th century or the delays in fertility decline in parts of the Middle East. Nevertheless, the demographer John C Caldwell has suggested that the reason for the rapid decline in fertility in some developing countries compared to Western Europe, the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand is mainly due to government programs and a massive investment in education both by governments and parents.
The Second Demographic Transition (SDT) is a conceptual framework first formulated in 1986 by Ron Lesthaeghe and Dirk van de Kaa in a short article that was published in the Dutch sociology journal Mens en Maatschappij. SDT addressed the changes in the patterns of sexual and reproductive behavior which occurred in North America and Western Europe in the period from about 1963, when the birth control pill and other cheap effective contraceptive methods such as the IUD were adopted by the general population, to the present. Combined with the sexual revolution and the increased role of women in society and the workforce the resulting changes have profoundly affected the demographics of industrialized countries resulting in a sub-replacement fertility level.
The changes, increased numbers of women choosing to not marry or have children, increased cohabitation outside marriage, increased childbearing by single mothers, increased participation by women in higher education and professional careers, and other changes are associated with increased individualism and autonomy, particularly of women. Motivations have changed from traditional and economic ones to those of self - realization.
In 2015, Nicholas Eberstadt, political economist at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, described the Second Demographic Transition as one in which "long, stable marriages are out, and divorce or separation are in, along with serial cohabitation and increasingly contingent liaisons. ''
|
i'm just a ghost in this house song | Ghost in This house - Wikipedia
"Ghost in This House '' is a song written by Hugh Prestwood and recorded by American country music group Shenandoah. It was released in September 1990 as the second single from their album Extra Mile. The song reached number 5 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in December 1990.
It was covered by Alison Krauss on her 1999 album Forget About It as well as by The Dixie Chicks. It was presented at the Grand Ole Opry by Kelsea Ballerini in 2016, as well by contestant Lauren Duski on The Voice in May 15, 2017.
The music video for Shenandoah 's rendition of the song was directed by Marcus Penczner and premiered in late 1990. The video shows scenes of a woman wandering all alone in her house, intercut with scenes of Shenandoah 's lead singer, Marty Raybon (the only band member to appear in the video), singing in a room with only minimal daylight seeping in. At the end of the video, the woman leaves her house.
|
when do we celebrate van mahotsav in india | Van Mahotsav - wikipedia
Van Mahotsav is an annual tree - planting movement in India, which began in 1950. The name Van Mahotsava means FESTIVAL OF FORESTS. It has gained significant national importance and, every year, millions of saplings are planted across India in observation of Van Mahotsav week.
Van Mahotsav festival was started in 1950 by Kulapati Dr. KM Munshi, then the Union Minister for Agriculture and Food to create enthusiasm among masses for forest conservation and planting trees. It is now a week - long festival, celebrated on different days in different parts of India, but usually between 1 July to 7 July. It began after a flourishing tree planting drive which was undertaken in Delhi, in which national leaders participated. The festival was simultaneously celebrated in a number of states in India. Since then, millions of saplings of diverse species have been planted with energetic participation of local people and various agencies like the forest department. Awareness spread as the chipko movement rose in popularity as a crusade to save mother earth..
The constant felling of trees in India has been a problem for a long time, and Van Mahotsav is important in creating awareness of the issues.. According to the forest department, for every tree felled ten trees should be planted to make up for its loss.
As at 2016, tree cover of India (including forests and non-forest areas) was 23.81 %. The Government of India has set a target of 33 % cover by 2020. In 2015 the State Government of Assam announced that it intended to plant 25 lakh (2.5 million) trees. It said this would not only benefit the environment, but also have a direct influence on the socio - economic development of Assam, which has 70 % or its people working in the agricultural sector.
The festival raises the awareness of trees among people, and highlights the need for planting and tending of trees as one of the best ways to prevent global warming and reduce pollution. Tree planting during the festival serves various purposes, such as providing alternative fuel, increasing production of food resources, creating shelter - belts around fields to increase productivity, providing food for cattle, offering shade and decorative landscapes, reducing drought and helping to prevent soil erosion, etc. It helps spread awareness about the harm caused by the cutting down of trees, and it is expected that every citizen of India will plant a sapling in the Van Mahotsav week.
Planting of trees also serves other purposes like providing alternative fuel options, food for cattle, helps in soil conservation and more than anything offers a natural aesthetic beauty. Planting of trees also helps to avoid soil erosion which may cause floods. Also, planting trees can be extremely effective in slowing down global warming and trees also help in reducing pollution as they make the air cleaner.
People celebrate Van Mahotsava by planting trees or saplings in homes, offices, schools and colleges. Novel promotions like free circulation of trees are also taken up by various organizations and volunteers. In general, native trees are planted as they most readily adapt to local conditions, integrate into eco-systems, and have a high survival rate and help support local biodiversity. State Governments and civic bodies supply saplings to schools, colleges and academic institutions, NGOs and welfare organizations for planting trees. July is the onset of the monsoon season in India -- a time when tree planting is most likely to be effective.
|
where is florence south carolina located on the map | Florence, South Carolina - wikipedia
Florence / ˈflɒrəns / is a city in, and the county seat of, Florence County, South Carolina, United States. It is probably best known for being the intersection of I - 95 and I - 20, and the eastern terminus of I - 20. It is the county seat of Florence County and the primary city within the Florence metropolitan area. The area forms the core of the historical "Pee Dee '' region of South Carolina, which includes the eight counties of northeastern South Carolina, along with sections of southeastern North Carolina. As of the 2010 census, the population of Florence was 37,056, and the estimated population in 2015 was 38,228.
Florence is one of the major cities in South Carolina. In 1965, Florence was named an All - American City, presented by the National Civic League. The city was founded as a railroad hub and became the junction of three major railroad systems, including the Wilmington and Manchester, the Northeastern, and the Cheraw and Darlington. As of today, the city retains its status as a major hub in the coastal plain region of South Carolina, both for industry and infrastructure, while establishing itself as a regional center for business, medicine, culture and finance.
The City of Florence was chartered in 1871 and incorporated in 1890 following the 1888 creation of Florence County. Prior to its charter, the city was part of one of the original townships laid out by the Lords Proprietors in 1719. The area was gradually settled through the late 19th and early 20th century. Early settlers practiced subsistence farming and produced indigo, cotton, naval stores and timber, which were shipped down the Great Pee Dee River to the port at Georgetown and exported. In the mid-19th century two intersecting railroads were built, the Wilmington and Manchester, and the Northeastern. Gen. W.W. Harllee, the president of the W & M, built his home at the junction, and named the community "Florence '', after his daughter.
During the Civil War the town was an important supply and railroad repair center for the Confederacy, and the site of the Florence Stockade, which held between 12,000 and 18,000 Union prisoners of war. Over 2,800 of the prisoners died of disease, and the burial ground adjacent to the prison became the Florence National Cemetery after the war and now has expanded.
After the war, Florence grew and prospered, using the railroad to supply its cotton, timber, and by the turn of the century, tobacco. During the 20th century the economy of Florence came to rely heavily on the healthcare industry, driven by two major hospitals and a number of pharmaceutical plants. Industry grew, especially after World War II, when Florence became increasingly known for textiles, pharmaceuticals, paper, and manufacturing, in addition to agricultural products.
Florence is located in the coastal plain of South Carolina. It is in the northeastern part of the state and the northern part of Florence County. The average elevation above sea level is around 140 ft (43 m). Jeffries Creek is a tributary of the Great Pee Dee River and is the main waterway that flows through the city, passing south of the city center. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 20.9 square miles (54.2 km), of which 20.9 square miles (54.1 km) are land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km), or 0.22 %, is water.
Autumn, winter and spring are mild, with occasional winter nights below freezing but rarely extended cold. Florence 's summers can be very hot and humid. The city, like other cities of the Southeast, is prone to inversions, which trap ozone and other pollutants over the area.
The city of Florence has a council - manager form of government. City council members are elected every four years, without term limits. The council consists of seven members (three from districts and three at - large), as well as the mayor. The council responsible for making policies and enacting laws, rules and regulations in order to provide for future community and economic growth. The council additionally provides the necessary support for the orderly and efficient operation of city services. Florence holds elections for mayor every four years, alongside national Presidential elections. Mayors serve as a member of the city council, without term limits. The council appoints a city manager to serve as chief administrative officer to run the day - to - day business of the city and to serve at the pleasure of the council.
Current members of the Florence City Council:
During the latter part of the 20th century and early 21st century, Florence 's economy was transformed from being based largely on rail and farming into a diversified economy as the major commerce, finance, rail and trucking services, health care, and industrial center of the Eastern Carolinas. There are over nine foreign affiliated companies and fourteen Fortune 500 companies in the region. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the Florence metropolitan statistical area as of 2009 was $6.8 billion, one of the highest among MSAs in the state.
Milken Institute 2008 Best Performing Cities Index showed the Florence MSA as the 5th largest gainer in their evaluation of the top 124 small metropolitan areas in the United States. The report ranks U.S. metropolitan areas by how well they are creating and sustaining jobs and economic growth. The components include job, wage and salary and technology growth.
Florence has blossomed into a strong center for medical care, with four major medical providers McLeod Regional Medical Center, Carolinas Hospital System, Regency Hospital and HealthSouth. The growth of these providers has led to the transformation of the Florence skyline over the last 10 years, with development for demand with multi-story high - rises as well as community relation projects.
With such a strong medical community several companies have their global, continental, or national headquarters in Florence, including General Electric Medical Systems manufacturing operations (MRI (anufacturing), TRICARE, a supplemental insurance company that serves the US Armed Forces and its civilian employees, and Assurant, a real property and personal insurance company. The city also serves the pharmaceutical industry, with a Patheon pharmaceutical manufacturing facility and research and development center for Patheon API Services.
Florence also serves as the financial and service hub for the Eastern Carolinas, with many financial and professional management institutions invested heavily within the city. Companies with regional operations and headquarters include BB&T, Monster.com, Otis Elevator, CSX Railway, Wells Fargo and Bank of America. Florence has operation headquarters for AT&T and is the southeastern headquarters of Duke Energy Inc.
Florence has benefited from being located at the intersection of I - 95 and I - 20, approximately halfway between New York City and Miami, Florida. The city is located 80 miles (130 km) east from the state capital Columbia, 70 miles (110 km) west from Myrtle Beach, 120 miles (190 km) North of Charleston, and 110 miles (180 km) southeast of Charlotte, North Carolina. This has allowed Florence to remain competitive and bringing in and sustaining major manufacturers such as Honda, QVC Distribution Center and Otis Elevator.
The Florence Public School District One is the governing body of the public schools in the area. As of 2010, the district has an active enrollment of 14,500 students, attending a total of 18 schools, including 12 elementary schools, three middle schools, and three high schools serving the City of Florence, Effingham and Quinby areas. The school system also supports an alternative school for middle and / or high school students, a vocational career center, and an adult learning center. The district and its schools have been recognized as being among the state 's best with numerous awards, including the Palmetto 's Finest Award.
Facilities of higher education in and around Florence include Francis Marion University and Florence -- Darlington Technical College. Francis Marion University is a public university located in Florence, while Florence -- Darlington Technical College, located in Florence, also operates satellite campuses in Hartsville, Lake City and Mullins.
McLeod Regional Medical Center is a 453 - bed non-profit medical center located on a 75 - acre (300,000 m) campus in downtown Florence. The hospital complex in downtown contains the Cardiovascular Institute, the Center for Advanced Surgery, the Cancer Center, and the only specialised paediatrics unit in the northeastern portion of South Carolina. It encompasses acute care facilities, such as McLeod Regional Medical Center in Florence, McLeod Medical Center in Dillon, McLeod Medical Center in Darlington, and also operates campuses all over the Pee Dee region of South Carolina.
Carolinas Hospital System, a regional healthcare facility with 420 - beds, serves eight counties in northeastern South Carolina.
Regency Hospital opened in Florence in July 2001. It is a 40 - bed Long Term Acute Care (LTAC) hospital located on the fourth and fifth floors of the Cedar Towers, at 121 Cedar Street. Regency, with its corporate office based in Alpharetta, Georgia, has 20 hospitals nationwide, and continues to aggressively grow throughout the country.
McLeod Regional Medical Center and Carolinas Hospital System are the first and third largest employers in the Pee Dee region of South Carolina.
The Pee Dee Regional Transportation Authority (PDRTA) is the principal agency responsible for operating mass transit in greater Florence area including Darlington, Marion, Chesterfield, Dillon, and the Lake City area. PDRTA also operates routes to Columbia, Myrtle Beach and Sumter.
PDRTA operates express shuttles, and bus service serving Florence and its immediate surrounding areas. The authority was established in June 1974; it is South Carolina 's oldest and largest RTA. PDRTA began operations serving the six - county Pee Dee region of Chesterfield, Darlington, Dillon, Florence, Marion, and Marlboro Counties. The PDRTA has provided transportation for more than 15 million passengers, and transports approximately 2,457 people daily. It operates services with 165 vehicles ranging in size from transit, intercity buses, and trolleys to lift - equipped vans and goshens.
The city and its surroundings are served by Florence Regional Airport (IATA: FLO; ICAO: KFLO), which is located 2 miles (3.2 km) east of downtown Florence on US 76. The airport itself is serviced by American Eagle to Charlotte and is the second busiest airport in the region behind Myrtle Beach International Airport. It is located an hour west of Myrtle Beach.
Amtrak 's The Palmetto trains 89, 90 and the Silver Meteor trains 97, 98 connect Florence with the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, Washington, Jacksonville, Tampa and Miami.
Greyhound Lines and Southeastern Stages operates a station on Irby Street, in the southern part of downtown, providing Florence with intercity bus transportation.
In 2010, the city of Florence began a massive redevelopment of Downtown Florence. The city has completed several notable projects and has several more planned. The Downtown Redevelopment District was originally a seventy square block area encompassing some 500 acres (2.0 km) in the heart of the City of Florence, but now has added over 100 more acres of the Timrod Park area with its historic homes. The redevelopment of Florence has even created a new branding effort, to include new city department logos (not to be confused with the city seal) way finding signs and repainting of water towers.
The historic downtown district running from the central business district toward the McLeod Medical Center, features a number of historic buildings that have been rehabilitated. The redevelopment started with the $18 million Drs. Bruce and Lee Foundation Library, and today now has the new Florence Little Theater, some 60 new apartments and the Francis Marion University Performing Arts Center which opened in September 2011, as well the new Florence Museum Of Art, Science & History which opened October 11, 2014. New office space has emerged from once abandoned buildings, and a police substation was added on once crime - ridden Dargan Street.
Special efforts are being aimed at the downtown area, which was once the center of the city 's activity but remains dormant after retailers and shoppers left for suburban malls. The goal is to re-establish Evans as a vibrant commercial and residential corridor, and five blocks of Evans Street will be streetscaped.
As of the census of 2000, there were 30,248 people, 11,925 households, and 7,882 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,709.4 people per square mile (659.8 / km2). There were 13,090 housing units at an average density of 739.7 per square mile (285.5 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 50.0 % White, 46.0 % Black or African - American, 0.18 % Native American, 1.16 % Asian, 0.01 % Pacific Islander, 0.21 % from other races, and 0.71 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 0.76 % of the population.
There were 11,925 households out of which 30.2 % had children living with them, 41.9 % were married couples living together, 20.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.9 % were non-families. 29.5 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.03.
In the city, the population was spread out with 25.0 % under the age of 18, 8.7 % from 18 to 24, 28.2 % from 25 to 44, 23.0 % from 45 to 64, and 15.1 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $35,388, and the median income for a family was $42,250. Males had a median income of $35,633 versus $23,589 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,336. Of the population 19.3 % and 15.3 % of families, and 28.2 % of those under and 15.9 % of those 65 and older, were living below the poverty line.
Florence is the central city of a metropolitan area with a total population of 205,566 (2010 US census), including the entire populations of Florence and Darlington counties. However, in the more detailed 2000 Census data, only about 54 % of this metro was urbanized, consisting of the urban areas Florence (2000 pop.: 67,314), Hartsville (14,907), Darlington (12,066), and Lake City (8,728). The remainder of the Florence metro is considered rural.
Like other midsize cities in the southern United States, Florence 's population is largely dominated by Protestantism, the largest group being the Southern Baptists, followed by the Methodists. The rest of the population are distributed among other Protestant denominations as well as the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches. The Greek Orthodox Church holds a large Greek Festival annually in September. There are two Reform Judaism synagogues in Florence, Beth Israel Congregation. There is also a small Hindu temple.
Baseball has a long history in Florence, dating back to the 1920s when the Florence Swamp Foxes were founded. The Toronto Blue Jays had a minor league team that played in Florence from 1981 to 1986. Major league players Pat Borders, Jimmy Key, Cecil Fielder and Fred McGriff made stops in Florence during their minor league careers. Florence 's Post 1 American Legion baseball team is one of the longest tenured teams in the state, beginning in 1932. Drawing the best high school talent from all over the Pee Dee area each summer, Post 1 has had over 30 players move on the professional ranks, including Reggie Sanders. They have won 28 league championships and two state titles. They were the host site of the 2008 American Legion State Tournament. In 2012, Post 1 won the South Carolina state tournament and the Southeast Regional and participated in the American Legion World Series in Shelby, North Carolina.
Florence is home to the Coastal Plain League Florence RedWolves summer collegiate baseball team. Relocated to Florence in 1998, the team brings in players from collegiate sports conferences, including the Southeastern Conference and the Atlantic Coast Conference. The team hosted the 2004 All - Star game and Home Run Derby. In 2007, they hosted the Petitt Cup Tournament at their home field.
The RedWolves play at the 1,755 - capacity Sparrow Stadium at Francis Marion University. The stadium is also hosts some home games for the Florence -- Darlington Technical College Stingers baseball team. Post 1 plays its home games at American Legion Field, adjacent to Memorial Stadium, where Florence 's three public high schools play their home football games.
Until 2009, Florence was home to the American Indoor Football league 's Florence Phantoms, which debuted in the league in 2006. The Phantoms played in the Florence Civic Center. Florence Memorial Stadium is a 7,000 seat football stadium 5 miles (8.0 km) to the east of the city. It is the home stadium for West Florence, Wilson, and South Florence high schools.
Florence was also home to the Southern Professional Hockey League 's now - Twin City Cyclones, who played from 2005 to 2007. This team was part of a two event package in 2004 to replace the now defunct Pee Dee Pride (to be the Myrtle Beach Thunderboltz) from the ECHL. The building was also the home of the South Carolina Fire Ants of Major League Roller Hockey in 1998.
Florence and Grand Strand share a common defined market by Nielsen Media Research in Horry, Marion, Dillon, Darlington, Marlboro, Scotland, Robeson, and Florence counties. The Florence / Myrtle Beach Market is the 103rd largest market in the US as defined by Nielsen Media Research. CBS affiliate WBTW 13, ABC affiliate WPDE - TV 15, CW affiliate WWMB 21 and SCETV (PBS) outlet WJPM - TV 33 are licensed to Florence. SCETV 's Myrtle Beach outlet, WHMC 23, is licensed to Conway. NBC affiliate WMBF - TV 32 and Fox affiliate WFXB 43 are licensed to the city of Myrtle Beach but also serve Florence. Florence, along with The Pee Dee Region, makes up the 217th largest radio market in the United States.
The Florence Morning News is the largest daily paper published in the Pee Dee, with a readership base extending from Cheraw, Marion, Darlington to Williamsburg County. The paper has been in existence since 1922 and is published by BH Media Group, a Berkshire Hathaway Company. The area is also served by several weekly papers, including the News Journal and the Community Times.
|
what is the meaning of simran in english | Simran - wikipedia
Simran (Punjabi: ਸਿਮਰਨ, Hindi: सिमरण, सिमरन) is a Punjabi word derived from the Sanskrit word स्मरण (smaraṇa, "the act of remembrance, reminiscence, and recollection '') which leads to the realization of what may be the highest aspect and purpose in one 's life. It is the continuous remembrance of the finest aspect of the self, and / or the continuous remembrance (or feeling) of God, thus used for introducing spirituality. This state is maintained continuously while carrying out the worldly works outside.
Simran is a commonly used term as a verb in Gurmukhi, which refers to ' meditating ' of the Nām, the ultimate feeling of Ultimate. Sikhism is a distinct contemporary faith, whereby the Realization of God can be realized purely through individual devotion, without subjection to rites and rituals that have recently become the business of avaricious priests and that would impede the pure search for truth in Sikhism.
It says in the Guru Granth Sahib that through Simran one is purified and attains salvation or ' mukti '. This is because ' si - mar ' means ' to die over ', thus indicating to death of ego, allowing truth ultimate truth or sat to appear.
On page 202 of the Guru Granth Sahib, Guruji writes:
Meditating, meditating in remembrance, I have found peace. (simar simar sukh paa - i - aa.)
This japna teaches a person who wishes to gain from this human life, one must attain a higher spiritual state by become free of attachment by realizing that all that is, is empty as outlined in the Heart Sutra. Thereby, merit is acquired by devoutly repeating, comprehending and living by the sacred word every day so as to progressively reveal the divine and ultimate truth to the person who earnestly seeks it:
Guru Ram Das says in Sarang ki var (Guru Granth Sahib, 1242):
Nām, the incorruptible is beyond our comprehending.
At the same time, it is our constant companion and preserves all creation. Therefore, truth will disclose itself unto us and lets us perceive it in our hearts. It is through earnestness that we can meet with such a truth.
In Sant Mat the word Simran is used for the spiritual practice of repeating the mantra given by the Satguru during initiation. The mantra itself is also called Simran. Simran repetition is done during meditation and also outside it, however this mantra is later dropped in favor of real feeling of self or the God, which happens due to breaking out of monotony through Jap. Thus mantra is used only till the point, monotony and previously formed patterns are broken. After it pure Simran is carried by the sadhak.
|
who moved my cheese . which character are you | Who Moved My cheese? - Wikipedia
Who Moved My Cheese? An Amazing Way to Deal with Change in Your Work and in Your Life, published on September 8, 1998, is a motivational business fable. The text describes change in one 's work and life, and four typical reactions to those changes by two mice and two "little people, '' during their hunt for cheese. A New York Times business bestseller upon release, Who Moved My Cheese? remained on the list for almost five years and spent over 200 weeks on Publishers Weekly 's hardcover nonfiction list. It has sold more than 26 million copies worldwide in 37 languages and remains one of the best - selling business books.
Allegorically, Who Moved My Cheese? features four characters: two mice, "Sniff '' and "Scurry, '' and two little people, human metaphor, "Hem '' and "Haw. '' (The names of the little people are taken from the phrase "hem and haw, '' a term for indecisiveness.) They live in a maze, a representation of one 's environment, and look for cheese, representative of happiness and success. Initially without cheese, each group, the mice and humans, paired off and traveled the lengthy corridors searching for cheese. One day both groups happen upon a cheese - filled corridor at "Cheese Station C. '' Content with their find, the humans establish routines around their daily intake of cheese, slowly becoming arrogant in the process.
One day Sniff and Scurry arrive at Cheese Station C to find no cheese left, but they are not surprised. Noticing the cheese supply dwindling, they have mentally prepared beforehand for the arduous but inevitable task of finding more cheese. Leaving Cheese Station C behind, they begin their hunt for new cheese together. Later that day, Hem and Haw arrive at Cheese Station C only to find the same thing, no cheese. Angered and annoyed, Hem demands, "Who moved my cheese? '' The humans have counted on the cheese supply to be constant, and so are unprepared for this eventuality. After deciding that the cheese is indeed gone they get angry at the unfairness of the situation Haw suggests a search for new cheese, but Hem is dead set in his victimized mindset and dismisses the proposal.
Meanwhile, Sniff and Scurry have found "Cheese Station N, '' and new cheese. But back at Cheese Station C, Hem and Haw are affected by their lack of cheese and blame each other for their problem. Hoping to change, Haw again proposes a search for new cheese. However, Hem is comforted by his old routine and is frightened about the unknown. He knocks the idea again. After a while of being in denial, the humans remain without cheese. One day, having discovered his debilitating fears, Haw begins to chuckle at the situation and stops taking himself so seriously. Realizing he should simply move on, Haw enters the maze, but not before chiseling "If You Do Not Change, You Can Become Extinct '' on the wall of Cheese Station C for his friend to ponder.
Still fearful of his trek, Haw jots "What Would You Do If You Were n't Afraid? '' on the wall and, after thinking about that, he begins his venture. Still plagued with worry (perhaps he has waited too long to begin his search...), Haw finds some bits of cheese that nourish him and he is able to continue his search. Haw realizes that the cheese has not suddenly vanished, but has dwindled from continual eating. After a stop at an empty cheese station, Haw begins worrying about the unknown again. Brushing aside his fears, Haw 's new mindset allows him to again enjoy life. He has even begun to smile again! He is realizing that "When you move beyond your fear, you feel free. '' After another empty cheese station, Haw decides to go back for Hem with the few bits of new cheese he has managed to find.
Uncompromising, Hem refuses the new cheese, to his friend 's disappointment. With knowledge learned along the way, Haw heads back into the maze. Getting deeper into the maze, inspired by bits of new cheese here and there, Haw leaves a trail of writings on the wall ("The Handwriting On the Wall ''). These clarify his own thinking and give him hope that his friend will find aid in them during his search for new cheese. Still traveling, Haw one day comes across Cheese Station N, abundant with cheese, including some varieties that are strange to him, and he realizes he has found what he was looking for. After eating, Haw reflects on his experience. He ponders a return to see his old friend. But Haw decides to let Hem find his own way. Finding the largest wall in Cheese Station N, he writes:
Cautious from past experience, Haw now inspects Cheese Station N daily and explores different parts of the maze regularly to prevent any complacency from setting in. After hearing movement in the maze one day, Haw realizes someone is approaching the station. Unsure, Haw hopes that it is his friend Hem who has found the way.
In 1999, Who Moved My Cheese Inc was founded to handle the Who Moved My Cheese? book order demands from businesses. For several years, the company worked 24 / 7 just to keep up with the demand for the book. In 2005, the company was reorganized as Spencer Johnson Partners with the idea of bringing in partners and additional content from Dr. Spencer Johnson, the author. Spencer Johnson Partners focused on creating additional programs and services that would continue to help clients navigate change, including Gaining Change Skills. Then, in 2009, the company was purchased and renamed Red Tree Leadership.
In the corporate environment, management has been known to distribute this book to employees during times of "structural reorganization, '' or during cost - cutting measures, in an attempt to portray unfavorable or unfair changes in an optimistic or opportunistic way. This has been characterized by Barbara Ehrenreich in her book Bright - sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America as an attempt by organizational management to make employees quickly and unconditionally assimilate management ideals, even if they may prove detrimental to them professionally. Ehrenreich summarizes its message as "the dangerous human tendencies to ' overanalyze ' and complain must be overcome for a more rodentlike approach to life. When you lose a job, just shut up and scamper along to the next one. ''
Dilbert cartoonist Scott Adams said that patronizing parables are one of the top 10 complaints he receives in his email. Scott Adams ' retort to the message in the parable is that it is a "patronizing message for the proletariat to acquiesce. ''
Three more criticisms can be phrased as:
There are multiple parody works called Who Cut the Cheese?.
Andy Borowitz published a parody, Who moved my soap?: the CEO 's guide to surviving prison, Simon & Schuster, c2003.
Darrel Bristow - Bovey published a parody, I Moved Your Cheese, Penguin Random House South Africa, Apr 13, 2012.
The webcomic Abstruse Goose has a strip which is a parody of the book.
|
what does canadian red cross do in other parts of the world | Canadian Red Cross - wikipedia
The Canadian Red Cross Society (French: Croix - Rouge canadienne) is a Canadian humanitarian charitable organization, and one of 190 national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. The organization receives funding from both private donations and from Canadian government departments.
The Red Cross Society trains volunteers in emergency response, disaster response, and disaster assistance, and provides injury prevention services such as outdoor activities safety and first aid training. The society, through the international network of the Red Cross, helps the world 's vulnerable populations, including victims of armed conflicts and communities destroyed by disasters. Canadian Red Cross staff and volunteers are guided by the seven fundamental principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement: humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, voluntary Service, unity, and universality. The current Secretary General and Chief Executive Officer of the Canadian Red Cross is Conrad Sauvé.
The Canadian Red Cross was established in the fall of 1896 as an affiliate of the British Red Cross Society (then known as the National Society for Aid to the Sick and Wounded in War). George Ryerson, who had founded Canada 's St. John Ambulance Association in 1895, spearheaded the organization 's founding. The Canadian Red Cross Society Act (1909) legally established the Red Cross as the corporate body in Canada responsible for providing volunteer aid in accordance with the Geneva Conventions.
The first international activity of the Canadian Red Cross was treating the sick and wounded in South Africa during the Boer War.
After the end of World War I in 1918, the Society began training public health nurses. A children 's program designed to promote healthy living, the Junior Red Cross, was set up in schools across Canada /
For many years the Canadian Red Cross was responsible for collecting human blood from donors for medical use. The Ottawa Branch of Blood Services Canada operated from a building on Metcalf Street which was donated by Mary Alice Danner in memory of Flight Sergeant William Dewey Hagyard R.C.A.F. who was missing in action in WWII. The branch later relocated to Plymouth Street. In 1988, after serious flaws in the blood collection process were uncovered, the Society stopped providing this service.
The Canadian Red Cross had its centennial celebration in May 2009.
In 2017 the Red Cross provided food, shelter and medicine to asylum seekers crossing the border into Canada from the United States.
The Canadian Red Cross provides assistance to Canadians experiencing an emergency or disaster. The organization works in partnership with government, first responders, emergency management, and other organizations to support their response activities. They also provide assistance for people 's basic needs, which includes: family reuinification, lodging, reception and information, food, clothing, and personal services, such as first aid, temporary care for children or elderly, and other support.
The Canadian Red Cross offers a range of community support services that provide daily supports to older adults, vulnerable people, and their caregivers. The goal of these programs is to provide support in maintaining quality of life, independence, and active participation in society. Some of the programs and services available include: nutrition support programs (such as Meals on Wheels), social inclusion programs, assisted living in supportive housing and attendant outreach services, safety programs, and transportation. The availability of these programs varies. The Red Cross also provides services to homeless people during extreme weather.
This program provides health equipment to individuals dealing with individuals or injury, enabling them to return home from the hospital sooner or live more independently. The program operates in British Columbia, Alberta, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador, and the Yukon Territory. The types of assistive equipment that can be provided include: wheelchairs, walkers, bath seats and benches, commodes and toilet seats, crutches and canes, bed handles, and other durable medical equipment. The program is funded through financial donations as well as through the donation of used medical equipment, diverting it from the landfill, and it carried out with the support of volunteers and the health authorities.
The Canadian Red Cross offers personal support and homemaking services to support the independent living of seniors and those recovering from illness or injury. These services include: personal care, home management, and respite and companion care. Home care services are available in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Ontario.
The Canadian Red Cross has been involved in the independent monitoring of detention facilities holding immigration detainees since 1999, following a request from Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC). The organization provides independent monitoring to determine if detainees are treated humanely and their human rights and inherent dignity are respected. As of 2014, this includes visiting federal immigration holding facilities and some provincial correctional facilities in Québéc, Ontario, Alberta, British Columbia, and Manitoba.
The Canadian Red Cross is involved in treating the wounded on the fields of war and to training individuals to effectively handle emergencies both at home and in the workplace. The organization has been offering first aid and CPR training to Canadians for over 50 years. In an average year, about 600,000 Canadians are trained.
In 1946 the Red Cross Swimming and Water Safety programs were introduced as a result of a large number of drownings that occurred in Canada in the 1940s. Since then, more than 30 million Canadians, in more than 3,500 communities across Canada were to taught to swim and stay safe around water.
In 2012, The Canadian Red Cross and The Royal Life Saving Society of Canada joined forces with the Public Health Agency of Canada to launch the Open Water Wisdom initiative, which is a community water activity safety program which promotes awareness of water safety issues nationally, including to remote communities across Canada.
The Canadian Red Cross delivers primary healthcare programs, relief supplies, water, and sanitation and shelter solutions to vulnerable communities affected by conflict, disasters, and health emergencies. The Society 's international programming supports community - based programs that provide large - scale humanitarian aid.
The Canadian Red Cross has long - term development programs in the regions of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and the Middle East and North Africa.
The Canadian Red Cross supports community - based health programs which address preventable illness in mothers and children, including malaria, pneumonia, diarrhea, and malnutrition, particularly in remote areas where there is a lack of health services and emergencies where health services have collapsed. They also provide education about reproduction, newborn care and breastfeeding, nutrition for young children, hygiene, sanitation, and methods of accessing potable water.
Until September 28, 1998, the Canadian Red Cross was responsible for all blood services in Canada. On the recommendation of the Krever Commission, the organization was removed from this position and replaced by the Canadian Blood Services. This was due to nationwide controversy when it was revealed that the Canadian Red Cross had supplied, between 1986 and 1990, blood which it knew might be tainted with Hepatitis C and HIV.
In 1994, an investigation found that 95 percent of hemophiliacs who used blood products supplied by the Canadian Red Cross prior to 1990 had contracted Hepatitis C. According to the Krever Commission, approximately 85 percent of those infections could have been prevented. Compared to blood services in Europe and the United States, the CRC was slow to disseminate information about possible infection to those receiving blood products. More than 1,100 Canadians were infected with HIV and 20,000 contracted Hepatitis C from blood transfusions given by the Red Cross during that period.
The Canadian Red Cross was fined $5,000 for its role in the tainted blood scandal and the organization agreed to plead guilty to distributing a contaminated drug. It agreed to donate $1.5 million to the University of Ottawa for a research endowment fund, as well as a scholarship for the family members of those affected. In exchange, six criminal charges against the Canadian Red Cross were dropped.
Dr. Roger Perrault, the director of the Canadian Red Cross at the time, was put on trial for his role in the scandal. The first trial, in Toronto before the Superior Court of Justice, resulted in an acquittal. He had been charged with four counts of criminal negligence causing bodily harm and one of common nuisance. The counts of criminal negligence were specific to four victims who had contracted HIV from tainted blood. The second trial, in Hamilton, also before the Superior Court of Justice, resulted in charges being withdrawn. The charges were six counts of common nuisance and "stemmed from an allegation he endangered the public by failing to properly screen donors, implement testing for blood - borne viruses and warn the public of the danger regarding hepatitis C and HIV '' and relate to a period of time in which the understanding of AIDS was even more rudimentary. The charges were withdrawn on the basis that there was no longer a reasonable prospect of conviction.
An investigation conducted by Radio - Canada (CBC) first aired on March 17, 2010 on The National. It reported on the problems facing workers hired by Canadian Red Cross contractors during an effort to rebuild communities in the Indonesian province of Aceh.
Afghanistan Albania Algeria Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan The Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Brunei Darussalam Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo Congo, Democratic Republic of Cook Islands Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti Dominica
Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea (pending recognition and admission) Estonia Ethiopia Fiji Finland France Gabon Gambia Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea - Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran, Islamic Republic of Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati Korea, Democratic People 's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Lao People 's Democratic Republic Latvia Lebanon Lesotho
Liberia Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Malta Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Micronesia, Federated States of Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Myanmar Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Pakistan Palau Palestine Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russian Federation Rwanda Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (pending recognition and admission) Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Samoa San Marino, Republic of Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania, United Republic of Thailand Timor - Leste Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Viet Nam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe
|
who are defra and what do they do | Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs - wikipedia
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is the government department responsible for environmental protection, food production and standards, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Concordats set out agreed frameworks for co operation, between it and the Scottish Government, Welsh Government and Northern Ireland Executive, which have devolved responsibilities for these matters in their respective nations.
Defra also leads for Britain at the EU on agricultural, fisheries and environment matters and in other international negotiations on sustainable development and climate change, although a new Department of Energy and Climate Change was created on 3 October 2008 to take over the last responsibility.
It was formed in June 2001, under the leadership of Margaret Beckett, when the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) was merged with part of the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) and with a small part of the Home Office.
The department was created after the perceived failure of MAFF, to deal adequately with an outbreak of Foot and Mouth disease. The Department had about 9,000 core personnel, as of January 2008. The Department 's main building is Nobel House on Smith Square, SW1.
In October 2008, the climate team at Defra was merged with the energy team from the Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR), to create the Department of Energy and Climate Change, then headed by Ed Miliband.
The Defra Ministers are as follows:
The Permanent Secretary is Clare Moriarty.
Shadow ministers portfolios can differ from government departments therefore overlap.
Defra is responsible for British Government policy in the following areas
Some policies apply to England alone due to devolution, while others are not devolved and therefore apply to Britain as a whole.
The department 's executive agencies are:
The department 's key delivery partners are:
A full list of departmental delivery and public bodies may be found on the Defra website.
Policies for environment, food and rural affairs are delivered in the regions by Defra 's executive agencies and delivery bodies, in particular Natural England, the Rural Payments Agency, Animal Health and the Marine Management Organisation.
Defra provides grant aid to the following flood and coastal erosion risk management operating authorities:
Defra 's overarching aim is sustainable development, which is defined as "development which enables all people throughout the world to satisfy their basic needs and enjoy a better quality of life without compromising the quality of life of future generations. '' The Secretary of State wrote in a letter to the Prime Minister that he saw Defra 's mission as enabling a move toward what the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has called "one planet living ''.
Under this overarching aim, Defra has five strategic priorities:
|
why is transculturation an important concept in latin american history | Transculturation - wikipedia
Transculturation is a term coined by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1947 to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures.
Transculturation encompasses more than transition from one culture to another; it does not consist merely of acquiring another culture (acculturation) or of losing or uprooting a previous culture (deculturation). Rather, it merges these concepts and additionally carries the idea of the consequent creation of new cultural phenomena (neoculturation). Ortiz also referred to the devastating impact of Spanish colonialism on Cuba 's indigenous peoples as a "failed transculturation ''. Transculturation can often be the result of colonial conquest and subjugation, especially in a postcolonial era as native peoples struggle to regain their own sense of identity.
In simple terms, transculturation reflects the natural tendency of people (in general) to resolve conflicts over time, rather than exacerbating them. (In the modern context, both conflicts and resolutions are amplified by communication and transportation technology -- the ancient tendency of cultures drifting or remaining apart has been replaced by stronger forces for bringing societies together.) Where transculturation impacts ethnicity and ethnic issues the term "ethnoconvergence '' is sometimes used.
In one general sense, transculturation covers war, ethnic conflict, racism, multiculturalism, cross-culturalism, interracial marriage, and any other of a number of contexts that deal with more than one culture. In the other general sense, transculturation is one aspect of global phenomena and human events.
The general processes of transculturation are extremely complex -- steered by powerful forces at the macrosocial level, yet ultimately resolved at the interpersonal level. The driving force for conflict is simple proximity -- boundaries, once separating people (providing for a measure of isolation) become the issue of a conflict when societies encroach upon one another territorially. If a means to co-exist can not be immediately found, then conflicts can be hostile, leading to a process by which contact between individuals leads to some resolution. Often, history shows us, the processes of co-existence begins with hostilities, and with the natural passing of polarist individuals, comes the passing of their polarist sentiments, and soon some resolution is achieved. Degrees of hostile conflict vary from outright genocidal conquest, to lukewarm infighting between differing political views within the same ethnic community.
These changes often represent differences between homeland pons, and their diasporic communities abroad. Nevertheless, obstacles to ethnoconvergence are not great. The primary issue; language, (hence, communication and education) can be overcome within a single generation -- as is evident in the easy acclimation of children of foreign parents. English, for example, is spoken by more non-Anglo - American people than Anglo - Americans, making it the current lingua - franca, the worldwide de facto standard international language.
Processes of transculturation become more complex within the context of globalization, given the multiple layers of abstraction that permeate everyday experiences. Elizabeth Kath argues that in the global era we can no longer consider transculturation only in relation to the face - to - face, but that we need to take into account the many layers of abstracted interactions that are interwoven through face - to - face encounters, a phenomenon that she describes as layers of transculturation. Kath draws upon the concept of constitutive abstraction as seen in the work of Australian social theorists Geoff Sharp and Paul James.
It has been observed that even in monolingual, industrial societies like urban North America, some individuals do cling to a "modernized '' primordial identity, apart from others. Some intellectuals, such as Michael Ignatieff, argue that convergence of a general culture does not directly entail a similar convergence in ethnic identities. This can become evident in social situations, where people divide into separate groups, despite being of an identical "super-ethnicity '', such as nationality.
Within each smaller ethnicity, individuals may tend to see it perfectly justified to assimilate with other cultures, and some others view assimilation as wrong and incorrect for their culture. This common theme, representing dualist opinions of ethnoconvergence itself, within a single ethnic group is often manifested in issues of sexual partners and marriage, employment preferences, etc. These varied opinions of ethnoconvergence represent themselves in a spectrum; assimilation, homogenization, acculturation, and cultural compromise are commonly used terms for ethnoconvegence which flavor the issues to a bias.
Often it 's in a secular, multi-ethnic environment that cultural concerns are both minimised and exacerbated; Ethnic prides are boasted, hierarchy is created ("center '' culture versus "periphery '') but on the other hand, they will still share a common "culture '', and common language and behaviours. Often the elderly, more conservative - in - association of a clan, tend to reject cross-cultural associations, and participate in ethnically similar community - oriented activities. Xenophobes tend to think of cross-cultural contact as a component of assimilation, and see this as harmful.
The obstacle to ethnoconvergence is ethnocentrism, which is the view that one 's culture is of greater importance than another 's. Ethnocentrism often takes different forms, as it is a highly personal bias, and manifests itself in countless aspects of culture. Religion, or belief, is the prime ethnocentric divider. Second is custom, which may overlap religion. With the adherence to each distinct component, comes the repulsion of the other. In most regions, ethnic divides are binary, meaning only two distinct cultures are present, each seeing the other as foreign. Many, however make the point that the binary example is the exception, and the norm is far more dynamic.
Ethnicity can be divided into two distinct areas, as they relate to ethnoconvergence: Utilitarian traits, and traditional customs.
Religion, on the other hand, is a highly personal and attached part of culture. However, religion does not neatly correspond with ethnic identity. In many cosmopolitan societies, religion is everything -- social, utilitarian, intellectual, political; from the point of view of people of immersed cultures; The very concept of ethnicity and its distinctions is incongruous to their immersed concepts.
In many societies, such as in those in Europe, languages are considered a significant component of ethnic values. This does not mean that most Europeans reject learning other languages. Quite the contrary, Europeans are often polyglots, and may label other individuals by their ethnicities; practical means of distinguishing cultures may resemble tendencies similar to ethnocentrism.
However, the political and cultural significance of regional or national languages are retained because these polyglots conform to the linguistic norms of the place they visit -- doing "as the Romans do ''. Thus, conforming to the "ethnic integrity '' of the region.
It has even become a cliché that "to learn a new language is to adopt a new soul ''. There are many other examples of the essential significance of language. In pre-Russian Siberia, Tatar - Mongol colonists in the Taiga often recognized indigenous speakers of Turkic languages as their "own people '' and non-Turkic groups as "foreigners '', despite these indigenous groups having a similar level of material culture, and sharing much of a primitive culture with tribes foreign to the Muslim - Buddhist Tatar - Mongols.
In October 2011, U.S. communications agency Bromley launched a new model / strategy utilizing transcultural sociological theory as a means to segment and ' make sense ' of the changing American cultural landscape. Returning to classic social science as a solution, Bromley has embraced the anthropological approach put forward by thinkers like Fernando Ortiz as a way to account for ethnicity and language without being limited by them as a way for viewing the world.
|
stevie ray vaughan one bourbon one scotch one beer | One Bourbon, One Scotch, One Beer - wikipedia
"One Scotch, One Bourbon, One Beer '' (or "One Bourbon, One Scotch, One Beer '') is a blues song written by Rudy Toombs and recorded by Amos Milburn in 1953. It is one of several drinking songs recorded by Milburn in the early 1950s that placed in the top ten of the Billboard R&B chart. Other artists released popular recordings of the song, including John Lee Hooker in 1966 and George Thorogood in 1977.
Amos Milburn 's "One Scotch, One Bourbon, One Beer '' is a mid-tempo blues song, sometimes described as a jump blues, with pop - style chord changes. It tells the story of a man who is "in a bar at closing time trying to get enough booze down his neck to forget that his girlfriend 's gone AWOL, harassing a tired, bored bartender who simply wants to close up and go home into serving just one more round ''. During the one break in the song, Milburn implores the bartender:
One more nip and make it strong I got to find my baby if it takes all night long One scotch, one bourbon, one beer
The song was a hit, reaching number two in the R&B chart during a fourteen - week stay in 1953. The single lists the performers as "Amos Milburn and His Aladdin Chickenshackers '' after his first number one single "Chicken Shack Boogie ''. Mickey Baker provided the guitar parts. Several of Milburn 's contemporaries commented on his indulgence; for his part, Milburn added "I practiced what I preached ''.
John Lee Hooker recorded the song as "One Bourbon, One Scotch, One Beer '' in 1966. Hooker transformed Milburn 's song "into a vehicle for himself ''. He used the storyline and chorus (but altered the order), but "edited the verse down to its essentials, filled in the gaps with narrative and dialogue, and set the whole thing to a rocking cross between South Side shuffle and signature boogie ''. Part of Hooker 's narrative included:
And then I sit there, drinkin ', gettin ' high, mellow, knocked out, feelin ' good About that time I looked on the wall, at the old clock on the wall About that time it was ten - thirty then, I looked down the bar at the bartender, he said ' What do you want, Johnny? ', one bourbon, one scotch, and one beer
Hooker 's version is notated as a medium tempo blues with an irregular number of bars in 4 / 4 time in the key of E. It was recorded in Chicago in 1966 with Hooker on vocal and guitar, pianist Lafayette Leake, guitarist Eddie "Guitar '' Burns, drummer Fred Below, and an unknown bass player. The song was released on Hooker 's 1966 The Real Folk Blues album and he later recorded several live renditions of the song. A live version with Muddy Waters ' band recorded at the Cafe Au Go Go on August 30, 1966, has been described as "dark, slow, swampy - deep, and the degree of emotional rapport between Hooker and the band (particularly Otis Spann) (is) nothing less than extraordinary ''.
George Thorogood recorded "One Bourbon, One Scotch, One Beer '' for his 1977 debut album, George Thorogood and the Destroyers. His version is a medley of the song and another Hooker song, "House Rent Boogie '', which serves as a backstory to explain the singer 's situation. According to Hooker, "He (Thorogood) told me he was gon na do that (and) I said, ' Okay, go ahead ' ''.
"House Rent Boogie '' is written in the first person and details the events that transpire after the singer has lost his job. Unable to pay his rent and thrown out by his landlady, he tries and fails to obtain lodging at a friend 's house. Lying to his landlady that he has obtained a new job, he gets access to his room and removes all his belongings. He then goes down to a tavern and repeatedly orders the three title drinks to drown his sorrows, staying until last call at 3: 00 a.m.
Live recordings of the medley are included on Live (1986) and 30th Anniversary Tour: Live (2004). In the 1986 performance, as he is being evicted, he makes sure to pack up his "John Lee Hooker record collection '' before he heads off to the bar. Both the studio version and the live version of "One Bourbon, One Scotch, One Beer '' have been included on several Thorogood compilations, which list the songwriter as Hooker.
A variety of artists have recorded versions of the song, including: Snooks Eaglin, Prince Jazzbo, Thurston Harris, Champion Jack Dupree, John Lee Hooker Jr., Marcel Zanini, Alfred Brown, and Admiral Bailey and Chaka Demus.
For the "Blame It on the Alcohol '' episode of the television series Glee, characters Will Schuester (played by Matthew Morrison) and Shannon Beiste (played by Dot - Marie Jones) sang the song at a honky tonk bar.
Bob Rivers recorded a parody version called "One Turban, One Scot, One Queer ''.
|
how old do you have to be to buy tobacco in nevada | Smoking age - wikipedia
The smoking age is the minimum legal age required to purchase or smoke tobacco products. In almost all countries citizens are eligible to buy tobacco products when they turn 18. Most countries have laws that restrict those below a minimum age from legally purchasing tobacco products. However, many of these countries do not require a minimum age for smoking in a public place.
The federal law requires states to have a minimum age of 18 years for sale / purchase of tobacco products (21 U.S.C. § 387f. (3) (a) (ii)). State laws may extend this ban and also prohibit supply, possession and consumption to / by person underage. But most of the states do not directly ban the consumption of tobacco by a minor. The federal law requiring states to have a minimum purchasing age at 18 is enforced by withholding FEMA disaster and non-disaster grants from states that have purchasing ages under 18, and currently no state falls under that category.
Before June 9, the age to purchase tobacco was 18 years of age. Amended after the 2016 election it is legal for persons age 18 and older to buy tobacco products with no filter. (Cigars, e-cigarettes, chewing tobacco, etc.)
The minimum age of 15 years was introduced on November 11, 1890. The minimum age was raised from 15 to 18 on January 1, 1988. The minimum age was raised from 18 to 21 on January 1, 2016.
18 (purchase) 16 (public possession)
No Minimum age prior 1908.
|
disparate impact discrimination is the term used for unintentional discrimination in hiring | Disparate impact - wikipedia
Disparate impact in United States labor law refers to practices in employment, housing, and other areas that adversely affect one group of people of a protected characteristic more than another, even though rules applied by employers or landlords are formally neutral. Although the protected classes vary by statute, most federal civil rights laws protect based on race, color, religion, national origin, and sex as protected traits, and some laws include disability status and other traits as well.
A violation of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act may be proven by showing that an employment practice or policy has a disproportionately adverse effect on members of the protected class as compared with non-members of the protected class. Therefore, the disparate impact theory under Title VII prohibits employers "from using a facially neutral employment practice that has an unjustified adverse impact on members of a protected class. A facially neutral employment practice is one that does not appear to be discriminatory on its face; rather it is one that is discriminatory in its application or effect. '' Where a disparate impact is shown, the plaintiff can prevail without the necessity of showing intentional discrimination unless the defendant employer demonstrates that the practice or policy in question has a demonstrable relationship to the requirements of the job in question. This is the "business necessity '' defense.
In addition to Title VII, other federal laws also have disparate impact provisions, including the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967. Some civil rights laws, such as Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, do not contain disparate impact provisions creating a private right of action, although the federal government may still pursue disparate impact claims under these laws. The U.S. Supreme Court has held that the Fair Housing Act of 1968 creates a cause of action for disparate impact. Disparate impact contrasts with disparate treatment. A disparate impact is unintentional, whereas a disparate treatment is an intentional decision to treat people differently based on their race or other protected characteristics.
While disparate impact is a legal theory of liability under Title VII, adverse impact is one element of that doctrine, which measures the effect an employment practice has on a class protected by Title VII. In the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, an adverse impact is defined as a "substantially different rate of selection in hiring, promotion, or other employment decision which works to the disadvantage of members of a race, sex, or ethnic group. ''. A "substantially different '' rate is typically defined in government enforcement or Title VII litigation settings using the 80 % Rule, statistical significance tests, and / or practical significance tests. Adverse impact is often used interchangeably with "disparate impact, '' which was a legal term coined in one of the most significant U.S. Supreme Court rulings on disparate or adverse impact: Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 1971. Adverse Impact does not mean that an individual in a majority group is given preference over a minority group. However, having adverse impact does mean that there is the "potential '' for discrimination in the hiring process and it could warrant investigation.
The 80 % test was originally framed by a panel of 32 professionals (called the Technical Advisory Committee on Testing, or TACT) assembled by the State of California Fair Employment Practice Commission (FEPC) in 1971, which published the State of California Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures in October, 1972. This was the first official government document that listed the 80 % test in the context of adverse impact, and was later codified in the 1978 Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, a document used by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Department of Labor, and Department of Justice in Title VII enforcement.
Originally, the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures provided a simple "80 percent '' rule for determining that a company 's selection system was having an "adverse impact '' on a minority group. The rule was based on the rates at which job applicants were hired. For example, if XYZ Company hired 50 percent of the men applying for work in a predominantly male occupation while hiring only 20 percent of the female applicants, one could look at the ratio of those two hiring rates to judge whether there might be a discrimination problem. The ratio of 20: 50 means that the rate of hiring for female applicants is only 40 percent of the rate of hiring for male applicants. That is, 20 divided by 50 equals 0.40, which is equivalent to 40 percent. Clearly, 40 percent is well below the 80 percent that was arbitrarily set as an acceptable difference in hiring rates. Therefore, in this example, XYZ Company could have been called upon to prove that there was a legitimate reason for hiring men at a rate so much higher than the rate of hiring women. Since the 1980s, courts in the U.S. have questioned the arbitrary nature of the 80 percent rule, making the rule less important than it was when the Uniform Guidelines were first published. A recent memorandum from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunities Commission suggests that a more defensible standard would be based on comparing a company 's hiring rate of a particular group with the rate that would occur if the company simply selected people at random. In other words, if a company 's selection system made it statistically more difficult than pure chance for a member of a certain group, such as women or African - Americans, to get a job, then this could be reasonably viewed as evidence that the selection system was systematically screening out members of that social group.
The concept of practical significance for adverse impact was first introduced by Section 4D of the Uniform Guidelines, which states "Smaller differences in selection rate may nevertheless constitute adverse impact, where they are significant in both statistical and practical terms... '' Several federal court cases have applied practical significance tests to adverse impact analyses to assess the "practicality '' or "stability '' of the results. This is typically done by evaluating the change to the statistical significance tests after hypothetically changing focal group members selection status from "failing '' to "passing '' (see for example, Contreras v. City of Los Angeles (656 F. 2d 1267, 9th Cir. 1981); U.S. v. Commonwealth of Virginia (569 F. 2d 1300, 4th Cir. 1978); and Waisome v. Port Authority (948 F. 2d 1370, 1376, 2d Cir. 1991)).
This form of discrimination occurs where an employer does not intend to discriminate; to the contrary, it occurs when identical standards or procedures are applied to everyone, despite the fact that they lead to a substantial difference in employment outcomes for the members of a particular group and they are unrelated to successful job performance. An important thing to note is that disparate impact is not, in and of itself, illegal. This is because disparate impact only becomes illegal if the employer can not justify the employment practice causing the adverse impact as a "job related for the position in question and consistent with business necessity '' (called the "business necessity defense '').
For example, a fire department requiring applicants to carry a 100 lb (50 kg) pack up three flights of stairs. The upper - body strength required typically has an adverse impact on women. The fire department would have to show that this requirement is necessary and job - related. This typically requires employers to conduct validation studies that address both the Uniform Guidelines and professional standards. Accordingly, a fire department could be liable for "discriminating '' against female job applicants solely because it failed to prove to a court 's satisfaction that the 100 - pound requirement was "necessary, '' even though the department never intended to hinder women 's ability to become firefighters.
Disparate impact is not the same as disparate treatment. Disparate treatment refers to the "intentional '' discrimination of certain people groups during the hiring, promoting or placement process.
The disparate impact theory has application also in the housing context under Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as The Fair Housing Act,. The ten federal appellate courts that have addressed the issue have all determined that one may establish a Fair Housing Act violation through the disparate impact theory of liability. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity, the federal government which administers the Fair Housing Act, issued a proposed regulation on November 16, 2011 setting forth how HUD applies disparate impact in Fair Housing Act cases. On February 8, 2013, HUD issued its Final Rule (1).
Until 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court had not yet determined whether the Fair Housing Act allowed for claims of disparate impact. This question reached the Supreme Court twice since 2012, first in Magner v. Gallagher and then in Township of Mount Holly v. Mount Holly Gardens Citizens. The Supreme Court seemed likely to rule that the Act does not contain a disparate impact provision, but both cases settled before the Court could issue a decision. The federal government appeared to pressure the settlement in one or both cases in an effort to preserve the disparate impact theory.
On June 25, 2015, by a 5 - 4 decision in Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, the Supreme Court held that disparate - impact claims are cognizable under the Fair Housing Act. In an opinion by Justice Kennedy, "Recognition of disparate - impact claims is also consistent with the central purpose of the FHA, which, like Title VII and the ADEA, was enacted to eradicate discriminatory practices within a sector of the Nation 's economy. Suits targeting unlawful zoning laws and other housing restrictions that unfairly exclude minorities from certain neighborhoods without sufficient justification are at the heartland of disparate - impact liability... Recognition of disparate impact liability under the FHA plays an important role in uncovering discriminatory intent: it permits plaintiffs to counteract unconscious prejudices and disguised animus that escape easy classification as disparate treatment. '' Under the Court 's ruling in Inclusive Communities, in order to prove a case of disparate impact housing discrimination, the following must occur:
The disparate impact theory of liability is controversial for several reasons. First, it labels certain unintended effects as "discriminatory, '' although discrimination is not an intentional act. Second, the theory is in tension with disparate treatment provisions under civil rights laws as well as the U.S. Constitution 's guarantee of equal protection. For example, if the hypothetical fire department discussed above used the 100 - pound requirement, that policy might disproportionately exclude female job applicants from employment. Under the 80 % rule mentioned above, unsuccessful female job applicants would have a prima facie case of disparate impact "discrimination '' against the department if they passed the 100 - pound test at a rate less than 80 % of the rate at which men passed the test. In order to avoid a lawsuit by the female job applicants, the department might refuse to hire anyone from its applicant pool -- in other words, the department may refuse to hire anyone because too many of the successful job applicants were male. Thus, the employer would have intentionally discriminated against the successful male job applicants because of their gender, and that likely amounts to illegal disparate treatment and a violation of the Constitution 's right to equal protection. In the 2009 case Ricci v. DeStefano, the U.S. Supreme Court did rule that a fire department committed illegal disparate treatment by refusing to promote white firefighters, in an effort to avoid disparate impact liability in a potential lawsuit by black and Hispanic firefighters who disproportionately failed the required tests for promotion. Although the Court in that case did not reach the constitutional issue, Justice Scalia 's concurring opinion suggested the fire department also violated the constitutional right to equal protection. Even before Ricci, lower federal courts have ruled that actions taken to avoid potential disparate impact liability violate the constitutional right to equal protection. One such case is Biondo v. City of Chicago, Illinois, from the Seventh Circuit.
In 2013, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) filed a suit, EEOC v. FREEMAN, against the use of typical criminal - background and credit checks during the hiring process. While admitting that there are many legitimate and race - neutral reasons for employers to screen out convicted criminals and debtors, the EEOC presented the theory that this practice is discriminatory because minorities in the U.S. are more likely to be convicted criminals with bad credit histories than caucasians. Ergo, employers should have to include criminals & debtors in their hiring. In this instance U.S. District Judge Roger Titus ruled firmly against the disparate impact theory, stating that EEOC 's action had been "a theory in search of facts to support it. '' "By bringing actions of this nature, the EEOC has placed many employers in the "Hobson 's choice '' of ignoring criminal history and credit background, thus exposing themselves to potential liability for criminal and fraudulent acts committed by employees, on the one hand, or incurring the wrath of the EEOC for having utilized information deemed fundamental by most employers. Something more... must be utilized to justify a disparate impact claim based upon criminal history and credit checks. To require less, would be to condemn the use of common sense, and this is simply not what the laws of this country require. ''
The disparate impact theory is especially controversial under the Fair Housing Act because the Act regulates many activities relating to housing, insurance, and mortgage loans -- and some scholars have argued that the theory 's use under the Fair Housing Act, combined with extensions of the Community Reinvestment Act, contributed to rise of sub-prime lending and the crash of the U.S. housing market and ensuing global economic recession.
|
how do you say lomo saltado in english | Lomo saltado - wikipedia
Lomo saltado is a popular, traditional Peruvian dish, a stir fry that typically combines marinated strips of sirloin (or other beef steak) with onions, tomatoes, french fries, and other ingredients; and is typically served with rice. The dish originated as part of the chifa tradition, the Chinese cuisine of Peru, though its popularity has made it part of the mainstream culture.
The dish is normally prepared by marinating sirloin strips in vinegar, soy sauce and spices, and stir frying these with red onions, parsley, tomatoes, and possibly other ingredients. The use of both potatoes (which originated in Peru) and rice (which originated in Asia) as starches are typical of the cultural blending that the dish represents.
In his 2013 article in the Huffington Post UK, British - Peruvian chef Martin Morales called lomo saltado "one of Peru 's most loved dishes '' and that this dish "shows the rich fusion of old and new worlds. This juicy mixture of beef, onions, tomatoes, aji Amarillo paste and soy sauce sauteed in a large pan (or wok) is one of the many contributions Chinese immigration brought to Peru. '' He explains, "Lomo Saltado is sometimes known as a Criollo dish but more known as a Peruvian - Chinese dish; a favourite Chifa dish. These are its true roots. ''
According to a 2011 article that was published in the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio, the book "Diccionario de la Gastronomía Peruana Tradicional '' published in 2009 by Sergio Zapata Acha, includes an old description for lomo saltado, which fails to mention its Asian influence. Although this does n't deny the dish 's widely accepted Chinese - Peruvian roots, the article 's author then ponders possible relations to similar dishes like lomo de vaca and lomo a la chorrillana.
The word saltado refers to stir fry (salteado in other Spanish - speaking countries, from the french sautée, which means to "jump ''), a widely recognized Chinese cooking technique. Hence, saltado dishes are commonly known in Peru to have a Chinese cuisine influence. The same 2011 newspaper article mentions that having a Chinese cook (or servant) was considered a luxury at the time, and that years later after completing their indenture contracts, many Chinese Peruvians opened restaurants that became known as Chifa by 1921. A census of Lima in 1613 show the presence of Chinese (and other Asians) in Peru, mainly servants (and slaves). Later, large numbers of Chinese immigrant workers arrived between 1849 and 1874, to replace African slave laborers, while Peru was in the process of abolishing slavery. So it 's not a surprise that a 1903 Peruvian cookbook ("Nuevo Manual de Cocina a la Criolla '') included a short description of lomo saltado. An indication of assimilation of Chinese cooking technique in Peruvian cuisine. The culinary term saltado is unique to Peru, and did n't exist in other Latin countries of that era, nor used in any Spanish cuisine terminology. This old cookbook description of the dish is very short and does n't mention soy sauce or other typical Asian ingredients of the dish we know today. It also does n't mention black pepper, vinegar, or Peruvian chilies. A few critics incorrectly theorized a purely Peruvian origin (without foreign influence) based on this cookbook, which features an assorted variety of regional Peruvian dishes (from Arequipa, Chorrillos, Moquegua, etc.). But this cookbook 's list of traditional Peruvian Criollo cuisine includes many dishes with Spanish, Italian, Cuban, Guatemalan and Chilean origins. The 1903 cookbook is not an all inclusive list of old Peruvian dishes available in the country, and it does n't contradict the Chinese - Peruvian roots of lomo saltado. It serves as an example (the opinions of its editor) of a variety of dishes that were commonplace in Peru of that era, regardless of origin.
In a 2014 video interview for the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio, noted Peruvian chief Gastón Acurio demonstrates how he makes his version of lomo saltado.
|
what does the cross on your forehead mean on ash wednesday | Ash Wednesday - wikipedia
Ash Wednesday is a Christian holy day of prayer, fasting and repentance. It is preceded by Shrove Tuesday and falls on the first day of Lent, the six weeks of penitence before Easter. Ash Wednesday is observed by many Western Christians, including Anglicans, Lutherans, Old Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, and some Baptists.
Ash Wednesday derives its name from the placing of repentance ashes on the foreheads of participants to either the words "Repent, and believe in the Gospel '' or the dictum "Remember that you are dust, and to dust you shall return. '' The ashes may be prepared by burning palm leaves from the previous year 's Palm Sunday celebrations.
Because it is the first day of Lent, many Christians, on Ash Wednesday, often begin marking a Lenten calendar, praying a Lenten daily devotional, and abstaining from a luxury that they will not partake in until Easter Sunday arrives.
Many Christian denominations emphasize fasting, as well as abstinence during the season of Lent and in particular, on its first day, Ash Wednesday. The First Council of Nicæa spoke of Lent as a period of fasting for forty days, in preparation for Eastertide. In many places, Christians historically abstained from food for a whole day until the evening, and at sunset, Western Christians traditionally broke the Lenten fast, which is often known as the Black Fast. In India and Pakistan, many Christians continue this practice of fasting until sunset on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, with some fasting in this manner throughout the whole season of Lent.
In the Roman Catholic Church, Ash Wednesday is observed by fasting, abstinence from meat, and repentance -- a day of contemplating one 's transgressions. On Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, Roman Catholics between the ages of 18 and 59 (whose health enables them to do so) are permitted to consume only one full meal, which may be supplemented by two smaller meals, which together should not equal the full meal. Some Catholics will go beyond the minimum obligations demanded by the Church and undertake a complete fast or a bread and water fast until sunset. Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are also days of abstinence from meat (mammals and fowl), as are all Fridays during Lent. Some Roman Catholics continue fasting throughout Lent, as was the Church 's traditional requirement, concluding only after the celebration of the Easter Vigil. Where the Ambrosian Rite is observed, the day of fasting and abstinence is postponed to the first Friday in the Ambrosian Lent, nine days later.
Many Lutheran parishes teach communicants to fast on Ash Wednesday, with some people choosing to continue doing so throughout the entire season of Lent, especially on Good Friday. A Handbook for the Discipline of Lent recommends the Lutheran guideline to "Fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday with only one simple meal during the day, usually without meat ''.
In the Anglican Communion, the entire forty days of Lent are designated days of fasting and abstinence in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, with the Traditional Saint Augustine 's Prayer Book: A Book of Devotion for Members of the Anglican Communion defining "Fasting, usually meaning not more than a light breakfast, one full meal, and one half meal, on the forty days of Lent. '' The same text defines abstinence as refraining from flesh meat on all Fridays of the Church Year, except for those during Christmastide.
The historic Methodist homilies regarding the Sermon on the Mount stress the importance of the Lenten fast, which begins on Ash Wednesday. The United Methodist Church therefore states that:
There is a strong biblical base for fasting, particularly during the 40 days of Lent leading to the celebration of Easter. Jesus, as part of his spiritual preparation, went into the wilderness and fasted 40 days and 40 nights, according to the Gospels.
Rev. Jacqui King, the minister of Nu Faith Community United Methodist Church in Houston explained the philosophy of fasting during Lent as "I 'm not skipping a meal because in place of that meal I 'm actually dining with God ''.
The Reformed Church in America describes Ash Wednesday as a day "focused on prayer, fasting, and repentance. '' The liturgy for Ash Wednesday thus contains the following "Invitation to Observe a Lenten Discipline '' read by the presider:
We begin this holy season by acknowledging our need for repentance and our need for the love and forgiveness shown to us in Jesus Christ. I invite you, therefore, in the name of Christ, to observe a Holy Lent, by self - examination and penitence, by prayer and fasting, by practicing works of love, and by reading and reflecting on God 's Holy Word.
Many of the Churches in the Reformed tradition retained the Lenten fast in its entirety, although it was made voluntary, rather than obligatory.
Ashes are ceremonially placed on the heads of Christians on Ash Wednesday, either by being sprinkled over their heads or, in English - speaking countries, more often by being marked on their foreheads as a visible cross. The words (based on Genesis 3: 19) used traditionally to accompany this gesture are, "Memento, homo, quia pulvis es, et in pulverem reverteris. '' ("Remember, man, that thou art dust, and to dust thou shalt return. '') This custom is credited to Pope Gregory I the Great (c. 540 -- 604). In the 1969 revision of the Roman Rite, an alternative formula (based on Mark 1: 15) was introduced and given first place "Repent, and believe in the Gospel '' and the older formula was translated as "Remember that you are dust, and to dust you shall return. '' The old formula, based on the words spoken to Adam and Eve after their sin, reminds worshippers of their sinfulness and mortality and thus, implicitly, of their need to repent in time. The newer formula makes explicit what was only implicit in the old.
Various manners of placing the ashes on worshippers ' heads are in use within the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, the two most common being to use the ashes to make a cross on the forehead and sprinkling the ashes over the crown of the head. Originally, the ashes were strewn over men 's heads, but, probably because women had their heads covered in church, were placed on the foreheads of women. In the Catholic Church the manner of imposing ashes depends largely on local custom, since no fixed rule has been laid down. Although the account of Ælfric of Eynsham shows that in about the year 1000 the ashes were "strewn '' on the head, the marking of the forehead is the method that now prevails in English - speaking countries and is the only one envisaged in the Occasional Offices of the Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea, a publication described as "noticeably Anglo - Catholic in character ''. In its ritual of "Blessing of Ashes '', this states that "the ashes are blessed at the beginning of the Eucharist; and after they have been blessed they are placed on the forehead of the clergy and people. '' The Ash Wednesday ritual of the Church of England, Mother Church of the Anglican Communion, contains "The Imposition of Ashes '' in its Ash Wednesday liturgy. On Ash Wednesday, the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, traditionally takes part in a penitential procession from the Church of Saint Anselm to the Basilica of Santa Sabina, where, in accordance with the custom in Italy and many other countries, ashes are sprinkled on his head, not smudged on his forehead, and he places ashes on the heads of others in the same way.
The Anglican ritual, used in Papua New Guinea states that, after the blessing of the ashes, "the priest marks his own forehead and then the foreheads of the servers and congregation who come and kneel, or stand, where they normally receive the Blessed Sacrament. '' The corresponding Catholic ritual in the Roman Missal for celebration within Mass merely states: "Then the Priest places ashes on the head of those present who come to him, and says to each one... '' Pre-1970 editions had much more elaborate instructions about the order in which the participants were to receive the ashes, but again without any indication of the form of placing the ashes on the head. The 1969 revision of the Roman Rite inserted into the Mass the solemn ceremony of blessing ashes and placing them on heads, but also explicitly envisaged a similar solemn ceremony outside of Mass. The Book of Blessings contains a simple rite. While the solemn rite would normally be carried out within a church building, the simple rite could appropriately be used almost anywhere. While only a priest or deacon may bless the ashes, laypeople may do the placing of the ashes on a person 's head. Even in the solemn rite, lay men or women may assist the priest in distributing the ashes. In addition, laypeople take blessed ashes left over after the collective ceremony and place them on the head of the sick or of others who are unable to attend the blessing. (In 2014, Anglican Liverpool Cathedral likewise offered to impose ashes within the church without a solemn ceremony.)
In addition, those who attend such Catholic services, whether in a church or elsewhere, traditionally take blessed ashes home with them to place on the heads of other members of the family, and it is recommended to have envelopes available to facilitate this practice. At home the ashes are then placed with little or no ceremony.
Unlike its discipline regarding sacraments, the Catholic Church does not exclude from receiving sacramentals, such as the placing of ashes on the head, those who are not Catholics and perhaps not even baptized. Even those who have been excommunicated and are therefore forbidden to celebrate sacramentals are not forbidden to receive them. After describing the blessing, the rite of Blessing and Distribution of Ashes (within Mass) states: "Then the Priest places ashes on the heads of all those present who come to him. '' The Catholic Church does not limit distribution of blessed ashes to within church buildings and has suggested the holding of celebrations in shopping centres, nursing homes, and factories. Such celebrations presume preparation of an appropriate area and include readings from Scripture (at least one) and prayers, and are somewhat shorter if the ashes are already blessed.
The Catholic Church and the Methodist Church say that the ashes should be those of palm branches blessed at the previous year 's Palm Sunday service, while a Church of England publication says they "may be made '' from the burnt palm crosses of the previous year. These sources do not speak of adding anything to the ashes other than, for the Catholic liturgy, a sprinkling with holy water when blessing them. An Anglican website speaks of mixing the ashes with a small amount of holy water or olive oil as a fixative.
Where ashes are placed on the head by smudging the forehead with a sign of the cross, many Christians choose to keep the mark visible throughout the day. The churches have not imposed this as an obligatory rule, and the ashes may even be wiped off immediately after receiving them; but some Christian leaders, such as Lutheran pastor Richard P. Bucher and Catholic bishop Kieran Conry, recommend it as a public profession of faith. Morgan Guyton, a Methodist pastor and leader in the Red - Letter Christian movement, encourages Christians to wear their ashed cross throughout the day as an exercise of religious freedom.
Since 2007, some members of major Christian Churches, including Anglicans, Catholics, Lutherans, and Methodists, have participated in the Ashes to Go program, in which clergy go outside of their churches to public places, such as downtowns, sidewalks and train stations, to distribute ashes to passersby, even to people waiting in their cars for a stoplight to change. The Anglican priest Emily Mellott of Calvary Church in Lombard took up the idea and turned it into a movement, stated that the practice was also an act of evangelism. Anglicans and Catholics in parts of the United Kingdom such as Sunderland, are offering Ashes to Go together: Marc Lyden - Smith, the priest of Saint Mary 's Church, stated that the ecumenical effort is a "tremendous witness in our city, with Catholics and Anglicans working together to start the season of Lent, perhaps reminding those who have fallen away from the Church, or have never been before, that the Christian faith is alive and active in Sunderland. '' The Catholic Student Association of Kent State University, based at the University Parish Newman Center, offered ashes to university students who were going through the Student Center of that institution in 2012, and Douglas Clark of St. Matthew 's Roman Catholic Church in Statesboro, among others, have participated in Ashes to Go. On Ash Wednesday 2017, Father Paddy Mooney, the priest of St Patrick 's Roman Catholic Church in the Irish town of Glenamaddy, set up an Ashes to Go station through which commuters could drive and receive ashes from their car; the parish church also had "drive - through prayers during Lent with people submitting requests into a box left in the church grounds without having to leave their car ''. Reverend Trey Hall, pastor of Urban Village United Methodist Church, stated that when his local church offered ashes in Chicago "nearly 300 people received ashes -- including two people who were waiting in their car for a stoplight to change. '' In 2013, churches not only in the United States, but also at least one church each in the United Kingdom, Canada and South Africa, participated in Ashes to Go. Outside of their church building, Saint Stephen Martyr Lutheran Church in Canton offered Ashes to Go for "believers whose schedules make it difficult to attend a traditional service '' in 2016. In the United States itself 34 states and the District of Columbia had at least one church taking part. Most of these churches (parishes) were Episcopal, but there were also several Methodist churches, as well as Presbyterian and Catholic churches.
Robin Knowles Wallace states that the traditional Ash Wednesday church service includes Psalm 51 (the Miserere), prayers of confession and the sign of ashes. No single one of the traditional services contains all of these elements. The Anglican church 's traditional Ash Wednesday service, titled A Commination, contains the first two elements, but not the third. On the other hand, the Catholic Church 's traditional service has the blessing and distribution of ashes but, while prayers of confession and recitation of Psalm 51 (the first psalm at Lauds on all penitential days, including Ash Wednesday) are a part of its general traditional Ash Wednesday liturgy, they are not associated specifically with the rite of blessing the ashes. The rite of blessing has acquired an untraditional weak association with that particular psalm only since 1970, when it was inserted into the celebration of Mass, at which a few verses of Psalm 51 are used as a responsorial psalm. Coincidentally, it was only about the same time that in some areas Anglicanism resumed the rite of ashes.
In the mid-16th century, the first Book of Common Prayer removed the ceremony of the ashes from the liturgy of the Church of England and replaced it with what would later be called the Commination Office. In that 1549 edition, the rite was headed: "The First Day of Lent: Commonly Called Ash - Wednesday ''. The ashes ceremony was not forbidden, but was not included in the church 's official liturgy. Its place was taken by reading biblical curses of God against sinners, to each of which the people were directed to respond with Amen. The text of the "Commination or Denouncing of God 's Anger and Judgments against Sinners '' begins: "In the primitive Church there was a godly discipline, that, at the beginning of Lent, such persons as stood convicted of notorious sin were put to open penance, and punished in this world, that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to offend. Instead whereof, until the said discipline may be restored again, (which is much to be wished,) it is thought good that at this time (in the presence of you all) should be read the general sentences of God 's cursing against impenitent sinners ''. In line with this, Joseph Hooper Maude wrote that the establishment of The Commination was due to a desire of the reformers "to restore the primitive practice of public penance in church ''. He further stated that "the sentences of the greater excommunication '' within The Commination corresponded to those used in the ancient Church. The Anglican Church 's Ash Wednesday liturgy, he wrote, also traditionally included the Miserere, which, along with "what follows '' in the rest of the service (lesser Litany, Lord 's Prayer, three prayers for pardon and final blessing), "was taken from the Sarum services for Ash Wednesday ''. From the Sarum Rite practice in England the service took Psalm 51 and some prayers that in the Sarum Missal accompanied the blessing and distribution of ashes. In the Sarum Rite, the Miserere psalm was one of the seven penitential psalms that were recited at the beginning of the ceremony. In the 20th century, the Episcopal Church introduced three prayers from the Sarum Rite and omitted the Commination Office from its liturgy.
In some of the low church traditions, other practices are sometimes added or substituted, as other ways of symbolizing the confession and penitence of the day. For example, in one common variation, small cards are distributed to the congregation on which people are invited to write a sin they wish to confess. These small cards are brought forth to the altar table where they are burned.
In Victorian era, theatres refrained from presenting costumed shows on Ash Wednesday, so they provided other entertainment, as mandated by the Church of England (Anglican Church). Also, "in Iceland, on Ash Wednesday children pin small bags of ashes on the back of some unsuspecting person ''.
Ashes were used in ancient times to express grief. When Tamar was raped by her half - brother, "she sprinkled ashes on her head, tore her robe, and with her face buried in her hands went away crying '' (2 Samuel 13: 19). The gesture was also used to express sorrow for sins and faults. In Job 42: 3 -- 6, Job says to God: "I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear: but now mine eye seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent in dust and ashes. '' The prophet Jeremiah calls for repentance by saying: "O daughter of my people, gird on sackcloth, roll in the ashes '' (Jer 6: 26). The prophet Daniel recounted pleading to God: "I turned to the Lord God, pleading in earnest prayer, with fasting, sackcloth and ashes '' (Daniel 9: 3). Just prior to the New Testament period, the rebels fighting for Jewish independence, the Maccabees, prepared for battle using ashes: "That day they fasted and wore sackcloth; they sprinkled ashes on their heads and tore their clothes '' (1 Maccabees 3: 47; see also 4: 39).
Examples of the practice among Jews are found in several other books of the Bible, including Numbers 19: 9, 19: 17, Jonah 3: 6, Book of Esther 4: 1, and Hebrews 9: 13. Jesus is quoted as speaking of the practice in Matthew 11: 21 and Luke 10: 13: "If the mighty works done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago (sitting) in sackcloth and ashes. ''
Christians continued the practice of using ashes as an external sign of repentance. Tertullian (c. 160 -- c. 225) said that confession of sin should be accompanied by lying in sackcloth and ashes. The historian Eusebius (c. 260 / 265 -- 339 / 340) recounts how a repentant apostate covered himself with ashes when begging Pope Zephyrinus to readmit him to communion.
John W. Fenton writes that "by the end of the 10th century, it was customary in Western Europe (but not yet in Rome) for all the faithful to receive ashes on the first day of the Lenten fast. In 1091, this custom was then ordered by Pope Urban II at the council of Benevento to be extended to the church in Rome. Not long after that, the name of the day was referred to in the liturgical books as "Feria Quarta Cinerum '' (i.e., Ash Wednesday). ''
The public penance that grave sinners underwent before being admitted to Holy Communion just before Easter lasted throughout Lent, on the first day of which they were sprinkled with ashes and dressed in sackcloth. When, towards the end of the first millennium, the discipline of public penance was dropped, the beginning of Lent, seen as a general penitential season, was marked by sprinkling ashes on the heads of all. This practice is found in the Gregorian Sacramentary of the late 8th century. About two centuries later, Ælfric of Eynsham, an Anglo - Saxon abbot, wrote of the rite of strewing ashes on heads at the start of Lent.
The article on Ash Wednesday in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica says that, after the Protestant Reformation, the ashes ceremony was not forbidden in the Church of England, a statement that may explain the research by Blair Meeks that the Anglican tradition "never lapsed in this observance ''. It was even prescribed under King Henry VIII in 1538 and under King Edward VI in 1550, but it fell out of use in many areas after 1600. In 1536, the Ten Articles issued by authority of Henry VIII commended "the observance of various rites and ceremonies as good and laudable, such as clerical vestments, sprinkling of holy water, bearing of candles on Candlemas - day, giving of ashes on Ash - Wednesday ''. After Henry 's death in January 1547, Thomas Cranmer, within the same year, "procured an order from the Council to forbid the carrying of candles on Candlemas - day, and the use of ashes on Ash - Wednesday, and of palms on Palm - Sunday, as superstitious ceremonies '', an order that was issued only for the ecclesiastical province of Canterbury, of which Cranmer was archbishop. The Church Cyclopædia states that the "English office had adapted the very old Salisbury service for Ash - Wednesday, prefacing it with an address and a recital of the curses of Mount Ebal, and then with an exhortation uses the older service very nearly as it stood. '' The new Commination Office had no blessing of ashes and therefore, in England as a whole, "soon after the Reformation, the use of ashes was discontinued as a ' vain show ' and Ash Wednesday then became only a day of marked solemnity, with a memorial of its original character in a reading of the curses denounced against impenitent sinners ''. The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, in the 19th century, observed Ash Wednesday: "as a day of fasting and humiliation, wherein we are publicly to confess our sins, meekly to implore God 's mercy and forgiveness, and humbly to intercede for the continuance of his favour ''. In the 20th century, the Book of Common Prayer provided prayers for the imposition of ashes.
Monte Canfield and Blair Meeks state that after the Protestant Reformation, Anglicans and Lutherans kept the rite of blessing and distributing ashes to the faithful on Ash Wednesday, and that the Protestant denominations that did not keep it encouraged its use "during and after the ecumenical era that resulted in the Vatican II proclamations ''. Jack Kingsbury and Russell F. Anderson likewise state that the practice was continued among some Anglicans and Lutherans. On the other hand, Edward Traill Horn wrote: "The ceremony of the distribution of the ashes was not retained by the reformers, whether Lutheran, Anglican or Reformed '', although these denominations honored Ash Wednesday as the first day of Lent. Frank Senn, a liturgical scholar, has been quoted as saying: "How and why the use of ashes fell out of Lutheran use is difficult to discern from the sources... (C) hurch orders do n't specifically say not to use ashes; they simply stopped giving direction for blessing and distributing them and eventually the pastors just stopped doing it. ''
As part of the liturgical revival ushered in by the ecumenical movement, the practice was encouraged in Protestant churches, including the Methodist Church. It has also been adopted by Anabaptist and Reformed churches and some less liturgical denominations.
The Eastern Orthodox churches generally do not observe Ash Wednesday, although in recent times, the creation of the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate has led to the observance of Ash Wednesday among Western Orthodox parishes. In this tradition, ashes "may be distributed outside of the mass or any liturgical service '' although "commonly the faithful receive their ashes immediately before the Ash Wednesday mass ''. In Orthodoxy, historically, "serious public sinners in the East also donned sackcloth, including those who made the Great Fast a major theme of their entire lives such as hermits and desert - dwellers. '' Byzantine Catholics, although in the United States use "the same Gregorian calendar as the Roman Catholic rite '', do not practice the distribution of ashes as it is "not part of their ancient tradition ''.
In the Ambrosian Rite, ashes are blessed and placed on the heads of the faithful not on the day that elsewhere is called Ash Wednesday, but at the end of Mass on the following Sunday, which in that rite inaugurates Lent, with the fast traditionally beginning on Monday, the first weekday of the Ambrosian Lent.
Ash Wednesday marks the start of a 40 - day period which is an allusion to the separation of Jesus in the desert to fast and pray. During this time he was tempted. Matthew 4: 1 -- 11, Mark 1: 12 -- 13, and Luke 4: 1 -- 13. While not specifically instituted in the Bible text, the 40 - day period of repentance is also analogous to the 40 days during which Moses repented and fasted in response to the making of the Golden calf. (Exo. 34: 27 -- 28) (Jews today follow a 40 - day period of repenting in preparation for and during the High Holy Days from Rosh Chodesh Elul to Yom Kippur.)
Ash Wednesday is exactly 46 days before Easter Sunday, a moveable feast based on the cycles of the moon. The earliest date Ash Wednesday can occur is 4 February (which is only possible during a common year with Easter on 22 March), which happened in 1598, 1693, 1761 and 1818 and will next occur in 2285. The latest date Ash Wednesday can occur is 10 March (when Easter Day falls on 25 April) which occurred in 1666, 1734, 1886 and 1943 and will next occur in 2038. Ash Wednesday has never occurred on Leap Year Day (29 February), and it will not occur as such until 2096. The only other years of the third millennium that will have Ash Wednesday on 29 February are 2468, 2688, 2840 and 2992. (Ash Wednesday falls on 29 February only if Easter is on 15 April in a leap year starting on a Sunday.)
These Christian Churches are among those that mark Ash Wednesday with a particular liturgy or service.
The Eastern Orthodox Church does not, in general, observe Ash Wednesday; instead, Orthodox Great Lent begins on Clean Monday. There are, however, a relatively small number of Orthodox Christians who follow the Western Rite; these do observe Ash Wednesday, although often on a different day from the previously mentioned denominations, as its date is determined from the Orthodox calculation of Pascha, which may be as much as a month later than the Western observance of Easter.
In the Republic of Ireland, Ash Wednesday is National No Smoking Day. The date was chosen because quitting smoking ties in with giving up luxury for Lent. In the United Kingdom No Smoking Day was held for the first time on Ash Wednesday 1984 but is now fixed as the second Wednesday in March.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
|
where does the cervical spine start and end | Cervical vertebrae - wikipedia
In vertebrates, cervical vertebrae (singular: vertebra) are the vertebrae of the neck, immediately below the skull.
Thoracic vertebrae in all mammalian species are those vertebrae that also carry a pair of ribs, and lie caudal to the cervical vertebrae. Further caudally follow the lumbar vertebrae, which also belong to the trunk, but do not carry ribs. In reptiles, all trunk vertebrae carry ribs and are called dorsal vertebrae.
In many species, though not in mammals, the cervical vertebrae bear ribs. In many other groups, such as lizards and saurischian dinosaurs, the cervical ribs are large; in birds, they are small and completely fused to the vertebrae. The vertebral transverse processes of mammals are homologous to the cervical ribs of other amniotes. Most mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae.
In humans, cervical vertebrae are the smallest of the true vertebrae, and can be readily distinguished from those of the thoracic or lumbar regions by the presence of a foramen (hole) in each transverse process, through which the vertebral artery, vertebral veins and inferior cervical ganglion passes.
The remainder of this article focuses upon human anatomy.
By convention, the cervical vertebrae are numbered, with the first one (C1) closest to the skull and higher numbered vertebrae (C2 -- C7) proceeding away from the skull and down the spine. The general characteristics of the third through sixth cervical vertebrae are described here. The first, second, and seventh vertebrae are extraordinary, and are detailed later.
The anterior tubercle of the sixth cervical vertebra is known as the carotid tubercle or Chassaignac tubercle. This separates the carotid artery from the vertebral artery and the carotid artery can be massaged against this tubercle to relieve the symptoms of supraventricular tachycardia. The carotid tubercle is also used as a landmark for anaesthesia of the brachial plexus and cervical plexus.
The cervical spinal nerves emerge from above the cervical vertebrae. For example, the cervical spinal nerve 3 (C3) passes above C3.
The atlas (C1) and axis (C2) are the two topmost vertebrae.
The atlas, C1, is the topmost vertebra, and along with the axis; forms the joint connecting the skull and spine. Its chief peculiarity is that it has no body because the body of the atlas has been fused with that of the axis.
The axis, C2, forms the pivot on which the atlas rotates. The most distinctive characteristic of this bone is the strong odontoid process (dens) that rises perpendicularly from the upper surface of the body. The body is deeper in front than behind, and prolonged downward anteriorly so as to overlap the upper and front part of the third vertebra.
The vertebra prominens, or C7, has a distinctive long and prominent spinous process, which is palpable from the skin surface. Sometimes, the seventh cervical vertebra is associated with an abnormal extra rib, known as a cervical rib, which develops from the anterior root of the transverse process. These ribs are usually small, but may occasionally compress blood vessels (such as the subclavian artery or subclavian vein) or nerves in the brachial plexus, causing pain, numbness, tingling, and weakness in the upper limb, a condition known as thoracic outlet syndrome. Very rarely, this rib occurs in a pair.
The long spinous process of C7 is thick and nearly horizontal in direction. It is not bifurcated, and ends in a tubercle that the ligamentum nuchae attaches to. This process is not always the most prominent of the spinous processes, being found only about 70 % of the time, C6 or T1 can sometimes be the most prominent.
The transverse processes are of considerable size, their posterior roots are large and prominent, while the anterior are small and faintly marked; the upper surface of each has usually a shallow sulcus for the eighth spinal nerve, and its extremity seldom presents more than a trace of bifurcation.
The transverse foramen may be as large as that in the other cervical vertebrae, but is generally smaller on one or both sides; occasionally it is double, sometimes it is absent.
On the left side it occasionally gives passage to the vertebral artery; more frequently the vertebral vein traverses it on both sides; but the usual arrangement is for both artery and vein to pass in front of the transverse process, and not through the foramen.
The movement of nodding the head takes place predominantly through flexion and extension at the atlanto - occipital joint between the atlas and the occipital bone. However, the cervical spine is comparatively mobile, and some component of this movement is due to flexion and extension of the vertebral column itself. This movement between the atlas and occipital bone is often referred to as the "yes joint '', owing to its nature of being able to move the head in an up - and - down fashion.
The movement of shaking or rotating the head left and right happens almost entirely at the joint between the atlas and the axis, the atlanto - axial joint. A small amount of rotation of the vertebral column itself contributes to the movement. This movement between the atlas and axis is often referred to as the "no joint '', owing to its nature of being able to rotate the head in a side - to - side fashion.
Cervical degenerative changes arise from conditions such as spondylosis, stenosis of intervertebral discs, and the formation of osteophytes. The changes are seen on radiographs which are used in a grading system from 0 - 4 ranging from no changes (0), to early with minimal development of osteophytes (1), mild with definite osteophytes (2), moderate with additional disc space stenosis or narrowing (3), to the stage of many large osteophytes, severe narrowing of the disc space, and more severe vertebral end plate sclerosis (4).
Injuries to the cervical spine are common at the level of the second cervical vertebrae, but neurological injury is uncommon. C4 and C5 are the areas that see the highest amount of cervical spine trauma.
If it does occur, however, it may cause death or profound disability, including paralysis of the arms, legs, and diaphragm, which leads to respiratory failure.
Common patterns of injury include the odontoid fracture and the hangman 's fracture, both of which are often treated with immobilization in a cervical collar or Halo brace.
A common practice is to immobilize a patient 's cervical spine to prevent further damage during transport to hospital. This practice has come under review recently as incidence rates of unstable spinal trauma can be as low as 2 % in immobilized patients. In clearing the cervical spine, Canadian studies have developed the Canadian C - Spine Rule (CCR) for physicians to decide who should receive radiological imaging.
The vertebral column is often used as a marker of human anatomy. This includes:
Position of cervical vertebrae (shown in red). Animation.
Illustration of cervical vertebrae.
Shape of cervical vertebrae (shown in blue and yellow). Animation.
Cervical vertebrae, lateral view (shown in blue and yellow).
Vertebral column
Vertebral column.
X-Ray of cervical vertebrae.
X-ray of cervical spine in flexion and extension.
First cervical vertebra, or Atlas
Second cervical vertebra, or epistropheus, from above.
Second cervical vertebra, epistropheus, or axis, from the side.
Seventh cervical vertebra.
Posterior atlanto - occipital membrane and atlantoaxial ligament.
Median sagittal section through the occipital bone and first three cervical vertebræ.
Section of the neck at about the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
Anterior View of Cervical Spine showing the vertebral arteries along with the spinal nerves. See this in 3d here.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 97 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
|
who needs actions when you got words nirvana | Who Needs Actions When You Got Words - wikipedia
Who Needs Actions When You Got Words is the debut studio album released by British rapper and songwriter Plan B on 26 June 2006. The album was recorded with producers such as Fraser T Smith, Paul Epworth, The Earlies and The Nextmen. The title of the album derives from a line in the Meat Puppets song "Plateau '', famously covered by Nirvana on their album MTV Unplugged in New York.
The vinyl version of the album was released as a double 12 '' vinyl, and bonus 7 '' vinyl, containing a total of fourteen tracks. The vinyl version featured the tracks in a slightly different order than the standard release, and also includes "Breakdown '', and the Earlies version of "Sick 2 Def '', in place of the standard version, however, the track "Everyday '' is omitted. A deluxe edition of the album was issued in certain territories in 2007, containing the all - new collaborative single with Epic Man, More is Enough. The album received very favourable reviews from critics in the hip - hop, indie and mainstream communities. In 2006, Q Magazine rated the album sixty - fourth in their 100 Best Albums of 2006. The album reached and peaked at No. 30 on the UK Albums Chart, when it was released on 26 June 2006. In February 2010, three and a half years after its release, the album was certified Silver by British Phonographic Industry for selling over 60,000 copies.
"Kidz / Dead and Buried '' was released on 8 September 2005 as the lead single from the album. The single was available as a limited edition 7 '' vinyl single, limited to 500 copies, and released on Plan B 's own record label, Pet Cemetery Records. The promotional CD single was accompanied by the previously unreleased track "Young Girl ''. A video for "Dead and Buried '' features clips from the film Kidulthood, but does not feature Drew. "Sick 2 Def '' was released on 3 December 2005 as the second single from the album. The single was available as a two - track CD single and a limited edition 7 '' vinyl. The single was backed by fellow album track, "No Good ''. The single was released on 679 Recordings. No music video was filmed for the track. "Missing Links '' was released on 18 January 2006, as the third single from the album. The track was only released as a promotional single, due to permission being refused to release the sample of "Pyramid Song '' by Radiohead as part of the single. The track was Plan B 's first single to have an official accompanying music video. * "More Is Enough '' was released as a collaborative single with Epic Man on 21 April 2006. Although not included on the original version of the album, the song appears as the first track on the deluxe edition of the record, Enough is Enough. A music video was filmed for the release, which was available on limited edition 7 '' vinyl only.
"Mama (Loves a Crackhead) '' was released as the album 's fifth single on 10 July 2006. The single was Plan B 's first single to be released on multiple formats, including limited edition 7 '' vinyl, CD single and DVD single, and was Plan B 's first track to appear on the UK Singles Chart, peaking at No. 41. A music video was released for the track. "No More Eatin ' '' was released on 30 October 2006 as the album 's sixth single. The single lead two exclusive releases - No More Eatin ': Live at The Pet Cemetery EP and No More Eatin ': The Remixes EP. The single was available on both CD single and limited edition 7 '' and 12 '' vinyl. An acoustic music video was filmed for the track. "No Good '' was released on 19 February 2007 as the album 's seventh and final single. The track 's music video was filmed in December 2005 when it appeared as the B - side to the single "Sick 2 Def ''. The single was released on limited edition 12 '' vinyl and as a DVD single. For the single release, the track was remixed by Jeremy Wheatley. Although not officially released as singles, music videos were filmed for the "No Good '' b - side track "Bizness Woman '', featuring Killa Kela, and for the album track, "Charmaine '', was released to music channels in April 2007, and the album 's title track, "Who Needs Actions When You Got Words '', was released as a promotional single in June 2007.
|
who wants to be a millionaire 3 lifelines | Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? - Wikipedia
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (informally Millionaire) is an international television game show franchise of British origin, created by David Briggs, Mike Whitehill and Steven Knight. In its format, currently owned and licensed by Sony Pictures Television, large cash prizes are offered for correctly answering a series of multiple - choice questions of increasing (or, in some cases, random) difficulty. The maximum cash prize (in the original British version) was one million pounds. Most international versions offer a top prize of one million units of the local currency.
The original British version of the show debuted on 4 September 1998, and aired on ITV with Chris Tarrant as its host until 11 February 2014. International variants have aired in around 160 countries worldwide. The show 's format is a twist on the game show genre -- only one contestant plays at a time (similar to some radio quizzes), and the emphasis is on suspense rather than speed. In most versions there are no time limits to answer the questions, and contestants are given the question before they must decide whether to attempt an answer.
The contestants must first play a preliminary round, called "Fastest Finger First '' (or, in the U.S. version, simply "Fastest Finger ''), where they are all given a question and four answers from the host and are asked to put those four answers into a particular order; in the first series of the British version and in pre-2003 episodes of the Australian version, the round instead required the contestants to answer one multiple - choice question correctly as quickly as possible. The contestant who does so correctly and in the fastest time goes on to play the main game for the maximum possible prize (often a million units of the local currency). In the event that two or more contestants are tied for the fastest time, those contestants play another question to break the tie. If no one gets the question right, that question is discarded and another question is played in the same manner. If any contestants are visually impaired, the host reads the question and four choices all at once, then repeats the choices after the music begins.
Main game contestants are asked increasingly difficult general knowledge questions by the host. Questions are multiple choice: four possible answers are given (labelled A, B, C and D), and the contestant must choose the correct one. The ' D ' answer on the first question (except in the Shuffle format like in the US version) is always incorrect and humorous. Upon answering a question correctly, the contestant wins a certain amount of money. In most versions, there is no time limit to answer a question; a contestant may (and often does) take as long as they need to ponder an answer. After the first few questions, the host will ask the contestant if that is their "final answer ''. When a contestant says "final '' in conjunction with one of the answers, it is official, and can not be changed. The first five questions usually omit this rule, because the questions are generally so easy that requiring a final answer would significantly slow the game down; thus, there are five chances for the contestant to leave with no money if they were to provide a wrong answer before obtaining the first guaranteed amount; going for 1,000 units of currency after winning 500 units is the last point in the game at which a contestant can still leave empty - handed.
Subsequent questions are played for increasingly large sums, roughly doubling at each turn. The first few questions often have some joke answers. On episodes of the UK version aired between 1998 and 2007, the payout structure was as follows: first going from £ 100 to £ 300 in increments of £ 100, then from £ 500 to £ 64,000 with the pound value doubling for each new question, and finally from £ 125,000 to £ 1,000,000 with the pound value doubling for each new question.
After viewing a question, the contestant can leave the game with the money already won rather than attempting an answer. If the contestant answers a question incorrectly, then all of their winnings are lost, except that the £ 1,000 and £ 32,000 prizes are guaranteed: if a player gets a question wrong above these levels, then the prize drops to the previous guaranteed prize. Answering the £ 2,000 and £ 64,000 questions wrong does not reduce the prize money. The prizes are generally non-cumulative; for example, answering the £ 500 question gives the contestant £ 500, not the previous £ 300 plus £ 500 (i.e. £ 800). The game ends when the contestant answers a question incorrectly, decides not to answer a question, or answers all questions correctly.
When the U.S. Millionaire 's syndicated version debuted in 2002, Fastest Finger was eliminated for the reduced episode length (30 minutes as opposed to the previous network version 's length of 60 minutes). Thus, contestants immediately take the Hot Seat, each of them called in after their predecessors ' games end. Contestants are required to pass a more conventional game show qualification test at auditions; however, when the U.S. Millionaire revived its primetime version for specials, it also restored the Fastest Finger round; this was done in 2004 for the Super Millionaire series which raised the top prize to $10,000,000 and in August 2009 for an eleven - night special that celebrated the U.S. version 's tenth anniversary. Long after the U.S. version eliminated its Fastest Finger round, numerous other versions (including the Australian, Italian, Turkish, British, Russian, Dutch and French versions) followed suit by eliminating their respective Fastest Finger First rounds; additionally, some versions (such as the British, Dutch, French and Russian versions) have eliminated their respective Fastest Finger First rounds for special events wherein celebrities play for charity.
In 2007, it was announced that the UK version was changing its format, reducing the number of questions in the game from fifteen to twelve. The new payout structure was as follows: first going from £ 500 to £ 2,000 with the prize values doubling for each new question, then from £ 5,000 to £ 20,000 with the prize values doubling for each new question, then to £ 50,000, £ 75,000 and £ 150,000, and finally from £ 250,000 to £ 1,000,000 with the prize value doubling for each new question. Whereas the first safe haven remained at £ 1,000, the second safe haven was moved to £ 50,000. The new rules debuted in an episode that aired on 18 August 2007. Within a period of four years following its introduction to the British Millionaire, the 12 - question format was subsequently carried over to a number of international versions, including the Arab, Bulgarian, Dutch, French, Polish, Spanish, and Turkish versions.
In 2007, the German version modified its format, so that contestants would be allowed to choose the option of playing in a new variant called "Risk Mode ''. If the contestant chooses to play this variant, they are given access to a fourth lifeline that allows them to discuss a question with a volunteer from the audience, but the tenth - question safe haven is forfeited. This means that if the contestant answers any of questions 11 -- 15 incorrectly, they drop all the way to the guaranteed winnings gained by answering question 5 correctly. If the contestant chooses to the play the classic format, they keep the second safe haven. The risk format was subsequently adopted by such markets as Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Switzerland and Venezuela.
In 2008, the U.S. version changed its format so that contestants were required to answer questions within a set time limit. The time limits were 15 seconds for questions 1 -- 5, 30 seconds for questions 6 - 10, and 45 seconds for questions 11 - 14. After each of the 14 questions were answered correctly, the remaining time after giving an answer was banked for the million - dollar question. The clock for each question began counting down immediately after all of the question was revealed, and was temporarily paused when a lifeline was used. Contestants who exceeded the time limit were forced to walk away with any prize money they had won up to that point. The clock was later adopted by other international versions; for example, the British version adopted it on 3 August 2010, and the Indian version adopted it on 11 October the same year.
In November 2008, the Norway version introduced a new format, called the "Hot Seat format '', wherein 6 contestants play at once, with each taking turns to climb the money tree. Contestants are allowed to "pass '' the onus of answering the question to the next contestant in line, who is unable to re-pass to the next contestant for that question. Also added were time limits on every question, with 15 seconds allocated for the first five questions, 30 for the middle five, and 45 for the last five. In addition, the option of walking away is eliminated, rendering several questions ' values pointless, as they can not be won. Also, if a player fails to give an answer within the time limit, it is considered an automatic pass. If a contestant can not pass on or correctly answer a question, he or she is eliminated and the highest value on the money tree is removed. The game ends either when all contestants are eliminated, or when the question for the highest value in the money tree is answered. If the final question is answered correctly, the answering player receives the amount of money; if it is answered incorrectly or all contestants are eliminated before the final question is reached, the last contestant to be eliminated receives either nothing, or a smaller prize if the fifth question milestone is reached. This format was later introduced to various markets (including Italy, Hungary, Vietnam, Indonesia, Australia, Chile and Spain) over the course of a four - year period from 2009 to 2012. In 2017, Australia 's Hot Seat brought back the Fastest Finger First round, while the winner may select one of the lifelines - "50: 50 '', "Ask a Friend '' or "Switch the Question ''.
On 13 September 2010, the U.S. version adopted its "shuffle format ''. Ten questions are asked in round one, each assigned one of ten different money amounts. The dollar values are randomised at the beginning of the game. The contestant is then shown the original order of difficulty for the ten questions as well as their categories, and those are then randomised as well. This means that the difficulty of the question is not tied to its value. The dollar values for each question remain hidden until a contestant either provides a correct answer or chooses to "jump '' their question. In this format, the value of each question answered correctly is added to the contestant 's bank, for a maximum total of $68,600. A contestant who completes the round successfully can walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank, or can walk before the round is completed with half that amount (e.g., a contestant who banked $30,000 would leave with $15,000). Contestants who give an incorrect answer at any point in the round leave with $1,000. After completing round one, the contestant moves on to a second round of gameplay (the "Classic Millionaire '' round), in which four non-categorised questions are played for set non-cumulative values and a correct answer augments the contestant 's winnings to that point, as in the older formats. The contestant is now allowed to walk away with all the money in their bank; an incorrect answer drops their winnings to $25,000. The shuffle format was replaced with a modified version of the original format (with only 14 questions) for the fourteenth syndicated season; the values of the last four questions remain unchanged.
Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions. After using a lifeline, the contestant can either answer the question, use another lifeline, or walk away and keep the money (although using the "Double Dip '' lifeline requires the contestant to immediately answer and using the "Jump the Question '' lifeline naturally prevents them from continuing with that question). Except for the first three seasons of the "Jump the Question '' lifeline 's use, each lifeline can only be used once. In the Hot Seat format, the concept of lifelines is discarded in favor of the option to pass.
The show 's original three lifelines are "50 / 50 '', in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers; "Phone a Friend '', in which the contestant makes a thirty - second call to one of a number of friends (who provide their phone numbers in advance) and reads them the question and answer choices, after which the friend provides input; and "Ask the Audience '', in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be, after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant. In countries where the show is broadcast live, friends selected for Phone - a-Friend are alerted when their contestant begins to play the main game, and are told to keep the phone free and to wait for three rings before answering. Phone - a-Friend was removed from the U.S. version beginning with the episode that aired on 11 January 2010, after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using web search engines and other Internet resources to assist them, which unfairly privileged individuals who had computer access over those who did not, and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline, by which friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew. From 2004 to 2008, the U.S. version had a fourth lifeline called "Switch the Question '', earned upon answering question ten, in which the computer replaced, at the contestant 's request, one question with another of the same monetary value; however, any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question. Switch the Question returned as Cut the Question for a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014 (in the latter case, it could only be used on the first ten questions).
During the U.S. Millionaire 's Super Millionaire spin - off, two new lifelines were introduced: "Double Dip '', which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question, but required them to play out the question, forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines; and "Three Wise Men '', in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers (one of which was usually a former Millionaire winner and at least one being female), appearing via face - to - face audio and video feeds, which answer they believed was correct, within a time limit of thirty seconds. When the clock format was implemented, Double Dip replaced the 50: 50 lifeline, and the show also introduced a new lifeline called "Ask the Expert '', similar to Three Wise Men but only had one person (usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people, lacked the time limit of its predecessor, and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question. Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question, but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone - a-Friend was removed. In fact, the Hong Kong version introduced the "Ask the Expert '' lifeline in an extra-length celebrity special in a one - off basis in 2001, while the celebrity contestants may ask a panel of the experts instead of the original Phone - a-Friend lifeline.
The U.S. version sometimes used corporate sponsorship for its lifelines. Phone - a-Friend was sponsored by the original AT&T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version, then by the current AT&T for the 2009 primetime episodes. From 2004 to 2006, Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL, which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their contact list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers, to which the users replied with their choices. In addition, the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds.
The German Millionaire 's risk format features an extra lifeline called "Ask One of the Audience '', in which the host will reread the question and ask the audience who think they would be able to answer that question to stand up. The contestant may choose one of these (judging by looks only) and discuss the question at length with said audience member. He may or may not choose an answer after that. If he chooses the suggested answer and it proves to be correct, the audience member will also receive a prize of € 500. This lifeline is also implemented in the Costa Rican version, after the first milestone is reached. Starting in its thirteenth season, the U.S. syndicated version uses a variant of this lifeline, called "Plus One '', which allows the contestant to bring a companion with them for help, rather than having them select their companion from the audience.
The U.S. Millionaire 's shuffle format introduced a new lifeline, "Jump the Question '', which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve of the syndicated version. At any point prior to selecting a final answer, a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one, thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer. However, if the contestant uses Jump the Question, they do not gain any money from the question they choose to skip (for example, a contestant with a bank of $68,100 may jump the $100,000 question, but will still have only $68,100 instead of the typical $100,000 when they face the $250,000 question). Unlike other lifelines throughout the show 's history, this lifeline can not be used on the $1 million question, since it is the final question in the game. The introduction of Plus One reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one. On occasional specially designated weeks, starting with a Halloween - themed week that aired from 29 October to 2 November 2012, the shuffle format uses a special lifeline called "Crystal Ball '', which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer. Jump the Question was removed from the show at the end of the thirteenth syndicated season.
Out of all contestants that have played the game, few have been able to win the top prize on any international version of the show. The first was John Carpenter, who won the top prize on the U.S. version on 19 November 1999. Carpenter did not use a lifeline until the final question, using his Phone - a-Friend not for help but to call his father to tell him he had won the million.
Other notable top prize winners include Judith Keppel, the first winner of the UK version; Kevin Olmstead from the U.S. version, who won a progressive jackpot of $2.18 million; Martin Flood from the Australian version, who was investigated by producers after suspicions that he had cheated, much like Charles Ingram, but was later cleared; and Sushil Kumar from the Indian version, who is often referred to in Western media as the "real - life Slumdog Millionaire ''.
Of all the international versions, the Japanese version has produced the most number (38) of top prize winners, including juniors. The most recent Millionaire winner is Moksha Madusanka from the Sri Lankan version, winning Rs. 2,000,000 in the episode broadcast on 1 July 2017.
The original British version of Millionaire, hosted by Chris Tarrant, debuted on the ITV network on 4 September 1998. At its peak in 1999, one edition of the show was watched by over 19 million viewers (one out of every three Britons). Originally the contestants were predominantly members of the general public, but in the show 's later years, only celebrities appeared on the show, in special live editions that coincided with holidays and the like. On 22 October 2013, Tarrant decided to quit the show after 15 years, and ITV decided to cancel the show after his contract finished, stating that there would not be any further specials beyond the ones that had already been planned. Tarrant 's final live celebrity edition aired on 19 December 2013, and the final episode, a clip show entitled "Chris ' Final Answer '', aired on 11 February 2014.
The U.S. version of Millionaire premiered in primetime on ABC on 16 August 1999, and was originally hosted by Regis Philbin. The original network version was the highest - rated of all television shows in the 1999 -- 2000 season, reaching an average audience of approximately 29 million viewers, but before long, ABC overexposed the primetime series and the audience tired of the show, which ultimately grilled it to cancellation, with its final episode airing on 27 June 2002. A daily syndicated version of the programme debuted on 16 September 2002, and was launched by Meredith Vieira, who remained host for eleven seasons, with her final first - run episodes airing in May 2013. Later hosts after Vieira 's departure included Cedric the Entertainer and Terry Crews, who each held one - season tenures as host in 2013 and 2014 respectively; and Chris Harrison, who became host in the fall of 2015.
The Australian version of the show debuted on the Nine Network on 18 April 1999, and was hosted by Eddie McGuire until he became the CEO of the Nine Network, a position that required him to sacrifice his on - air commitments. The final episode of the original Australian series aired on 3 April 2006; however, after his resignation as Nine Network CEO, McGuire resumed his duties as Millionaire host for subsequent versions. Millionaire returned to Australia in 2007, as six episodes with a new format aired during October and November of that year. This was followed by an abbreviated version called Millionaire Hot Seat which debuted on 20 April 2009.
An Indian version of the program in Hindi, titled Kaun Banega Crorepati ("Who will become a millionaire ''), debuted on 3 July 2000, with Amitabh Bachchan hosting in his first appearance on Indian television. Subsequent seasons of the show aired in 2005 -- 06, 2007, and every year since 2010. The Indian version was immortalised by director Danny Boyle in his 2008 drama film Slumdog Millionaire, adapted from the 2005 Indian novel Q & A by Vikas Swarup, which won eight U.S. Academy Awards (including Best Picture and Best Director) and seven BAFTA Awards. Another Indian version in Malayalam titled Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran debuted on 9 April 2012 with Suresh Gopi as the anchor. Other Indian remakes include Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi in Tamil, Kannadada Kotyadhipati in Kannada, and Meelo Evaru Koteeswarudu in Telugu.
A Filipino version of Millionaire was broadcast from 2000 to 2002 by the government - sequestered Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation, produced by Viva Television, and was hosted by Christopher de Leon. On 23 May 2009, the show returned with a new home on TV5, with Vic Sotto as the new host. The show aired its season finale on 7 October 2012 to give way to another game show hosted by Sotto, The Million Peso Money Drop (the Philippine version of The Million Pound Drop Live created by Endemol). However, the show returned to the air on 15 September 2013 for a new season together with Pinoy Explorer and Wow Mali! Pa Rin after the cancellation of the talent show Talentadong Pinoy (which would be revived just one year later).
A Russian version of Millionaire debuted as О, счастливчик! ("Oh, lucky man!!! '') on NTV from 1 October 1999 to 28 January 2001. On 19 February 2001, the show was relaunched as Кто хочет стать миллионером? ("Who wants to become a millionaire? ''), which aired on Channel One and was hosted by Maxim Galkin before 2008, and Dmitry Dibrov after that. A Dutch version of the show, titled Lotto Weekend Miljonairs, first aired on SBS 6 from 1999 to 2006 with Robert ten Brink as its host, then was moved to RTL 4, where it aired until 2008 (later to be revived in 2011) with Jeroen van der Boom hosting. A Japanese version called Quiz $ Millionaire, hosted by Monta Mino, was launched by Fuji Television on 20 April 2000; it was a regular weekly programme for its first seven years, after which it only aired in occasional specials.
Millionaire has also existed in many other countries, including a Chinese version aired in 2007 and 2008 with Lǐ Fán as its host; a French version on TF1, which debuted on 3 July 2000 and is hosted by Jean - Pierre Foucault; a German version launched by RTL Television on 3 September 1999, hosted by Günther Jauch; a Hong Kong version called Baak Maan Fu Yung, which was broadcast by Asia Television from 2001 to 2005, with actor Kenneth Chan as its host; and a Sri Lankan version called Sirasa Lakshapathi, which premiered in 2010 on Sirasa TV of Maharaja Network. In total, over 100 different international variations of Millionaire have been produced since the original UK version made its 1998 debut.
In March 2006, original producer Celador announced that it was seeking to sell the worldwide rights to Millionaire, together with the rest of its British programme library, as the first phase of a sell - off of the company 's format and production divisions. Millionaire and all of Celador 's other programmes were ultimately acquired by Dutch company 2waytraffic. Two years later, Sony Pictures Entertainment purchased 2waytraffic for £ 137.5 million. The format of the show is currently owned and licensed by Sony Pictures Television; however, the U.S. version is distributed not by Sony but by the Walt Disney Company 's in - home sales and content distribution firm, Disney -- ABC Domestic Television.
The idea to transform the UK programme into a global franchise was conceived by British television producer Paul Smith. He laid out a series of rules that the international variants in the franchise were to follow: for example, all hosts were required to appear on - screen wearing Armani suits, as Tarrant did in the UK; producers were forbidden from hiring local composers to create original music, instead using the same music cues used by the British version; and the lighting system and set design were required to adhere faithfully to the way they were presented on the British version. However, some of Smith 's rules have been slightly relaxed over the years as the franchise 's history has progressed.
The format of the show was created by David Briggs, Mike Whitehill and Steven Knight, who had earlier created a number of the promotional games for Tarrant 's morning show on Capital FM radio, such as the bong game. Tentatively known as Cash Mountain, the show takes its finalised title from a song written by Cole Porter for the 1956 film High Society, in which it was sung by Frank Sinatra and Celeste Holm.
Since the original version launched, several individuals have claimed that they originated the format and that Celador had breached their copyright. Sponsored by the Daily Mail, Mike Bull, a Southampton - based journalist, took Celador to the High Court in March 2002, claiming authorship of the lifelines, but Celador settled out of court with a confidentiality clause. In 2003, Sydney resident John J. Leonard claimed to have originated a format substantially similar to that of Millionaire, but without the concept of lifelines. In 2004, Alan Melville sued ITV for using the opening phrase "Who wants to be a millionaire? '' from his ideas for a game show based on the lottery, called Millionaires ' Row, for which he had sent his documents to Granada Television; ITV counter-claimed, and the parties reached an out - of - court agreement / settlement.
In 2002, John Bachini started a claim against Celador, ITV, and five individuals who claimed that they had created Millionaire. Bachini claimed they had used ideas from his 1982 board game format, a two - page TV format concept known as Millionaire dating from 1990, and the telephone mechanics from another of his concepts, BT Lottery, also dating from 1990. Bachini submitted his documents to Paul Smith, from a sister company of Celador 's, in March 1995 and again in January 1996, and to Claudia Rosencrantz of ITV in January 1996. Bachini claimed that they used 90 % of his Millionaire format, which contained all of the same procedures as the actual British Millionaire 's pilot: twenty questions, three lifelines, two safe havens (£ 1,000 and £ 32,000), and even starting from £ 1.00. Bachini 's lifelines were known by different names; he never claimed he coined the phrase phone - a-friend, but Bull and Tim Boone claimed they did. Celador claimed the franchise originated from a format known as The Cash Mountain, a five - page document created by either Briggs or his wife Jo Sandilands in October 1995. The defendants brought Bachini to a summary hearing, and lost. Bachini won the right to go to trial, but could not continue at trial due to serious illness, so Celador reached an out - of - court settlement with Bachini.
The musical score most commonly associated with the franchise was composed by father - and - son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan. The Strachans ' score provides drama and tension, and unlike older game show musical scores, Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show. The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song takes inspiration from the "Mars '' movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets, and their question cues from the £ 2,000 to the £ 32,000 / £ 25,000 level, and then from the £ 64,000 / £ 50,000 level onwards, take the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question, in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game. On Game Show Network (GSN) 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special, the narrator described the Strachan tracks as "mimicking the sound of a beating heart '', and stated that as the contestant works their way up the money ladder, the music is "perfectly in tune with their ever - increasing pulse ''.
The Strachans ' Millionaire soundtrack was honoured by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers with numerous awards, the earliest of them awarded in 2000. The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the U.S. version 's clock format in 2008; for example, the question cues were synced to the "ticking '' sounds of the game clock. Even later, the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010, in favour of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams, co-founders of the Los Angeles - based company Ah2 Music.
The basic set design used in the Millionaire franchise was conceived by British production designer Andy Walmsley, and is the most reproduced scenic design in television history. Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant (s) feel at ease, Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable, so that the programme feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show. The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper. The main game typically has the contestant and host sit in "Hot Seats '', which are slightly - modified, 3 foot (0.91 m) - high Pietranera Arco All chairs situated in the center of the stage; an LG computer monitor directly facing each seat displays questions and other pertinent information.
The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game. There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights, oil is vaporised, creating a haze effect. Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson, a professor at Syracuse University, stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside a prison while an escape was in progress.
When the U.S. Millionaire introduced its shuffle format, the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium and as a result, the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage. According to Vieira, the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat, which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous, actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer. Also, two video screens were installed -- one that displays the current question in play, and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game. In September 2012, the redesigned set was improved with a modernised look and feel, in order to take into account the show 's transition to high - definition broadcasting, which had just come about the previous year. The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones, having twice as many projectors as the previous screens; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one; and light - emitting diode (LED) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colours and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel.
Millionaire has made catchphrases out of several lines used on the show. The most well - known of these catchphrases is the host 's question "Is that your final answer? '', asked whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified. The question is asked because the rules require that the contestants must clearly indicate their choices before they are made official, the nature of the game allowing them to ponder the options before committing to an answer. Regularly on tier - three questions, a dramatic pause occurs between the contestant 's statement of their answer and the host 's acknowledgement of whether or not it is correct.
Many parodies of Millionaire have capitalised on the "final answer '' catchphrase. In the United States, the phrase was popularised by Philbin during his tenure as the host of that country 's version, to the extent that TV Land listed it in its special 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catchphrases, which aired in 2006.
On the Australian versions, McGuire replaces the phrase with "Lock it in? ''; likewise, the Indian version 's hosts have used varying "lock '' catchphrases. There are also a number of other non-English versions of Millionaire where the host does not ask "(Is that your) final answer? '' or a literal translation thereof. Besides the "final answer '' question, other catchphrases used on the show include the contestants ' requests to use lifelines, such as "I 'd like to phone a friend ''; and a line that Tarrant spoke whenever a contestant was struggling with a particular question, "Some questions are only easy if you know the answer. ''
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? has been credited with single - handedly reviving interest in, and breaking new ground for, the television game show. It revolutionised the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system, dramatic music cues, and futuristic set. The show also became one of the most popular game shows in television history, and is credited by some with paving the way for the phenomenon of reality programming.
In 2000, the British Film Institute honoured the UK version of Millionaire by ranking it number 23 on its "BFI TV 100 '' list, which compiled what British television industry professionals believed were the greatest programmes to have ever originated from that country. The UK Millionaire also won the 1999 British Academy Television Award for Best Entertainment Programme, and four National Television Awards for Most Popular Quiz Programme from 2002 to 2005.
The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001. Philbin was honoured with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001, while Vieira received one in 2005 and another in 2009, making her the second woman to win an Emmy Award for hosting a game show, and the first to win multiple times. TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire No. 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later ranked it No. 6 on its 2013 "60 Greatest Game Shows '' list. GSN ranked Millionaire No. 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later honoured the show in January 2007 on its first, and so far only, Gameshow Hall of Fame special.
In April 2003, British Army Major Charles Ingram, his wife Diana, and college lecturer Tecwen Whittock were convicted of using fraudulent means to win £ 1 million on the UK version of the show when Ingram was a contestant on the show in September 2001. The allegation was that when Tarrant asked a question, Whittock, one of that episode 's nine other Fastest Finger First contestants, would cough to guide Ingram to the correct answer. Ingram won the £ 1 million top prize, but members of the production staff raised suspicions over Whittock 's coughing along with the Ingrams ' behaviour after the recording, and the police were called in to investigate. The defence claimed that Whittock simply suffered from allergies; however, all three were found guilty and given suspended sentences. After the trial, ITV aired a documentary about the scandal, along with Ingram 's entire game, complete with Whittock 's coughing sounds. As a joke, Benylin cough syrup paid to have the first commercial shown during the programme 's commercial break.
In 2006, a screenshot from the UKGameshows.com site was digitally altered and used in a piece on the satire site BS News. The image was also widely circulated as an email in which it was purported to show contestant Fiona Wheeler from the UK version, failing to answer her £ 100 question correctly after using all three lifelines because she was too sceptical of the assistance that was given; the image was actually a digitally altered screenshot of Wheeler 's answering a different question from a higher tier. The hoax might have been inspired by an infamous moment from the French version of the show, in which a contestant requested help from the audience on a € 3,000 question which asked which celestial body orbits the Earth: the Sun, the Moon, Mars or Venus. The majority of the audience provided the answer of "the Sun '', although the correct answer is the Moon, and the contestant ended up leaving with only € 1,500 as a result. The hoax also borrows elements from a number of infamous moments on the U.S. version, where numerous unlucky contestants won nothing after submitting a wrong answer to one of the first five questions.
Three board game adaptations of the UK Millionaire were released by Upstarts in 1998, and a junior edition recommended for younger players was introduced in 2001. The U.S. version also saw two board games of its own, released by Pressman Toy Corporation in 2000. Other Millionaire board games have included a game based on the Australian version 's Hot Seat format, which was released by UGames; a game based on the Italian version released by Hasbro; and a game based on the French version which was released by TF1 's games division.
An electronic tabletop version of the game was released by Tiger Electronics in 2000. Six different DVD games based on the UK Millionaire, featuring Tarrant 's likeness and voice, were released by Zoo Digital Publishing and Universal Studios Home Entertainment between 2002 and 2008. In 2008, Imagination Games released a DVD game based on the U.S. version, based on the 2004 -- 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice, as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar.
The UK Millionaire saw five video game adaptations for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation consoles, produced by Hothouse Creations and Eidos Interactive. Between 1999 and 2001, Jellyvision produced five games based on the U.S. network version for PCs and the PlayStation, all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice. The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive, while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio. Of the five games, three featured general trivia questions, one was sports - themed, and another was a "Kids Edition '' featuring easier questions. Two additional U.S. Millionaire games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the 2008 -- 10 clock format, with the Wii version offered on the show as a consolation prize to audience contestants during the 2010 -- 11 season. The second, for Microsoft 's Xbox 360, was based on the shuffle format and was offered as a consolation prize during the next season (2011 -- 12).
Ludia also made a Facebook game based on Millionaire available to players in North America from 2011 to 2016. This game featured an altered version of the shuffle format, condensing the number of questions to twelve -- eight in round one and four in round two. Contestants competed against eight other Millionaire fans in round one, with the top three playing round two alone. There was no "final answer '' rule; the contestant 's responses were automatically locked in. Answering a question correctly earned a contestant the value of that question, multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly. Contestants were allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one, and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question.
A theme park attraction based on the show, known as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire -- Play It!, appeared at Disney 's Hollywood Studios (when it was known as Disney - MGM Studios) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim, California. Both the Florida and California Play It! attractions opened in 2001; the California version closed in 2004, and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania!
The format in the Play It! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it. When a show started, a "Fastest Finger '' question was given, and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show. However, the main game had some differences: for example, contestants competed for points rather than dollars, the questions were set to time limits, and the Phone - a-Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theatre who would find a guest to help. After the contestant 's game was over, they were awarded anything from a collectible pin, to clothing, to a Millionaire CD game, to a 3 - night Disney Cruise.
|
when was the first picture of jupiter taken | Exploration of Jupiter - Wikipedia
The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by automated spacecraft. It began with the arrival of Pioneer 10 into the Jovian system in 1973, and, as of 2016, has continued with eight further spacecraft missions. All of these missions were undertaken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the probe landing or entering orbit. These probes make Jupiter the most visited of the Solar System 's outer planets as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time. On 5 July 2016, spacecraft Juno arrived and entered the planet 's orbit -- the second craft ever to do so. Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties, especially due to the probes ' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet 's harsh radiation environment.
The first spacecraft to visit Jupiter was Pioneer 10 in 1973, followed a year later by Pioneer 11. Aside from taking the first close - up pictures of the planet, the probes discovered its magnetosphere and its largely fluid interior. The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes visited the planet in 1979, and studied its moons and the ring system, discovering the volcanic activity of Io and the presence of water ice on the surface of Europa. Ulysses further studied Jupiter 's magnetosphere in 1992 and then again in 2000. The Cassini probe approached the planet in 2000 and took very detailed images of its atmosphere. The New Horizons spacecraft passed by Jupiter in 2007 and made improved measurements of its and its satellites ' parameters.
The Galileo spacecraft was the first to have entered orbit around Jupiter, arriving in 1995 and studying the planet until 2003. During this period Galileo gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system, making close approaches to all of the four large Galilean moons and finding evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them, as well as the possibility of liquid water beneath their surfaces. It also discovered a magnetic field around Ganymede. As it approached Jupiter, it also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker -- Levy 9. In December 1995, it sent an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere, so far the only craft to do so.
In July 2016, the Juno spacecraft, launched in 2011, completed its orbital insertion maneuver successfully, and is now in orbit around Jupiter with its science programme ongoing.
The European Space Agency selected the L1 - class JUICE mission in 2012 as part of its Cosmic Vision programme to explore three of Jupiter 's Galilean moons, with a possible Ganymede lander provided by Roscosmos. JUICE is proposed to be launched in 2022. ISRO will launch the first Indian mission to Jupiter in 2022 or 2023 through Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III.
Flights from Earth to other planets in the Solar System have a high energy cost. It requires almost the same amount of energy for a spacecraft to reach Jupiter from Earth 's orbit as it does to lift it into orbit in the first place. In astrodynamics, this energy expenditure is defined by the net change in the spacecraft 's velocity, or delta - v. The energy needed to reach Jupiter from an Earth orbit requires a delta - v of about 9 km / s, compared to the 9.0 -- 9.5 km / s to reach a low Earth orbit from the ground. Gravity assists through planetary flybys (such as by Earth or Venus) can be used to reduce the energetic requirement (i.e. the fuel) at launch, at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration to reach a target such as Jupiter when compared to the direct trajectory. Ion thrusters capable of a delta - v of more than 10 kilometers / s were used on the Dawn spacecraft. This is more than enough delta - v to do a Jupiter fly - by mission from a solar orbit of the same radius as that of Earth without gravity assist.
A major problem in sending space probes to Jupiter is that the planet has no solid surface on which to land, as there is a smooth transition between the planet 's atmosphere and its fluid interior. Any probes descending into the atmosphere are eventually crushed by the immense pressures within Jupiter.
Another major issue is the amount of radiation to which a space probe is subjected, due to the harsh charged - particle environment around Jupiter (for a detailed explanation see Magnetosphere of Jupiter). For example, when Pioneer 11 made its closest approach to the planet, the level of radiation was ten times more powerful than Pioneer 's designers had predicted, leading to fears that the probes would not survive. With a few minor glitches, the probe managed to pass through the radiation belts, but it lost most of the images of the moon Io, as the radiation had caused Pioneer 's imaging photo polarimeter to receive false commands. The subsequent and far more technologically advanced Voyager spacecraft had to be redesigned to cope with the radiation levels. Over the eight years the Galileo spacecraft orbited the planet, the probe 's radiation dose far exceeded its design specifications, and its systems failed on several occasions. The spacecraft 's gyroscopes often exhibited increased errors, and electrical arcs sometimes occurred between its rotating and non-rotating parts, causing it to enter safe mode, which led to total loss of the data from the 16th, 18th and 33rd orbits. The radiation also caused phase shifts in Galileo 's ultra-stable quartz oscillator.
The first spacecraft to explore Jupiter was Pioneer 10, which flew past the planet in December 1973, followed by Pioneer 11 twelve months later. Pioneer 10 obtained the first - ever close - up images of Jupiter and its Galilean moons; the spacecraft studied the planet 's atmosphere, detected its magnetic field, observed its radiation belts and determined that Jupiter is mainly fluid. Pioneer 11 made its closest approach, within some 34,000 km of Jupiter 's cloud tops, on December 4, 1974. It obtained dramatic images of the Great Red Spot, made the first observation of Jupiter 's immense polar regions, and determined the mass of Jupiter 's moon Callisto. The information gathered by these two spacecraft helped astronomers and engineers improve the design of future probes to cope more effectively with the environment around the giant planet.
Voyager 1 began photographing Jupiter in January 1979 and made its closest approach on March 5, 1979, at a distance of 349,000 km from Jupiter 's center. This close approach allowed for greater image resolution, though the flyby 's short duration meant that most observations of Jupiter 's moons, rings, magnetic field, and radiation environment were made in the 48 - hour period bracketing the approach, even though Voyager 1 continued photographing the planet until April. It was soon followed by Voyager 2, which made its closest approach on July 9, 1979, 576,000 km away from the planet 's cloud tops. The probe discovered Jupiter 's ring, observed intricate vortices in its atmosphere, observed active volcanoes on Io, a process analogous to plate tectonics on Ganymede, and numerous craters on Callisto.
The Voyager missions vastly improved our understanding of the Galilean moons, and also discovered Jupiter 's rings. They also took the first close - up images of the planet 's atmosphere, revealing the Great Red Spot as a complex storm moving in a counter-clockwise direction. Other smaller storms and eddies were found throughout the banded clouds (see animation on the right). Two new, small satellites, Adrastea and Metis, were discovered orbiting just outside the ring, making them the first of Jupiter 's moons to be identified by a spacecraft. A third new satellite, Thebe, was discovered between the orbits of Amalthea and Io.
The discovery of volcanic activity on the moon Io was the greatest unexpected finding of the mission, as it was the first time an active volcano was observed on a celestial body other than Earth. Together, the Voyagers recorded the eruption of nine volcanoes on Io, as well as evidence for other eruptions occurring between the Voyager encounters.
Europa displayed a large number of intersecting linear features in the low - resolution photos from Voyager 1. At first, scientists believed the features might be deep cracks, caused by crustal rifting or tectonic processes. The high - resolution photos from Voyager 2, taken closer to Jupiter, left scientists puzzled as the features in these photos were almost entirely lacking in topographic relief. This led many to suggest that these cracks might be similar to ice floes on Earth, and that Europa might have a liquid water interior. Europa may be internally active due to tidal heating at a level about one - tenth that of Io, and as a result, the moon is thought to have a thin crust less than 30 kilometers (19 mi) thick of water ice, possibly floating on a 50 - kilometers - deep (30 mile) ocean.
On February 8, 1992, the Ulysses solar probe flew past Jupiter 's north pole at a distance of 451,000 km. This swing - by maneuver was required for Ulysses to attain a very high - inclination orbit around the Sun, increasing its inclination to the ecliptic to 80.2 degrees. The giant planet 's gravity bent the spacecraft 's flightpath downward and away from the ecliptic plane, placing it into a final orbit around the Sun 's north and south poles. The size and shape of the probe 's orbit were adjusted to a much smaller degree, so that its aphelion remained at approximately 5 AU (Jupiter 's distance from the Sun), while its perihelion lay somewhat beyond 1 AU (Earth 's distance from the Sun). During its Jupiter encounter, the probe made measurements of the planet 's magnetosphere. Since the probe had no cameras, no images were taken. In February 2004, the probe arrived again at the vicinity of Jupiter. This time the distance from the planet was much greater -- about 120 million km (0.8 AU) -- but it made further observations of Jupiter.
In 2000, the Cassini probe, en route to Saturn, flew by Jupiter and provided some of the highest - resolution images ever taken of the planet. It made its closest approach on December 30, 2000, and made many scientific measurements. About 26,000 images of Jupiter were taken during the months - long flyby. It produced the most detailed global color portrait of Jupiter yet, in which the smallest visible features are approximately 60 km (37 mi) across.
A major finding of the flyby, announced on March 5, 2003, was of Jupiter 's atmospheric circulation. Dark belts alternate with light zones in the atmosphere, and the zones, with their pale clouds, had previously been considered by scientists to be areas of upwelling air, partly because on Earth clouds tend to be formed by rising air. Analysis of Cassini imagery showed that the dark belts contain individual storm cells of upwelling bright - white clouds, too small to see from Earth. Anthony Del Genio of NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies said that "the belts must be the areas of net - rising atmospheric motion on Jupiter, (so) the net motion in the zones has to be sinking ''.
Other atmospheric observations included a swirling dark oval of high atmospheric - haze, about the size of the Great Red Spot, near Jupiter 's north pole. Infrared imagery revealed aspects of circulation near the poles, with bands of globe - encircling winds, and adjacent bands moving in opposite directions. The same announcement also discussed the nature of Jupiter 's rings. Light scattering by particles in the rings showed the particles were irregularly shaped (rather than spherical) and likely originated as ejecta from micrometeorite impacts on Jupiter 's moons, probably on Metis and Adrastea. On December 19, 2000, the Cassini spacecraft captured a very - low - resolution image of the moon Himalia, but it was too distant to show any surface details.
The New Horizons probe, en route to Pluto, flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist and was the first probe launched directly towards Jupiter since the Ulysses in 1990. Its Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) took its first photographs of Jupiter on September 4, 2006. The spacecraft began further study of the Jovian system in December 2006, and made its closest approach on February 28, 2007.
Although close to Jupiter, New Horizons ' instruments made refined measurements of the orbits of Jupiter 's inner moons, particularly Amalthea. The probe 's cameras measured volcanoes on Io, studied all four Galilean moons in detail, and made long - distance studies of the outer moons Himalia and Elara. The craft also studied Jupiter 's Little Red Spot and the planet 's magnetosphere and tenuous ring system.
On March 19, 2007 the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself, causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode. The craft fully recovered within two days, with some data loss on Jupiter 's magnetotail. No other data loss events were associated with the encounter. Due to the immense size of the Jupiter system and the relative closeness of the Jovian system to Earth in comparison to the closeness of Pluto to Earth, New Horizons sent back more data to Earth from the Jupiter encounter than the Pluto encounter.
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo orbiter, which went into orbit around Jupiter on December 7, 1995. It orbited the planet for over seven years, making 35 orbits before it was destroyed during a controlled impact with Jupiter on September 21, 2003. During this period, it gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system; the amount of information was not as great as intended because the deployment of its high - gain radio transmitting antenna failed. The major events during the eight - year study included multiple flybys of all of the Galilean moons, as well as Amalthea (the first probe to do so). It also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker -- Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994 and the sending of an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere in December 1995.
Cameras on the Galileo spacecraft observed fragments of Comet Shoemaker -- Levy 9 between 16 and 22 July 1994 as they collided with Jupiter 's southern hemisphere at a speed of approximately 60 kilometres per second. This was the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of solar system objects. While the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, Galileo, then at a distance of 1.6 AU from the planet, was able to see the impacts as they occurred. Its instruments detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about 24,000 K, compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130 K (− 143 ° C), with the plume from the fireball reaching a height of over 3,000 km.
An atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering the planet 's atmosphere on December 7, 1995. After a high - g descent into the Jovian atmosphere, the probe discarded the remains of its heat shield, and it parachuted through 150 km of the atmosphere, collecting data for 57.6 minutes, before being crushed by the pressure and temperature to which it was subjected (about 22 times Earth normal, at a temperature of 153 ° C). It would have melted thereafter, and possibly vaporized. The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003 at a speed of over 50 km / s, in order to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and contaminating Europa.
Major scientific results of the Galileo mission include:
On December 11, 2013, NASA reported, based on results from the Galileo mission, the detection of "clay - like minerals '' (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa, moon of Jupiter. The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet according to the scientists.
NASA launched Juno on August 5, 2011 to study Jupiter in detail. It entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5, 2016. The spacecraft is studying the planet 's composition, gravity field, magnetic field, and polar magnetosphere. Juno is also searching for clues about how Jupiter formed, including whether the planet has a rocky core, the amount of water present within the deep atmosphere, and how the mass is distributed within the planet. Juno also studies Jupiter 's deep winds, which can reach speeds of 600 km / h.
ESA 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) has been selected as part of ESA 's Cosmic Vision science program. It is expected to launch in 2022 and, after a series of flybys in the inner Solar System, arrive in 2030. In 2012, the European Space Agency 's selected the JUpiter ICy moon Explorer (JUICE) as its first Large mission, replacing its contribution to EJSM, the Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter (JGO). The partnership for the Europa Jupiter System Mission has since ended, but NASA will continue to contribute the European mission with hardware and an instrument.
The Europa Clipper is a mission proposed to NASA to focus on studying Jupiter 's moon Europa. In March 2013, funds were authorized for "pre-formulation and / or formulation activities for a mission that meets the science goals outlined for the Jupiter Europa mission in the most recent planetary decadal survey ''. The proposed mission would be set to launch in the early 2020s and reach Europa after a 6.5 year cruise. The spacecraft would fly by the moon 32 times to minimize radiation damage.
Because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter 's moons Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, there has been great interest in studying the icy moons in detail. Funding difficulties have delayed progress. The Europa Orbiter was a planned NASA mission to Europa, which was canceled in 2002. Its main objectives included determining the presence or absence of a subsurface ocean and identifying candidate sites for future lander missions. NASA 's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter), which was canceled in 2005, and a European Jovian Europa Orbiter mission were also studied, but were superseded by the Europa Jupiter System Mission.
The Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Jupiter and its moons. In February 2009 it was announced that both space agencies had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission. The proposal included a launch date of around 2020 and consists of the NASA - led Jupiter Europa Orbiter, and the ESA - led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter. ESA 's contribution had encountered funding competition from other ESA projects. However, the Jupiter Europa Orbiter (JEO), NASA 's contribution, was considered by the Planetary Decadal Survey to be too expensive. The survey supported a cheaper alternative to JEO.
While scientists require further evidence to determine the extent of a rocky core on Jupiter, its Galilean moons provide the potential opportunity for future human exploration.
Particular targets are Europa, due to its potential for life, and Callisto, due to its relatively low radiation dose. In 2003, NASA proposed a program called Human Outer Planets Exploration (HOPE) that involved sending astronauts to explore the Galilean moons. NASA has projected a possible attempt some time in the 2040s. In the Vision for Space Exploration policy announced in January 2004, NASA discussed missions beyond Mars, mentioning that a "human research presence '' may be desirable on Jupiter 's moons. Before the JIMO mission was cancelled, NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe stated that "human explorers will follow. ''
NASA has speculated on the feasibility of mining the atmospheres of the outer planets, particularly for helium - 3, an isotope of helium that is rare on Earth and could have a very high value per unit mass as thermonuclear fuel. Factories stationed in orbit could mine the gas and deliver it to visiting craft. However, the Jovian system in general poses particular disadvantages for colonization because of the severe radiation conditions prevailing in Jupiter 's magnetosphere and the planet 's particularly deep gravitational well. Jupiter would deliver about 36 Sv (3600 rem) per day to unshielded colonists at Io and about 5.4 Sv (540 rems) per day to unshielded colonists at Europa, which is a decisive aspect due to the fact that already an exposure to about 0.75 Sv over a period of a few days is enough to cause radiation poisoning, and about 5 Sv over a few days is fatal.
Ganymede is the Solar System 's largest moon and the Solar System 's only known moon with a magnetosphere, but this does not shield it from cosmic radiation to a noteworthy degree, because it is overshadowed by Jupiter 's magnetic field. Ganymede receives about 0.08 Sv (8 rem) of radiation per day. Callisto is farther from Jupiter 's strong radiation belt and subject to only 0.0001 Sv (0.01 rem) a day. For comparison, the average amount of radiation taken on Earth by a living organism is about 0.0024 Sv per year; the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are recorded around Ramsar hot springs at about 0.26 Sv per year.
One of the main targets chosen by the HOPE study was Callisto. The possibility of building a surface base on Callisto was proposed, because of the low radiation levels at its distance from Jupiter and its geological stability. Callisto is the only Galilean satellite for which human exploration is feasible. The levels of ionizing radiation on Io, Europa, and Ganymede are hostile to human life, and adequate protective measures have yet to be devised.
It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System. In 1997, the Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa. According to this plan, explorers would drill down into the Europan ice crust, entering the postulated subsurface ocean, where they would inhabit artificial air pockets.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Local Sheet → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
|
who does tina fey play in parks and rec | Ron and Tammy - wikipedia
"Ron and Tammy '' is the eighth episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation, and the fourteenth overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 5, 2009. In the episode, the library department tries to take control of a vacant lot where Leslie plans to build a park. Ron 's ex-wife, one of Leslie 's directors, sexually manipulates Ron to get what she wants. The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Troy Miller.
"Ron and Tammy '' featured Megan Mullally, the real - life wife of Parks actor Nick Offerman, in a special guest appearance as Ron 's ex-wife, Tammy, who appears in several other episodes in the following seasons. According to Nielsen Media Research, it was seen by 4.93 million household viewers; its rating of 2.2 was the season 's highest to that point. "Ron and Tammy '' received highly positive reviews and is widely considered one of the best Parks and Recreation episodes, with many commentators praising Offerman 's performance. Tammy later returned for the third season sequel episode, "Ron & Tammy: Part Two '' and several subsequent episodes.
Andy (Chris Pratt) takes over as the shoeshiner at the Pawnee town hall, replacing "Old Gus '' (Jack Carter), who insults everybody during a farewell party. Later, Mark (Paul Schneider) breaks the bad news to Leslie (Amy Poehler) that the Pawnee library has placed a planning claim for Lot 48, which Leslie has been working to turn into a park. Leslie and the rest of the parks department express hatred for the library, which Leslie declares a "diabolical, ruthless bunch of bureaucrats '', much to the confusion of Ann (Rashida Jones). Ron (Nick Offerman) is particularly angry to learn his ex-wife Tammy (Megan Mullally), who he insists is evil incarnate, is the new library director.
Leslie decides to confront Tammy directly, only to find Tammy seems to be a friendly woman who instantly agrees to let Leslie have Lot 48 as a "professional courtesy ''. Impressed, Leslie brings Tammy to the parks department so she can talk to Ron and work out their differences. Tammy and an agitated Ron go off to have coffee, and Donna (Retta) insists to Leslie that the arrangement is a mistake because the two act crazy when they are together. At a local diner, Ron and Tammy immediately start a very loud argument in front of the other patrons. Moments later, however, the two are publicly making out on the table in front of everyone. The two rush off to a motel, where they frantically remove their clothing before even entering the building.
Ann and her boyfriend Mark run into Andy, Ann 's ex-boyfriend. Andy flirts with Ann in front of Mark, and openly admits he plans to win her back from him. Mark asks advice from Tom (Aziz Ansari), who suggests Mark should take the high road (although Tom tells the documentary crew that he never takes the high road, but tells everyone else to do so, so there is more room for him on "the low road ''). Mark tries to have a gentlemanly discussion with Andy, who continues to insist he loves Ann, pointing to the many photos he has of her around his shoeshine station. Finally, Ann confronts Andy and tells him to stop discussing her with Mark, as well as to remove her photos from the wall.
A cheery and singing Ron (who is wearing his "Tiger Woods '' outfit, which is an outfit he wears after having sex) openly discusses the details his sexual exploits with Tammy to an uncomfortable Leslie. Although she is initially pleased with the results of her meddling, Leslie soon realizes Tammy is using sex to manipulate Ron to give her control of Lot 48. Leslie confronts Tammy, who admits to the plot and brags that this is how the library operates. Leslie tries to get Ron to break up with Tammy, but he insists he can not confront her without Leslie 's help. The two go to the library, where Ron starts to cave in when Tammy flirts with him. Leslie tells Ron to do whatever will make him happy, even if it means giving up the lot. Ron, impressed that anyone would put his own needs before their own, decides instead to break up with Tammy and give the lot back to Leslie. After breaking the news to Tammy off - camera, he leaves the library with a push - pin stuck in his forehead, and part of his mustache missing, and he and Leslie flee the library. The two share a drink, where Leslie encourages Ron to insult Tammy.
"Ron and Tammy '' was written by Mike Scully and directed by Troy Miller. The episode featured comedian and actress Megan Mullally in a guest appearance as Ron 's ex-wife, Tammy. Mullally is the real - life wife of Nick Offerman, who plays Ron. Parks and Recreation co-creator Michael Schur conceived the idea for the story, and asked Offerman whether he and Mullally would be opposed to her playing such a terrible character. Offerman was extremely responsive to the idea. Mullally said she enjoyed the script, particularly the dialogue of Ron describing Tammy, more than Tammy 's part herself. Offerman and Mullally improvised many of their on - screen fights, as well as the varied methods of unusual kissing between the two characters. During the diner scene, in which Ron and Tammy switch between violent fighting and passionate kissing, Offerman accidentally pulled a diner table out of the wall after placing Mullally on top of it and kissing her. The scene was used in the final episode. Offerman said of filming the diner scenes, "At the end of doing that for a few hours, we said, you know that feels like it was five weeks worth of really good therapy. ''
During a scene with Ron and Tammy start stripping while running into a motel room, Mullally removed her top and appeared topless during filming. Mullally improvised the move and did not tell the crew she planned to do it. She said of filming the scene, "I did n't care, it was six in the morning, who cares, I did n't know anybody. '' Offerman said his favorite scene in the episode was the one in which Leslie tried to break up with Tammy for him. He particularly enjoyed the rapport between Poehler and Mullally, and said he "just wanted to pinch himself '' to prevent from laughing. After reuniting with Tammy, Ron puts a framed photo on his wall of a brunette woman holding a plate of breakfast, which he said symbolizes his relationship with Tammy and the breakfast she made him after sex. In the pilot episode of Parks and Recreation, a photo of retired basketball coach Bobby Knight is on the wall. When it had to be removed for legal reasons, Parks and Recreation Schur searched an image library for "things we thought Ron would like '' and found the breakfast photo. Schur said he thought it was perfect for the character, and it inspired the prop and the dialogue in the episode. The character Tammy later returned for the third season sequel episode, "Ron & Tammy: Part Two ''.
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast, two deleted scenes from "Ron and Tammy '' were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website. In the first two - minute - long clip, Ron describes Tammy to Leslie in increasingly horrible ways, and Leslie talks to Tammy about previous problem the two had, including an instance in which Tammy seduces Ron 's father. In the second 90 - second clip, Tom directs customers to Andy 's shoeshine in exchange for a 40 percent commission, while Mark tries to get Ann to abandon her nursing patients to spend more time with him. Lawrence, a neighbor with a long - standing feud with Andy, mocks him by giving him dozens of soiled shoes to clean.
The day after having sex with Tammy, Ron comes to work wearing a red shirt and black pants, which prompts Tom to observe that Ron always dresses like golf pro Tiger Woods after having sex. This joke was written before the story of Woods ' extramarital affairs scandal broke in the news in November 2009. Andy is said to have auditioned for the reality television show Survivor and the television game show Deal or No Deal. During an audition tape, he is shown gutting a fish to prove he could perform on Deal or No Deal, even though the action is far more appropriate for Survivor. During one scene, to Leslie 's shock and confusion, Tammy said she would rather be Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of Egypt 's Ptolemaic dynasty, than Eleanor Roosevelt, the former First Lady and wife of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
In its original American broadcast on November 5, 2009, "Ron and Tammy '' was seen by 4.93 million household viewers, according to Nielsen Media Research. Among viewers aged between 18 and 49, the episode drew a 2.2 rating / 6 share; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing. It was the highest rating to that point for the season, and a 10 percent jump from the previous episode, "Greg Pikitis ''.
"Ron and Tammy '' received critical acclaim and is widely considered one of the best episodes of Parks and Recreation. Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger said "Ron and Tammy '' was the funniest episode of the season, particularly for the dead - pan performance of Nick Offerman. Sepinwall also praised the parks employees ' hatred for the library, and the fact that minor characters Jerry and Donna are further developing. Matt Fowler of IGN called it a "particularly solid episode '', and he enjoyed seeing Leslie serve as the voice of reason. Fowler said the Andy subplot was less funny than the main plot, but it advanced Andy 's character. Steve Heisler from The A.V. Club praised the episode and the performance of Offerman, who he said showed a deeper comedic range than in previous episodes. Heisler also praised Pratt and Poehler, who he said shined in showing a more sensible side. Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis called the episode "damn near perfect '' and said it made her "fall truly, madly, deeply in love with Parks and Recreation. '' Ross Luippold of The Huffington Post called "Ron and Tammy '' one of the highlights of the season.
Steve Kandell of New York magazine called "Ron and Tammy '' one of the moments when Parks and Recreation "found its voice and its footing ''. Dose writer Kat Angus said "Ron and Tammy '' solidified Parks and Recreation as "the funniest show on TV this season ''. Angus praised Offerman 's performance and his pairing with Mullally. TV Guide writer Matt Roush, who had previously been very critical of Parks and Recreation, called "Ron and Tammy '' "unquestionably the show 's best episode to date ''. Roush particularly praised the comedic chemistry between Offerman and Mullally, who he said "make beautiful comic music together ''. Time magazine reviewer James Poniewozik called it an "excellent episode '', and said it balanced well the show 's formula of comedy focused on people and small - town government. H.T. "Hercules '' Strong, a regular columnist with Ai n't it Cool News, praised Poehler and Mullally, and said the editing, particularly during the diner scene with Ron and Tammy, was worthy of an Emmy Award nomination. CNN associated producer Henry Hanks praised the "uproarious performances '' of both Offerman and Mullally, while another CNN review of called Mullally 's guest performance "Emmy - worthy '', and praised the performances of Offerman, Poehler and Pratt. It also said, "Poehler 's development of her character this season has been great to watch ''.
"Ron and Tammy '', along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation, was released on a four - disc DVD set in the United States on November 30, 2010. The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode. It also included a commentary track for "Ron and Tammy '' featuring Nick Offerman, Megan Mullally, and series co-creators Michael Schur and Greg Daniels.
|
which country is the owner of royal enfield | Royal Enfield - wikipedia
Royal Enfield was a brand name under which The Enfield Cycle Company Limited of Redditch, Worcestershire sold motorcycles, bicycles, lawnmowers and stationary engines which they had manufactured. Enfield Cycle Company also used the brand name Enfield without Royal.
The first Royal Enfield motorcycle was built in 1901. The Enfield Cycle Company is responsible for the design and original production of the Royal Enfield Bullet, the longest - lived motorcycle design in history.
Enfield 's remaining motorcycle business became part of Norton Villiers in 1967 and that business closed in 1978. A former subsidiary continues to manufacture Royal Enfield motorcycles in India.
George Townsend set up a business in 1851 in Redditch making sewing needles. In 1882 his son, also named George, started making components for cycle manufacturers including saddles and forks. By 1886 complete bicycles were being sold under the names Townsend and Ecossais. This business suffered a financial collapse in 1891. Albert Eadie, sales manager of Birmingham 's Perry & Co Ltd, pen makers who had begun to supply components for cycles, and Robert Walker Smith, an engineer from D. Rudge & Co, were chosen by Townsend 's bankers to run the business. Then, in 1892, the firm was re-incorporated and named Eadie Manufacturing Company Limited; it was based in Snow Hill, Birmingham. Later, in 1907, after serious losses from their newly floated Enfield Autocar business, Eadie Manufacturing and its pedal - cycle component business was absorbed by BSA. Years later, the BSA chairman was to tell shareholders that the acquisition had "done wonders for the cycle department ''. Eadie still retained a separate identity when Raleigh bought BSA 's cycle interests in 1957.
Eadie had won contracts to supply precision parts for fire arms to the government 's long - established Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield, Middlesex, now the London Borough of Enfield with its offshoot in Sparkbrook and had assumed the brand name Royal Enfield. In 1896 they also incorporated a new subsidiary company, The New Enfield Cycle Company Limited, to handle much of the cycle work and in 1897 Enfield making complete cycles as well parts for other assemblers took all the cycle assembly work from Eadie.
Enfield diversified into motor cycles, 1901 and motor cars, 1902. The motor department was put into a separate subsidiary, Enfield Autocar Company Limited incorporated in 1906 and established in new works at Hunt End, Redditch. However Enfield Autocar after just 19 months reported a substantial loss and, aside from Eadie himself, shareholders were unwilling to provide more capital so in early 1907 Eadie sold his control of Eadie Manufacturing to BSA. Albert Eadie and Robert Walker Smith had been appointed directors of BSA before the proposed sale ha been put to shareholders. The new combined BSA and Eadie business manufactured "military and sporting rifles, (pedal) cycle and cycle components, motor - cars etc. '' "BSA and Eadie cycle specialities ''. But there were still minority Eadie shareholders alongside BSA in 1957.
The business of Enfield Autocar, that is to say the plant and stock, was sold to Birmingham 's Alldays & Onions Pneumatic Engineering. Enfield Cycle Company took over the Hunt End premises.
In 1955, Enfield Cycle Company partnered with Madras Motors in India in forming Enfield of India, based in Chennai, and started assembling the 350cc Royal Enfield Bullet motorcycle in Madras. The first machines were assembled from components imported from England. Starting in 1957, Enfield of India acquired the machines necessary to build components in India, and by 1962 all components were made in India.
Frank Walker Smith (1888 - 1962), eldest son of Robert Walker Smith, joined Enfield Cycle Company in 1909. Appointed joint (with his father) managing director in 1914 he took over the full responsibility when his father died in 1933. After his death Enfield was bought by investors E & HP Smith who sold Enfield for £ 82,500 to Norton Villiers in 1967. While Norton Villiers acquired 33 per cent of Enfield India the assets of Enfield 's diesel engine division and pedal cycle and spares divisions were not picked up.
Royal Enfield produced bicycles at its Redditch factory until it closed in early 1967. The company 's last new bicycle was the ' Revelation ' small wheeler, released in 1965. Production of motorcycles ceased in 1970 and the original Redditch, Worcestershire - based company was dissolved in 1971.
Enfield of India continued producing the ' Bullet ', and began branding its motorcycles ' Royal Enfield ' in 1999. A lawsuit over the use of ' Royal ', brought by trademark owner David Holder, was judged in favour of Enfield of India, who now produce motorcycles under the Royal Enfield name.
By 1899, Royal Enfield were producing a quadricycle -- a bicycle modified by adding a wrap - around four - wheeled frame, retaining a rear rider - saddle with handlebars -- having a front - mounted passenger seat, driven by a rear - mounted De Dion engine.
After experimenting with a heavy bicycle frame fitted with a Minerva engine clamped to the front downtube, Enfield built their first motorcycle in 1901 with a 239 cc engine.
A light car was introduced in 1903 powered by either a French Ader V - twin or De Dion single cylinder engine. In 1906 car production was transferred to a new company, the Enfield Autocar Co Ltd with premises in Hunt End, Redditch. The independent company only lasted until 1908 when it was purchased by Alldays & Onions.
In 1907, Enfield merged with the Alldays & Onions Pneumatic Engineering Co. of Birmingham, and began manufacturing the Enfield - Allday automobile.
By 1910, Royal Enfield was using 344 cc Swiss Motosacoche V - Twin engines, or large - displacement JAP and Vickers - Wolseley engines.
In 1912, the Royal Enfield Model 180 sidecar combination was introduced with a 770 cc V - twin JAP engine which was raced successfully in the Isle of Man TT and at Brooklands.
In 1914 Enfield supplied large numbers of motorcycles to the British War Department and also won a motorcycle contract for the Imperial Russian Government. Enfield used its own 225 cc two - stroke single and 425 cc V - twin engines. They also produced an 8 hp motorcycle sidecar model fitted with a Vickers machine gun.
In 1921, Enfield developed a new 976 cc twin, and in 1924 launched the first Enfield four - stroke 350 cc single using a Prestwich Industries engine. In 1928, Royal Enfield began using the bulbous ' saddle ' tanks and centre - spring girder front forks, one of the first companies to do so. Even though it was trading at a loss in the depression years of the 1930s, the company was able to rely on reserves to keep going. In 1931, Albert Eddie, one of the founders of the company, died and his partner R.W. Smith died soon afterwards in 1933.
During World War II, The Enfield Cycle Company was called upon by the British authorities to develop and manufacture military motorcycles. The models produced for the military were the WD / C 350 cc sidevalve, WD / CO 350 cc OHV, WD / D 250 cc SV, WD / G 350 cc OHV and WD / L 570 cc SV. One of the most well - known Enfields was the (designed to be dropped by parachute with airborne troops.
In order to establish a facility not vulnerable to the wartime bombing of the Midlands, an underground factory was set up, starting in 1942, in a disused "Bath Stone '' quarry at Westwood, near Bradford - on - Avon, Wiltshire. Many staff were transferred from Redditch and an estate of "prefabs '' was built in Westwood to house them.
As well as motorcycle manufacture, it built other equipment for the war effort such as mechanical "predictors '' for anti-aircraft gunnery: the manufacture of such high precision equipment was helped by the constant temperature underground. After the war the factory continued, concentrating on engine manufacture and high precision machining. After production of Royal Enfield motorcycles ceased, the precision engineering activities continued until the final demise of the company.
Postwar, Royal Enfield resumed production of the single cylinder ohv 350cc model G and 500cc Model J, with rigid rear frame and telescopic front forks. These were ride - to - work basic models, in a world hungry for transport. A large number of factory reconditioned ex-military sv Model C and ohv Model CO singles were also offered for sale, as they were sold off as surplus by various military services.
In 1948, a groundbreaking development in the form of rear suspension springing was developed, initially for competition model "trials '' models (modern enduro type machines), but this was soon offered on the roadgoing Model Bullet 350cc, a single cylinder OHV. This was a very popular seller, offering a comfortable ride. A 500cc version appeared shortly after. A mid 1950s version of the Bullet manufacturing rights and jigs, dies and tools was sold to India for manufacture there, and where developed versions continue to this day.
In 1949, Royal Enfields version of the now popular selling parallel twins appeared. This 500cc version was the forerunner of a range of Royal Enfield Meteors, 700cc Super Meteors and 700cc Constellations. Offering good performance at modest cost, these sold widely, if somewhat quietly in reputation. The 700cc Royal Enfield Constellation Twin has been described as the first Superbike.
The 250cc class was important in the UK as it was the largest engine which a ' learner ' could ride without passing a test. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Royal Enfield produced a number of 250 cc machines, including a racer, the ' GP ' and a Scrambler, the ' Moto - X ', which used a modified Crusader frame, leading link forks and a Villiers Starmaker engine. The Clipper was a base - model tourer with the biggest - seller being the Crusader, a 248 cc pushrod OHV single producing 18 bhp (13 kW).
In 1965, a 21 bhp (16 kW) variant called the Continental GT, with red GRP tank, five - speed gearbox (which was also an option on the Crusader), clip - on handlebars, rearset footrests, swept pipe and hump - backed seat was launched. It sold well with its race - styling including a fly - screen resembling a race number plate which doubled as a front number plate mount.
The Avon ' Speedflow ' full sports fairing was available as an extra in complementary factory colours of red and white.
Other variants were the Olympic and 250 Super 5, notable for use of leading - link front suspension (all the other 250 road models had conventional telescopic forks) and the 250 ' Turbo Twin ', fitted with the Villiers 247 cc twin cylinder two - stroke engine.
The Royal Enfield GP production - volume racer was first raced in the Manx Grand Prix in September, 1964. Developed in conjunction with Royal Enfield Racing Manager Geoff Duke the first public appearance was at Earls Court Show in November, 1964. Using a duplex - tube frame, leading link forks and one - piece tank and seat unit, the 250cc two - stroke single engine was similar to other small capacity race machines offered from rivals Greeves, Cotton, DMW and particularly Villiers, which provided the engines for these marques and many other manufacturers and bike - builders including the ' Starmaker ' competition engine used for the Scorpion racer and Sprite scrambler.
During the onslaught of the Japanese motorcycle manufacturers in the late sixties and early seventies, the English factories made a final attempt with the 692cc Interceptor in 1960 -- 1961 followed in 1962 -- 1968 by the 736cc Series I and Series II Interceptors. Made largely for the US market, it sported lots of chrome and strong performance, completing the quarter mile in less than 13 seconds at speeds well above 175 km / h (105 mph). It became very popular in the US, but the classic mistake of not being able to supply this demand added to the demise of this last English - made Royal Enfield.
The Redditch factory ceased production in 1967 and the Bradford - on - Avon factory closed in 1970, which meant the end of the British Royal Enfield. After the factory closed a little over two hundred Series II Interceptor engines were stranded at the dock in 1970. These engines had been on their way to Floyd Clymer in the US; but Clymer had just died and his export agents, Mitchell 's of Birmingham, were left to dispose of the engines. They approached the Rickman brothers for a frame. The main problem of the Rickman brothers had always been engine supplies, so a limited run of Rickman Interceptors were promptly built.
As far as the motorcycle brand goes, though, it would appear that Royal Enfield is the only motorcycle brand to span three centuries, and still going, with continuous production. A few of the original Redditch factory buildings remain (2009) and are part of the Enfield Industrial Estate.
From 1955 to 1959, Royal Enfields were painted red, and marketed in the USA as Indian Motorcycles by the Brockhouse Corporation, who had control of the Indian Sales Corporation (and therefore Indian Motorcycles) and had stopped manufacturing all American Indians in the Springfield factory in 1953. But Americans were not impressed by the badge engineering and the marketing agreement ended in 1960, and from 1961, Royal Enfields were available in the US under their own name. The largest Enfield ' Indian ' was a 700 cc twin named the Chief, like its American predecessors.
Royal Enfield motorcycles had been sold in India since 1949. In 1955, the Indian government looked for a suitable motorcycle for its police and army, for use patrolling the country 's border. The Bullet was chosen as the most suitable bike for the job. The Indian government ordered 800 350 - cc model Bullets, an enormous order for the time. In 1955, the Redditch company joined Madras Motors in India in forming "Enfield India '' to assemble, under licence, the 350 cc Royal Enfield Bullet motorcycle in Madras (now called Chennai). Under Indian law, Madras Motors owned the majority (over 50 %) of shares in the company. In 1957 tooling equipment was sold to Enfield India so that they could manufacture components.
Enfield of India continued producing the ' Bullet ' long after the UK factory 's bankruptcy, and changed its branding to ' Royal Enfield ' in 1999. The ' Royal Enfield ' name and rights had been purchased by Matt Holder of Aerco Jigs and Tools, at the bankruptcy sale in 1967. The business passed on to his son, David Holder, of the Velocette Motorcycle Company of Birmingham, UK. The Holder family has produced spares for Royal Enfield motorcycles continuously from 1967 through to the present, but did not trade under the Royal Enfield name. While David Holder objected to the use of ' Royal Enfield ' by Enfield of India, a UK court ruled in favour of the Indian company, who have now assumed the trademark, and produce motorcycles as Royal Enfield.
Royal Enfield India manufactures and sells in India, and also exports to Europe as well as the Americas, South Africa and Australia. They recently entered the Indonesian market. Recently Royal Enfield has undergone a major retooling particularly in the engine department going from carburated cast - iron engines to twin spark unit construction engines on all its models, with Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) available on their flagship 500 cc model. The major redesign has sparked such a demand for the bikes that Royal Enfield have started double shifts at their plants.
In August 2015, Royal Enfield Motors announced it is establishing its North American headquarters and a dealership in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with the intention to offer three bikes, the Bullet 500, Classic 500 and Continental GT 535 Cafe Racer as they feel this engine size represents an underserved market. The dealership will be Royal Enfield 's first company - owned store in the U.S., according to Rod Copes, president of Royal Enfield North America. The company wants to establish about 100 dealerships in American cities starting with Milwaukee.
"I live here, so I am biased. But in my mind, Milwaukee is kind of the center of motorcycling in the United States, '' said Copes, a former Harley - Davidson executive. "We view this as kind of our first flagship dealership, '' he added.
On November 9th, 2017 Royal Enfield revealed their new 650 twins, the Interceptor and Continental GT 650.
|
who plays victoria in the darling buds of may | The Darling Buds of May (TV series) - wikipedia
The Darling Buds of May is a British comedy drama television series, produced by Yorkshire Television for the ITV network, first broadcast between 7 April 1991 and 4 April 1993. It is an adaptation of the 1958 novel of the same name, and its sequels, by H.E. Bates.
Set in rural 1950s Kent, it follows the life of the Larkin family. It starred David Jason as "Pop '' Larkin alongside Pam Ferris as "Ma '' Larkin, with Catherine Zeta - Jones playing their eldest daughter Mariette, who marries tax inspector Philip Franks as Cedric "Charlie '' Charlton. A ratings success, it proved to be Zeta - Jones ' breakout role.
Featuring a total of 20 episodes, it was broadcast as three series of six double - episode story lines in the spring of 1991, 1992 and 1993, plus two single episode Christmas specials aired in 1991 and 1992.
The title is from the third line of Shakespeare 's sonnet 18.
The Larkin family lives on a farm in rural England, in the county of Kent. Sidney ("Pop '') and his partner Florence ("Ma '') have six children, eldest daughter Mariette, followed by their only son Montgomery, and other daughters Primrose, twins Zinnia and Petunia, and Victoria. Ma is a housewife while Pop supplements his farm income with various other not entirely legitimate enterprises. Tax collector Cedric ("Charlie '') visits to audit Pop, but falls in love with Mariette and quits his job to live the rural life. As Ma and Pop raise their other children, Charlie attempts to provide for his now wife Mariette. Ma and Pop soon have a seventh child, Oscar, followed around a year later by Charlie and Mariette 's first baby, John Blenheim.
Pop and Ma 's relationship is depicted as loving and affectionate throughout, although Pop is flirtatious and subject to numerous advances, most of which Ma is aware of and evidently unconcerned by. Proud of all his children, Pop 's schemes evidently provide well for the family, enough to fund boarding school for the twins, naval boarding school for Monty, a swimming pool, a fairground, and a holiday to France, although he is just as motivated by doing good and helping others as making a profit. Ma occasionally becomes involved in Pop 's schemes, or creates a scheme of her own. Possessing some very close friends, their lifestyle, in particular the fact they have never been married, nonetheless raises eyebrows in the stuffy environs of the local village.
Mariette and Charlie 's relationship is more torrid, in part due to his insecurity over her attractiveness, and his varying success in providing financially, with their newly acquired hop garden struggling. Mariette 's business skills eventual come to bear as they purchase a local brewery. Primrose is depicted as a frustrated romantic, moving to France to live with a boy her own age and attempting to seduce both Charlie and the village minister upon her return. Monty meanwhile contends with bullying, both at home and at naval boarding school. The increasingly mischievous twins gradually grow apart from their younger sibling Victoria, who delights in teasing and embarrassing all her siblings, especially Primrose.
All the episodes are seemingly set during 1958 -- 59 despite the timespan of events across all three series making this a logical impossibility. The first serial is based on the first book, written and set in 1958, during which Florence finds out she is pregnant. In the second serial ("When the green woods laugh '') Sidney is accused of committing indecent assault on 23 August 1958. The trial takes place on 7 July, the same day as Charlie 's and Mariette 's wedding; this would seem to be a continuity error because it can not be July of the following year as Florence 's baby had not yet been born. By the time of the third serial ("A breath of French air '') Florence has already given birth to Oscar and the Larkins have a late August holiday in Brittany, during which Charlie and Mariette celebrate their first wedding anniversary. The fourth serial ("Christmas is coming '') is set at Christmas and it is established Mariette is five months pregnant; she gives birth in the fifth serial ("Oh! to be in England! ''), which would be some time in the spring of 1960 at the earliest according to the dating of the first series and the chronology of events up to that point. However, in the sixth serial ("Stranger at the gates '') the twins celebrate their birthday, which a close - up of a wall calendar reveals to be 15 August 1959.
In the eighth serial ("Le Grand Weekend '') the Larkins ' weekend getaway coincides with Charles de Gaulle 's state visit, which would date the events of the episode to April 1960 if it does indeed coincide with the real - life visit. Primrose 's birthday was revealed to be in May in "Stranger at the gates '' and she celebrates it in the ninth serial "The happiest days of your life '', dating the events either to May 1960 (using the retconned second series date) or 1961 (going by the date given in the first series). By the eleventh serial ("Climb the greasy pole ''), when the children are older and the babies have grown to toddlerhood, another close - up of a calendar reveals the month to be October 1959. At the end of the final episode, Sidney is elected to the Rural District Council on 5 November 1959 (Guy Fawkes Night).
Of the four main cast members, Jason and Ferris appeared in all twenty episodes, while Zeta - Jones and Franks appeared in eighteen, their only absences being in the third series double episode "Cast Not Your Pearls Before Swine '' (3.3 & 3.4).
The actors playing the other Larkin children and grandchild were as below (listed in descending character age). All the children except those yet to be born appeared in the first episode. After appearing in the first six episodes, the actor playing Primrose was replaced, the second appearing from the seventh episode (the first Christmas special) onwards. The actors playing the roles of Oscar and John Blenheim first appear in episodes 1.5 and 2.1 respectively. Although a male character, John Blenheim was played by Daisy - May Bates, granddaughter of the author of the books.
Various other actors appeared in more than one story - line, i.e. in more than one double - episode.
Having been sold to MGM films in 1959, it was n't until 1989 that Richard Bates, son of the author of the original books H.E Bates, was able to purchase the rights to the novels. At the same time, Yorkshire Television were looking for a new project for David Jason, having starred for them in A Bit of a Do. Richard Bates went on to Executive Produce the show, alongside Vernon Lawrence of Yorkshire Television.
Bates had originally considered Bob Hoskins as ideal for the role of Pop, but Lawrence was of the view his increasing fame as a film actor would create problems. Jason was cast first, followed by Ferris and Franks. Finding an actor to fit with the novel 's description of Mariette as a black - haired and olive skinned beauty proved difficult, with over 300 rejected until Zeta - Jones was cast. With filming due to start, she had been spotted appearing in 42nd Street at the Drury Lane Theatre.
Each one - hour episode took two weeks to film, followed by two months in post production.
Much of the series was filmed in and around the village of Pluckley in Kent; Executive Producer Richard Bates lived just a few miles away.
The location for "Home Farm '', the Larkin residence, was Buss Farm a few miles south of Pluckley, owned by the Holmes family. All four main buildings of the Grade II listed farm were utilised, the farmhouse itself, a square oast house (depicted in the title sequence), a Tudor barn and cart lodge. After being put up for sale by the family in 2012, it was purchased in 2013 by a businessman. Renaming it "Darling Buds Farm '', several buildings were converted into guest accommodation themed around the show.
Other locations in Pluckley village itself were used extensively; the Black Horse pub in The Street was renamed the Hare and Hounds and used as the Larkins ' local. Church Gate Cottage and Fig Tree Cottage in The Street served as Edith Pilchester 's and The Brigadier 's homes respectively. Pluckley primary school, also in The Street, served as the village hall. The butcher 's shop also featured, and the Post Office (dressed as the grocer 's). Church scenes were filmed at St Nicholas Church in the village.
The cricket scenes were filmed at Little Chart Cricket Club, a village north east of Pluckley.
Further afield, in and around Tenterden, Kent, Halden Place in Halden Lane, Cranbrook, served as Mrs Kinthley 's hop garden, Wentwood Cottage in Swain Road served as Charley and Mariette 's cottage, and the Kent & East Sussex Railway was the location of Charley 's arrival in Kent, and the station used by Ma, Charley and Mariette shopping for her wedding dress. Other scenes shot in Kent included the exteriors of "Bristow 's Brewery '', filmed at Shepherd Neame Brewery in Faversham, and scenes of the Larkin 's beach holiday, filmed in Folkestone, including a backdrop of the Leas Lift. Mlle. Dupont is met by the Larkin 's at Folkestone Harbour after her channel crossing.
Little filming was done inside the farmhouse, the interiors having been shot in a studio at Yorkshire Television. Scenes shot in the former Wennington School near Wetherby in Yorkshire which stood in for Bluff Hall were included. Other filming locations in Yorkshire include the Hotel Metropole in Leeds which stood in for the ' Marble Arch Hotel '.
To mark the series ' 20th anniversary, Kent County Council established a tourist trail featuring the various film locations and other local attractions and Kent food.
The series ' music producer Pip Burley wrote the title theme, "Perfick! ''. He had submitted the piece anonymously, having deemed the submissions received from a shortlist of composers missed the point of the essential romanticism of the show. Although it also featured lyrics, drawn from the words used in the novels, the theme music for the series did not feature them. The song with lyrics was later sung by David Jason for the radio adaptation of the last book in the Larkin series, A Little of What You Fancy.
After the series ended, Ferris wished to film more episodes. Having performed it for radio in 1996, she theorised in 2008 that the reason the fifth book was never adapted for television was because the storyline featured Pop recovering from a heart attack, something the producers likely thought the audience would not want to see.
In 2016, having filmed a cinema adaptation of another classic TV series, Dad 's Army, Zeta - Jones responded positively to suggestions that The Darling Buds of May might also be similarly remade, stating "I 'd be playing Ma Larkin, but I 'm up for it ''.
Locally produced food and drink intentionally played a core role in the series. Due to not being ripe at the right time, the strawberries used in the series were imported from Holland. One of the most iconic scenes features Pop and Ma eating a meal together whilst having a bath. With several scenes featuring eating, the fact Ferris was a vegetarian had to be worked around by the production staff. Both Ferris and Jason gained weight due to the amount of food they had to consume, often doing multiple takes for several scenes at one time, to make the scenes look realistic.
Another theme of the series was the Larkin family 's habit of giving their children unusual or themed first and middle names. Mariette was created by combining ' Marie ' and ' Antoinette '. Montgomery was named after wartime officer Field Marshall Montgomery. Victoria was named for being born during the plum season (Victoria plum). While Monty and Victoria have no middle names, the other children have several: Primrose Violet Anemone Iris Magnolia Narcissa, twins Petunia June Florence Nightingale and Zinnia June Florence Nightingale, and Oscar Columbus Septimus Dupont, the last one being in tribute to the French hotellier Madamoiselle Dupont, who features in the series. Mariette 's wedding ceremony in series one reveals her middle name to be Jane. Mariette and Charlie continue the family penchant for elaborate naming by christening their son John Marlborough Churchill Blenheim.
The first episode was transmitted on the ITV channel at 8pm on a Sunday night.
When the series was first released on video, it sold £ 1m worth of copies in the first four days.
DVD releases:
Note: The 2008 and 2011 DVD sets from ITV Studios list that there are 11 episodes; this is due to the fact that all episodes in series 1 - 3 (not including the specials) contain two parts making them count as a whole.
A 16 track soundtrack of the series was released by EMI on CD in 1991.
The series was a ratings success, its "feel - good '' factor during economic recession often noted as the reason. Whilst Yorkshire TV classified it as a drama, audiences and critics have generally considered it to be a comedy / drama.
The first episode broke a British broadcasting record, becoming the first instance of a new series topping the national ratings, beating the soap opera Coronation Street (also an ITV production) on the night. This came as a shock to producers, although they had been hopeful of good ratings due to dull weather and the belief that people would be looking for something to lift their spirits following the end of the Gulf War.
Jason attributed the series ' popularity to the public wanting a more wholesome, inclusive and inoffensive viewing option at a time when violence on television was increasing. This was one of the main reasons he decided to take the role.
The series generated an upsurge in sales of H.E. Bates ' novels.
The series is based on the works of H.E. Bates, who died in 1974. Having moved from the industrialised English Midlands to a granary in Little Chart in Kent in 1930 in search of new inspirations for his work, he was initially frustrated in his efforts to create a novel based on the Kent way of life. His inspiration for the Larkin stories eventually came in 1955 while on a trip to Sittingbourne. Pausing at Faversham, he observed the joyful camaraderie of a large boisterous family as they emerged from a shop and departed in a large blue truck. Combining this with observations of another family on a nearby small - holding, he set about writing about how these families might live. Originally a short story, he expanded it into a novel, followed by a further four books, the titles of the first four of which were used as episode titles for the TV series:
The first novel in the series was originally adapted to the screen in 1959 as The Mating Game, starring Debbie Reynolds and Tony Randall as Mariette and Charley.
The fifth novel, A Little of What You Fancy?, was never adapted for television, but it was adapted into a six - part series by Eric Pringle for BBC Radio, with Jason and Ferris reprising their roles, first airing in February 1996.
In May 2011 a stage production of the series was put on at Buss Farm.
|
when did the ravens last win a superbowl | Baltimore Ravens - Wikipedia
National Football League (1996 -- present)
Black, Purple, Metallic Gold
League championships (2)
Conference championships (2)
Division championships (4)
The Baltimore Ravens are a professional American football team based in Baltimore, Maryland. The Ravens compete in the AFC North division of the National Football League. The team plays its home games at M&T Bank Stadium and is headquartered in Owings Mills.
The Ravens were established in 1996, when Art Modell, who was then the owner of the Cleveland Browns, announced plans to relocate the franchise from Cleveland to Baltimore. As part of a settlement between the league and the city of Cleveland, Modell was required to leave the Browns ' history and records in Cleveland for a replacement team and replacement personnel that would take control in 1999. In return, he was allowed to take his own personnel and team to Baltimore, where such personnel would then form an expansion team.
The Ravens have been one of the more successful franchises since their inception, having qualified for the NFL playoffs ten times since 2000, with two Super Bowl victories (Super Bowl XXXV and Super Bowl XLVII), two AFC Championship titles (2000 and 2012), 15 playoff victories, four AFC Championship game appearances (2000, 2008, 2011 and 2012), four AFC North division titles (2003, 2006, 2011 and 2012), and are currently the only team in the NFL to hold a perfect record in multiple Super Bowl and Thanksgiving Day appearances. The Ravens organization has been led by general manager Ozzie Newsome since 1996, and has had three head coaches: Ted Marchibroda, Brian Billick, and John Harbaugh. With a record - breaking defensive unit in their 2000 season, the team established a reputation for relying on strong defensive play, led by players like middle linebacker Ray Lewis, who, until his retirement, was considered the "face of the franchise. '' The team is owned by Steve Bisciotti and valued at $1.5 billion, making the Ravens the 24th-most valuable sports franchise in the world.
The name "Ravens '' was inspired by Edgar Allan Poe 's poem The Raven. Chosen in a fan contest that drew 33,288 voters, the allusion honors Poe, who spent the early part of his career in Baltimore and is buried there. As the Baltimore Sun reported at the time, fans also "liked the tie - in with the other birds in town, the Orioles, and found it easy to visualize a tough, menacing black bird. ''
After the controversial relocation of the Colts to Indianapolis, several attempts were made to bring an NFL team back to Baltimore. In 1993, ahead of the 1995 league expansion, the city was considered a favorite, behind only St. Louis, to be granted one of two new franchises. League officials and team owners feared litigation due to conflicts between rival bidding groups if St. Louis was awarded a franchise, and in October Charlotte, North Carolina was the first city chosen. Several weeks later, Baltimore 's bid for a franchise -- dubbed the Baltimore Bombers, in honor of the locally produced Martin B - 26 Marauder bomber -- had three ownership groups in place and a state financial package which included a proposed $200 million, rent - free stadium and permission to charge up to $80 million in personal seat license fees. Baltimore, however, was unexpectedly passed over in favor of Jacksonville, Florida, despite Jacksonville 's minor TV market status and that the city had withdrawn from contention in the summer, only to return with then - Commissioner Paul Tagliabue 's urging. Although league officials denied that any city had been favored, it was reported that Taglibue and his longtime friend Washington Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke had lobbied against Baltimore due to its proximity to Washington, D.C., and that Taglibue had used the initial committee voting system to prevent the entire league ownership from voting on Baltimore 's bid. This led to public outrage and the Baltimore Sun describing Taglibue as having an "Anybody But Baltimore '' policy. Maryland governor William Donald Schaefer said afterward that Taglibue had led him on, praising Baltimore and the proposed owners while working behind - the - scenes to oppose Baltimore 's bid.
By May 1994, Baltimore Orioles owner Peter Angelos had gathered a new group of investors, including author Tom Clancy, to bid on teams whose owners had expressed interest in relocating. Angelos found a potential partner in Georgia Frontiere, who was open to moving the Los Angeles Rams to Baltimore. Jack Kent Cooke opposed the move, intending to build the Redskins ' new stadium in Laurel, Maryland, close enough to Baltimore to cool outside interest in bringing in a new franchise. This led to heated arguments between Cooke and Angelos, who accused Cooke of being a "carpetbagger. '' The league eventually persuaded Rams team president John Shaw to relocate to St. Louis instead, leading to a league - wide rumor that Tagliabue was again steering interest away from Baltimore, a claim which Tagliabue denied. In response to anger in Baltimore, including Governor Schaefer 's threat to announce over the loudspeakers Tagliabue 's exact location in Camden Yards any time he attended a Baltimore Orioles game, Tagliabue remarked of Baltimore 's financial package: "Maybe (Baltimore) can open another museum with that money. '' Following this, Angelos made an unsuccessful $200 million bid to bring the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to Baltimore.
Having failed to obtain a franchise via the expansion, the city, despite having "misgivings, '' turned to the possibility of obtaining the Cleveland Browns, whose owner Art Modell was financially struggling and at odds with the city of Cleveland over needed improvements to the team 's stadium.
Enticed by Baltimore 's available funds for a first - class stadium and a promised yearly operating subsidy of $25 million dollars, Modell announced on November 6, 1995 his intention to relocate the team from Cleveland to Baltimore the following year. The resulting controversy ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on February 8, 1996. Tagliabue promised the city of Cleveland that an NFL team would be located in Cleveland, either through relocation or expansion, "no later than 1999 ''. Additionally, the agreement stipulated that the Browns ' name, colors, uniform design and franchise records would remain in Cleveland. The franchise history includes Browns club records and connections with Pro Football Hall of Fame players. Modell 's Baltimore team, while retaining all current player contracts, would, for purposes of team history, appear as an expansion team, a new franchise. Not all players, staff or front office would make the move to Baltimore, however.
After relocation, Modell hired Ted Marchibroda as the head coach for his new team in Baltimore. Marchibroda was already well known because of his work as head coach of the Baltimore Colts during the 1970s and the Indianapolis Colts during the early 1990s. Ozzie Newsome, the Browns ' tight end for many seasons, joined Modell in Baltimore as director of football operations. He was later promoted to vice-president / general manager.
The home stadium for the Ravens first two seasons was Baltimore 's Memorial Stadium, home field of the Baltimore Colts and Baltimore Stallions years before. The Ravens moved to their own new stadium next to Camden Yards in 1998. Raven Stadium would subsequently wear the names PSI Net Stadium and then M&T Bank Stadium.
In the 1996 NFL Draft, the Ravens, with two picks in the first round, drafted offensive tackle Jonathan Ogden at No. 4 overall and linebacker Ray Lewis at No. 26 overall.
The 1996 Ravens won their opening game against the Oakland Raiders, but finished the season 4 -- 12 despite receiver Michael Jackson leading the league with 14 touchdown catches.
The 1997 Ravens started 3 -- 1. Peter Boulware, a rookie defender from Florida State, recorded 11.5 sacks and was named AFC Defensive Rookie of the Year. The team finished 6 -- 9 -- 1. On October 26, the team made its first trip to Landover, Maryland to play their new regional rivals, the Washington Redskins, for the first time in the regular season, at the new Jack Kent Cooke Stadium (replacing the still - standing RFK Stadium in Washington, DC). The Ravens won the game 20 -- 17.
Quarterback Vinny Testaverde left for the New York Jets before the 1998 season, and was replaced by former Indianapolis Colt Jim Harbaugh, and later Eric Zeier. Cornerback Rod Woodson joined the team after a successful stint with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and Priest Holmes started getting the first playing time of his career and ran for 1,000 yards.
The Ravens finished 1998 with a 6 -- 10 record. On November 29, the Ravens welcomed the Colts back to Baltimore for the first time in 15 years. Amidst a shower of negative cheers towards the Colts, the Ravens, with Jim Harbaugh at quarterback, won 38 -- 31.
Three consecutive losing seasons under Marchibroda led to a change in the head coach. Brian Billick took over as head coach in 1999. Billick had been offensive coordinator for the record - setting Minnesota Vikings the season before. Quarterback Tony Banks came to Baltimore from the St. Louis Rams and had the best season of his career with 17 touchdown passes and an 81.2 pass rating. He was joined by receiver Qadry Ismail, who posted a 1,000 - yard season. The Ravens initially struggled with a record of 4 -- 7 but managed to finish with an 8 -- 8 record.
Due to continual financial hardships for the organization, the NFL took an unusual move and directed Modell to initiate the sale of his franchise. On March 27, 2000, NFL owners approved the sale of 49 % of the Ravens to Steve Bisciotti. In the deal, Bisciotti had an option to purchase the remaining 51 % for $325 million in 2004 from Art Modell. On April 9, 2004 the NFL approved Steve Bisciotti 's purchase of the majority stake in the club.
Banks shared playing time in the 2000 regular season with Trent Dilfer. Both players put up decent numbers (and a 1,364 - yard rushing season by rookie Jamal Lewis helped too) but the defense became the team 's hallmark and bailed a struggling offense out in many instances through the season. Ray Lewis was named Defensive Player of the Year. Two of his defensive teammates, Sam Adams and Rod Woodson, made the Pro Bowl. Baltimore 's season started strong with a 5 -- 1 record. But the team struggled through mid-season, at one point going five games without scoring an offensive touchdown. The team regrouped and won each of their last seven games, finishing 12 -- 4 and making the playoffs for the first time.
During the 2000 season, the Ravens defense broke two notable NFL records. They held opposing teams to 165 total points, surpassing the 1985 Chicago Bears mark of 198 points for a 16 - game season as well as surpassing the 1986 Chicago Bears mark of 187 points for a 16 - game season, which at that time was the current NFL record.
Since the divisional rival Tennessee Titans had a record of 13 -- 3, the Ravens had to play in the wild card round. They dominated the Denver Broncos 21 -- 3 in their first game. In the divisional playoff, they went on the road to Tennessee. With the score tied 10 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, an Al Del Greco field goal attempt was blocked and returned for a touchdown by Anthony Mitchell, and a Ray Lewis interception return for a score put the game squarely in Baltimore 's favor. The 24 -- 10 win put the Ravens in the AFC Championship against the Oakland Raiders. The game was rarely in doubt. Shannon Sharpe 's 96 - yard touchdown catch early in the second quarter followed by an injury to Raiders quarterback Rich Gannon were crucial as the Ravens won easily, 16 -- 3.
Baltimore then went to Tampa for Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants. The game was also dominated by the Ravens. They recorded four sacks and forced five turnovers, one of which was a Kerry Collins interception returned for a touchdown by Duane Starks. The Giants ' only score was a Ron Dixon kickoff return for another touchdown; however, the Ravens immediately countered with a return by Jermaine Lewis. The Ravens became champions with a 34 -- 7 win, becoming only the third wild card team to win a Super Bowl championship.
In 2001, the Ravens attempted to defend their title with Elvis Grbac as their new starting quarterback, but a season - ending injury to Jamal Lewis on the first day of training camp and poor offensive performances stymied the team. After a 3 -- 3 start, the Ravens defeated the Minnesota Vikings in the final week to clinch a wild card berth at 10 -- 6. In the first round the Ravens showed flashes of their previous year with a 20 -- 3 win over the Miami Dolphins, in which the team forced three turnovers and out - gained the Dolphins 347 yards to 151. In the divisional playoff the Ravens played the Pittsburgh Steelers. Three interceptions by Grbac ended the Ravens ' season, as they lost 27 -- 10.
Baltimore ran into salary cap problems entering the 2002 season and was forced to part with a number of impact players. In the NFL Draft, the team selected Ed Reed with the 24th overall pick. Reed would go on to become one of the best safeties in NFL history, making nine Pro Bowls until leaving the Ravens for the Houston Texans in 2013. Despite low expectations, the Ravens stayed somewhat competitive in 2002 until a losing streak in December eliminated any chances of a post-season berth. Their final record that year was 7 -- 9.
In 2003, the Ravens drafted their new quarterback, Kyle Boller, but he was injured midway through the season and was replaced by Anthony Wright. Jamal Lewis ran for 2,066 yards (including a record 295 yards in one game against the Cleveland Browns on September 14). With a 10 -- 6 record, Baltimore won their first AFC North division title. Their first playoff game, at home against the Tennessee Titans, went back and forth, with the Ravens being held to only 54 yards total rushing. The Titans won 20 -- 17 on a late field goal, and Baltimore 's season ended early.
Ray Lewis was also named Defensive Player of the year for the second time in his career.
In April 2003, Art Modell sold 49 % of the team to Steve Bisciotti, a local businessman who had made his fortune in the temporary staffing field. After the season, Art Modell sold his remaining 51 % ownership to Bisciotti, ending over 40 years of tenure as an NFL franchise owner.
The Ravens did not make the playoffs in 2004 and finished the season with a record of 9 -- 7 with Kyle Boller spending the season at QB. They did get good play from veteran corner Deion Sanders and third year safety Ed Reed, who won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year award. They were also the only team to defeat the 15 -- 1 Pittsburgh Steelers in the regular season.
In the 2005 offseason the Ravens looked to augment their receiving corps (which was second - worst in the NFL in 2004) by signing Derrick Mason from the Titans and drafting star Oklahoma wide receiver Mark Clayton in the first round of the 2005 NFL Draft. However, the Ravens ended their season 6 -- 10, but defeated the Green Bay Packers 48 -- 3 on Monday Night Football and the Super Bowl champion Steelers.
The 2006 Baltimore Ravens season began with the team trying to improve on their 6 -- 10 record of 2005. The Ravens, for the first time in franchise history, started 4 -- 0, under the leadership of former Titans quarterback Steve McNair.
The Ravens lost two straight games mid-season on offensive troubles, prompting coach Billick to drop their offensive coordinator Jim Fassel in their week seven bye. After the bye, and with Billick calling the offense, Baltimore would record a five - game win streak before losing to the Cincinnati Bengals in week 13.
Still ranked second overall to first - place San Diego Chargers, the Ravens continued on. They defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, and held the defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers to only one touchdown at Heinz Field, allowing the Ravens to clinch the AFC North.
The Ravens ended the regular season with a franchise - best 13 -- 3 record. Baltimore had secured the AFC North title, the No. 2 AFC playoff seed, and clinched a 1st - round bye by season 's end. The Ravens were slated to face the Indianapolis Colts in the second round of the playoffs, in the first meeting of the two teams in the playoffs. Many Baltimore and Indianapolis fans saw this historic meeting as a sort of "Judgment Day '' with the new team of Baltimore facing the old team of Baltimore (the former Baltimore Colts having left Baltimore under questionable circumstances in 1984). Both Indianapolis and Baltimore were held to scoring only field goals as the two defenses slugged it out all over M&T Bank Stadium. McNair threw two costly interceptions, including one at the 1 - yard line. The eventual Super Bowl champion Colts won 15 -- 6, ending Baltimore 's season.
After a stellar 2006 season, the Ravens hoped to improve upon their 13 -- 3 record but injuries and poor play plagued the team. The Ravens finished the 2007 season in the AFC North cellar with a disappointing 5 -- 11 record. A humiliating 22 -- 16 overtime loss to the previously winless Miami Dolphins on December 16 ultimately led to Billick 's dismissal on New Year 's Eve, one day after the end of the regular season. He was replaced by John Harbaugh, the special teams coach of the Philadelphia Eagles and the older brother of former Ravens quarterback Jim Harbaugh (1998).
With rookies at head coach (John Harbaugh) and quarterback (Joe Flacco), the Ravens entered the 2008 campaign with lots of uncertainty. Baltimore smartly recovered in 2008, winning eleven games and achieving a wild card spot in the postseason. On the strength of four interceptions, one resulting in an Ed Reed touchdown, the Ravens began its postseason run by winning a rematch over Miami 27 -- 9 at Dolphin Stadium on January 4, 2009 in a wild - card game. Six days later, they advanced to the AFC Championship Game by avenging a Week 5 loss to the Titans 13 -- 10 at LP Field on a Matt Stover field goal with 53 seconds left in regulation time. The Ravens fell one victory short of Super Bowl XLIII by losing to the Steelers 23 -- 14 at Heinz Field on January 18, 2009.
In 2009, the Ravens won their first three matches, then lost the next three, including a close match in Minnesota. The rest of the season was an uneven string of wins and losses, which included a home victory over Pittsburgh in overtime followed by a Monday Night loss in Green Bay. That game was notable for the huge number of penalties committed, costing a total of 310 yards, and almost tying with the record set by Tampa Bay and Seattle in 1976. Afterwards, the Ravens easily crushed the Lions and Bears, giving up less than ten points in both games. The next match was against the Steelers, where Baltimore lost a close one before beating the Raiders to end the season. With a record of 9 -- 7, the team finished second in the division and gained another wild card. Moving into the playoffs, they overwhelmed the Patriots; nevertheless they did not reach the AFC Championship because they were routed 20 -- 3 by the Colts in the divisional round a week later.
Baltimore managed to beat the Jets 10 -- 9 on the 2010 opener, but then lost a poorly - played game against Cincinnati the following week. The Ravens rebounded against the other two division teams, beating Cleveland 24 -- 17 in Week 3 and then Pittsburgh 17 -- 14 in Week 4. The Ravens scored a fine win (31 -- 17) at home against Denver in Week 5. After an overtime loss to New England, they narrowly avoided losing at home to the winless Bills. Next, the Ravens hosted Miami and won 26 -- 10, breaking that team 's 4 -- 0 road streak. On Thursday Night, the team headed to Atlanta and lost 26 -- 21 in a game that had some criticizing the officiating. The Ravens finished the season 12 -- 4, second in the division due to a tiebreaker with Pittsburgh, and earning a wild card spot. Baltimore headed to Kansas City and crushed the unprepared Chiefs 34 -- 7, but once again were knocked from the playoffs by Pittsburgh in a hard - fought battle.
The Ravens hosted their arch - enemy in Week 1 of the 2011 season. On a hot, humid day in M&T Bank Stadium, crowd noise and multiple Steelers mistakes allowed Baltimore to crush them with three touchdowns 35 -- 7. The frustrated Pittsburgh players also committed several costly penalties. Thus, the Ravens had gained their first ever victory over the Steelers with Ben Roethlisberger playing and avenged themselves of repeated regular and postseason losses in the series.
But in Week 2, the Ravens collapsed in Tennessee and lost 26 -- 13. They rebounded by routing the Rams in Week 3 and then overpowering the Jets 34 -- 17 in Week 4. Week 5, the Ravens had a bye week, following a game against the Texans. But in Week 7, Baltimore had a stunning MNF upset loss in Jacksonville as they were held to one touchdown in a 12 -- 7 loss. Their final scoring drive failed as Joe Flacco threw an interception in the closing seconds of the game.
After beating the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 17 of the regular season, the Ravens advanced to the playoffs as the Number 2 seed in the AFC with a record of 12 - 4. They gained the distinction of AFC North Champions over Pittsburgh (12 - 4) due to a tie breaker.
Ravens ' Lee Evans was stripped of a 14 - yard touchdown pass by the Patriots Sterling Moore with 22 seconds left and Ravens kicker Billy Cundiff pushed a 32 - yard field goal attempt wide left on fourth down as the Patriots held on to beat the Ravens 23 - 20 during the AFC championship game and advance to Super Bowl XLVI.
The Ravens ' attempt to convert Joe Flacco into a pocket passer remained a work in progress as the 2012 season began. Terrell Suggs suffered a tendon injury during an off - season basketball game and was unable to play for at least several weeks. In the opener on September 10, Baltimore routed Cincinnati 44 - 13. After this easy win, the team headed to Philadelphia. The Eagles had struggled during their Week 1 match in Cleveland and were not expected to win, but a bizarre game ensued thanks to the NFL facing another lockout mess, this one involving the league 's referees, who were replaced by ex-college officials. The replacement officials were widely criticized throughout the league. This game featured multiple questionable calls that went against the Ravens, perhaps costing them the game 24 - 23.
Returning home for a primetime rematch of the AFC Championship, another bizarre game ensued. New England picked apart the Baltimore defense (which was considerably weakened without Terrell Suggs and some other players lost over the off - season) for the first half. Trouble began early in the game when a streaker ran out onto the field and had to be tackled by security, and accelerated when, at 2: 18 in the 4th quarter, the referees made a holding call on RG Marshal Yanda. Enraged fans repeatedly chanted an obscenity at this penalty. The Ravens finally drove downfield and on the last play of the game, Justin Tucker kicked a 27 - yard field goal to win the game 31 - 30, capping off a second intense and controversially - officiated game in a row for the Ravens.
The Ravens would win the AFC North with a 10 - 6 record, but finished 4th in the AFC playoff seeding, and thus had to play a wild - card game. After defeating the Indianapolis Colts 24 - 9 at home (the final home game of Ray Lewis), the Ravens traveled to Denver to play against the top seeded Broncos. In a very back - and - forth contest, the Ravens pulled out a 38 - 35 victory in double overtime. They then won their 2nd AFC championship by coming back from a 13 - 7 halftime deficit to defeat the New England Patriots once again, 28 - 13.
The Ravens played the Super Bowl XLVII on February 3, 2013, against the San Francisco 49ers. Baltimore built a 28 -- 6 lead early in the third quarter before a partial power outage in the Superdome suspended play for 34 minutes (earning the game the added nickname of the Blackout Bowl). After play resumed, San Francisco scored 17 unanswered third - quarter points to cut the Ravens ' lead, 28 -- 23, and continued to chip away in the fourth quarter. With the Ravens leading late in the game, 34 -- 29, the 49ers advanced to the Baltimore 7 - yard line just before the two - minute warning but turned the ball over on downs. The Ravens then took an intentional safety in the waning moments of the game to preserve the victory. Baltimore quarterback Joe Flacco, who completed 22 of 33 passes for 287 yards and three touchdowns, was named Super Bowl MVP.
Coming off as the defending Super Bowl champions, this was the first year in franchise history for the team without Ray Lewis. The Ravens started out 3 - 2, and started the 2 - 0 Houston Texans 14 - loss streak by shutting them 30 - 9 in Week 3. However, the Ravens lost their next 3 games, losing to the Green Bay Packers and Pittsburgh Steelers in last - minute field goals and were shut out in an attempt to tie the game against the Cleveland Browns 18 - 24.
After winning and losing their next game, the Baltimore Ravens came out 4 - 6, but managed winning their next four games in dominating the Jets 19 - 3 in Baltimore, a Steelers win 20 - 22 during Thanksgiving, a booming ending in Baltimore against the Vikings 29 - 26, and a 18 - 16 win at Detroit, including Justin Tucker 's 61 - yard game - winning field goal. The Ravens were 8 - 6, with the 6th seed, but after losing their next two games, and the San Diego Chargers winning their next two to clinch the 6th seed, the Ravens finished 8 - 8 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2007.
On January 27, 2014, the Ravens hired former Houston Texans head coach Gary Kubiak to be their new offensive coordinator after Jim Caldwell accepted the new available head coaching job with the Detroit Lions. On February 15, 2014, star running back Ray Rice and his fiancée Janay Palmer were arrested and charged with assault after a physical altercation at Revel Casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Celebrity news website TMZ posted a video of Rice dragging Palmer 's body out of an elevator after apparently knocking her out. For the incident, Rice was initially suspended for the first two games of the 2014 NFL season on July 25, 2014, which led to widespread criticism of the NFL.
In Week 1, on September 7, the Baltimore Ravens lost to the Cincinnati Bengals, 23 - 16. The next day, on September 8, 2014, TMZ released additional footage from an elevator camera showing Rice punching Palmer. The Baltimore Ravens terminated Rice 's contract as a result, and was later indefinitely suspended by the NFL. Although starting out 0 - 1 for two straight seasons and having received unwanted media attention for the Ray Rice incident, on September 11, 2014, the Ravens rallied back and beat the Pittsburgh Steelers 26 - 6, to improve to 1 - 1. In Week 12, the Ravens traveled down for an interconference battle with the New Orleans Saints, which the Ravens won 34 - 27, reaching a 4 - 0 sweep of the NFC south. In Week 16, the Ravens traveled to Houston to take on the Texans. In one of Joe Flacco 's worst performances, the offense sputtered against the Houston defense and Flacco threw three interceptions, falling to the Texans 25 - 13. With their playoff chances and season hanging in the balance, the Ravens took on the Browns in Week 17 at home. After three quarters had gone by and down 10 - 3, Joe Flacco led the Ravens on a comeback scoring 17 unanswered points, winning 20 - 10. With the win, and the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the San Diego Chargers, the Ravens clinched their sixth playoff berth in seven seasons, and the first since winning Super Bowl XLVII.
In the wildcard playoff game, the Ravens won 30 - 17 against their divisional rivals, the Pittsburgh Steelers, at Heinz Field. In the next game in the Divisional round, the Ravens faced the New England Patriots. Despite a strong offensive effort and having a 14 - point lead twice in the game, the Ravens were defeated by the Patriots 35 - 31, ending their season.
The 2015 season marked 20 seasons of the franchise 's existence, competing in the NFL which the franchise have recognized with a special badge being worn on their uniforms during the 2015 NFL season. After coming up just short against the Patriots in the playoffs, the Ravens were picked by some to win the AFC and even the Super Bowl. However, they lost key players such as Joe Flacco, Justin Forsett, Terrell Suggs, Steve Smith Sr., and Eugene Monroe to season - ending injuries. Injuries and their inability to win close games early in the season led to the first losing season in the John Harbaugh - Flacco era.
The 2016 Ravens improved on their 5 -- 11 record from 2015, finishing 8 -- 8, but failed to qualify the playoffs for the second straight year. They were eliminated from playoff contention after their Week 16 loss to their division rivals, the Steelers. This was the first time the Ravens missed the playoffs in consecutive seasons since 2004 -- 2005, as well as the first in the Harbaugh / Flacco era.
By far the team 's biggest rival is the Pittsburgh Steelers. Pittsburgh and Baltimore are separated by a less - than - 5 - hour drive along Interstate 70. Both teams are known for their hard - hitting physical style of play. They play twice a year in the AFC North, and have met four times in the playoffs. Games between these two teams usually come down to the wire as most within the last 5 years have come down to 3 points or less. The rivalry is considered one of the most significant and intense in the NFL today.
Although the Steelers rivalry is based on mutual respect and antagonism for each other, the Ravens ' rivalry with the Indianapolis Colts is fueled by the fans ' animosity towards the organization, not contention between the players. This is due to the fact that the then - Colts owner, Robert Irsay, under the threat of eminent domain from the city of Baltimore, was forced to sneak the Colts out of Baltimore in the middle of the night to take them to Indianapolis. During Ravens home games the scoreboard lists the away team simply as "Away '' or "Indy '' rather than the team name that is traditionally used for the visiting opponent. The PA announcer will also refer to the Colts as the Indianapolis Professional Football Team; although on January 6, 2013 the scoreboard at the playoff game between the Baltimore Ravens and Indianapolis Colts at M&T Bank Stadium listed the away team as "Colts ''. The Indianapolis Colts hold an all - time 9 -- 4 advantage over the Baltimore Ravens, including a 2 -- 1 advantage in the playoffs.
The Ravens also have divisional rivalries with the Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals.
The reactivated Cleveland Browns and their fans maintain a hatred of Baltimore 's team due to its move from Cleveland. The rivalry with the Browns has been very one - sided; Baltimore holds an advantage of 27 - 9 against Cleveland.
The rivalry with Cincinnati has been closer, with the Ravens leading the all - time series 22 - 21 as of Week 3 of the 2017 NFL Season.
The Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27 -- 24 loss in the Patriots quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Patriots beat the Ravens 27 -- 21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens faced the Patriots in a 2009 AFC wild card playoff game and won 33 -- 14; the Ravens ran the ball for more than 250 yards.
The Ravens faced the Patriots in Week 6 of the 2010 season; the Ravens ended up losing 23 -- 20 in overtime; the game caused controversy due to a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather.
The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season, in the 2011 AFC championship game in which the Ravens lost 23 -- 20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20 -- 16 lead in the fourth quarter but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23 -- 20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game - winning touchdown, before a last second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With eleven seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32 - yard field goal attempt by a very wide margin, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI.
The Ravens ' first regular - season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13 -- 0 deficit in the first half and led 14 -- 13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20 -- 14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30 -- 21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith 's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7 - yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27 - yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week.
The two teams met again on January 20, 2013 in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28 -- 13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13 -- 7, but the Ravens ' defense gave up no points in the second half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship.
On December 22, 2013 the teams met again, this rematch of the AFC championship game was a mismatch from the outset. New England took a 17 - 0 lead early in the second quarter and never let up behind a defense that forced four turnovers and had four sacks. New England would go on to win the game 41 - 7.
On January 10, 2015, the two teams would meet in the Divisional Round of the playoffs. Unlike the previous meeting, the Ravens put up a strong offensive performance, leading by 14 points twice in the game. However, Tom Brady would bring the Patriots back by attacking the Ravens vulnerable secondary and taking a 35 - 31 lead late in the 4th quarter. Joe Flacco would drive to the Patriots side of the field with under two minutes to play in regulation. However, a key interception by Flacco due to a misplay on the ball by Torrey Smith essentially sealed the game in the Patriots favor to send them to the AFC Championship.
The team 's first helmet logo, used from 1996 through 1998, featured raven wings outspread from a shield displaying a letter B framed by the word Ravens overhead and a cross bottony underneath. The US Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a jury verdict that the logo infringed on a copyright retained by Frederick E. Bouchat, an amateur artist and security guard in Maryland, but that he was entitled to only three dollars in damages from the NFL.
Bouchat had submitted his design to the Maryland Stadium Authority by fax after learning that Baltimore was to acquire an NFL team. He was not credited for the design when the logo was announced. Bouchat sued the team, claiming to be the designer of the emblem; representatives of the team asserted that the image had been designed independently. The court ruled in favor of Bouchat, noting that team owner Modell had access to Bouchat 's work. Bouchat 's fax had gone to John Moag, the Maryland Stadium Authority chairman, whose office was located in the same building as Modell 's. Bouchat ultimately was not awarded monetary compensation in the damages phase of the case.
The Baltimore Sun ran a poll showing three designs for new helmet logos. Fans participating in the poll expressed a preference for a raven 's head in profile over other designs. Art Modell announced that he would honor this preference but still wanted a letter B to appear somewhere in the design. The new Ravens logo featured a raven 's head in profile with the letter superimposed. The secondary logo is a shield that honors Baltimore 's history of heraldry. Alternating Calvert and Crossland emblems (seen also in the flag of Maryland and the flag of Baltimore) are interlocked with stylized letters B and R.
The design of the Ravens uniform has remained essentially unchanged since the team 's inaugural season in 1996. Art Modell admitted to ESPN 's Roy Firestone that the Ravens ' colors, introduced in early 1996, were inspired by the Northwestern Wildcats 1995 dream season. Helmets are black with purple "talon '' stripes rising from the facemask to the crown. Players normally wear purple jerseys at home and white jerseys on the road. In 1996 the team wore black pants with a single large white stripe for all games. At home games the combination of black pants with purple jersey made the Ravens the first NFL team to wear dark colors head to calf. A number of NFL teams have since donned the look, beginning with the all - black home uniform worn in three games by the 2001 New Orleans Saints.
In 1997 the Ravens opted for a more classic NFL look with white pants sporting stripes in purple and black, along with the jerseys sporting a different font for the uniform numbers. The white pants were worn with both home and road jerseys. The road uniform (white pants with white jerseys) was worn by the Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV, at the end of the 2000 NFL season.
In the 2002 season the Ravens began the practice of wearing white jerseys for the home opener and, occasionally, other early games in the season that have a 1: 00 kickoff. Since John Harbaugh became the head coach in 2008, the Ravens have also worn their white jerseys at home for preseason games.
In November 2004 the team introduced an alternate uniform design featuring black jerseys and solid black pants with black socks. The all - black uniform was first worn for a home game against the Cleveland Browns, entitled "Pitch Black '' night, that resulted in a Ravens win. The uniform has since been worn for select prime - time national game broadcasts and other games of significance.
The Ravens began wearing black pants again with the white jersey in 2008. On December 7, 2008, during a Sunday Night Football game against the Washington Redskins, the Ravens introduced a new combination of black jersey with white pants. It was believed to be due to the fact that John Harbaugh does n't like the "blackout '' look. However, on December 19, 2010, the Ravens wore their black jerseys and black pants in a 30 -- 24 victory over the New Orleans Saints.
On December 5, 2010, the Ravens reverted to the black pants with the purple jerseys versus the Pittsburgh Steelers during NBC 's Sunday Night Football telecast. The Ravens lost to the Steelers 13 -- 10. They wore the same look again for their game against the Cleveland Browns on December 24, 2011, and they won, 20 -- 14. They wore this combination a third time against the Houston Texans on January 15, 2012 in the AFC Divisional playoff. They won 20 -- 13. They would again wear this combination on January 6, 2013, during the AFC Wild Card playoff and what turned out to be Ray Lewis ' final home game, where they defeated the Indianapolis Colts 24 - 9.
From their inaugural season until 2006, the Ravens wore white cleats with their uniforms; they switched to black cleats in 2007.
On December 20, 2015, the team unexpectedly debuted gold pants for the first time, wearing them with their regular purple jerseys against the Kansas City Chiefs. Although gold is an official accent color of the Ravens, the pants got an overwhelmingly negative response on social media by both Ravens fans and fans of other NFL teams, with some comparisons being made to the rival Pittsburgh Steelers ' pants.
The team marching band is called Baltimore 's Marching Ravens. They began as the Colts ' marching band and have operated continuously from September 7, 1947 to the present. They helped campaign for football to return to Baltimore after the Colts moved. Because they stayed in Baltimore after the Colts left, the band is nicknamed "the band that would not die '' and were the subject of an episode of ESPN 's 30 for 30. The Washington Redskins are the only other NFL team that currently has a marching band.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated October 28, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 16 Inactive, 9 Practice squad
The Ravens do not officially have retired numbers. However, the number 19 is not issued out of respect for Baltimore Colts quarterback Johnny Unitas, except for quarterback Scott Mitchell in his lone season in Baltimore in 1999. In addition, numbers 75, 52, and 20, in honor of Jonathan Ogden, Ray Lewis, and Ed Reed respectively, have not been issued since those players ' retirements from football. The number 3 has been in very limited circulation (offseason only) in respect to former kicker Matt Stover.
The Ravens have a "Ring of Honor '' which is on permanent display encircling the field of M&T Bank Stadium. The ring currently honors the following, including 8 former members of the Baltimore Colts. Bold Numbers are those whose numbers have not been issued or reissued after a player 's time in Baltimore:
Key / Legend
The Baltimore Ravens had their first draft in 1996, where they selected offensive lineman from UCLA and current NFL Hall of Famer, and 11 - time Pro-Bowler Jonathan Ogden. Along with their pick in the next year 's draft, this was the highest first - round draft pick that the Ravens have had. They also selected Ray Lewis with the 26th pick. In both 1996 and 2000, the Ravens had two first - round draft picks. However, in 2004 they had none. In their history, the Ravens have drafted 4 offensive linemen, 3 linebackers, 2 wide receivers, 2 cornerbacks, 2 quarterbacks, a running back, tight end, safety, and defensive tackle. The Ravens have 56 combined Pro-Bowl appearances from their first - round draft picks.
+ = min. 500 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, ∗ = minimum 15 attempts,
∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, + = min. 500 attempts
∗ = minimum 4 receptions, # = min. 20 receptions, + = min. 200 receptions
All records as of February 9, 2017 per Pro-Football Reference.com
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Ravens ' flagship radio stations are WIYY (98 Rock) and WBAL 1090 AM, with Gerry Sandusky (WBAL - TV Sports Anchor since 1988) as the play - by - play announcer and analysts Stan White (Baltimore Colts LB 1972 -- 1979) and Qadry Ismail (Baltimore Ravens WR 1999 -- 2001).
The team 's flagship station is WBAL - TV, which broadcasts pre-season games and team programming throughout the season. The programming is syndicated to WJLA - TV in Washington, WGAL in the Harrisburg - Lebanon - York - Lancaster, PA market, and until 2017, was carried through the remainder of the team 's region by CSN Mid-Atlantic. In January 2017, the Ravens announced that it had cut ties with CSN Mid-Atlantic, as the network was cutting back on its day - to - day coverage of other teams in the region in order to focus more extensively on the Washington Capitals and Wizards -- whose games are broadcast by CSN Mid-Atlantic, and whose owner holds a stake in the network. The team announced that it would seek a new partner; until 2010, these rights were held by MASN.
Ravens regular season games are typically broadcast by WJZ - TV as part of CBS 's rights to the AFC, but games may occasionally be broadcast on WBAL (Sunday Night Football and simulcasts of games on cable) or WBFF - TV.
|
who is the woman in fate of the furious | The Fate of the Furious - wikipedia
The Fate of the Furious (alternatively known as Fast & Furious 8 and Fast 8, and often stylized as F8) is a 2017 American action film directed by F. Gary Gray and written by Chris Morgan. It is the eighth installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise. The film stars Vin Diesel, Dwayne Johnson, Jason Statham, Michelle Rodriguez, Tyrese Gibson, Chris "Ludacris '' Bridges, Scott Eastwood, Nathalie Emmanuel, Elsa Pataky, Kurt Russell and Charlize Theron. The Fate of the Furious follows Dominic Toretto (Diesel), who has settled down with his wife Letty (Rodriguez), until cyberterrorist Cipher (Theron) coerces him into working for her and turns him against his team, forcing them to find Dom and take down Cipher.
The Fate of the Furious marks the first installment in the franchise since The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006) not to star both Paul Walker, who died in a single - vehicle crash on November 30, 2013 while filming Furious 7 (2015), and Jordana Brewster. Script rewrites to the seventh installment after Walker 's death completed the story arcs for both of their characters (Brian O'Conner and Mia Toretto, respectively).
Plans for an eighth installment were first announced in March 2015 when Diesel appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! and announced that the film would be set in New York City. Preparations for the film began immediately after the release of Furious 7, with Diesel, Morgan and producer Neal H. Moritz re-signing. After setting an initial release date in the same month, casting took place between April and June 2015. In October 2015, Gray was announced to direct the film in the place of James Wan, who had directed the previous installment. Principal photography began in March 2016 in locations such as Mývatn, Havana, Atlanta, Cleveland and New York City, continuing the franchise 's tradition of filming in exotic locations around the world.
The Fate of the Furious premiered on April 4, 2017 in Berlin, and was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D and 4DX internationally. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the action sequences and performances, while criticizing the storyline. The film has grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, making it the thirtieth film (and the second in the franchise, after Furious 7) to gross over $1 billion, the second highest - grossing film of 2017 and the eleventh highest - grossing film of all time. The film grossed $532 million worldwide during its opening weekend, setting the record for the highest - grossing opening of all time, ahead of Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million). A sequel is scheduled to be released on April 19, 2019.
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom is challenged to a street race at an auto show by local racer Raldo. Dom races for Raldo 's car, intending to give it to his cousin Fernando, while wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car. The next day, Dom is approached by elusive cyberterrorist Cipher, who coerces him into working for her.
Shortly after the encounter, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high - security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, both are recruited by intelligence operative Frank Petty / Mr. Nobody and his protégé, Eric Reisner / Little Nobody, to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher.
Deckard reveals that Cipher was the mastermind of previous encounters with the team, such as employing his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and orchestrating the attempted theft of God 's Eye, Ramsey 's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as they attack the base and steal God 's Eye. When Dom begins to question Cipher 's motives, she reveals that she has held Dom 's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves -- as well as their son, whose existence Dom was previously unaware of -- hostage in order to keep Dom loyal to her. Elena tells Dom that the child was born as a result of an unintended pregnancy, and that she wanted him to decide the child 's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.
Cipher then sends Dom to New York City to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Dom manages to evade her for a short time through a diversion created by Raldo, allowing him to meet with and persuade Deckard and Owen 's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help. The team intercepts Dom after he steals the nuclear football, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Cipher facilitates Dom 's escape by hacking into all of the autonomous cars in the city and reprogramming them to auto - drive, wreaking havoc throughout the city. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher 's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes kill Elena in front of Dom.
Dom is then sent to Russia to use the EMP device to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, provided with modified vehicles by Petty. Meanwhile, Deckard, who had faked his death and been extracted by Tego Leo and Rico Santos, former members of Dom 's team, infiltrates Cipher 's plane to rescue Dom 's son at Magdalene 's behest, with the help of Owen. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena 's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher launches an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.
Petty and Reisner visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard then arrives to return Dom 's son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs in the process, and is accepted into their family. Dom decides to name his son Brian, after his friend and brother - in - law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.
Tego Calderón and Don Omar reprise their roles from previous films as Tego Leo and Rico Santos, former members of Dom 's team from the Dominican Republic and Rio de Janeiro, respectively. Luke Evans reprises his role from Fast & Furious 6 (2013) as Owen Shaw, Deckard 's younger brother and a former Special Air Service (SAS) soldier who formerly opposed Dom 's team in Europe, and who helps his brother in rescuing Dom 's son. Kristofer Hivju appears as Connor Rhodes, Cipher 's enforcer and right - hand man. Helen Mirren makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Magdalene Shaw, the mother of Deckard and Owen Shaw.
Following the release of Furious 7 (2015), Vin Diesel said regarding a possible sequel:
I was trying to keep it close to the vest throughout the release. Paul Walker used to say that (an eighth film) was guaranteed. And in some ways, when your brother guarantees something, you sometimes feel like you have to make sure it comes to pass... so if fate has it, then you 'll get this when you hear about it. (Furious 7) was for Paul, (the eighth film) is from Paul.
Diesel further hinted at an eighth film on Jimmy Kimmel Live! when he stated that Kurt Russell 's character would span multiple films. He also stated that the next film would take place in New York City. Chris Morgan wrote his sixth script in the franchise, while Neal H. Moritz returned to produce. Moritz later stated, "(The story) is going to have to be something enticing for all of us. It has to be as good as or better (than Furious 7) ''.
At the 2015 CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Diesel announced the film for an April 14, 2017 release date. On August 16, 2015, at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards (where Furious 7 received the award for Choice Movie -- Action and Walker received the award for Choice Movie Actor -- Action), Diesel gave the film the initial title Fast 8. In September 2015, Diesel stated that the script had almost been completed, and expressed interest in Rob Cohen, who directed the first film, to direct the eighth installment. On October 14, 2015, Diesel announced on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that Straight Outta Compton director F. Gary Gray would direct the film.
In July 2015, Moritz said that Walker 's character, Brian O'Conner, would not appear in the film, following the use of CGI in the previous film after Walker died in a single - vehicle accident on November 30, 2013, with Moritz stating that his character had "moved on ''. It had previously been reported that Paul 's younger brother, Cody Walker, would either join the cast in a new role, or replace his older brother in the role of O'Conner; however, it was later announced that the character will not return to the franchise. Moritz also said that the film would shift the focus of the franchise from a series of heist films to a spy caper, following a similar change in focus from street racing in Fast Five (2011). In December 2016, the film was retitled The Fate of the Furious.
Diesel, Russell and Michelle Rodriguez were the first to confirm their involvement in the film, and Tyrese Gibson and Chris Bridges both confirmed their return soon after. Lucas Black had signed on to reprise his role from The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift as Sean Boswell for Furious 7, and two more installments in September 2013, though he did not appear in Fate. In May 2015, Dwayne Johnson confirmed his involvement in the film, additionally hinting at a possible spin - off film involving his character, Luke Hobbs. Jason Statham also confirmed his return. In April 2016, Charlize Theron and Kristofer Hivju were confirmed as additions to the cast, in villainous roles, while Scott Eastwood also joined the film as a law enforcement agent. On May 17, 2016, Diesel posted a photo on his Instagram page of himself and Elsa Pataky on set, indicating that she had also returned for the film, and was followed two days later by a video on set with Nathalie Emmanuel, who also starred in the previous film. In June 2016, Helen Mirren announced in an interview with Elle that she would appear in the film. In July 2016, Don Omar tweeted that he and Tego Calderon would return to the franchise for the eighth picture. During an interview with Chris Mannix on July 21, 2016, Lucas Black confirmed he would not appear in the eighth installment, due to scheduling conflicts.
In keeping with the franchise 's penchant for filming in "exotic '' locations, such as Dubai and Rio de Janeiro, in January 2016 it was announced that Universal was seeking approval from the United States and Cuban governments to shoot part of the film in Cuba. Principal photography began on March 14, 2016, in Mývatn, Iceland, where strong winds sent a plastic iceberg prop flying into a paddock. The prop struck two horses: one was wounded and the other mortally injured; it was later euthanized. In late April, filming began in Cuba 's capital city, Havana. In May, filming also took place in Cleveland, Ohio. Franchise cinematographer Stephen F. Windon returned for the eighth installment. Filming also took place in Atlanta and New York City.
Brian Tyler, who scored the third, fourth, fifth, and seventh installments, was tapped to compose the film score for the eighth picture. A soundtrack album by Atlantic Records was released on April 14, 2017, coinciding with the film 's US theatrical release. The film 's score album was released on April 27, by Back Lot Music.
The Fate of the Furious had its world premiere in Berlin on April 4, 2017. The film was theatrically released in the United States on April 14, 2017, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D, and 4DX internationally, and received a day - and - date release across major markets such as Australia, the United Kingdom, China, and India, beginning on April 12, 2017. The film was released day - and - date in 1,074 IMAX screens around the world, making it the widest day - and - date opening in IMAX history.
The Fate of the Furious was released on 4K, Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on July 11, 2017.
The Fate of the Furious grossed $225.8 million in the United States and Canada and $1.013 billion in other territories for a worldwide total of $1.239 billion, against a production budget of $250 million ($350 million including marketing costs). It is Universal Pictures ' most ambitious worldwide distribution release in the studio 's history. The film was released day - and - date in 64 territories worldwide, including almost all major markets (minus Japan), starting from April 12, 2017, and was projected to earn anywhere between $375 -- 440 million in its five - day opening weekend. By the end of the weekend, it ended up earning $539.9 million from nearly 23,000 screens, way above initial projections, to score the biggest global opening in cinematic history. It also marked the third time that a film earned over $500 million in a single weekend, after Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($529 million) and Jurassic World ($525.5 million). In IMAX, the film made $31.1 million from 1,079 screens to record the biggest IMAX April debut and the fourth biggest overall.
On April 30, it crossed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the second release of 2017 (following Beauty and the Beast), the fifth film released by Universal Pictures (after Jurassic Park, Furious 7, Jurassic World, and Minions) and the thirtieth film overall in cinematic history to gross over $1 billion. It is currently the second highest - grossing film of the year, behind only Beauty and the Beast, the second - biggest action film that is not a fantasy or superhero movie, behind Furious 7, and is Universal 's highest - grossing live - action release since Jurassic World back in June 2015.
Like many of its predecessors, The Fate of the Furious was released in the United States and Canada in the month of April, and like its immediate predecessor, occupied the lucrative Easter week holiday period slot, where it was expected to open with $100 -- 125 million. It received the widest pre-summer release ever, at an estimated 4,304 venues, besting the 4,242 opening theater count of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice the previous March. The film made $10.4 million from Thursday night previews from 3,310 theaters, the second - highest of the franchise behind Furious 7 's $15.8 million. On its opening day it grossed $45.6 million, with Thursday previews making up 22.8 % of the amount, slightly better than the 23 % for Furious 7. Earning a total of $98.8 million on its opening weekend, the film scored the second biggest opening in the franchise (the third biggest adjusted for inflation) and the third biggest April debut, behind Furious 7 and The Jungle Book. It posted an almost identical weekend multiplier like its immediate predecessor (2.166 x vs 2.18 x). However, this is not surprising considering how both films opened over Good Friday / Easter Sunday stretch. Scott Mendelson of Forbes magazine compared the opening to how Spectre (2015) opening fell from Skyfall (2012). One notable record the film set was the best opening for a film with an African American director, with Gray besting his own record set with Straight Outta Compton in 2015.
Sticking to the franchise 's famous and lauded habit of including a multi-ethnic cast of characters, the film played to audiences of all ethnicities. Domestically, Caucasians made up 41 percent of the audience, followed by Hispanics (26 percent), African - Americans (21) percent, Asians (11 percent), and Native American / Other (3 percent), according to comScore 's exit polling service PostTrack. The pic skewed male at 58 percent, far more than the last film at 51 percent. 2D ticketbuyers repped 57 % of the film 's opening compared to its predecessor 's 71 %. This means more die - hard moviegoers came out to watch the eighth instalment rather than people who do not typically go to the movies.
While The Fate of the Furious 's debut is 34 % less than its predecessor 's opening, critics have noted that the debut is still considered a massive success and not a big let down given how it is the eighth installment in an action franchise. Universal Pictures was well aware that the robust debut of Furious 7 could not be duplicated due to the wave of good reviews and publicity over the death of star Paul Walker, as well as the notion that the instalment was both a farewell to said actor and a kind of coronation for the franchise as a whole. Nevertheless, the film benefited from Easter holiday business with 74 % of all K - 12 schools off on Good Friday as well as a third of the nation 's colleges. The film comes out in the wake of its parent franchise celebrating 16 years of availability in cinemas. To wit, few film franchises which are close to 20 years old have demonstrated a box office ability to increase their openings with each installment over time or maintain them in close proximity in terms of debut numbers; James Bond film series, Batman film series, Jurassic Park franchise, and Star Wars franchise.
Its hefty opening was followed by the second - biggest April Monday gross ever with $8.5 million, behind the seventh instalment. Its Sunday to Monday drop was 60 % compared to its prequel 's 57 % drop which is far better than the Monday dropped witnessed by other April releases; The Jungle Book (- 76 %) and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (- 73 %), albeit without the advantage of a school holiday. Despite the entry of four new wide releases, critics and box office prognosticators kept a close watch on how much the film would drop in its second weekend. The film fell precipitously on its second Friday earning $11.17 million for a 76 % drop which is the biggest in the franchise 's history, besting the 72 % drops for both its two immediate predecessors. The steep decline maybe attributed not because of the onslaught of competitions, but rather due to the polarised reception received by the film and due to just 12 % K - 12 schools beings off compared to 74 % on Good Friday. It kept its hold at No. 1, albeit dropping about 61 % in its sophomore frame for an estimated $38.4 million. That domestic drop is right in line with the 59 - 63 % drops of the six previous instalment in the franchise 's on their second weekend out. It topped the box office for three straight weekends, witnessing similar weekend - to - weekend percentage drops like its prequel, albeit earning lesser in terms of numbers.
Internationally, The Fate of the Furious secured a release in 69 countries. The film was projected to post an opening between $275 -- 330 million from over 20,000 screens, with some analysts believing it could go as high as $350 -- 400 million. It opened Wednesday, April 12, 2017, in 8 countries, earning $17.9 million (including previews from 12 countries). It opened in 33 more countries on Thursday, April 2, for a total of 41 countries, earning $58.4 million, marking Universal Pictures overseas ' highest - grossing Thursday ever, and for a two - day total of $82.2 million. It added 22 more countries on Friday, April 3, earning $112.1 million to score Universal International 's highest grossing Friday of all time, for a three - day total of $194.8 million. The robust Friday take helped Universal push past $1 billion internationally in 2017 which is the second quickest ever and the studio 's eleventh consecutive year overall the pass the mark. Morever, on the same day, the franchise crossed the $4 billion milestone. In total, through Sunday, the film registered an opening of $441.1 million from 64 markets, setting new records for the biggest April international debut, Universal 's biggest, and the biggest of all time overall (ahead of Jurassic World) -- It is the first such film to open past $400 million in a single weekend with a bulk of it coming from China. Around $22.6 million came from (681) IMAX screens which is Universal 's second biggest behind only Jurassic World. It topped the international charts for a second consecutive term, adding another $158.1 million after which it was surpassed by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, another film starring Diesel and Russel, in its third weekend. In IMAX, the film has grossed north of $58 million. On May 28, the film officially passed the $1 billion threshold to become the second film in the franchise, following Furious 7, and the sixth film to pass the said mark.
It set the record for the biggest opening day of 2017 in every territory it has been released at, the biggest opening day of all time in 16 markets, Universal 's biggest opening day ever in 22 territories and the biggest opening in the franchise in 38 markets. Moreover, it recorded the biggest paid previews of all time in Malaysia, Singapore, Venezuela, and Vietnam. In terms of opening weekend, the film debuted at No. 1 in all markets where it set the biggest opening weekend of all time in 20 markets; Universal 's biggest opening weekend ever in 28 markets; and the biggest opening in the franchise in 40 markets. The top openings were recorded in China ($192 million), Mexico ($17.7 million), the UK and Ireland ($17.5 million), Russia ($14.2 million), Germany ($13.6 million), Brazil ($12.8 million), India ($10.7 million), Korea ($10.6 million), Middle East combined ($9.9 million), Taiwan ($9.3 million), France ($9.2 million), Australia ($9.5 million), Argentina ($9 million), Indonesia ($8.5 million), Italy ($6.7 million), Malaysia ($6.3 million), Spain ($6.1 million), Colombia ($4.9 million), Thailand ($4.9 million), Panama ($4.8 million), and Romania ($1.7 million). Comparing market - to - market performance, Furious 7 had an opening worth $250 million without China and Russia while The Fate of the Furious delivered $228.2 million debut, sans the two aforementioned markets. In Japan, the film debuted with $7.5 million. Although that 's a new record for the franchise, the film debuted at number three behind Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and local film Detective Conan: Crimson Love Letter -- their robust second weekend earnings blocked the former from taking the top spot, making Japan one of the few markets where the film did n't open at No. 1.
Expectations were high for the film 's performance in China, as its predecessor set notable records and went on to become the biggest film release there (now the biggest Hollywood release). The film was rebranded in Chinese as The Fast and the Furious 8 to make clear its connection to Furious 7. After ticket sales began on April 2, the film pre-sold more than RMB 125 million ($18.1 million) worth of tickets before its release, breaking the previous record held by local film Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons three months prior. Moreover, it also set a record for the fastest IMAX advance sales, with RMB 16.5 million ($2.4 million), breaking the previous record held by Captain America: Civil War, according to leading local movie site Mtime. In total, it pre-sold around $43.5 million tickets two hours before previews began, the biggest ever in the country. It earned a record - breaking RMB 59.8 million ($8.7 million) from Thursday paid previews ($8 million excluding online ticketing surcharges which now count as grosses), breaking its predecessor 's former record of RMB 52.5 million ($8.5 million in 2015; $7.6 million in 2017 exchange rates). On Friday, the film was screened in approximately 158,000 screens, a new record for any film, breaking Warcraft 's former 122,000 screen counts, and almost double the estimated 80,700 screen count of its predecessor. By Friday noon, it had already grossed $30 million. Buoyed by positive word - of - mouth -- 9.4 / 10 user rating on mobile ticketing platform Maoyan, and 7.4 / 10 from reviews aggregator Douban -- and effective marketing campaign, it set a new record for the biggest single - day ever at the Chinese box office, including previews. This was achieved at 7 p.m. local time. In total, the film grossed an estimated RMB 452.8 million ($65.8 million) on its opening day, inclusive of previews and online ticketing surcharges, compared to the RMB 398 million ($57.8 million) posted by its predecessor. It is the first film in Chinese history to register above RMB 400 million ($58 million) in a single day. Earning a total of RMB 1.323 billion ($192.2 million), according to Chinese sources and 190 million, according to Universal, in its debut weekend, it set a new milestone for three day opening weekend and overall the second best debut ever behind only local pic The Mermaid, which had the benefit of four days of previews over the New Year period in February 2016. An estimated $14 million came from 395 IMAX screens, the second biggest ever in the country, behind Warcraft. Its three - day debut alone made it the biggest Hollywood release of 2017 and the third biggest overall. Factoring out online ticketing surcharges, the total comes to a slightly less - hefty RMB 1.245 billion ($182.2 million). In just nine days, the film passed the historic RMB 2 billion ($300 million) and thereby became the biggest release of the year. The film fell precipitously by 71.4 % in its second weekend (from its $190 million debut), earning RMB 374 million ($54.3 million) for a massive 10 - day total of RMB 2.19 billion ($318 million). On April 30, it became the biggest Hollywood / foreign release of all - time with RMB 2.44 billion, surpassing its prequels former record of 2.41 billion. However, in terms of US currency, The Fate of the Furious ($381 million) is still behind Furious 7 ($391 million). After three consecutive weeks of topping the charts, it slipped to fourth place after being dethroned by Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 from the top spot. It has so far grossed a total of RMB 2.648 billion ($383.9 million) and is the country 's second - biggest grosser ever, behind only The Mermaid.
In India, the film secured a release across approximately 1,600 -- 1,800 screens (1,000 -- 1,200 screens less than its predecessor). Like other Hollywood releases, it was released in both 2K projections and normal projections, and dubbed in local languages such as Hindi, Tamil and Telugu. It is the first international film to be dubbed into the Kannada language. Despite clashing with local pic Begum Jaan, analysts believe the two films will not affect each other 's performance, as they appeal to distinct moviegoers. Universal had high hopes in the territory, after Furious 7 grossed an unprecedented $24.9 million in 2015, and became the biggest foreign release ever in the country at the time of its release (now the second biggest). The Central Board of Film Certification gave the film a UA rating (parental guidance suggested for children under 12), rather than an A for adults, after the studio agreed to cut several profanities (CBFC was willing to pass the film with an A certificate with no cuts but Universal wanted a UA certificate leading to the board censoring all profanities with few cuts). It earned around ₹ 8.50 crore (US $1.3 million) net from Wednesday paid previews. The following day it grossed ₹ 22.50 crore (US $3.5 million), including previews. On its official opening day, it grossed ₹ 16.10 crore (US $2.5 million) for a three - day total of ₹ 38.60 crore (US $6.0 million). Earning a total of $10.7 million, it set a new record for the biggest ever foreign opening in the country, toppling its prequel 's former record. As such, it is the first foreign film to open north of $10 million. Following its record breaking opening, it fell about 58 % on its second weekend excluding previews, earning another $4 million for a two weekend total of over $17.4 million, With over $19.2 million it is currently the biggest foreign release of the year. However, in terms of net earnings -- which is the base for box office calculations in India -- the film was unable to break past the ₹ 100 crore (US $16 million) mark, stalling at around ₹ 85.59 crore (US $13 million). Despite a record breaking opening, it lost significant amount of screen counts and audiences thereafter, partly due to the release of Baahubali: The Conclusion.
The biggest earning markets are China ($390.2 million), followed by Brazil ($41.6 million), the UK and Ireland ($37.4 million), Mexico ($36.8 million) and Germany ($32.1 million). In Peru, it has become Universal 's highest - grossing film ever. With over $1 billion in international receipts and representing a boffo 82 % of the film 's total worldwide gross, it is currently the seventh - biggest overseas earner behind Avatar, Titanic, Furious 7, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, and Jurassic World.
The Fate of the Furious received mixed to positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 66 % based on 241 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Fate of the Furious opens a new chapter in the franchise, fueled by the same infectious cast chemistry and over-the - top action fans have come to expect. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 56 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, writing: "This is n't my favorite of the series -- that 's still Furious 7 (it 's hard to top those jumps from skyscraper to skyscraper, but this is a worthy entry). These movies know what they are. These movies know they are fun. These are fun movies! '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "Most franchises, after eight films, are feeling a twinge of exhaustion, but this one has achieved a level of success -- and perpetual kinetic creative energy -- that 's a testament to its commercial / cultural / demographic resonance. '' He also wrote "If this series, over the last 16 years, has taught us anything, it 's that just when you think it 's about to run out of gas, it gets outfitted with an even more elaborate fuel - injection system. ''
Conversely, David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a C − and called it the worst entry of the franchise, saying: "As much a mess of conflicting tones and styles as it is of locations, this setpiece -- like the rest of Gray 's movie -- feels like a heap of random parts that were thrown together in the hopes that fate might somehow weld them into a roadworthy vehicle. It 's exhausting. '' J.R. Kinnard of PopMatters magazine gave a lukewarm review, writing: "It 's unlikely that devotees will consider The Fate of the Furious one of the stronger entries in the series. Still, the filmmakers and actors are clearly dedicated to making a quality product, avoiding the complacency that often plagues action sequels. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying: "Moments after Dom has gone rogue and apparently wants to kill them, they 're making jokes. As they 're racing through the streets of New York City or skidding along the ice in Russia, killing bad guys and narrowly avoiding getting killed themselves, they 're crackin ' wise. Even within this ludicrous universe, it 's jarring to hear these supposedly smart folks, who refer to themselves as ' family, ' acting like idiots who do n't seem to care if they live or die, or if their friends survive. ''
Professor of international political economy Richard E Feinberg has commented on the political significance of the film 's opening setting of Havana in the context of shifting US - Cuban relations, calling the eighth installment, "Hollywood 's love letter to Havana ''. He writes, "In the Cuban sequence 's dramatic climax, Dom wins his hard - fought one - mile race ('' a Cuban mile ") against a tough local competitor, by a nose. The loser is gracious: ' You won my car and you earned my respect, ' he admits to the FF hero. Dom 's response is equally magnanimous: ' Keep your car, your respect is good enough for me. ' In this instance, FF8 captures the essence of the relations between the United States and Cuba: it 's all about mutual respect. ''
On February 3, 2016, Universal Pictures set initial release dates for the two remaining films in the franchise. The first, tentatively titled Fast & Furious 9, is scheduled to be released on April 19, 2019.
|
which state would you visit to meet hyperion | Hyperion (tree) - wikipedia
Hyperion is the name of a coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in Northern California that was measured at 115.92 m (380.3 ft), which ranks it as the world 's tallest known living tree. After 2013, research reports omit tree names, and previously known tall redwoods grew, fell, or lost height.
Hyperion was discovered August 25, 2006, by naturalists Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor. The tree was verified as standing 115.55 m (379.1 ft) tall by Stephen Sillett. The tree was found in a remote area of Redwood National and State Parks purchased in 1978. The tree is estimated to contain 530 m (18,600 cu ft) of wood. Sillett estimates the tree to be 600 years old while others report it to be roughly 700 -- 800 years old.
Researchers stated that woodpecker damage at the top may have prevented the tree from growing taller.
In February 2012, Hyperion was featured in the BBC Radio 4 documentary James and the Giant Redwoods by James Aldred.
|
who played the clown in the movie it by stephen king | It (miniseries) - wikipedia
It (also known as Stephen King 's It) is a 1990 American supernatural horror drama miniseries directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and adapted by Lawrence D. Cohen from the Stephen King novel of the same name. It is the first of two adaptations of the novel; the second being the 2017 film adaptation and its upcoming 2019 sequel.
The story revolves around a predatory shapeshifter which has the ability to transform itself into its prey 's worst fears, allowing it to exploit the phobias of its victims. It mostly takes the human form of a sadistic, wisecracking clown called Pennywise. The protagonists are The Lucky Seven, or The Losers Club, a group of outcast kids who discover Pennywise and vow to destroy him by any means necessary. The series takes place over two different time periods, the first when the Losers first confront Pennywise as children in 1960, and the second when they return as adults in 1990 to defeat him a second time after he resurfaces.
It features an ensemble cast, starring Richard Thomas, John Ritter, Annette O'Toole, Harry Anderson, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Richard Masur as the seven members of the Losers Club, and Tim Curry as Pennywise. The child counterparts of the Losers that appear in part one are played by Jonathan Brandis, Seth Green, Emily Perkins, Brandon Crane, Adam Faraizl, Marlon Taylor and Ben Heller. Michael Cole, Jarred Blancard, Gabe Khouth, Chris Eastman, Olivia Hussey, Frank C. Turner, Tony Dakota, Ryan Michael, Tom Heaton and Chelan Simmons also play supporting roles.
Originally planning a four - part eight - hour series, ABC enlisted writer Lawrence D. Cohen to adapt the 1,138 - page King novel. Cohen 's script condensed the source work into a two - part, three - hour mini-series that retained the core elements of the novel, but Cohen was forced to abandon numerous subplots by virtue of the novel 's length and the network 's time - slot restrictions. Production on It began in early 1990, and the series was filmed over a period of three months in New Westminster, British Columbia in mid-1990.
It aired on ABC over two nights on November 18 and 20, 1990, attracting 30 million viewers in its premiere. Critics praised Tim Curry 's performance as Pennywise. For his work on the miniseries, Richard Bellis received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore).
In Derry, Maine, in 1960, Georgie Denbrough plays in the streets with a paper sailboat made by his stuttering big brother Bill. It goes down a storm drain, where Georgie encounters Pennywise the Dancing Clown. Pennywise entices Georgie to reach in to retrieve his boat, only to kill him. Months later, Bill and asthmatic Eddie Kaspbrak befriend the overweight new kid Ben Hanscom. They are later joined by Beverly Marsh, who lives with her abusive father, the comical Richie Tozier, and Jewish boy scout Stan Uris. Besides being bullied by a gang led by Henry Bowers, the children all encounter Pennywise.
The group are joined by Mike Hanlon, an African American new kid in town being pursued by Bowers ' gang. They chase them off with a rock fight, Bowers vowing to kill the children, who are dubbed the Losers Club. While looking through Mike 's history scrapbook, the Losers realise that Pennywise, which they refer to as "It '', is a monster who awakens every thirty years to devour children. Bill realizes It killed Georgie, leading the Losers into Derry 's sewers to kill the clown.
Stan is ambushed by Bowers and his friends Victor Criss and Belch Huggins, but the latter are both killed by It. Henry is left traumatized, his hair turned white. Stanley regroups with the Losers, but is grabbed by It. The Losers use It 's ability to access their imaginations and use it against him. Eddie imagines his inhaler is full of battery acid, melting half of It 's face. Beverly fires silver bullets at It, the Losers believing it can kill the clown. It escapes down a drain to hibernate. The Losers make a vow to return to Derry as adults, should It return. Bowers, driven insane, takes credit for the child murders and is institutionalised.
In 1990, Mike works as a librarian in Derry. It resurfaces and murders several children, prompting Mike to contact his estranged friends to fulfil their vow. Bill has become a bestselling horror novelist married to British actress Audra Phillips, Ben is an architect, Beverly is a fashion designer abused by her husband Tom Rogan, Richie is a late night television comedian, Eddie runs a limousine service but still lives with his overbearing mother, and Stan is a married real estate broker. All of the Losers, save Stan, promise to return. Stan 's wife later discovers he has committed suicide in the bath.
The other Losers return to Derry, tormented by Pennywise, and reunite, later learning of Stan 's suicide. Henry escapes from the asylum with help from It, to murder the Losers. Audra travels to Derry but is captured by It, hypnotised by the monster 's "Deadlights ''. Henry ambushes Mike, but is stabbed by his own knife when Eddie and Ben fight him. Mike is hospitalised, giving Bill the two pieces of silver he retrieved from the sewers. The five remaining Losers return to the sewers to confront It. Bill discovers Audra has been taken prisoner, but is supported by his friends.
They reach It 's inner sanctum, find the catatonic Audra, and It 's true form of a gigantic, otherworldly spider. Bill, Ben, and Richie are entranced by the Deadlights, while Beverly scrambles to retrieve the silver bullets after misfiring them. Eddie attempts to repeat the wound he inflicted on It as a child, but is mortally wounded. Beverly frees her friends, but Eddie dies. The others chase the injured It, ripping out its heart and killing It. They remove Eddie 's body and the catatonic Audra from the sewers.
The Losers go their separate ways once again, their memories of It fading over time. Mike recovers in hospital, Beverly and Ben get married and expect their first child, and Richie is cast in a film. Bill is the last to leave Derry, coaxing Audra out of her catatonia by riding down a street on his childhood bike "Silver ''. Audra recovers, she and Bill kissing in the middle of town.
ABC had acquired the rights to a television mini-series of It, for what would be the first made - for - television film based on a Stephen King work since Salem 's Lot (1979), directed by Tobe Hooper. Lawrence D. Cohen, who had previously written the film adaptation of Carrie in 1976, was hired to write It. According to both Stephen King and Cohen, King had little to no involvement in the writing of the miniseries. George A. Romero had originally been signed on to direct the project, which at the time ABC had planned for an eight - to - ten - hour series that would run over four two - hour blocks. Romero left the project due to scheduling conflicts, after which ABC condensed it to a three - part series. Shortly after, Tommy Lee Wallace was brought in to direct. After Wallace signed on to the project, ABC had ultimately decided to condense the series to two parts.
According to writer Cohen: "Speaking candidly, ABC was always nervous about It, primarily the fact that it was in the horror genre, but also the eight - to - ten hour commitment. They loved the piece, but lost their nerve in terms of how many hours they were willing to commit. Eventually, they agreed to a two - night, four - hour commitment. '' Given the length of the King novel, which runs 1,138 pages, a great deal of material was left out of Cohen 's adaptation, including subplots concerning the personal lives of the adult characters, one of which had the main male characters each losing their virginity to Beverly. "I ca n't even begin to enumerate my favorite scenes from the book that we had to cut, because there are so many of them, '' Cohen reflected. "I look at it as a glass half full situation. There are scenes in both nights that were created by Steve (King) on the page, and I 'm delighted that they survived, like the fortune cookie scene and adult Beverly going to her childhood house. The way I see it, the best moments from the book made the cut and the rest are casualties of war. ''
However, Wallace and Cohen retained the centrality of Pennywise in the source novel; as noted by film scholar Tony Magistrale in Hollywood 's Stephen King, the miniseries retains the "association between the adult world of Derry and It (which) is further established in the masterful choice of a carnival clown as a unifying symbol for the various creatures representing the monster. ''
The majority of the adult actors in the film, including John Ritter, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Harry Anderson, were hand - chosen by Wallace and Cohen for their roles. Annette O'Toole was cast in the film at the suggestion of Ritter, with whom she had recently shot The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story (1990): "I think (John) may have talked to somebody, because I got an offer (to play Beverly), '' O'Toole recalled. "It happened really fast; I do n't think I even went in for a reading. I was living in Oregon at the time, and the next thing I knew, I was in Vancouver hanging out with the coolest, most fun guys of all time. ''
Emily Perkins and Marlon Taylor, who played the young Beverly Marsh and Mike Hanlon, were cast out of Vancouver, while Seth Green and Jonathan Brandis were cast out of Los Angeles for the parts of young Richie and Bill.
According to Cohen, he had written the script for the series without a specific actor in mind for the role of Pennywise. According to director Tommy Lee Wallace, before he was attached to the project, Malcolm McDowell and Roddy McDowall were in consideration to play Pennywise, but Wallace wanted Tim Curry for the role; Wallace had previously worked with the latter in Fright Night Part 2 (1988).
It was shot over a period of three months in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a budget of $12 million. Given that the shooting entailed an adult cast with child counterparts, Wallace sought to have the adult actors meet with the children playing the younger versions of their characters: "We made a point of bringing the adult and children actors together for a couple of days, even though it was costly, since the adults and the kids have no scenes together. '' Filming locations in Vancouver included Stanley Park, Beaver Lake and Saint Thomas Aquinas High School Convent in North Vancouver. Wallace told The Hollywood Reporter that his job as a director "was to give Tim the stage and not get in his way too much. He was like Robin Williams in the way he brought a spontaneous improvisation to the part. '' Curry gave Pennywise a Bronx accent in order to sound like "an old - time Catskills comic ''. "I just let it happen, '' Curry said. "Clowns are your worst fear realized. I think I scared a lot of children. ''
Original storyboards for Pennywise featured exaggerated cheekbones, a sharp chin, and bulbous forehead. According to director Wallace, "Tim (Curry) objected strongly to all the rubber. He had recently been in several movies which covered him in prosthetics and I 'm sure he felt all the glue and latex would just get in his way. He was right, of course. With those eyes, and that mouth, and his crazy, sardonic sense of humor, less turned out to be more in the makeup department. ''
Special effects coordinator Bart Mixon began working on a head cast for the Pennywise character after Curry was cast in the role; he also designed three clay molds for testing. According to Mixon, he based the shape of Pennywise 's head on Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), "stylized into a clown. '' Three different versions of the clown 's face were created, one of which resembled a hobo clown, another that was "a little meaner, '' and the final one seen in the series. To achieve the white complexion, Curry wore prosthetic make - up cream to make him appear "almost like a living cartoon. ''
The majority of the special effects in the film were done practically without digital alteration, aside from the shower scene in which Pennywise comes out of the drain; this scene was done with replacement animation, an animation technique similar to stop motion animation.
The spider figure in the conclusion of the series was hand - constructed by Mixon and his art department team. Wallace recalled of the spider:
We labored long and hard designing a spider that was very beefy and muscular, almost reptilian in appearance. It looked great in the drawings, and I even recall a little clay model Bart did, which sealed the deal and won my enthusiastic approval. Bart and team went back to Hollywood to work the whole thing up full - size, and shooting started. When the SVFX team returned to Vancouver and unpacked the full - size spider, what I expected to see was the big version of that original model, the beefy, reptilian thing that was scary on sight. What they assembled on set was very, very different. Not chunky at all, very lean and mean. ''
In a panel at Fan Expo Canada in 2017, Tim Curry remarked of the spider, "It was... not very scary. Or convincing. ''
It originally aired on ABC in 1990 on the nights of November 18 and November 20. Part 1 was the fifth highest rated program of the week with an 18.5 / 29 rating / share, and being watched in 17.5 million households. Part 2 was the second highest rated program of the week with a 20.6 / 33 rating / share, and watched in 19.2 million households. According to writer Cohen, It was considered a major success for ABC, garnering nearly 30 million viewers over its two - night premiere.
As of February 2018, on Rotten Tomatoes, the film held an approval rating of 57 % based on 14 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 5.5 / 10.
Matt Roush of USA Today gave the series a positive review, writing: "If Twin Peaks is a midnight movie for prime - time live, It is the mini-series equivalent of those Saturday matinee shockers that merrily warped a generation before Freddie and Jason began stalking their more graphic turf... Accept It on its own popcorn - munching terms, and keep the lights on high. ''
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the performances in the film, but had a negative response to its special effects and pacing, noting: "It features a high level of ensemble acting rare for any horror film... in addition to It 's slow pace, I found the ending a big letdown -- unimaginative special effects animate the monster in its final incarnation. But the cast is terrific, Curry 's cackle is chilling, and King 's usual buried theme -- about the pain adults inflict on children without even realizing it (It?) -- is always worth pondering. ''
The Hollywood Reporter called It "one big kicky ride thanks to the charismatic acting of Curry as savage, sneering malevolence. ''
Sandra Harris of Movie Pilot said, "There 's some gorgeous scenery too and a nice interweaving of flashbacks with the regular scenes. For Stephen King fans, this film is a must for your collection. For fans of horror in general, I 'd say you could do a lot worse. Take the phone off the hook and burrow under the duvet for three hours with the popcorn and the remote control. ''
Ian Jane of DVD Talk highlighted the mini-series ' combination of childhood nostalgia with horror elements and praised Curry 's performance as Pennywise.
Bloody Disgusting 's John Campopiano commended director Tommy Lee Wallace for "relying less on jump scares and more on creating an unsettling atmosphere to contrast against the kids and their stories. ''
In 2017, Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins called the miniseries "legendary '' and commented that it had become a cult classic. He said although the miniseries "largely bungles Pennywise 's powers '', Curry 's portrayal of Pennywise is "the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours middle - schoolers -- and he generally sears his way right into the brain of the viewer. ''
Dan Stephens from the UK website Top 10 Films awarded the film four out of five stars. In his review Stephens praised the film 's story, character development, and suspense during the first half. But criticized the second half as disappointing and criticizing the lack of "friendship and togetherness '' of the main characters that was present during the first half, and clichéd ending.
Stephen King commented on the miniseries in a 2015 interview, saying, "You have to remember, my expectations were in the basement. Here was a book that sprawled over 1,000 pages, and they were going to cram it into four hours, with commercials. But the series really surprised me by how good it was. It 's a really ambitious adaptation of a really long book. ''
It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1991. The original VHS release was on two cassette tapes, one for each part. The VHS and Laserdisc releases feature It as originally aired. In 1998, It was re-released on VHS, this time, on one cassette tape (in EP format). The film was later released on DVD in 2002 and on Blu - ray on October 4, 2016. Both the DVD and the Blu - ray feature an edited version of the film, which presents It as one "movie ''. The suicide scene at the end of Part 1 is shortened, the hotel scene from Part 2 is missing, and the graveyard scene toward the beginning of Part 2 is also slightly shortened to remove the on - screen credits that originally appeared.
A 2 - CD release of the mini-series ' complete score by Richard Bellis was released on November 15, 2011. The music of the film ranges from orchestral music to trumpet - heavy music that accompanies the setting of Derry to unsteady electronic instrument arrangements for the film 's scarier moments. Bellis won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore) for his work on the film.
|
when did the neolithic age begin and end | Neolithic - wikipedia
farming, animal husbandry pottery, metallurgy, wheel circular ditches, henges, megaliths Neolithic religion
The Neolithic (/ ˌniːəˈlɪθɪk / (listen)) was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 10,200 BC, according to the ASPRO chronology, in some parts of Western Asia, and later in other parts of the world and ending between 4500 and 2000 BC.
Traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age or the New Stone Age, the Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipaleolithic period and commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution ''. It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age). The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and of domesticated animals.
The beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant (Jericho, modern - day West Bank) about 10,200 -- 8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period lasted between 12,500 and 9,500 BC, and the so - called "proto - Neolithic '' is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPNA) between 10,200 and 8800 BC. As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming.
By 10,200 -- 8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC.
Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 6900 -- 6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.
Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independently of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture.
The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, "new '' and λίθος líthos, "stone '', literally meaning "New Stone Age ''. The term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three - age system.
In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC. Early development occurred in the Levant (e.g., Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC.
The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 6000 -- 5000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards (1,000 m; 0.10 ha), and the collection of neolithic findings at the site encompasses two phases.
The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period began roughly around 10,000 BC in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic hunter - gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity and may be the oldest known human - made place of worship. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres (10 ha), contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500 -- 9000 BC have been found in Jericho, West Bank (notably Ain Mallaha, Nahal Oren, and Kfar HaHoresh), Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, and Byblos, Lebanon. The start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree.
The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. In the proto - Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. Emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and selective breeding).
In 2006, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9400 BC. The figs are of a mutant variety that can not be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were the first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains.
Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbrick. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. Some of the enclosures also suggest grain and meat storage.
The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8800 BC according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine). As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants was found in the outskirts of Amman, Jordan. Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East, called ' Ain Ghazal, it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7250 BC to approximately 5000 BC.
Settlements have rectangular mud - brick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse could have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses.
The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6,400 BC in the Fertile Crescent. By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia). This period has been further divided into PNA (Pottery Neolithic A) and PNB (Pottery Neolithic B) at some sites.
The Chalcolithic (Stone - Bronze) period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.
Around 10,000 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the Fertile Crescent. Around 10,700 -- 9400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 10 miles (16 km) north of Aleppo. The settlement included two temples dating to 9650 BC. Around 9000 BC during the PPNA, one of the world 's first towns, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2,000 -- 3,000 people and a massive stone tower. Around 6400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture.
In 1981 a team of researchers from the Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, including Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche divided Near East neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics. In 2002 Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès advanced this system with a division into five periods.
They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8800 and 8600 BC at sites like Jerf el Ahmar and Tell Aswad.
Alluvial plains (Sumer / Elam). Little rainfall makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture from 6,900 BC.
Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6000 BC. Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium BC in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants '' and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange. Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud - brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.
In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC, attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania and dating back to 6500 BC. In Northwest Europe it is much later, typically lasting just under 3,000 years from c. 4500 BC -- 1700 BC.
Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000 BC, and in Central Europe by around 5800 BC (La Hoguette). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to Starčevo - Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing.
The Cucuteni - Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to around 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal - Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated around 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found in the largest island of the Mediterranean sea.
The earliest Neolithic sites in South Asia are Bhirrana in Haryana dated to 7570 - 6200 BC, and Mehrgarh, dated to between 6500 and 5500 BC, in the Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan; the site has evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats).
In South India, the Neolithic began by 6500 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu.
In East Asia, the earliest sites include Nanzhuangtou culture around 9500 -- 9000 BC, Pengtoushan culture around 7500 -- 6100 BC, and Peiligang culture around 7000 -- 5000 BC.
The ' Neolithic ' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of West Papua (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone adze and axes are used in the present day (as of 2008) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail.
In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in Munam - ri, Goseong, Gangwon Province, South Korea, which may be the earliest farmland known to date in east Asia. "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding that the discovery reveals that the history of agricultural cultivation at least began during the period on the Korean Peninsula ''. The farm was dated between 3600 and 3000 BC. Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses were also found. "In 2002, researchers discovered prehistoric earthenware, jade earrings, among other items in the area ''. The research team will perform accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating to retrieve a more precise date for the site.
In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000 -- 10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era instead of Early Neolithic and Paleo - Indian for the preceding period. The Formative stage is equivalent to the Neolithic Revolution period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 AD when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on dryland farming of maize, and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period the bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced.
Australia, in contrast to New Guinea, has generally been held not to have had a Neolithic period, with a hunter - gatherer lifestyle continuing until the arrival of Europeans. This view can be challenged in terms of the definition of agriculture, but "Neolithic '' remains a rarely - used and not very useful concept in discussing Australian prehistory.
During most of the Neolithic age of Eurasia, people lived in small tribes composed of multiple bands or lineages. There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age. Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states, states evolved in Eurasia only with the rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian. Beyond Eurasia, however, states were formed during the local Neolithic in three areas, namely in the Preceramic Andes with the Norte Chico Civilization, Formative Mesoamerica and Ancient Hawaiʻi. However, most Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Upper Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and hunter - gatherer cultures in general.
The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred; New Guinea being a notable exception. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced. However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as Catal Huyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others.
Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik '') were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour -- though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain possibilities.
There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch. Settlements with palisades and weapon - traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at the Talheim Death Pit demonstrates "... systematic violence between groups '' and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period. This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle ''.
Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate - level or ' tribal ' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a ' big man ' or a proto - chief, functioning as a lineage - group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age. Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.
The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic era. In the Paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the Neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses. The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept. Stilt - houses settlements were common in the Alpine and Pianura Padana (Terramare) region. Remains have been found at the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia and at the Mondsee and Attersee lakes in Upper Austria, for example.
A significant and far - reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter - gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to permanently settled farming towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.
The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term coined in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe.
One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was the possibility of producing surplus crop yields, in other words, food supplies in excess of the immediate needs of the community. Surpluses could be stored for later use, or possibly traded for other necessities or luxuries. Agricultural life afforded securities that pastoral life could not, and sedentary farming populations grew faster than nomadic.
However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter - gatherer communities. Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.
Another significant change undergone by many of these newly agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated.
In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population - dense sites would have altered sanitation needs and patterns of disease.
The identifying characteristic of Neolithic technology is the use of polished or ground stone tools, in contrast to the flaked stone tools used during the Paleolithic era.
Neolithic people were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland.
Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud - brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatalhöyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.
The peoples of the Americas and the Pacific mostly retained the Neolithic level of tool technology until the time of European contact. Exceptions include copper hatchets and spearheads in the Great Lakes region.
Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins that are ideal for fastening leather. Wool cloth and linen might have become available during the later Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones that (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by Ötzi the Iceman, although he was not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age).
Neolithic human settlements include:
The world 's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, dates from 3800 BC and the world 's oldest freestanding structure is the neolithic temple of Ġgantija in Gozo, Malta.
Note: Dates are very approximate, and are only given for a rough estimate; consult each culture for specific time periods.
Early Neolithic Periodization: The Levant: 10,000 -- 8500 BC; Europe: 5000 -- 4000 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
Middle Neolithic Periodization: The Levant: 8500 -- 6500 BC; Europe: 4000 -- 3500 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
Later Neolithic Periodization: 6500 -- 4500 BC; Europe: 3500 -- 3000 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region.
Periodization: Middle East: 4500 -- 3300 BC; Europe: 3000 -- 1700 BC; Elsewhere: varies greatly, depending on region. In the Americas, the Eneolithic ended as late as the 19th century AD for some peoples.
|
where is the plane that landed in hudson river | US Airways Flight 1549 - Wikipedia
US Airways Flight 1549 was an Airbus A320 - 214 which, in the climbout after takeoff from New York City 's LaGuardia Airport on January 15, 2009, struck a flock of Canada geese just northeast of the George Washington Bridge and consequently lost all engine power. Unable to reach any airport, pilots Chesley Sullenberger and Jeffrey Skiles glided the plane to a ditching in the Hudson River off Midtown Manhattan. All 155 people aboard were rescued by nearby boats and there were few serious injuries.
The accident came to be known as the "Miracle on the Hudson '', and a National Transportation Safety Board official described it as "the most successful ditching in aviation history. '' The Board rejected the notion that the pilot could have avoided ditching by returning to LaGuardia or diverting to nearby Teterboro Airport.
The pilots and flight attendants were awarded the Master 's Medal of the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators in recognition of their "heroic and unique aviation achievement ''.
On January 15, 2009, US Airways Flight 1549 with callsign ' CACTUS 1549 ' was scheduled to fly from New York City 's LaGuardia Airport (LGA) to Charlotte Douglas (CLT), with direct onward service to Seattle -- Tacoma International Airport in Washington State. The aircraft was an Airbus A320 - 214 powered by two GE Aviation / Snecma - designed CFM56 - 5B4 / P turbofan engines.
The pilot in command was 57 - year - old Chesley B. "Sully '' Sullenberger, a former fighter pilot who had been an airline pilot since leaving the United States Air Force in 1980. At the time, he had logged 19,663 total flight hours, including 4,765 in an A320; he was also a glider pilot and expert on aviation safety. First officer Jeffrey B. Skiles, 49, had accrued 15,643 career flight hours, but this was his first Airbus A320 assignment since qualifying to fly it. There were 150 passengers and three flight attendants aboard.
The flight was cleared for takeoff to the northeast from LaGuardia 's Runway 4 at 3: 24: 56 pm Eastern Standard Time (20: 24: 56 UTC). With Skiles in control, the crew made its first report after becoming airborne at 3: 25: 51 as being at 700 feet (210 m) and climbing.
The weather at 2: 51 p.m. was 10 miles visibility with broken clouds at 3,700 feet, wind 8 knots from 290 °; an hour later it was few clouds at 4,200 feet, wind 9 knots from 310 °. At 3: 26: 37 Sullenberger remarked to Skiles: "What a view of the Hudson today. ''
At 3: 27: 11 the plane struck a flock of Canada geese at an altitude of 2,818 feet (859 m) about 4.5 miles (7.2 km) north - northwest of LaGuardia. The pilots ' view was filled with the large birds; passengers and crew heard very loud bangs and saw flames from the engines, followed by silence and an odor of fuel.
Realizing that both engines had shut down, Sullenberger took control while Skiles worked the checklist for engine restart. The aircraft slowed but continued to climb for a further nineteen seconds, reaching about 3,060 feet (930 m) at an airspeed of about 185 knots (343 km / h; 213 mph), then began a glide descent, accelerating to 210 knots (390 km / h; 240 mph) at 3: 28: 10 as it descended through 1,650 feet (500 m).
At 3: 27: 33, Sullenberger radioed a Mayday call to New York Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON): "... this is Cactus 1539 (sic -- correct call sign was Cactus 1549), hit birds. We 've lost thrust on both engines. We 're turning back towards LaGuardia ''. Air traffic controller Patrick Harten told LaGuardia 's tower to hold all departures, and directed Sullenberger back to Runway 13. Sullenberger responded, "Unable ''.
Sullenberger asked if they could attempt to land in New Jersey, mentioning Teterboro Airport; controllers obtained permission for a landing on Teterboro 's Runway 1. Sullenberger responded: "We ca n't do it... We 're gon na be in the Hudson ''. The aircraft passed less than 900 feet (270 m) above the George Washington Bridge. Sullenberger commanded over the cabin address system, "Brace for impact '', and the flight attendants relayed the command to passengers. Meanwhile, air traffic controllers asked the Coast Guard to caution vessels in the Hudson and ask them to prepare to assist with rescue.
About ninety seconds later, at 3: 31 pm, the plane made an unpowered ditching, descending southwards at about 125 knots (140 mph; 230 km / h) into the middle of the North River section of the Hudson tidal estuary, at 40 ° 46 ′ 10 '' N 74 ° 00 ′ 17 '' W / 40.7695 ° N 74.0046 ° W / 40.7695; - 74.0046 roughly opposite West 50th Street (near the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum) in Manhattan and Port Imperial in Weehawken, New Jersey. Flight attendants compared the ditching to a "hard landing '' with "one impact, no bounce, then a gradual deceleration. '' The ebb tide then began to take the plane southward.
Sullenberger opened the cockpit door and ordered evacuation. The crew began evacuating the passengers through the four overwing window exits and into an inflatable slide / raft deployed from the front right passenger door (the front left slide failed to operate, so the manual inflation handle was pulled). A panicked passenger opened a rear door, which a flight attendant was unable to reseal. Water was also entering a hole in the fuselage and through cargo doors that had come open, so as the water rose the attendant urged passengers to move forward by climbing over seats. One passenger was in a wheelchair. Finally, Sullenberger walked the cabin twice to confirm it was empty.
The air and water temperatures were about 19 ° F (− 7 ° C) and 41 ° F (5 ° C) respectively. Some evacuees waited for rescue knee - deep in water on the partially submerged slides, some wearing life - vests. Others stood on the wings or, fearing an explosion, swam away from the plane. One passenger, after helping with the evacuation, found the wing so crowded that he jumped into the river and swam to a boat.
Sullenberger had ditched near boats to facilitate rescue. NY Waterway ferries Thomas Jefferson and then Governor Thomas H. Kean both arrived within minutes and began taking people aboard using a Jason 's cradle. Sullenberger advised the ferry crews to rescue those on the wings first, as they were in more jeopardy than those on the slides, which detached to become life rafts. As the plane drifted, passengers on one slide, fearing that the boat would crush them, shouted for it to steer away. The last person was taken from the plane at 3: 55 pm.
About 140 New York City firefighters responded to nearby docks, as did police, helicopters, and various vessels and divers. Other agencies provided medical help on the Weehawken side of the river, where most passengers were taken.
There were five serious injuries, including a deep laceration in flight attendant Doreen Welsh 's leg. Seventy - eight people were treated, mostly for minor injuries and hypothermia, twenty - four passengers and two rescuers treated at hospitals, with two passengers kept overnight. One passenger now wears glasses because of jet fuel damaging his eyes. No pets were being carried on the flight.
Each passenger later received a letter of apology, $5,000 in compensation for lost baggage (and $5,000 more if they could demonstrate larger losses) and refund of the ticket price. In May 2009 they received any belongings that had been recovered. In addition, they reported offers of $10,000 each in return for agreeing not to sue US Airways.
Many passengers and rescuers later experienced post-traumatic stress symptoms such as sleeplessness, flashbacks, and panic attacks; some began an email support group. Patrick Harten, the controller who had worked the flight, said that "the hardest, most traumatic part of the entire event was when it was over '', and that he was "gripped by raw moments of shock and grief ''.
In an effort to prevent similar accidents, officials captured and gassed 1,235 Canada geese at 17 locations across New York City in mid-2009 and coated 1,739 goose eggs with oil to smother the developing goslings.
The partially submerged plane was moored to a pier near the World Financial Center in Lower Manhattan, roughly 4 miles (6 km) downstream from the ditching location. The left engine, detached by the ditching, was recovered from the riverbed. On January 17 the aircraft was barged to New Jersey.
The initial National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) evaluation that the plane had lost thrust after a bird strike was confirmed by analysis of the cockpit voice and flight data recorders.
It was soon reported that a few days earlier the plane had experienced a less severe compressor stall, and its passengers had been told an emergency landing might be required, but the affected engine was restarted. The NTSB later reported that a faulty temperature sensor had been the cause, and that the engine had not been damaged in that incident.
On January 21, the NTSB found evidence of soft - body damage in the right engine along with organic debris including a feather. The left engine also evidenced soft body impact, with: "dents on both the spinner and inlet lip of the engine cowling. Five booster inlet guide vanes are fractured and eight outlet guide vanes are missing. '' Both engines, missing large portions of their housings, were sent to the manufacturer for examination. On January 31, the plane was moved to Kearny, New Jersey. The bird remains were later identified by DNA testing to be Canada geese, which typically weigh more than engines are designed to withstand ingesting.
Because the plane was assembled in France the European Aviation Safety Agency (the European counterpart of the FAA) and the Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (the French counterpart of the NTSB) joined the investigation, with technical assistance from Airbus Industrie and GE Aviation / Snecma, respectively the manufacturers of the airframe and the engines.
The NTSB used flight simulators to test the possibility that the flight could have returned safely to LaGuardia or diverted to Teterboro; only seven of the thirteen simulated returns to La Guardia succeeded, and only one of the two to Teterboro. Furthermore, the NTSB report called these simulations unrealistic: "The immediate turn made by the pilots during the simulations did not reflect or account for real - world considerations. '' A further simulation, conducted with the pilot delayed by 35 seconds, crashed. In testimony before the NTSB, Sullenberger maintained that there had been no time to bring the plane to any airport, and that attempting to do so would likely have killed those onboard and more on the ground.
The Board ultimately ruled that Sullenberger had made the correct decision, reasoning that the checklist for dual - engine failure is designed for higher altitudes, when pilots have more time to deal with the situation, and that while simulations showed that the plane might have just barely made it back to LaGuardia, those scenarios assumed an instant decision to do so, with no time allowed for assessing the situation.
The NTSB concluded its investigation on May 4, 2010, identifying the probable cause as "the ingestion of large birds into each engine, which resulted in an almost total loss of thrust in both engines. '' The final report credited the outcome to four factors: good decision - making and teamwork by the cockpit crew (including decisions to immediately turn on the APU and to ditch in the Hudson); the fact that the A320 is certified for extended overwater operation (and hence carried life vests and additional raft / slides) even though not required for that route; the performance of the flight crew during the evacuation; and the proximity of working vessels to the ditching site. Contributing factors were good visibility and a fast response from the ferry operators and emergency responders. The report also makes a range of recommendations to improve safety in such situations.
Author and pilot William Langewiesche asserted that insufficient credit was given to the A320 's fly - by - wire design, by which the pilot uses a side - stick to make control inputs to the flight control computers. The computers then impose adjustments and limits of their own to keep the plane stable, which the pilot can not override even in an emergency. This design allowed the pilots of Flight 1549 to concentrate on engine restart and deciding the course, without the burden of manually adjusting the glidepath to reduce the plane 's rate of descent. Sullenberger said that these computer - imposed limits also prevented him from achieving the optimum landing flare for the ditching, which would have softened the impact.
In 2010, the damaged plane (excluding its engines) was acquired for the Carolinas Aviation Museum in Charlotte, North Carolina, which held a reception on June 11 to commemorate the arrival in Charlotte of the plane 's body, with Sullenberger as keynote speaker and the passengers invited.
An NTSB board member called the ditching "the most successful... in aviation history. These people knew what they were supposed to do and they did it and as a result, no lives were lost. ''
The crew, especially Sullenberger, was praised, notably by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and New York State Governor David Paterson, who said: "We had a Miracle on 34th Street. I believe now we have had a Miracle on the Hudson. '' U.S. President George W. Bush said he was "inspired by the skill and heroism of the flight crew, '' and praised the emergency responders and volunteers. President - elect Barack Obama said that everyone was proud of Sullenberger 's "heroic and graceful job in landing the damaged aircraft. '' He thanked the crew, whom he invited to his inauguration five days later.
The Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators awarded the crew a Master 's Medal on January 22, 2009; this is awarded only rarely, for outstanding aviation achievements at the discretion of the Master of the Guild. New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg presented the crew with the Keys to the City, and Sullenberger with a replacement copy of a library book lost on the flight, Sidney Dekker 's Just Culture: Balancing Safety and Accountability. Rescuers received Certificates of Honor.
The crew received a standing ovation at the Super Bowl XLIII on February 1, 2009, and Sullenberger threw out the first pitch at the 2009 Major League Baseball season for the San Francisco Giants. His Giants ' jersey was inscribed with the name "Sully '' and the number 155 -- the count of people aboard the plane.
On July 28, passengers Dave Sanderson and Barry Leonard organized a thank you luncheon for emergency responders from Hudson County, New Jersey, on the shores of Palisades Medical Center in North Bergen, New Jersey, where 57 passengers had been brought following their rescue. Present were members of the U.S. Coast Guard, North Hudson Regional Fire and Rescue, NY Waterway Ferries, the American Red Cross, Weehawken Volunteer First Aid, the Weehawken Police Department, West New York E.M.S., North Bergen E.M.S., the Hudson County Office of Emergency Management, the New Jersey E.M.S. Task Force, the Guttenberg Police Department, McCabe Ambulance, the Harrison Police Department, and doctors and nurses who treated survivors.
Sullenberger was named Grand Marshal for the 2010 Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California.
In August 2010, Jeppesen issued an approach plate titled "Hudson Miracle APCH, '' dedicated to the five crew of Flight 1549 and annotated "Presented with Pride and Gratitude from your friends at Jeppesen. ''
Sullenberger retired on March 3, 2010, after thirty years with US Airways and its predecessor. At the end of his final flight he was reunited with Skiles and a number of the passengers from Flight 1549.
The accident was recorded by several closed - circuit television cameras. Various television reports and documentaries produced soon afterwards contained extensive video of the ditching and rescue, and recorded interviews with the aircrew, passengers, rescuers, and other key participants. These included:
The crash was featured in the Discovery Channel (Canada) / National Geographic TV series Mayday on the episode Hudson Splash Down. It was also recreated in a National Geographic Channel TV special titled "Miracle Landing on the Hudson, '' and in the United Kingdom for a Channel 5 special in 2011.
Garrison Keillor honored the entire flight crew by writing a song and performing it on his show, A Prairie Home Companion.
The ditching is referenced in the song "A Real Hero '' by College and Electric Youth, best known from the 2011 movie Drive. The lyrics of the second verse describe the water landing and the survival of the passengers and crew, as well alluding to the freezing river.
Sullenberger is referenced in the 2011 romantic comedy Friends with Benefits. Throughout the film, Justin Timberlake 's character suggests that modern airplanes practically fly themselves, and that Sullenberger 's feat was less impressive than portrayed, but is met with incredulity and hostility. Mila Kunis 's character is seen reading Sullenberger 's English Wikipedia article.
Sullenberger 's memoir, Highest Duty: My Search for What Really Matters was adapted into a feature film Sully: Miracle on the Hudson, directed by Clint Eastwood, with Tom Hanks as Sullenberger and Aaron Eckhart as co-pilot Jeff Skiles. It was released by Warner Bros. on September 9, 2016.
|
seven wonders of the world with name and pictures | Wonders of the World - wikipedia
Various lists of the Wonders of the World have been compiled from antiquity to the present day, to catalogue the world 's most spectacular natural wonders and manmade structures.
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is the first known list of the most remarkable creations of classical antiquity; it was based on guidebooks popular among Hellenic sightseers and only includes works located around the Mediterranean rim and in Mesopotamia. The number seven was chosen because the Greeks believed it represented perfection and plenty, and because it was the number of the five planets known anciently, plus the sun and moon. Many similar lists have been made.
The historian Herodotus (484 -- ca. 425 BC) and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305 -- 240 BC), at the Museum of Alexandria, made early lists of seven wonders. Their writings have not survived, except as references.
The classic seven wonders were:
The only ancient world wonder that still exists is the Great Pyramid of Giza.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, some writers wrote their own lists with names such as Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Medieval Mind, and Architectural Wonders of the Middle Ages. However, it is unlikely that these lists originated in the Middle Ages, because the word "medieval '' was not invented until the Enlightenment - era, and the concept of a Middle Age did not become popular until the 16th century. Brewer 's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable refers to them as "later list (s) '', suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages.
Many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages but were well known.
Typically representative are:
Other sites sometimes included on such lists:
Following in the tradition of the classical list, modern people and organisations have made their own lists of wonderful things ancient and modern. Some of the most notable lists are presented below.
In 1994, the American Society of Civil Engineers compiled a list of Seven Wonders of the Modern World, paying tribute to the "greatest civil engineering achievements of the 20th century ''.
In November 2006 the American national newspaper USA Today and the American television show Good Morning America revealed a new list of New Seven Wonders as chosen by six judges. An eighth wonder was chosen on November 24, 2006 from viewer feedback.
Similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, and there has been debate over how large the list should be. One of the many existing lists was compiled by CNN:
In 2001 an initiative was started by the Swiss corporation New7Wonders Foundation to choose the New7Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments. Twenty - one finalists were announced January 1, 2006. Egyptians were not happy that the only surviving original wonder, the Great Pyramid of Giza, would have to compete with the likes of the Statue of Liberty, the Sydney Opera House, and other landmarks, calling the project absurd. In response, Giza was named an honorary Candidate. The results were announced on July 7, 2007, in Lisbon, Portugal:
New7Wonders of Nature (2007 -- 11), a contemporary effort to create a list of seven natural wonders chosen through a global poll, was organized by the same group as the New7Wonders of the World campaign.
New7Wonders Cities is the third global vote organized by New7Wonders.
The Seven Underwater Wonders of the World was a list drawn up by CEDAM International, an American - based non-profit group for divers, dedicated to ocean preservation and research.
In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of marine scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark, to pick underwater areas which they considered to be worthy of protection. The results were announced at The National Aquarium in Washington DC by actor Lloyd Bridges, star of TV 's Sea Hunt:
British author Deborah Cadbury wrote Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a book telling the stories of seven great feats of engineering of the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 2003, the BBC aired a seven - part docudrama exploring the same feats, with Cadbury as a producer. Each episode dramatised the construction of one of the following industrial wonders:
Seven Wonders of the World is a 1956 film in which Lowell Thomas searches the world for natural and man made wonders and invites the audience to try to update the ancient Greek Wonders of the World list.
In a 1999 article, Astronomy magazine listed the "Seven Wonders of the Solar System ''. This article was later made into a video.
Numerous other authors and organisations have composed lists of the wonders of the world. For example:
|
what is morning star meat made out of | Morningstar Farms - Wikipedia
Morningstar Farms is a division of the Kellogg Company that produces vegetarian food. Many of their offerings are meatless variations of traditionally meat - based products, including some that are vegan.
Morningstar Farms was introduced by Worthington Foods (originally a division of Miles Laboratories). The frozen food line of soy - based meatless meats, introduced into supermarkets and grocery stores nationwide in 1975 and widely advertised, provided millions of Americans with their first experience of soy used in this way. Kellogg purchased Worthington Foods for $307 million in October 1999 at which point it acquired the Morningstar Farms brand. Kellogg sold Worthington in 2014 but retained the Morningstar line of products.
|
identify the non green-house gas(ghg) from the following | Greenhouse gas - wikipedia
A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about − 18 ° C (0 ° F), rather than the present average of 15 ° C (59 ° F). In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect.
Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (around 1750) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO), from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017. This increase has occurred despite the uptake of more than half of the emissions by various natural "sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle. The vast majority of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions (i.e., emissions produced by human activities) come from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with comparatively modest additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil erosion, and agriculture.
It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at their present rate, Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047, with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems, biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide. Recent estimates also suggest that at current emission rates the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming, which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid "dangerous '' global warming, by 2036.
Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the wavelength range emitted by Earth. In order, the most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are:
Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources (emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound). The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "airborne fraction '' (AF). The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year 's total emissions. As of 2006 the annual airborne fraction for CO was about 0.45. The annual airborne fraction increased at a rate of 0.25 ± 0.21 % per year over the period 1959 -- 2006.
The major atmospheric constituents, nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and argon (Ar), are not greenhouse gases because molecules containing two atoms of the same element such as N and O and monatomic molecules such as argon (Ar) have no net change in the distribution of their electrical charges when they vibrate. Hence they are almost totally unaffected by infrared radiation. Although molecules containing two atoms of different elements such as carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen chloride (HCl) absorb infrared radiation, these molecules are short - lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. Therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and often are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases.
Some gases have indirect radiative effects (whether or not they are greenhouse gases themselves). This happens in two main ways. One way is that when they break down in the atmosphere they produce another greenhouse gas. For example, methane and carbon monoxide (CO) are oxidized to give carbon dioxide (and methane oxidation also produces water vapor, as discussed later). Oxidation of CO to CO directly produces an unambiguous increase in radiative forcing although the reason is subtle. The peak of the thermal IR emission from Earth 's surface is very close to a strong vibrational absorption band of CO (15 microns, or 667 cm). On the other hand, the single CO vibrational band only absorbs IR at much shorter wavelengths (4.7 microns, or 2145 cm), where the emission of radiant energy from Earth 's surface is at least a factor of ten lower. Oxidation of methane to CO, which requires reactions with the OH radical, produces an instantaneous reduction in radiative absorption and emission since CO is a weaker greenhouse gas than methane, although CO has a longer lifetime. As described below this is not the whole story, since the oxidations of CO and CH are intertwined by both consuming OH radicals. In any case, the calculation of the total radiative effect needs to include both the direct and indirect forcing.
A second type of indirect effect happens when chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving these gases change the concentrations of greenhouse gases. For example, the destruction of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) in the atmosphere can produce ozone. The size of the indirect effect can depend strongly on where and when the gas is emitted.
Methane has a number of indirect effects in addition to forming CO. First, the main chemical that reacts with methane in the atmosphere is the hydroxyl radical (OH), thus more methane means that the concentration of OH goes down. Effectively, methane increases its own atmospheric lifetime and therefore its overall radiative effect. The second effect is that the oxidation of methane can produce ozone. Third, as well as making CO, the oxidation of methane produces water; this is a major source of water vapor in the stratosphere, which is otherwise very dry. CO and NMVOCs also produce CO when they are oxidized. They remove OH from the atmosphere, and this leads to higher concentrations of methane. The surprising effect of this is that the global warming potential of CO is three times that of CO. The same process that converts NMVOCs to carbon dioxide can also lead to the formation of tropospheric ozone. Halocarbons have an indirect effect because they destroy stratospheric ozone. Finally, hydrogen can lead to ozone production and CH increases as well as producing water vapor in the stratosphere.
The major non-gas contributor to Earth 's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases. Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.
The contribution of each gas to the greenhouse effect is determined by the characteristics of that gas, its abundance, and any indirect effects it may cause. For example, the direct radiative effect of a mass of methane is about 84 times stronger than the same mass of carbon dioxide over a 20 - year time frame but it is present in much smaller concentrations so that its total direct radiative effect is smaller, in part due to its shorter atmospheric lifetime. On the other hand, in addition to its direct radiative impact, methane has a large, indirect radiative effect because it contributes to ozone formation. Shindell et al. (2005) argue that the contribution to climate change from methane is at least double previous estimates as a result of this effect.
When ranked by their direct contribution to the greenhouse effect, the most important are:
Water vapor strongly varies locally The concentration in stratosphere. About 90 % of the ozone in Earth 's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
In addition to the main greenhouse gases listed above, other greenhouse gases include sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases). Some greenhouse gases are not often listed. For example, nitrogen trifluoride has a high global warming potential (GWP) but is only present in very small quantities.
It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes an exact percentage of the greenhouse effect. This is because some of the gases absorb and emit radiation at the same frequencies as others, so that the total greenhouse effect is not simply the sum of the influence of each gas. The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for each gas alone; the lower ends account for overlaps with the other gases. In addition, some gases such as methane are known to have large indirect effects that are still being quantified.
Aside from water vapor, which has a residence time of about nine days, major greenhouse gases are well mixed and take many years to leave the atmosphere. Although it is not easy to know with precision how long it takes greenhouse gases to leave the atmosphere, there are estimates for the principal greenhouse gases. Jacob (1999) defines the lifetime τ (\ displaystyle \ tau) of an atmospheric species X in a one - box model as the average time that a molecule of X remains in the box. Mathematically τ (\ displaystyle \ tau) can be defined as the ratio of the mass m (\ displaystyle m) (in kg) of X in the box to its removal rate, which is the sum of the flow of X out of the box (F o u t (\ displaystyle F_ (out))), chemical loss of X (L (\ displaystyle L)), and deposition of X (D (\ displaystyle D)) (all in kg / s): τ = m F o u t + L + D (\ displaystyle \ tau = (\ frac (m) (F_ (out) + L + D))). If one stopped pouring any of this gas into the box, then after a time τ (\ displaystyle \ tau), its concentration would be about halved.
The atmospheric lifetime of a species therefore measures the time required to restore equilibrium following a sudden increase or decrease in its concentration in the atmosphere. Individual atoms or molecules may be lost or deposited to sinks such as the soil, the oceans and other waters, or vegetation and other biological systems, reducing the excess to background concentrations. The average time taken to achieve this is the mean lifetime.
Carbon dioxide has a variable atmospheric lifetime, and can not be specified precisely. The atmospheric lifetime of CO is estimated of the order of 30 -- 95 years. This figure accounts for CO molecules being removed from the atmosphere by mixing into the ocean, photosynthesis, and other processes. However, this excludes the balancing fluxes of CO into the atmosphere from the geological reservoirs, which have slower characteristic rates. Although more than half of the CO emitted is removed from the atmosphere within a century, some fraction (about 20 %) of emitted CO remains in the atmosphere for many thousands of years. Similar issues apply to other greenhouse gases, many of which have longer mean lifetimes than CO. E.g., N O has a mean atmospheric lifetime of 121 years.
Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as heat. Earth 's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy. If this energy balance is shifted, Earth 's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.
A number of natural and man - made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force changes in Earth 's climate. Greenhouse gases are one such mechanism. Greenhouse gases absorb and emit some of the outgoing energy radiated from Earth 's surface, causing that heat to be retained in the lower atmosphere. As explained above, some greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for decades or even centuries, and therefore can affect Earth 's energy balance over a long period. Radiative forcing quantifies the effect of factors that influence Earth 's energy balance, including changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases. Positive radiative forcing leads to warming by increasing the net incoming energy, whereas negative radiative forcing leads to cooling.
The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of CO and evaluated for a specific timescale. Thus, if a gas has a high (positive) radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20 - year scale but a small one on a 100 - year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than CO its GWP will increase with the timescale considered. Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.
Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years. The 2007 IPCC report lists the GWP as 72 over a time scale of 20 years, 25 over 100 years and 7.6 over 500 years. A 2014 analysis, however, states that although methane 's initial impact is about 100 times greater than that of CO, because of the shorter atmospheric lifetime, after six or seven decades, the impact of the two gases is about equal, and from then on methane 's relative role continues to decline. The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane is degraded to water and CO through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:
The use of CFC - 12 (except some essential uses) has been phased out due to its ozone depleting properties. The phasing - out of less active HCFC - compounds will be completed in 2030.
Aside from purely human - produced synthetic halocarbons, most greenhouse gases have both natural and human - caused sources. During the pre-industrial Holocene, concentrations of existing gases were roughly constant, because the large natural sources and sinks roughly balance. In the industrial era, human activities have added greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, mainly through the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.
The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report compiled by the IPCC (AR4) noted that "changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover and solar radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system '', and concluded that "increases in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations is very likely to have caused most of the increases in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century ''. In AR4, "most of '' is defined as more than 50 %.
Abbreviations used in the two tables below: ppm = parts - per - million; ppb = parts - per - billion; ppt = parts - per - trillion; W / m = watts per square metre
Ice cores provide evidence for greenhouse gas concentration variations over the past 800,000 years (see the following section). Both CO and CH vary between glacial and interglacial phases, and concentrations of these gases correlate strongly with temperature. Direct data does not exist for periods earlier than those represented in the ice core record, a record that indicates CO mole fractions stayed within a range of 180 ppm to 280 ppm throughout the last 800,000 years, until the increase of the last 250 years. However, various proxies and modeling suggests larger variations in past epochs; 500 million years ago CO levels were likely 10 times higher than now. Indeed, higher CO concentrations are thought to have prevailed throughout most of the Phanerozoic eon, with concentrations four to six times current concentrations during the Mesozoic era, and ten to fifteen times current concentrations during the early Palaeozoic era until the middle of the Devonian period, about 400 Ma. The spread of land plants is thought to have reduced CO concentrations during the late Devonian, and plant activities as both sources and sinks of CO have since been important in providing stabilising feedbacks. Earlier still, a 200 - million year period of intermittent, widespread glaciation extending close to the equator (Snowball Earth) appears to have been ended suddenly, about 550 Ma, by a colossal volcanic outgassing that raised the CO concentration of the atmosphere abruptly to 12 %, about 350 times modern levels, causing extreme greenhouse conditions and carbonate deposition as limestone at the rate of about 1 mm per day. This episode marked the close of the Precambrian eon, and was succeeded by the generally warmer conditions of the Phanerozoic, during which multicellular animal and plant life evolved. No volcanic carbon dioxide emission of comparable scale has occurred since. In the modern era, emissions to the atmosphere from volcanoes are only about 1 % of emissions from human sources.
Measurements from Antarctic ice cores show that before industrial emissions started atmospheric CO mole fractions were about 280 parts per million (ppm), and stayed between 260 and 280 during the preceding ten thousand years. Carbon dioxide mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009. One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with carbon dioxide mole fractions above 300 ppm during the period seven to ten thousand years ago, though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO variability. Because of the way air is trapped in ice (pores in the ice close off slowly to form bubbles deep within the firn) and the time period represented in each ice sample analyzed, these figures represent averages of atmospheric concentrations of up to a few centuries rather than annual or decadal levels.
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the concentrations of most of the greenhouse gases have increased. For example, the mole fraction of carbon dioxide has increased from 280 ppm to 400 ppm, or 120 ppm over modern pre-industrial levels. The first 30 ppm increase took place in about 200 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution to 1958; however the next 90 ppm increase took place within 56 years, from 1958 to 2014.
Recent data also shows that the concentration is increasing at a higher rate. In the 1960s, the average annual increase was only 37 % of what it was in 2000 through 2007.
Today, the stock of carbon in the atmosphere increases by more than 3 million tonnes per annum (0.04 %) compared with the existing stock. This increase is the result of human activities by burning fossil fuels, deforestation and forest degradation in tropical and boreal regions.
The other greenhouse gases produced from human activity show similar increases in both amount and rate of increase. Many observations are available online in a variety of Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases.
Since about 1750 human activity has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels. Natural sources of carbon dioxide are more than 20 times greater than sources due to human activity, but over periods longer than a few years natural sources are closely balanced by natural sinks, mainly photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants and marine plankton. As a result of this balance, the atmospheric mole fraction of carbon dioxide remained between 260 and 280 parts per million for the 10,000 years between the end of the last glacial maximum and the start of the industrial era.
It is likely that anthropogenic (i.e., human - induced) warming, such as that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels, has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems. Future warming is projected to have a range of impacts, including sea level rise, increased frequencies and severities of some extreme weather events, loss of biodiversity, and regional changes in agricultural productivity.
The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:
The seven sources of CO from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000 -- 2004):
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (N O) and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride (SF), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)) are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases, and are regulated under the Kyoto Protocol international treaty, which came into force in 2005. Emissions limitations specified in the Kyoto Protocol expired in 2012. The Cancún agreement, agreed in 2010, includes voluntary pledges made by 76 countries to control emissions. At the time of the agreement, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85 % of annual global emissions.
Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs ' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often are confused in the media. On 15 October 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol.
According to UNEP global tourism is closely linked to climate change. Tourism is a significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Tourism accounts for about 50 % of traffic movements. Rapidly expanding air traffic contributes about 2.5 % of the production of CO. The number of international travelers is expected to increase from 594 million in 1996 to 1.6 billion by 2020, adding greatly to the problem unless steps are taken to reduce emissions.
The road haulage industry plays a part in production of CO, contributing around 20 % of the UK 's total carbon emissions a year, with only the energy industry having a larger impact at around 39 %. Average carbon emissions within the haulage industry are falling -- in the thirty - year period from 1977 to 2007, the carbon emissions associated with a 200 - mile journey fell by 21 percent; NOx emissions are also down 87 percent, whereas journey times have fallen by around a third. Due to their size, HGVs often receive criticism regarding their CO2 emissions; however, rapid development in engine technology and fuel management is having a largely positive effect.
Water vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36 % and 66 % for clear sky conditions and between 66 % and 85 % when including clouds. Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally, but human activity does not directly affect water vapor concentrations except at local scales, such as near irrigated fields. Indirectly, human activity that increases global temperatures will increase water vapor concentrations, a process known as water vapor feedback. The atmospheric concentration of vapor is highly variable and depends largely on temperature, from less than 0.01 % in extremely cold regions up to 3 % by mass in saturated air at about 32 ° C. (See Relative humidity # other important facts.)
The average residence time of a water molecule in the atmosphere is only about nine days, compared to years or centuries for other greenhouse gases such as CH and CO. Thus, water vapor responds to and amplifies effects of the other greenhouse gases. The Clausius -- Clapeyron relation establishes that more water vapor will be present per unit volume at elevated temperatures. This and other basic principles indicate that warming associated with increased concentrations of the other greenhouse gases also will increase the concentration of water vapor (assuming that the relative humidity remains approximately constant; modeling and observational studies find that this is indeed so). Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this results in further warming and so is a "positive feedback '' that amplifies the original warming. Eventually other earth processes offset these positive feedbacks, stabilizing the global temperature at a new equilibrium and preventing the loss of Earth 's water through a Venus - like runaway greenhouse effect.
Between the period 1970 to 2004, greenhouse gas emissions (measured in CO-equivalent) increased at an average rate of 1.6 % per year, with CO emissions from the use of fossil fuels growing at a rate of 1.9 % per year. Total anthropogenic emissions at the end of 2009 were estimated at 49.5 gigatonnes CO-equivalent. These emissions include CO from fossil fuel use and from land use, as well as emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol.
At present, the primary source of CO emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), GHG emissions in the United States can be traced from different sectors.
There are several different ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions, for example, see World Bank (2010) for tables of national emissions data. Some variables that have been reported include:
These different measures are sometimes used by different countries to assert various policy / ethical positions on climate change (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 94). This use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools.
Emissions may be measured over long time periods. This measurement type is called historical or cumulative emissions. Cumulative emissions give some indication of who is responsible for the build - up in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases (IEA, 2007, p. 199).
The national accounts balance would be positively related to carbon emissions. The national accounts balance shows the difference between exports and imports. For many richer nations, such as the United States, the accounts balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading the economies of developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. We believed that a positive accounts balance would means that more production was occurring in a country, so more factories working would increase carbon emission levels.
Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against a base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from the year 1995). A country 's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year.
Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country 's total annual emissions by its mid-year population. Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 106 -- 107).
Land - use change, e.g., the clearing of forests for agricultural use, can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks. Accounting for land - use change can be understood as an attempt to measure "net '' emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 92 -- 93).
There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions. Additionally, there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 93). For instance, concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier, e.g., Europe.
Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity '' and "emissions intensity '' are also sometimes used. Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates (MER) or purchasing power parity (PPP) (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 96). Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries, whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences.
Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human - emitted) emissions of CO from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming, and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human - induced climate change.
The table above to the left is based on Banuri et al. (1996, p. 94). Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8 % of industrial CO emissions over this time period, and 67.8 % of total CO emissions. Developing countries accounted for industrial CO emissions of 16.2 % over this time period, and 32.2 % of total CO emissions. The estimate of total CO emissions includes biotic carbon emissions, mainly from deforestation. Banuri et al. (1996, p. 94) calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then - current population. The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1.
Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land - use change (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 93 -- 94). The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system.
Non-OECD countries accounted for 42 % of cumulative energy - related CO emissions between 1890 and 2007. Over this time period, the US accounted for 28 % of emissions; the EU, 23 %; Russia, 11 %; China, 9 %; other OECD countries, 5 %; Japan, 4 %; India, 3 %; and the rest of the world, 18 %.
Between 1970 and 2004, global growth in annual CO emissions was driven by North America, Asia, and the Middle East. The sharp acceleration in CO emissions since 2000 to more than a 3 % increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1 % per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported. In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and N O by 0.25 % y.
Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming. This can be calculated by dividing a country 's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country 's minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year. Choosing between different base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries. Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of CO emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions).
Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries. Due to China 's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the USA). Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest percapita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU - 15 and the USA are gradually decreasing over time. Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries.
Energy statistics for fast growing economies are less accurate than those for the industrialized countries. For China 's annual emissions in 2008, the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency estimated an uncertainty range of about 10 %.
The greenhouse gas footprint refers to the emissions resulting from the creation of products or services. It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint, which measures only carbon dioxide, one of many greenhouse gases.
2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions.
In 2009, the annual top ten emitting countries accounted for about two - thirds of the world 's annual energy - related CO emissions.
One way of attributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions '') of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption. For example, in the main international treaty on climate change (the UNFCCC), countries report on emissions produced within their borders, e.g., the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels. Under a production - based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a consumption - based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.
Davis and Caldeira (2010) found that a substantial proportion of CO emissions are traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe. Based on annual emissions data from the year 2004, and on a per - capita consumption basis, the top - 5 emitting countries were found to be (in tCO per person, per year): Luxembourg (34.7), the US (22.0), Singapore (20.2), Australia (16.7), and Canada (16.6). Carbon Trust research revealed that approximately 25 % of all CO emissions from human activities ' flow ' (i.e., are imported or exported) from one country to another. Major developed economies were found to be typically net importers of embodied carbon emissions -- with UK consumption emissions 34 % higher than production emissions, and Germany (29 %), Japan (19 %) and the USA (13 %) also significant net importers of embodied emissions.
Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation). Assessments of policy effectiveness have included work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, International Energy Agency, and United Nations Environment Programme. Policies implemented by governments have included national and regional targets to reduce emissions, promoting energy efficiency, and support for renewable energy such as Solar energy as an effective use of renewable energy because solar uses energy from the sun and does not release pollutants into the air.
Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (i.e., the OECD and former planned economies of the Soviet Union) are required to submit periodic assessments to the UNFCCC of actions they are taking to address climate change. Analysis by the UNFCCC (2011) suggested that policies and measures undertaken by Annex I Parties may have produced emission savings of 1.5 thousand Tg CO-eq in the year 2010, with most savings made in the energy sector. The projected emissions saving of 1.5 thousand Tg CO-eq is measured against a hypothetical "baseline '' of Annex I emissions, i.e., projected Annex I emissions in the absence of policies and measures. The total projected Annex I saving of 1.5 thousand CO-eq does not include emissions savings in seven of the Annex I Parties.
A wide range of projections of future emissions have been produced. Rogner et al. (2007) assessed the scientific literature on greenhouse gas projections. Rogner et al. (2007) concluded that unless energy policies changed substantially, the world would continue to depend on fossil fuels until 2025 -- 2030. Projections suggest that more than 80 % of the world 's energy will come from fossil fuels. This conclusion was based on "much evidence '' and "high agreement '' in the literature. Projected annual energy - related CO emissions in 2030 were 40 -- 110 % higher than in 2000, with two - thirds of the increase originating in developing countries. Projected annual per capita emissions in developed country regions remained substantially lower (2.8 -- 5.1 tonnes CO) than those in developed country regions (9.6 -- 15.1 tonnes CO). Projections consistently showed increase in annual world emissions of "Kyoto '' gases, measured in CO-equivalent) of 25 -- 90 % by 2030, compared to 2000.
One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. One US gallon produces 19.4 lb (1,291.5 gallons or 172.65 cubic feet)
A literature review of numerous energy sources CO emissions by the IPCC in 2011, found that, the CO emission value that fell within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies conducted was as follows.
Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes, as a consequence of:
A number of technologies remove greenhouse gases emissions from the atmosphere. Most widely analysed are those that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either to geologic formations such as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage and carbon dioxide air capture, or to the soil as in the case with biochar. The IPCC has pointed out that many long - term climate scenario models require large - scale manmade negative emissions to avoid serious climate change.
In the late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that N and O do not absorb infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation ''), while water (both as true vapor and condensed in the form of microscopic droplets suspended in clouds) and CO and other poly - atomic gaseous molecules do absorb infrared radiation. In the early 20th century researchers realized that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere made Earth 's overall temperature higher than it would be without them. During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with consequences for the environment and for human health.
|
when did season 2 this is us end | This is Us (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of the American television series This Is Us continues to follow the lives and connections of the Pearson family across several time periods. The season was produced by Rhode Island Ave. Productions, Zaftig Films, and 20th Century Fox Television, with Dan Fogelman, Isaac Aptaker, and Elizabeth Berger serving as showrunners.
A second and third season of This Is Us were ordered in January 2017, with production for season two beginning that July. The season stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Eris Baker, Faithe Herman, and Lonnie Chavis.
The second season, consisting of 18 episodes, aired from September 26, 2017, to March 13, 2018, on NBC. This Is Us served as the lead - out program for Super Bowl LII in February 2018 with the second season 's fourteenth episode.
On January 18, 2017, NBC renewed the series for a second and third season of 18 episodes each, for a total of 36 additional episodes. Dan Fogelman, Isaac Aptaker, and Elizabeth Berger served as the season 's showrunners.
Main cast members Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, and Ron Cephas Jones returned from the first season as Jack Pearson, Rebecca Pearson, Randall Pearson, Kate Pearson, Kevin Pearson, Beth Pearson, Toby Damon, and William H. Hill, respectively. Jon Huertas and Alexandra Breckenridge, who recurred as Miguel and Sophie, respectively, throughout the first season, were subsequently promoted to the principal cast in the second season. Also promoted to series regulars are young actors Hannah Zeile as teenage Kate, Niles Fitch as teenage Randall, Logan Shroyer as teenage Kevin, Mackenzie Hancsicsak as young Kate, Parker Bates as young Kevin, Faithe Herman as Annie Pearson, and Eris Baker as Tess Pearson. Lonnie Chavis began the season continuing as young Randall in a recurring role, but was ultimately promoted to series regular.
In August 2017, Sylvester Stallone and Debra Jo Rupp were cast in guest starring roles.
The show was awarded over $9.9 million in tax incentives by the California Film Commission for its second season. Production on the season began on July 11, 2017, in Los Angeles.
The second season was originally set to move to a Thursday timeslot, to anchor a new Must See TV lineup, alongside Will & Grace, Great News and Law & Order True Crime: The Menendez Murders, with NBC chairman Bob Greenblatt explaining, "While this is a bit risky, there is a bigger case to be made about redoing Thursday night. If there is one show we could move, it would be this one. '' However, on May 30, 2017, NBC decided to keep the series on Tuesdays at 9 pm EST, allowing it a run of 10 uninterrupted original episodes in the fall.
The season aired from September 26, 2017, to March 13, 2018, on NBC in the United States, and on CTV in Canada. This Is Us served as the lead - out program for Super Bowl LII on February 4, 2018.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % approval rating, with an average rating of 8.09 / 10, and an average episode score of 95 %, based on 20 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "This is Us continues to tug at heartstrings with an emotional exploration of family that ensures viewers will want to keep the tissues close -- and their loved ones closer. ''
General references
|
who are the founding members of the eagles | Eagles (band) - wikipedia
The Eagles are an American rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1971. The founding members were Glenn Frey (lead guitar, lead vocals), Don Henley (drums, lead vocals), Bernie Leadon (guitars, vocals) and Randy Meisner (bass guitar, vocals). With five number - one singles, six Grammy Awards, five American Music Awards, and six number one albums, the Eagles were one of the most successful musical acts of the 1970s. At the end of the 20th century, two of their albums, Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975) and Hotel California, were ranked among the 20 best - selling albums in the United States according to the Recording Industry Association of America. Hotel California is ranked 37th in Rolling Stone 's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time '' and the band was ranked number 75 on the magazine 's 2004 list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.
The Eagles are one of the world 's best - selling bands of all time, having sold more than 150 million records -- 100 million in the U.S. alone -- including 42 million copies of Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975) and 32 million copies of Hotel California. Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975) was the best selling album of the 20th century in the U.S. They are the fifth - highest - selling music act and the highest - selling American band in U.S. history.
The band released their debut album, Eagles, in 1972, which spawned three top 40 singles: "Take It Easy, '' "Witchy Woman, '' and "Peaceful Easy Feeling. '' Their next album, Desperado (1973), was less successful than the first, only reaching number 41 on the charts; neither of its singles reached the top 40. However, the album does contain what would go on to be two of the band 's most popular tracks: "Desperado '' and "Tequila Sunrise. '' The band released On the Border in 1974, adding guitarist Don Felder as the fifth member midway through the recording of the album. The album generated two top 40 singles: "Already Gone '' and their first number one, "Best of My Love. ''
Their 1975 album One of These Nights included three top 10 singles: "One of These Nights, '' "Lyin ' Eyes, '' and "Take It to the Limit, '' the first hitting the top of the charts. Guitarist and vocalist Joe Walsh also joined the band in 1975. The Eagles continued that success and hit their commercial peak in late 1976 with the release of Hotel California, which would go on to sell more than 16 million copies in the U.S. alone and more than 32 million copies worldwide. The album yielded two number - one singles, "New Kid in Town '' and "Hotel California. '' They released their last studio album for nearly 28 years in 1979 with The Long Run, which spawned three top 10 singles: "Heartache Tonight, '' "The Long Run, '' and "I Ca n't Tell You Why, '' the lead single being another chart - topping hit.
The Eagles disbanded in July 1980 but reunited in 1994 for the album Hell Freezes Over, a mix of live and new studio tracks. They toured consistently and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998. In 2007, the Eagles released Long Road Out of Eden, their first full studio album in 28 years and their sixth number one album. The next year they launched the Long Road Out of Eden Tour in support of the album. In 2013, they began the extended History of the Eagles Tour in conjunction with the band 's documentary release, History of the Eagles.
Following the death of Frey in January 2016, Henley stated in several interviews that he did not think the band would perform again. However, in March 2017 it was announced that the Eagles would be headlining two concerts in July 2017.
The Eagles began in early 1971, when Linda Ronstadt and then - manager John Boylan recruited local musicians Glenn Frey and Don Henley for her band. Henley had moved to Los Angeles from Texas with his band Shiloh to record an album produced by Kenny Rogers, and Frey had come from Michigan and formed Longbranch Pennywhistle; they had met in 1970 at The Troubadour in Los Angeles and became acquainted through their mutual record label, Amos Records. Randy Meisner, who had been working with Ricky Nelson 's backing band, the Stone Canyon Band, and Bernie Leadon, a veteran of the Flying Burrito Brothers, also later joined Ronstadt 's group of performers for her summer tour promoting the Silk Purse album.
While on the tour, Frey and Henley decided to form a band together and informed Ronstadt of their intention. Frey later credited Ronstadt with suggesting Leadon for the band, and arranging for Leadon to play for her so Frey and Henley could approach him about forming a band together. They also pitched the idea to Meisner and brought him on board. These four played live together behind Ronstadt only once for a July concert at Disneyland, but all four appeared on her eponymous album. It was later proposed that J.D. Souther should join the band, but Meisner objected. The four were signed in September 1971 to Asylum Records, the new label started by David Geffen, who was introduced to Frey by Jackson Browne. Geffen bought out Frey 's and Henley 's contracts with Amos Records, and sent the four to Aspen, Colorado to develop as a band. Having not settled on a band name yet, they performed their first show in October 1971 under the name of Teen King and the Emergencies at a club called The Gallery in Aspen. Don Felder credited Leadon with originating the name of Eagles for the band during a peyote and tequila - influenced group outing in the Mojave Desert, when he recalled reading about the Hopis ' reverence for the eagle. Accounts however vary, and J.D. Souther suggested that the idea came when Frey shouted out, "Eagles! '' when they saw eagles flying above. Steve Martin, a friend of the band from their early days at The Troubadour, recounts in his autobiography that he suggested that they should be referred to as "the Eagles, '' but Frey insists that the group 's name is simply "Eagles. '' Geffen and partner Elliot Roberts initially managed the band; they were later replaced by Irving Azoff while the Eagles were recording their third album.
The group 's eponymous debut album was recorded in England in February 1972 with producer Glyn Johns. Johns was impressed by the harmony singing of the band, and he has been credited with shaping the band into "the country - rock band with those high - flyin ' harmonies. '' Released on June 1, 1972, Eagles was a breakthrough success, yielding three Top 40 singles. The first single and lead track, "Take It Easy, '' was a song written by Frey with his then - neighbor and fellow country - folk rocker Jackson Browne. Browne had written the first verse of the song, but got stalled on the second verse after the line "I 'm standing on a corner in Winslow, Arizona. '' Frey completed the verse with "It 's a girl, my Lord, in a flatbed Ford, slowin ' down to take a look at me, '' and Browne carried on to finish the song. The song reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and propelled the Eagles to stardom. The single was followed by the bluesy "Witchy Woman '' and the soft country rock ballad "Peaceful Easy Feeling, '' charting at number 9 and number 22 respectively. The group supported the album with a US tour as the opening act for Yes.
Their second album, Desperado, took Old West outlaws for its theme, drawing comparisons between their lifestyles and modern rock stars. This album was the first to showcase the group 's penchant for conceptual songwriting. It was during these recording sessions Henley and Frey first began writing together. They co-wrote eight of the album 's eleven songs, including "Tequila Sunrise '' and "Desperado, '' two of the group 's most popular songs. The bluegrass songs "Twenty - One, '' "Doolin -- Dalton, '' and the ballad "Saturday Night '' showcase guitarist Bernie Leadon 's abilities on the banjo, guitar, and mandolin. The story of the notorious Wild West "Doolin -- Dalton '' gang is the main thematic focus of the album, as seen in the songs "Doolin -- Dalton, '' "Desperado, '' "Certain Kind of Fool, '' "Outlaw Man, '' and "Bitter Creek. '' The album was less successful than the group 's first, reaching only number 41 on the US Billboard 200 and yielding two singles, "Tequila Sunrise, '' which reached number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 and "Outlaw Man, '' which peaked at number 59. With Henley and Frey co-writing the bulk of the album -- a pattern that would continue for years to come -- the album marked a significant change for the band. The pair also began to dominate in terms of leadership; the early assumption had been that Leadon and Meisner as veteran musicians would have a greater influence on the band.
For their next album, On the Border, Henley and Frey wanted the band to break away from the country rock style and move more towards hard rock. The Eagles initially started with Glyn Johns as the producer for this album, but he tended to emphasize the lush side of their double - edged music. After completing only two usable songs, the band turned to Bill Szymczyk to produce the rest of the album. Szymczyk wanted a harder - edged guitarist for the song "Good Day in Hell '' and the band remembered Bernie Leadon 's childhood friend Don Felder, a guitarist who had jammed backstage with the band in 1972 when they opened for Yes in Boston. Felder had been nicknamed "Fingers '' at the jam by Frey, a name that stuck due to his guitar proficiency. In January 1974, Frey called Felder to add slide guitar to the song "Good Day in Hell '' and the band was so impressed that they invited him to join the group as the fifth Eagle the next day. He appeared on one other song on the album, the uptempo breakup song "Already Gone, '' on which he performed a guitar duet with Frey. "Already Gone '' was released as the first single from the album and it reached number 32 on the charts. On the Border yielded a number 1 Billboard single ("Best of My Love ''), which hit the top of the charts on March 1, 1975. The song was the Eagles ' first of five chart toppers. The album included a cover version of the Tom Waits song "Ol ' ' 55 '' and the single "James Dean, '' which reached number 77 on the charts.
The band played at the California Jam festival in Ontario, California on April 6, 1974. Attracting more than 300,000 fans and billed as "the Woodstock of the West Coast, '' the festival featured Black Sabbath, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Deep Purple, Earth, Wind & Fire, Seals & Crofts, Black Oak Arkansas, and Rare Earth. Portions of the show were telecast on ABC television in the United States, exposing the Eagles to a wider audience. Felder missed the show when he was called away to attend the birth of his son; Jackson Browne filled in for him on piano and acoustic guitar.
The Eagles released their fourth studio album, One of These Nights, on June 10, 1975. A breakthrough album for the Eagles, making them international superstars, it was the first in a string of four consecutive number 1 albums. The dominant songwriting partnership of Henley and Frey continued on this album. The first single was the title track, which became their second consecutive chart topper. Frey has said it is his all - time favorite Eagles tune. The second single was "Lyin ' Eyes, '' which reached number 2 on the charts and won the band their first Grammy for "Best Pop Performance by a duo or group with vocal. '' The final single, "Take It to the Limit, '' was written by Meisner, Henley, and Frey, and it is the only Eagles single to feature Meisner on lead vocals. The song reached number 4 on the charts. The band launched a huge worldwide tour in support of the album, and the album was nominated for a Grammy award for Album of the Year. The group was featured on the cover of the September 25, 1975 issue of Rolling Stone magazine and on September 28, the band joined Linda Ronstadt, Jackson Browne, and Toots and the Maytals for a show in front of 55,000 people at Anaheim Stadium.
One of These Nights was their last album to feature founding member Bernie Leadon. Leadon wrote or co-wrote three songs for the album, including "I Wish You Peace, '' written with girlfriend Patti Davis (daughter of California governor Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan); and the instrumental "Journey of the Sorcerer, '' which would later be used as the theme music for the BBC 's radio and television versions of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy. Leadon was disillusioned with the direction the band 's music was taking and his loss of creative control as their sound was moving from his preferred country to rock and roll. His dissatisfaction, principally with Frey, boiled over one night when Frey was talking animatedly about the direction they should take next, and Leadon poured a beer over Frey 's head, and said: "You need to chill out, man! '' On December 20, 1975, after months of denials, it was announced that Leadon had left the band.
Leadon 's replacement, officially announced on December 20, 1975, was guitarist, singer, and keyboardist Joe Walsh, who had been a friend of the band for some years. He had previously performed with James Gang, Barnstorm, and as a solo artist; he was also managed by Azoff and used Szymczyk as his record producer. There was some initial concern as to Walsh 's ability to fit in with the band, as he was considered too "wild '' for the Eagles, especially by Henley. After the departure of Leadon, the Eagles ' early country sound almost completely disappeared, with the band employing a harder sound with the addition of Felder and Walsh; however, Felder also had to play banjo, pedal steel and mandolin on future tours, something that had previously been Leadon 's domain.
In early 1976, the band released their first compilation album, Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975). The album became the highest - selling album of the 20th century in the United States, and has since sold 29 million copies in the U.S. and 42 million copies worldwide. It stayed the biggest seller of all time until it was taken over by Michael Jackson 's Thriller following the artist 's death in 2009. The album cemented the group 's status as the most successful American band of the decade.
The following album, Hotel California, released on December 8, 1976, was the band 's fifth studio album and the first to feature Walsh. The album took a year and a half to complete, a process which, along with touring, drained the band. The album 's first single, "New Kid in Town, '' became the Eagles ' third number - one single.
The second single was the title track, which topped the charts in May 1977 and became the Eagles ' signature song. It features Henley on lead vocals, with a guitar duet performed by Felder and Walsh. The song was written by Felder, Henley, and Frey, with Felder writing all the music. The mysterious lyrics have been interpreted in many ways, some of them controversial. Rumors even started in certain quarters that the song was about Satanism. The rumor was dismissed by the band and later by Henley in the documentary film History of the Eagles. Henley told 60 Minutes in 2007 that "it 's basically a song about the dark underbelly of the American Dream and about excess in America, which was something we knew about. ''
With its hard rock sound, "Life in the Fast Lane '' was also a major success that established Walsh 's position in the band. The third and final single from Hotel California, it reached number 11 on the charts. The ballad "Wasted Time '' closes the first side of the album, while an instrumental reprise of it opens the second side. The album concludes with "The Last Resort, '' a song that Frey once referred to as "Henley 's opus, '' but which Henley described as "fairly pedestrian '' and "never fully realized, musically speaking. ''
The run - out groove on side two has the words "V.O.L. Is Five - Piece Live '' etched into the vinyl, which means that the instrumental track for the song "Victim of Love '' was recorded live in the studio, with no overdubs. Henley confirms this in the liner notes of The Very Best Of. However, the song was a point of contention between Don Felder and the rest of the band. In the 2013 documentary, Felder claimed that he had been promised the lead vocal on "Victim of Love, '' for which he had written most of the music. After many unproductive attempts to record Felder 's vocal, band manager Irving Azoff was delegated to take Felder out for a meal, removing him from the mix while Don Henley overdubbed his lead vocal. Hotel California appeared at number 37 on Rolling Stone 's list of the best albums of all time, and is the band 's best - selling studio album, with more than 17 million copies sold in the U.S. alone and more than 32 million copies worldwide.
The album won Grammys for "Record of the Year '' ("Hotel California '') and "Best Arrangement for Voices '' ("New Kid in Town ''). Hotel California topped the charts and was nominated for Album of the Year at the 1978 Grammy Awards, but lost to Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours. The huge worldwide tour in support of the album further drained the band members and strained their personal and creative relationships.
Hotel California is the last album to feature founding member Randy Meisner, who abruptly left the band after the 1977 tour. The Eagles had been touring continuously for eleven months; the band was suffering from the strain of the tour, and Meisner 's stomach ulcers had flared up by the time they arrived in Knoxville in June 1977. Meisner had been struggling to hit the crucial high notes in his signature song, "Take It To the Limit, '' and was unwilling to perform the song, Frey and Meisner then became engaged in arguments about Meisner 's reluctance to perform. Meisner decided to not sing the song as an encore at the Knoxville concert because he had been up late and caught the flu. Frey and Meisner then got into an angry physical confrontation backstage, and Meisner left the venue. After the incident, Meisner was frozen out from the band, and he decided to leave the group at the end of the tour and return to Nebraska to be with his family. His last performance was in East Troy, Wisconsin on September 3, 1977. The band replaced Meisner with the same musician who had succeeded him in Poco, Timothy B. Schmit, after agreeing that Schmit was the only candidate.
In 1977, the group, minus Don Felder, performed instrumental work and backing vocals for Randy Newman 's album Little Criminals, including "Short People, '' which has backup vocals by Frey and Schmit.
The Eagles went into the recording studio in 1977 to begin work on their next album, The Long Run. The album took two years to complete. It was originally intended to be a double album, but the band members were unable to write enough songs. The Long Run was released on September 24, 1979. Considered a disappointment by some critics for failing to live up to Hotel California, it proved a huge commercial hit nonetheless; the album topped the charts and sold seven million copies. In addition, it included three Top 10 singles. "Heartache Tonight '' became their last single to top the Hot 100, on November 10, 1979. The title track and "I Ca n't Tell You Why '' both reached number 8. The band won their fourth Grammy for "Heartache Tonight. '' "In The City '' by Walsh and "The Sad Cafe '' became live staples. The band also recorded two Christmas songs during these sessions, "Funky New Year '' and "Please Come Home for Christmas, '' which was released as a single in 1978 and reached number 18 on the charts.
Frey, Henley and Schmit contributed backup vocals for the single release of "Look What You 've Done to Me '' by Boz Scaggs. A different version with female backing vocals appears on the Urban Cowboy soundtrack, along with the Eagles ' 1975 hit "Lyin ' Eyes. ''
On July 31, 1980, in Long Beach, California, tempers boiled over into what has been described as the "Long Night at Wrong Beach. '' The animosity between Felder and Frey boiled over before the show began, when Felder said, "You 're welcome -- I guess '' to California Senator Alan Cranston 's wife as the politician was thanking the band backstage for performing a benefit for his reelection. Frey and Felder spent the entire show telling each other about the beating each planned to administer backstage. "Only three more songs until I kick your ass, pal, '' Frey recalled Felder telling him near the end of the band 's set. Felder recalls Frey telling him during "Best of My Love, '' "I 'm gon na kick your ass when we get off the stage. ''
It appeared to be the end of the Eagles, but the band still had a commitment with Elektra Records to make a live record from the tour. Eagles Live (released in November 1980) was mixed on opposite coasts. Frey had already left the band and would remain in Los Angeles, while the other band members each worked on their parts in Miami. "We were fixing three - part harmonies courtesy of Federal Express, '' said producer Bill Szymczyk. Frey refused to speak to the other Eagles, and he fired Irving Azoff as his manager. With credits that listed five attorneys, the album 's liner notes simply said, "Thank you and goodnight. '' A single released from the album -- "Seven Bridges Road '' -- had been a live concert staple for the band. It was written by Steve Young in an arrangement created by Iain Matthews for his Valley Hi album in 1973. The song reached number 21 on the charts in 1980, becoming the Eagles ' last Top 40 single until 1994.
After the Eagles broke up, the former members pursued solo careers. Elektra, the band 's long - time record label, owned the rights to solo albums created by members of the Eagles (though several of them moved to different labels in ensuing years). Walsh had established himself as a solo artist in the 1970s, before and during his time with the Eagles, but it was uncharted waters for the others. Walsh released a successful album in 1981, There Goes the Neighborhood, but subsequent albums throughout the 1980s, such as Got Any Gum? were less well received. During this period Walsh performed as a session musician for Dan Fogelberg, Steve Winwood, John Entwistle, Richard Marx and Emerson, Lake & Palmer, among others, and produced and co-wrote Ringo Starr 's Old Wave album.
Henley achieved arguably the greatest commercial solo success of any former Eagle. In 1981, he sang a duet with Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac fame, "Leather and Lace. '' In 1982, he released I Ca n't Stand Still, featuring the hit "Dirty Laundry. '' This album would pale in comparison to his next release, Building the Perfect Beast (1984), which features the classic rock radio staples "The Boys of Summer '' (a Billboard number 5 hit), "All She Wants to Do Is Dance '' (number 9), "Not Enough Love in the World '' (number 34) and "Sunset Grill '' (number 22). Henley 's next album, The End of the Innocence (1989), was also a major success. It includes "The End of the Innocence, '' "The Last Worthless Evening '' and "The Heart of the Matter. '' His solo career was cut short due to a contract dispute with his record company, which was finally resolved when the Eagles reunited in 1994.
Frey also achieved solo success in the 1980s. In 1982, he released his first album, No Fun Aloud, which spawned the number 15 hit, "The One You Love. '' The Allnighter (1984) featured the number 20 hit "Sexy Girl. '' He reached number 2 on the charts with "The Heat Is On '' from the Beverly Hills Cop soundtrack. He had another number 2 single in 1985 with "You Belong to the City '' from the Miami Vice soundtrack, which featured another Frey song, "Smuggler 's Blues. '' He appeared as "Jimmy '' in the episode titled after the song and contributed riffs to the episode 's soundtrack. He also contributed the songs "Flip City '' to the Ghostbusters II soundtrack and "Part of Me, Part of You '' to the soundtrack for Thelma & Louise.
Music writer turned filmmaker Cameron Crowe, an Eagles fan, had written articles about Poco and the Eagles during his journalism career. In 1982 his first screenplay was produced as the feature - length movie Fast Times at Ridgemont High. The film was co-produced by Eagles manager Azoff, who also co-produced the soundtrack album, released by Elektra. Henley, Walsh, Schmit and Felder all contributed solo songs to the film 's soundtrack. The band playing at the dance toward the end of the movie covers the Eagles song "Life in the Fast Lane. ''
Felder also released a solo album and contributed two songs to the soundtrack of the movie Heavy Metal: "Heavy Metal (Takin ' a Ride) '' (with Henley and Schmit providing backing vocals) and "All of You. '' He also had a minor hit called "Bad Girls '' off his solo album Airborne.
Schmit had a prolific solo career after the band 's initial breakup. He had a hit song on the Fast Times at Ridgemont High soundtrack with "So Much in Love. '' He contributed vocals to the Crosby, Stills & Nash album Daylight Again on the songs "Southern Cross '' and "Wasted on the Way '' when that band needed an extra vocalist due to David Crosby 's drug overindulgence. Schmit sang backup vocals on Toto 's Toto IV album, including the song "I Wo n't Hold You Back '' and appeared with the group on their 1982 European tour. He spent three years (1983 -- 1985) as a member of Jimmy Buffett 's Coral Reefer band and coined the term "Parrotheads '' for Buffett 's die - hard fans. He had a Top 40 solo hit in 1987 with "Boys ' Night Out '' and a top - 30 Adult Contemporary hit with "Do n't Give Up, '' both from his album Timothy B. Schmit appeared with Meisner and Walsh on Richard Marx 's debut single "Do n't Mean Nothing. '' In 1992, Schmit and Walsh toured as members of Ringo Starr 's All - Starr Band and appeared on the live video from the Montreux Jazz Festival. Schmit released two solo albums, Playin ' It Cool in 1984 and Tell Me the Truth in 1990. He was the only Eagle to appear on the 1993 Eagles tribute album Common Thread: The Songs of the Eagles, singing backing vocals on Vince Gill 's cover of "I Ca n't Tell You Why. ''
Meisner hit the top 40 three times, including the number 19 "Hearts on Fire '' in 1981.
An Eagles country tribute album, titled Common Thread: The Songs of the Eagles, was released in 1993, 13 years after the breakup. Travis Tritt insisted on having the Long Run - era Eagles in his video for "Take It Easy '' and they agreed. Following years of public speculation, the band formally reunited the following year. The lineup comprised the five Long Run - era members -- Frey, Henley, Walsh, Felder, and Schmit -- supplemented by Scott Crago (drums), John Corey (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), Timothy Drury (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), and former Loggins and Messina sideman Al Garth (sax, violin) on stage.
"For the record, we never broke up, we just took a 14 - year vacation, '' announced Henley at their first live performance in April 1994. The ensuing tour spawned a live album titled Hell Freezes Over (named for Henley 's recurring statement that the group would get back together "when hell freezes over ''), which debuted at number 1 on the Billboard album chart. It included four new studio songs, with "Get Over It '' and "Love Will Keep Us Alive '' both becoming Top 40 hits. The album proved as successful as the tour, selling six million copies in the U.S. The tour was interrupted in September 1994 because of Frey 's serious recurrence of diverticulitis, but it resumed in 1995 and continued into 1996. In 1998, the Eagles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. For the induction ceremony, all seven Eagles members (Frey, Henley, Felder, Walsh, Schmit, Leadon, and Meisner) played together for two songs, "Take It Easy '' and "Hotel California. '' Several subsequent reunion tours followed (without Leadon or Meisner), notable for their record - setting ticket prices.
The Eagles performed at the Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas on December 28 and 29, 1999, followed by a concert at the Staples Center in Los Angeles on December 31. These concerts marked the last time Felder played with the band and the shows (including a planned video release) would later form a part of a lawsuit filed by Felder against his former band mates. The concert recordings were released on CD as part of the four - disc Selected Works: 1972 -- 1999 box set in November 2000. Along with the concert, this set included the band 's hit singles, album tracks and outtakes from The Long Run sessions. Selected Works received platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2002. The group resumed touring in 2001, with a line - up consisting of Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit, along with Steuart Smith (guitars, mandolin, keyboards, backing vocals; essentially taking over Felder 's role), Michael Thompson (keyboards, trombone), Will Hollis (keyboards, backing vocals), Scott Crago (drums, percussion), Bill Armstrong (Horns), Al Garth (sax, violin), Christian Mostert (sax), and Greg Smith (sax, percussion).
On February 6, 2001, Don Felder was fired from the Eagles. He responded by filing two lawsuits against "Eagles, Ltd., '' a California corporation; Don Henley, an individual; Glenn Frey, an individual; and "Does 1 -- 50, '' alleging wrongful termination, breach of implied - in - fact contract and breach of fiduciary duty, reportedly seeking $50 million in damages. Felder alleged that from the 1994 Hell Freezes Over tour onward, Henley and Frey had. "... insisted that they each receive a higher percentage of the band 's profits..., '' whereas the money had previously been split in five equal portions. Felder accused them of coercing him into signing an agreement under which Henley and Frey would receive three times as much of the Selected Works: 1972 -- 1999 proceeds.
On behalf of Henley and Frey, attorney Daniel M. Petrocelli responded by saying "(Henley and Frey) felt -- creatively, chemistry-wise and performance-wise -- that he should no longer be part of the band... They removed him, and they had every legal right to do so. This has been happening with rock ' n ' roll bands since day one. Henley and Frey then countersued Felder for breach of contract, alleging that Felder had written a "tell - all '' book, Heaven and Hell: My Life in the Eagles (1974 -- 2001). The initial U.S. release was canceled after publisher Hyperion Books backed out in September 2001, when an entire print run of the book had to be recalled for cuts and changes. The American edition was published by John Wiley & Sons on April 28, 2008, with Felder embarking on a full publicity campaign surrounding its release. The book was published in the United Kingdom on November 1, 2007.
On January 23, 2002, the Los Angeles County Court consolidated the two complaints, set a trial date for September 2006, and the single case was dismissed on May 8, 2007, after being settled out of court for an undisclosed amount.
In 2003, the Eagles released a greatest hits album, The Very Best Of. The two - disc compilation was the first that encompassed their entire career from Eagles to Hell Freezes Over. It debuted at number 3 on the Billboard charts and eventually gained triple platinum status. The album included a new single, the September 11 attacks - themed "Hole in the World. '' Also in 2003, Warren Zevon, a longtime Eagles friend, began work on his final album, The Wind, with the assistance of Henley, Walsh, and Schmit.
On June 14, 2005, the Eagles released a new 2 - DVD set, Farewell 1 Tour - Live from Melbourne, featuring two new songs: Frey 's "No More Cloudy Days '' and Walsh 's "One Day at a Time. '' A special edition 2006 release, exclusive to Walmart and affiliated stores, includes a bonus audio CD with three new songs: a studio version of "No More Cloudy Days, '' "Fast Company, '' and "Do Something. ''
In 2007, the Eagles consisted of Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit. On August 20, 2007, "How Long, '' written by J.D. Souther, was released as a single to radio with an accompanying online video at Yahoo! Music. It debuted on television on Country Music Television during the Top 20 Countdown on August 23, 2007. The band had performed the song as part of their live sets in the early to mid-1970s, but did not record it at the time because Souther wanted to reserve it for use on his first solo album. Souther had previously worked with the Eagles, co-writing some of their biggest hits, including "Best of My Love, '' "Victim of Love, '' "Heartache Tonight, '' and "New Kid in Town. ''
On October 30, 2007, the Eagles released Long Road Out of Eden, their first album of all - new material since 1979. For the first year after the album 's release, it was available in the U.S. only via the band 's website, at Walmart, and at Sam 's Club stores. It was commercially available through traditional retail outlets in other countries. The album debuted at number 1 in the U.S., the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Netherlands, and Norway. It became their third studio album and seventh release overall to be certified at least seven times platinum by the RIAA. Henley told CNN that "This is probably the last Eagles album that we 'll ever make. ''
The Eagles made their awards show debut on November 7, 2007, when they performed "How Long '' live at the Country Music Association Awards.
On January 28, 2008, the second single of Long Road Out of Eden was released. "Busy Being Fabulous '' peaked at number 28 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart. The Eagles won their fifth Grammy in 2008, in the category Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for "How Long. ''
On March 20, 2008, the Eagles launched their world tour in support of Long Road Out of Eden at The O2 Arena in London. The Long Road Out of Eden Tour concluded the American portion of the tour at Rio Tinto Stadium in Sandy, Utah on May 9, 2009. It was the first concert ever held in the new soccer stadium. The tour travelled to Europe, with its final concert date on July 22, 2009, in Lisbon. The band spent the summer of 2010 touring North American stadiums with the Dixie Chicks and Keith Urban. The tour expanded to England as the headline act of the Hop Farm Festival on July 1, 2011.
Asked in November 2010 whether the Eagles were planning a follow - up to Long Road Out of Eden, Schmit replied, "My first reaction would be: no way. But I said that before the last one, so you never really know. Bands are a fragile entity and you never know what 's going to happen. It took a long time to do that last album, over a span of years, really, and it took a lot out of us. We took a year off at one point. I 'm not sure if we 're able to do that again. I would n't close the door on it, but I do n't know. '' Walsh said in 2010 that there might be one more album before the band "wraps it up. '' Frey later stated in a 2012 interview that the band has had discussions about releasing an EP of potentially 4 -- 6 songs that may contain both original and cover material.
In February 2013, the Eagles released a career - spanning documentary called History of the Eagles and began the supporting tour with 11 US arena dates from July 6 to 25. Henley said that the tour, which expanded internationally and continued until July 29, 2015, "could very well be our last... we 're gon na include at least one former band member in this tour and kinda go back to the roots, and how we created some of these songs. We 're gon na break it down to the fundamentals and then take it up to where it is now. '' Original Eagles guitarist Bernie Leadon also appeared on the tour. Walsh stated, "Bernie 's brilliant, I never really got a chance to play with him, but we 've been in contact. We see him from time to time, and I 'm really glad he 's coming because it 's going to take the show up a notch, and I 'm really looking forward to playing with him, finally. '' Former members Randy Meisner and Don Felder did not appear. Meisner had been invited but could not participate for health reasons, while Felder was never asked. Though his lawsuits against the Eagles were settled in 2007, Henley claimed that Felder continued to "engage in legal action, of one kind or another '' against the band, but did not state what actions those are.
Four of the Eagles (Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit) were slated to receive Kennedy Center Honors in 2015, but this was deferred to 2016 due to Frey 's medical problems.
On January 18, 2016, founding member Glenn Frey died in the Washington Heights section of New York City at the age of 67, leaving Don Henley as the only remaining original member. According to the band 's website, the causes of his death were rheumatoid arthritis, acute ulcerative colitis, and pneumonia while recovering from intestinal surgery.
At the 58th Annual Grammy Awards in February, the Eagles, joined by Leadon, touring guitarist Steuart Smith, and co-writer Jackson Browne, performed "Take It Easy '' in honor of Frey. In subsequent interviews, Henley stated that he did n't think the band would perform again. However, in March 2017, it was announced that the band would be headlining the Classic West and Classic East concert events in July 2017, which were organized by their manager Irving Azoff. Don Henley confirmed on May 16, 2017 that Glenn Frey 's son Deacon would be performing in Glenn 's place, along with another "surprise musician. '' It was subsequently announced that Vince Gill would perform with the Eagles at the July concerts. At the Classic West concert on July 15, the band was joined by Bob Seger who sang "Heartache Tonight '', which he co-wrote. Deacon Frey was noted for his composure and precision.
Influenced by 1960s rhythm and blues, soul, bluegrass, and rock bands such as the Byrds and Buffalo Springfield, the Eagles ' overall sound has been described as "California rock. '' In the words of Sal Manna, author of the CD liner notes of the band 's 1994 album Hell Freezes Over, "no one knew quite what ' California rock ' meant -- except perhaps that, because in California anything was possible, music that came from that promising land was more free - spirited and free - ranging. '' Rolling Stone described the Eagles ' sound as "country - tinged vocal harmonies with hard rock guitars and lyrics. ''
The group 's sound has also been described as country rock, soft rock and folk rock, and in later years the band became associated with the album rock and arena rock labels.
On their early records, the group combined rock and roll, country, and folk music styles. For their third album On the Border, the band widened their style to include a prominent hard rock sound, a genre the band had only touched upon previously. The 1975 follow - up album One of These Nights saw the group explore a softer sound, notably exemplified on the hit singles "Take It to the Limit, '' and "Lyin ' Eyes. The band 's 2007 comeback album Long Road Out of Eden saw them explore country rock, blues rock, and funk.
(Note: Original members ' names are in bold.)
Sources
|
what was the first literature of the anglo-saxons | Old English literature - wikipedia
Old English literature or Anglo - Saxon literature, encompasses literature written in Old English, in Anglo - Saxon England from the 7th century to the decades after the Norman Conquest of 1066. "Cædmon 's Hymn '', composed in the 7th century, according to Bede, is often considered the oldest extant poem in English, whereas the later poem, The Grave is one of the final poems written in Old English, and presents a transitional text between Old and Middle English. The Peterborough Chronicle can also be considered a late - period text, continuing into the 12th century.
The poem Beowulf, which often begins the traditional canon of English literature, is the most famous work of Old English literature. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle has also proven significant for historical study, preserving a chronology of early English history.
In descending order of quantity, Old English literature consists of: sermons and saints ' lives; biblical translations; translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers; Anglo - Saxon chronicles and narrative history works; laws, wills and other legal works; practical works on grammar, medicine, geography; and poetry. In all there are over 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, of which about 189 are considered "major ''.
Besides Old English literature, Anglo - Saxons wrote a number of Anglo - Latin works.
Old English literature has gone through different periods of research; in the 19th and early 20th centuries the focus was on the Germanic and pagan roots that scholars thought they could detect in Old English literature. Later, on account of the work of Bernard F. Huppé, the influence of Augustinian exegesis was emphasised. Today, along with a focus upon paleography and the physical manuscripts themselves more generally, scholars debate such issues as dating, place of origin, authorship, and the connections between Anglo - Saxon culture and the rest of Europe in the Middle Ages, and literary merits.
A large number of manuscripts remain from the Anglo - Saxon period, with most written during its last 300 years (9th to 11th centuries).
Manuscripts written in both Latin and the vernacular remain. It is believed that Irish missionaries are responsible for the scripts used in early Anglo - Saxon texts, which include the Insular half - uncial (important Latin texts) and Insular minuscule (both Latin and the vernacular). In the 10th century, the Caroline minuscule was adopted for Latin, however the Insular minuscule continued to be used for Old English texts. Thereafter, it was increasingly influenced by Caroline minuscule, while retaining certain distinctively Insular letter - forms.
There were considerable losses of manuscripts as a result of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century. Scholarly study of the language began when the manuscripts were collected by scholars and antiquarians such as Matthew Parker, Laurence Nowell and Sir Robert Bruce Cotton.
Old English manuscripts have been highly prized by collectors since the 16th century, both for their historic value and for their aesthetic beauty with their uniformly spaced letters and decorative elements.
There are four major poetic manuscripts:
Seven major scriptoria produced a good deal of Old English manuscripts: Winchester; Exeter; Worcester; Abingdon; Durham; and two Canterbury houses, Christ Church and St. Augustine 's Abbey. In addition, some Old English text survives on stone structures and other ornate objects.
Regional dialects include: Northumbrian; Mercian; Kentish; and West dialect, leading to the speculation that much of the poetry may have been translated into West Saxon at a later date. An example of the dominance of the West Saxon dialect is a pair of charters, from the Stowe and British Museum collections, which outline grants of land in Kent and Mercia, but are nonetheless written in the West Saxon dialect of the period.
Early English manuscripts often contain later annotations in the margins of the texts; it is a rarity to find a completely unannotated manuscript. These include corrections, alterations and expansions of the main text, as well as commentary upon it, and even unrelated texts. The majority of these annotations appear to date to the 13th century and later.
Old English poetry falls broadly into two styles or fields of reference, the heroic Germanic and the Christian. Almost all Old English poets are anonymous.
Although there are Anglo - Saxon discourses on Latin prosody, the rules of Old English verse are understood only through modern analysis of the extant texts. The first widely accepted theory was constructed by Eduard Sievers (1893), who distinguished five distinct alliterative patterns. His system of alliterative verse is based on accent, alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic languages. Two poetic figures commonly found in Old English poetry are the kenning, an often formulaic phrase that describes one thing in terms of another (e.g. in Beowulf, the sea is called the whale road) and litotes, a dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect. Alternative theories have been proposed, such as the theory of John C. Pope (1942), which uses musical notation to track the verse patterns. J.R.R. Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay "On Translating Beowulf ''.
Even though all extant Old English poetry is written and literate, it is assumed that Old English poetry was an oral craft that was performed by a scop and accompanied by a harp.
Most Old English poems are recorded without authors, and very few names are known with any certainty; the primary three are Cædmon, Aldhelm, and Cynewulf.
Cædmon is considered the first Old English poet whose work still survives. According to the account in Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica, he was first a herdsman before living as a monk at the abbey of Whitby in Northumbria in the 7th century. Only his first poem, comprising nine - lines, Cædmon 's Hymn, remains, in Northumbrian, West - Saxon and Latin versions that appear in 19 surviving manuscripts:
Cynewulf has proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent research suggests he was an Anglian poet from the early part of the 9th century. Four poems are attributed to him, signed with a runic acrostic at the end of each poem; these are The Fates of the Apostles and Elene (both found in the Vercelli Book), and Christ II and Juliana (both found in the Exeter Book).
Although William of Malmesbury claims that Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), performed secular songs while accompanied by a harp, none of these Old English poems survives. Paul G. Remely has recently proposed that the Old English Exodus may have been the work of Aldhelm, or someone closely associated with him.
Bede is often thought to be the poet of a five - line poem entitled Bede 's Death Song, on account of its appearance in a letter on his death by Cuthbert. This poem exists in a Northumbrian and later version.
Alfred is said to be the author of some of the metrical prefaces to the Old English translations of Gregory 's Pastoral Care and Boethius 's Consolation of Philosophy. Alfred is also thought to be the author of 50 metrical psalms, but whether the poems were written by him, under his direction or patronage, or as a general part in his reform efforts is unknown.
The hypotheses of Milman Parry and Albert Lord on the Homeric Question came to be applied (by Parry and Lord, but also by Francis Magoun) to verse written in Old English. That is, the theory proposes that certain features of at least some of the poetry may be explained by positing oral - formulaic composition. While Anglo - Saxon (Old English) epic poetry may bear some resemblance to Ancient Greek epics such as the Iliad and Odyssey, the question of if and how Anglo - Saxon poetry was passed down through an oral tradition remains a subject of debate, and the question for any particular poem unlikely to be answered with perfect certainty.
Parry and Lord had already demonstrated the density of metrical formulas in Ancient Greek, and observed that the same phenomenon was apparent in the Old English alliterative line:
In addition to verbal formulas, many themes have been shown to appear among the various works of Anglo - Saxon literature. The theory proposes to explain this fact by suggesting that the poetry was composed of formulae and themes from a stock common to the poetic profession, as well as literary passages composed by individual artists in a more modern sense. Larry Benson introduced the concept of "written - formulaic '' to describe the status of some Anglo - Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes. Frequent oral - formulaic themes in Old English poetry include "Beasts of Battle '' and the "Cliff of Death ''. The former, for example, is characterised by the mention of ravens, eagles, and wolves preceding particularly violent depictions of battle. Among the most thoroughly documented themes is "The Hero on the Beach ''. D.K. Crowne first proposed this theme, defined by four characteristics:
One example Crowne cites in his article is that which concludes Beowulf 's fight with the monsters during his swimming match with Breca:
Crowne drew on examples of the theme 's appearance in twelve Anglo - Saxon texts, including one occurrence in Beowulf. It was also observed in other works of Germanic origin, Middle English poetry, and even an Icelandic prose saga. John Richardson held that the schema was so general as to apply to virtually any character at some point in the narrative, and thought it an instance of the "threshold '' feature of Joseph Campbell 's Hero 's Journey monomyth. J.A. Dane, in an article (characterised by Foley as "polemics without rigour '') claimed that the appearance of the theme in Ancient Greek poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet. '' Foley 's response was that Dane misunderstood the nature of oral tradition, and that in fact the appearance of the theme in other cultures showed that it was a traditional form.
The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the Germanic heroic past. The longest at 3,182 lines, and the most important, is Beowulf, which appears in the damaged Nowell Codex. Beowulf relates the exploits of the hero Beowulf, King of the Weder - Geats or Angles, around the middle of the 5th century. The author is unknown, and no mention of Britain occurs. Scholars are divided over the date of the present text, with hypotheses ranging from the 8th to the 11th centuries. It has achieved much acclaim as well as sustained academic and artistic interest.
Other heroic poems besides Beowulf exist. Two have survived in fragments: The Fight at Finnsburh, controversially interpreted by many to be a retelling of one of the battle scenes in Beowulf, and Waldere, a version of the events of the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Two other poems mention heroic figures: Widsith is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the 4th century concerning Eormanric and the Goths, and contains a catalogue of names and places associated with valiant deeds. Deor is a lyric, in the style of Consolation of Philosophy, applying examples of famous heroes, including Weland and Eormanric, to the narrator 's own case.
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest from 937 is called The Battle of Brunanburh, which celebrates the victory of King Athelstan over the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Alfred the son of King Æthelred (1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor (1065).
The 325 line poem The Battle of Maldon celebrates Earl Byrhtnoth and his men who fell in battle against the Vikings in 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731. A well - known speech is near the end of the poem:
Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation. As Christianity began to appear, re-tellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories.
Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the Exeter Book which have come to be described as "elegies '' or "wisdom poetry ''. They are lyrical and Boethian in their description of the up and down fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is The Ruin, which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of Roman Britain (cities in Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th century, as the early English continued to live their rural life), and The Wanderer, in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, where his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to preserve civil society, and must not rush into battle but seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery 's sake. The Seafarer is the story of a somber exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife 's Lament, and The Husband 's Message. Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the neoplatonic philosophy of Boethius called the Lays of Boethius.
Several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th - century translation of Boethius ' Consolation of Philosophy contained in the Cotton manuscript Otho A.vi. Another is The Phoenix in the Exeter Book, an allegorisation of the De ave phoenice by Lactantius.
Other short poems derive from the Latin bestiary tradition. Some examples include The Panther, The Whale and The Partridge.
Anglo - Saxon riddles are part of Anglo - Saxon literature. The most famous Anglo - Saxon riddles are found in the Exeter Book. This book contains secular and religious poems and other writings, along with a collection of 94 riddles, although there is speculation that there may have been closer to 100 riddles in the book. The riddles are written in a similar manner, but "it is unlikely that the whole collection was written by one person. '' It is more likely that many scribes worked on this collection of riddles. Although the Exeter Book has a unique and extensive collection of Anglo - Saxon riddles, riddles were not uncommon during this era. Riddles were both comical and obscene.
The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints ' lives, or hagiography. In Vercelli are Andreas and Elene and in Exeter are Guthlac and Juliana.
Andreas is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to Beowulf in style and tone. It is the story of Saint Andrew and his journey to rescue Saint Matthew from the Mermedonians. Elene is the story of Saint Helena (mother of Constantine) and her discovery of the True Cross. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo - Saxon England and this poem was instrumental in promoting it.
Guthlac consists of two poems about the English 7th century Saint Guthlac. Juliana describes the life of Saint Juliana, including a discussion with the devil during her imprisonment.
There are a number of partial Old English Bible translations and paraphrases surviving. The Junius manuscript contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of Genesis (originally presented as one work in the Junius manuscript but now thought to consist of two separate poems, A and B), the second is of Exodus and the third is Daniel. Contained in Daniel are two lyrics, Song of the Three Children and Song of Azarias, the latter also appearing in the Exeter Book after Guthlac. The fourth and last poem, Christ and Satan, which is contained in the second part of the Junius manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament.
The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after Beowulf, called Judith, a retelling of the story of Judith. This is not to be confused with Ælfric 's homily Judith, which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose.
Old English translations of Psalms 51 - 150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms. There are verse translations of the Gloria in Excelsis, the Lord 's Prayer, and the Apostles ' Creed, as well as some hymns and proverbs.
In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative).
The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled Christ, sectioned into Christ I, Christ II and Christ III.
Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is Dream of the Rood, contained in the Vercelli Book. The presence of a portion of the poem (in Northumbrian dialect) carved in ruins on an 8th century stone cross found in Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, verifies the age of at least this portion of the poem. The Dream of the Rood is a dream vision in which the personified cross tells the story of the crucifixion. Christ appears as a young hero - king, confidant of victory, while the cross itself feels all the physical pain of the crucifixion, as well as the pain of being forced to kill the young lord.
The dreamer resolves to trust in the cross, and the dream ends with a vision of heaven.
There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is Christ and Satan in the Junius manuscript, it deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is Solomon and Saturn, surviving in a number of textual fragments, Saturn is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king Solomon.
Other poetic forms exist in Old English including short verses, gnomes, and mnemonic poems for remembering long lists of names.
There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice, such as remedies against the loss of cattle or how to deal with a delayed birth, often grouped as charms. The longest is called Nine Herbs Charm and is probably of pagan origin. Other similar short verses, or charms, include For a Swarm of Bees, Against a Dwarf, Against a Stabbing Pain, and Against a Wen.
There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named Menologium, The Fates of the Apostles, The Rune Poem, The Seasons for Fasting, and the Instructions for Christians.
Anglo - Saxon poetry is marked by the comparative rarity of similes. This is a particular feature of Anglo - Saxon verse style, and is a consequence both of its structure and of the rapidity with which images are deployed, to be unable to effectively support the expanded simile. As an example of this, Beowulf contains at best five similes, and these are of the short variety. This can be contrasted sharply with the strong and extensive dependence that Anglo - Saxon poetry has upon metaphor, particularly that afforded by the use of kennings. The most prominent example of this in The Wanderer is the reference to battle as a "storm of spears ''. This reference to battle shows how Anglo - Saxons viewed battle: as unpredictable, chaotic, violent, and perhaps even a function of nature.
Old English poetry traditionally alliterates, meaning that a sound (usually the initial consonant sound) is repeated throughout a line. For instance, in the first line of Beowulf, "Hwaet! We Gar - Dena in gear - dagum '', (meaning "Lo! We... of the Spear Danes in days of yore ''), the stressed words Gar - Dena and gear - dagum alliterate on the consonant "G ''.
The Old English poet was particularly fond of describing the same person or object with varied phrases, (often appositives) that indicated different qualities of that person or object. For instance, the Beowulf poet refers in three and a half lines to a Danish king as "lord of the Danes '' (referring to the people in general), "king of the Scyldings '' (the name of the specific Danish tribe), "giver of rings '' (one of the king 's functions is to distribute treasure), and "famous chief ''. Such variation, which the modern reader (who likes verbal precision) is not used to, is frequently a difficulty in producing a readable translation.
Old English poetry, like other Old Germanic alliterative verse, is also commonly marked by the caesura or pause. In addition to setting pace for the line, the caesura also grouped each line into two couplets.
The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry. Of the surviving prose, the majority consists of the homilies, saints ' lives and biblical translations from Latin. The division of early medieval written prose works into categories of "Christian '' and "secular '', as below, is for convenience 's sake only, for literacy in Anglo - Saxon England was largely the province of monks, nuns, and ecclesiastics (or of those laypeople to whom they had taught the skills of reading and writing Latin and / or Old English). Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century as the last generation of scribes, trained as boys in the standardised West Saxon before the Conquest, died as old men.
The most widely known secular author of Old English was King Alfred the Great (849 -- 899), who translated several books, many of them religious, from Latin into Old English. Alfred, wanting to restore English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin education:
So general was (educational) decay in England there were very few on this side of the Humber who could... translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber
Alfred proposed that students be educated in Old English, and those who excelled should go on to learn Latin. Alfred 's cultural program produced the following translations: Gregory the Great 's The Pastoral Care, a manual for priests on how to conduct their duties; The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius; and The Soliloquies of Saint Augustine. In the process, some original content was interweaved through the translations.
Other important Old English translations include: Historiae adversum paganos by Orosius, a companion piece for St. Augustine 's The City of God; the Dialogues of Gregory the Great; and Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
Ælfric of Eynsham, who wrote in the late 10th and early 11th century, is believed to have been a pupil of Æthelwold. He was the greatest and most prolific writer of Anglo - Saxon sermons, which were copied and adapted for use well into the 13th century. In the translation of the first six books of the Bible (Old English Hexateuch), portions have been assigned to Ælfric on stylistic grounds. He included some lives of the saints in the Catholic Homilies, as well as a cycle of saints ' lives to be used in sermons. Ælfric also wrote an Old English work on time - reckoning, and pastoral letters.
In the same category as Ælfric, and a contemporary, was Wulfstan II, archbishop of York. His sermons were highly stylistic. His best known work is Sermo Lupi ad Anglos in which he blames the sins of the English for the Viking invasions. He wrote a number of clerical legal texts Institutes of Polity and Canons of Edgar.
One of the earliest Old English texts in prose is the Martyrology, information about saints and martyrs according to their anniversaries and feasts in the church calendar. It has survived in six fragments. It is believed to date from the 9th century by an anonymous Mercian author.
The oldest collections of church sermons is the Blickling homilies, found in a 10th - century manuscript.
There are a number of saint 's lives prose works; beyond those written by Ælfric are the prose life of Saint Guthlac (Vercelli Book), the life of Saint Margaret and the life of Saint Chad. There are four additional lives in the earliest manuscript of the Lives of Saints, the Julius manuscript: Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, Saint Mary of Egypt, Saint Eustace and Saint Euphrosyne.
There are six major manuscripts of the Wessex Gospels, dating from the 11th and 12th centuries. The most popular, Old English Gospel of Nicodemus, is treated in one manuscript as though it were a 5th gospel; other apocryphal gospels in translation include the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, Vindicta salvatoris, Vision of Saint Paul and the Apocalypse of Thomas.
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle was probably started in the time of King Alfred the Great and continued for over 300 years as a historical record of Anglo - Saxon history.
A single example of a Classical romance has survived: a fragment of the story of Apollonius of Tyre was translated in the 11th century from the Gesta Romanorum.
A monk who was writing in Old English at the same time as Ælfric and Wulfstan was Byrhtferth of Ramsey, whose book Handboc was a study of mathematics and rhetoric. He also produced a work entitled Computus, which outlined the practical application of arithmetic to the calculation of calendar days and movable feasts, as well as tide tables.
Ælfric wrote two proto - scientific works, Hexameron and Interrogationes Sigewulfi, dealing with the stories of Creation. He also wrote a grammar and glossary in Old English called Latin, later used by students interested in learning Old French because it had been glossed in Old French.
In the Nowell Codex is the text of The Wonders of the East which includes a remarkable map of the world, and other illustrations. Also contained in Nowell is Alexander 's Letter to Aristotle. Because this is the same manuscript that contains Beowulf, some scholars speculate it may have been a collection of materials on exotic places and creatures.
There are a number of interesting medical works. There is a translation of Apuleius 's Herbarium with striking illustrations, found together with Medicina de Quadrupedibus. A second collection of texts is Bald 's Leechbook, a 10th - century book containing herbal and even some surgical cures. A third collection, known as the Lacnunga, includes many charms and incantations.
Anglo - Saxon legal texts are a large and important part of the overall corpus. By the 12th century they had been arranged into two large collections (see Textus Roffensis). They include laws of the kings, beginning with those of Aethelbert of Kent and ending with those of Cnut, and texts dealing with specific cases and places in the country. An interesting example is Gerefa which outlines the duties of a reeve on a large manor estate. There is also a large volume of legal documents related to religious houses. These include many kinds of texts: records of donations by nobles; wills; documents of emancipation; lists of books and relics; court cases; guild rules. All of these texts provide valuable insights into the social history of Anglo - Saxon times, but are also of literary value. For example, some of the court case narratives are interesting for their use of rhetoric.
Old English literature did not disappear in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Many sermons and works continued to be read and used in part or whole up through the 14th century, and were further catalogued and organised. During the Reformation, when monastic libraries were dispersed, the manuscripts were collected by antiquarians and scholars. These included Laurence Nowell, Matthew Parker, Robert Bruce Cotton and Humfrey Wanley. In the 17th century there began a tradition of Old English literature dictionaries and references. The first was William Somner 's Dictionarium Saxonico - Latino - Anglicum (1659). Lexicographer Joseph Bosworth began a dictionary in the 19th century which was completed by Thomas Northcote Toller in 1898 called An Anglo - Saxon Dictionary, which was updated by Alistair Campbell in 1972.
Because Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down, nineteenth - century scholars searching for the roots of European "national culture '' (see Romantic Nationalism) took special interest in studying Anglo - Saxon literature, and Old English became a regular part of university curriculum. Since WWII there has been increasing interest in the manuscripts themselves -- Neil Ker, a paleographer, published the groundbreaking Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo - Saxon in 1957, and by 1980 nearly all Anglo - Saxon manuscript texts were in print. J.R.R. Tolkien is credited with creating a movement to look at Old English as a subject of literary theory in his seminal lecture Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (1936).
Old English literature has had some influence on modern literature, and notable poets have translated and incorporated Old English poetry. Well - known early translations include Alfred, Lord Tennyson 's translation of The Battle of Brunanburh William Morris 's translation of Beowulf and Ezra Pound 's translation of The Seafarer. The influence of the poetry can be seen in modern poets T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and W.H. Auden. Tolkien adapted the subject matter and terminology of heroic poetry for works like The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and John Gardner wrote Grendel, which tells the story of Beowulf 's opponent from his own perspective.
More recently other notable poets such as Paul Muldoon, Seamus Heaney, Denise Levertov and U.A. Fanthorpe have all shown an interest in Old English poetry. In 1987 Denise Levertov published a translation of Cædmon 's Hymn under her title "Caedmon '' in the collection Breathing the Water. This was then followed by Seamus Heaney 's version of the poem "Whitby - sur - Moyola '' in his The Spirit Level (1996) Paul Muldoon 's "Caedmona 's Hymn '' in his Moy Sand and Gravel (2002) and U.A. Fanthorpe 's "Caedmon 's Song '' in her Queuing for the Sun (2003). These translations differ greatly from one another, just as Seamus Heaney 's Beowulf (1999) deviates from earlier, similar projects. Heaney uses Irish diction across Beowulf to bring what he calls a "special body and force '' to the poem, foregrounding his own Ulster heritage, "in order to render (the poem) ever more ' willable forward / again and again and again. ' ''
|
how does the feo impurity present in sulphide ore of copper is removed | Copper extraction - wikipedia
Copper extraction refers to the methods used to obtaining copper from its ores. The conversion of copper consists of a series of chemical, physical, and electrochemical processes. Methods have evolved and vary with country depending on the ore source, local environmental regulations, and other factors.
As in all mining operations, the ore must usually be beneficiated (concentrated). The processing techniques depend on the nature of the ore. If the ore is primarily sulfide copper minerals (such as chalcopyrite), the ore is crushed and ground to liberate the valuable minerals from the waste (' gangue ') minerals. It is then concentrated using mineral flotation. The concentrate is typically then sold to distant smelters, although some large mines have smelters located nearby. Such colocation of mines and smelters was more typical in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when smaller smelters could be economic. The sulfide concentrates are typically smelted in such furnaces as the Outokumpo or Inco flash furnace or the ISASMELT furnace to produce matte, which must be converted and refined to produce anode copper. Finally, the final refining process is electrolysis. For economic and environmental reasons, many of the byproducts of extraction are reclaimed. Sulfur dioxide gas, for example, is captured and turned into sulfuric acid -- which can then used in the extraction process or sold for such purposes as fertiliser manufacture.
Oxidised copper ores can be treated by hydrometallurgical extraction.
The earliest evidence of cold - hammering of native copper comes from the excavation at Çaÿonü Tepesi in eastern Anatolia, which dates between 7200 to 6600 BCE. Among the various items considered to be votive or amulets there was one that looked like a fishhook and one like an awl. Another find, at Shanidar Cave in Mergasur, Iraq, contained copper beads, dates to 8,700 BCE.
The world 's oldest known copper mine, as opposed to usage of surface deposits, is at Timna Valley, Israel, since the fourth millennium BC, with smelting and surface deposit usage since the sixth to fifth millennium.
Pločnik archaeological site in southeastern Europe (Serbia) contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 5,000 BCE. The find in June 2010 extends for additional 500 years the earlier record of copper smelting from Rudna Glava (Serbia), dated to 5th millennium BCE.
Copper smelting technology gave rise to the Copper Age, aka Chalcolithic Age, and then the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age would not have been possible without humans developing smelting technology.
Most copper ores contain only a small percentage of copper metal bound up within valuable ore minerals, with the remainder of the ore being unwanted rock or gangue minerals, typically silicate minerals or oxide minerals for which there is often no value. In some cases, tailings have been retreated to recover lost value as the technology for recovering copper has improved. The average grade of copper ores in the 21st century is below 0.6 % copper, with a proportion of economic ore minerals (including copper) being less than 2 % of the total volume of the ore rock. A key objective in the metallurgical treatment of any ore is the separation of ore minerals from gangue minerals within the rock.
The first stage of any process within a metallurgical treatment circuit is accurate grinding or comminution, where the rock is crushed to produce small particles (< 100 μm) consisting of individual mineral phases. These particles are then separated to remove gangue (rocks residues), thereafter followed by a process of physical liberation of the ore minerals from the rock. The process of liberation of copper ores depends upon whether they are oxide or sulfide ores.
Subsequent steps depend on the nature of the ore containing the copper and what will be extracted. For oxide ores, a hydrometallurgical liberation process is normally undertaken, which uses the soluble nature of the ore minerals to the advantage of the metallurgical treatment plant. For sulfide ores, both secondary (supergene) and primary (hypogene), froth flotation is used to physically separate ore from gangue. For special native copper bearing ore bodies or sections of ore bodies rich in supergene native copper, this mineral can be recovered by a simple gravity circuit.
The modern froth flotation process was independently invented the early 1900s in Australia by C.V Potter and around the same time by G.D. Delprat.
All primary sulfide ores of copper sulfides, and most concentrates of secondary copper sulfides (being chalcocite), are subjected to smelting. Some vat leach or pressure leach processes exist to solubilise chalcocite concentrates and produce copper cathode from the resulting leachate solution, but this is a minor part of the market.
Carbonate concentrates are a relatively minor product produced from copper cementation plants, typically as the end - stage of a heap - leach operation. Such carbonate concentrates can be treated by a solvent extraction and electrowinning (SX - EW) plant or smelted.
The copper ore is crushed and ground to a size such that an acceptably high degree of liberation has occurred between the copper sulfide ore minerals and the gangue minerals. The ore is then wet, suspended in a slurry, and mixed with xanthates or other reagents, which render the sulfide particles hydrophobic. Typical reagents include potassium ethylxanthate and sodium ethylxanthate, but dithiophosphates and dithiocarbamates are also used.
The treated ore is introduced to a water - filled aeration tank containing surfactant such as methylisobutyl carbinol (MIBC). Air is constantly forced through the slurry and the air bubbles attach to the hydrophobic copper sulfide particles, which are conducted to the surface, where they form a froth and are skimmed off. These skimmings are generally subjected to a cleaner - scavenger cell to remove excess silicates and to remove other sulfide minerals that can deleteriously impact the concentrate quality (typically, galena), and the final concentrate sent for smelting. The rock which has not floated off in the flotation cell is either discarded as tailings or further processed to extract other metals such as lead (from galena) and zinc (from sphalerite), should they exist. To improve the process efficiency, lime is used to raise the pH of the water bath, causing the collector to ionize more and to preferentially bond to chalcopyrite (CuFeS) and avoid the pyrite (FeS). Iron exists in both primary zone minerals. Copper ores containing chalcopyrite can be concentrated to produce a concentrate with between 20 % and 30 % copper - in - concentrate (usually 27 -- 29 % copper); the remainder of the concentrate is iron and sulfur in the chalcopyrite, and unwanted impurities such as silicate gangue minerals or other sulfide minerals, typically minor amounts of pyrite, sphalerite or galena. Chalcocite concentrates typically grade between 37 % and 40 % copper - in - concentrate, as chalcocite has no iron within the mineral.
Secondary sulfides -- those formed by supergene secondary enrichment -- are resistant (refractory) to sulfuric leaching. These ores are a mixture of copper carbonate, sulfate, phosphate, and oxide minerals and secondary sulfide minerals, dominantly chalcocite but other minerals such as digenite can be important in some deposits.
Supergene ores rich in sulfides may be concentrated using froth flotation. A typical concentrate of chalcocite can grade between 37 % and 40 % copper in sulfide, making them relatively cheap to smelt compared to chalcopyrite concentrates.
Some supergene sulfide deposits can be leached using a bacterial oxidation heap leach process to oxidize the sulfides to sulfuric acid, which also allows for simultaneous leaching with sulfuric acid to produce a copper sulfate solution. As with oxide ores, solvent extraction and electrowinning technologies are used to recover the copper from the pregnant leach solution.
Supergene sulfide ores rich in native copper minerals are refractory to treatment with sulfuric acid leaching on all practicable time scales, and the dense metal particles do not react with froth flotation media. Typically, if native copper is a minor part of a supergene profile it will not be recovered and will report to the tailings. When rich enough, native copper ore bodies may be treated to recover the contained copper via a gravity separation circuit where the density of the metal is used to liberate it from the lighter silicate minerals. Often, the nature of the gangue is important, as clay - rich native copper ores prove difficult to liberate.
Oxidised copper ore bodies may be treated via several processes, with hydrometallurgical processes used to treat oxide ores dominated by copper carbonate minerals such as azurite and malachite, and other soluble minerals such as silicates like chrysocolla, or sulfates such as atacamite and so on.
Such oxide ores are usually leached by sulfuric acid, usually in a heap leaching or dump leaching process to liberate the copper minerals into a solution of sulfuric acid laden with copper sulfate in solution. The copper sulfate solution (the pregnant leach solution) is then stripped of copper via a solvent extraction and electrowinning (SX - EW) plant, with the barred (denuded) sulfuric acid recycled back on to the heaps. Alternatively, the copper can be precipitated out of the pregnant solution by contacting it with scrap iron; a process called cementation. Cement copper is normally less pure than SX - EW copper. Commonly sulfuric acid is used as a leachant for copper oxide, although it is possible to use water, particularly for ores rich in ultra-soluble sulfate minerals.
In general, froth flotation is not used to concentrate copper oxide ores, as oxide minerals are not responsive to the froth flotation chemicals or process (i.e.; they do not bind to the kerosene - based chemicals). Copper oxide ores have occasionally been treated via froth flotation via sulfidation of the oxide minerals with certain chemicals which react with the oxide mineral particles to produce a thin rime of sulfide (usually chalcocite), which can then be activated by the froth flotation plant.
Until the latter half of the 20th century, smelting sulfide ores was almost the sole means of producing copper metal from mined ores (primary copper production). Davenport, et al, noted in 2002 that even then 80 % of global primary copper production was from copper -- iron -- sulfur minerals and that the vast majority of these were treated by smelting.
Copper was initially recovered from sulfide ores by directly smelting the ore in a furnace. The smelters were initially located near the mines to minimize the cost of transport. This avoided the prohibitive costs of transporting the waste minerals and the sulfur and iron present in the copper - containing minerals. However, as the concentration of copper in the ore bodies decreased, the energy costs of smelting the whole ore also became prohibitive, and it became necessary to concentrate the ores first.
Initial concentration techniques included hand - sorting and gravity concentration. They resulted in high losses of copper. Consequently, the development of the froth flotation process was a major step forward in mineral processing. It made possible the development of the giant Bingham Canyon mine in Utah.
In the twentieth century, most ores were concentrated before smelting. Smelting was initially undertaken using sinter plants and blast furnaces, or with roasters and reverberatory furnaces. Roasting and reverberatory furnace smelting dominated primary copper production until the 1960s.
The roasting process is generally undertaken in combination with reverberatory furnaces. In the roaster, the copper concentrate is partially oxidised to produce "calcine '' and sulfur dioxide gas. The stoichiometry of the reaction which occurs is:
Roasting generally leaves more sulfur in the calcined product (15 % in the case of the roaster at Mount Isa Mines) than a sinter plant leaves in the sintered product (about 7 % in the case of the Electrolytic Refining and Smelting smelter).
As of 2005, roasting is no longer common in copper concentrate treatment, because its combination with reverberatory furnaces is not energy efficient and the SO concentration in the roaster offgas is too dilute for cost - effective capture. Direct smelting is now favored, e.g. using the following smelting technologies: flash smelting, Isasmelt, Noranda, Mitsubishi or El Teniente furnaces.
The initial melting of the material to be smelted is usually referred to as the smelting or matte smelting stage. It can be undertaken in a variety of furnaces, including the largely obsolete blast furnaces and reverberatory furnaces, as well as flash furnaces, Isasmelt furnaces, etc. The product of this smelting stage is a mixture of copper, iron and sulfur that is enriched in copper, and which is called matte or copper matte. The term matte grade is normally used to refer to the copper content of the matte.
The purpose of the matte smelting stage is to eliminate as much of the unwanted iron, sulfur and gangue minerals (such as silica, magnesia, alumina and limestone) as possible, while minimizing the loss of copper. This is achieved by reacting iron sulfides with oxygen (in air or oxygen enriched air) to produce iron oxides (mainly as FeO, but with some magnetite (Fe O)) and sulfur dioxide.
Copper sulfide and iron oxide can mix, but when sufficient silica is added, a separate slag layer is formed. Adding silica also reduces the melting point (or, more properly, the liquidus temperature) of the slag, meaning that the smelting process can be operated at a lower temperature.
The slag forming reaction is:
Slag is less dense than matte, so it forms a layer that floats on top of the matte.
Copper can be lost from the matte in three ways: as cuprous oxide (Cu O) dissolved in the slag, as sulfide copper dissolved in the slag or as tiny droplets (or prills) of matte suspended in the slag.
The amount of copper lost as oxide copper increases as the oxygen potential of the slag increases. The oxygen potential generally increases as the copper content of the matte is increased. Thus the loss of copper as oxide increases as the copper content of the matte increases.
On the other hand, the solubility of sulfidic copper in slag decreases as the copper content of the matte increases beyond about 40 %. Nagamori calculated that more than half the copper dissolved in slags from mattes containing less than 50 % copper is sulfidic copper. Above this figure, oxidic copper begins to dominate.
The loss of copper as prills suspended in the slag depends on the size of the prills, the viscosity of the slag and the settling time available. Rosenqvist suggested that about half the copper losses to slag were due to suspended prills.
The mass of slag generated in the smelting stage depends on the iron content of the material fed into the smelting furnace and the target matte grade. The greater the iron content of the feed, the more iron that will need to be rejected to the slag for a given matte grade. Similarly, increasing the target matte grade requires the rejection of more iron and an increase in the slag volume.
Thus, the two factors that most affect the loss of copper to slag in the smelting stage are:
This means that there is a practical limit on how high the matte grade can be if the loss of copper to slag is to be minimized. Therefore, further stages of processing (converting and fire refining) are required.
The following subsections briefly describe some of the processes used in matte smelting.
Reverberatory furnaces are long furnaces can treat wet, dry or roasted concentrate. Most of the reverberatory furnaces used in the latter years treated roasted concentrate because putting dry feed materials into the reverberatory furnace is more energy efficient, and because the elimination of some of the sulfur in the roaster results in higher matte grades.
The reverberatory furnace feed is added to the furnace through feed holes along the sides of the furnace. Additional silica is normally added to help form the slag. The furnace is fired with burners using pulverized coal, fuel oil or natural gas and the solid charge is melted.
Reverberatory furnaces can additionally be fed with molten slag from the later converting stage to recover the contained copper and other materials with a high copper content.
Because the reverberatory furnace bath is quiescent, very little oxidation of the feed occurs (and thus very little sulfur is eliminated from the concentrate). It is essentially a melting process. Consequently, wet - charged reverberatory furnaces have less copper in their matte product than calcine - charged furnaces, and they also have lower copper losses to slag. Gill quotes a copper in slag value of 0.23 % for a wet - charged reverberatory furnace vs 0.37 % for a calcine - charged furnace.
In the case of calcine - charged furnaces, a significant portion of the sulfur has been eliminated during the roasting stage, and the calcine consists of a mixture of copper and iron oxides and sulfides. The reverberatory furnace acts to allow these species to approach chemical equilibrium at the furnace operating temperature (approximately 1600 ° C at the burner end of the furnace and about 1200 ° C at the flue end; the matte is about 1100 ° C and the slag is about 1195 ° C). In this equilibration process, oxygen associated with copper compounds exchanges with sulfur associated with iron compounds, increasing the iron oxide content of the furnace, and the iron oxides interact with silica and other oxide materials to form the slag.
The main equilibration reaction is:
The slag and the matte form distinct layers that can be removed from the furnace as separate streams. The slag layer is periodically allowed to flow through a hole in the wall of the furnace above the height of the matte layer. The matte is removed by draining it through a hole into ladles for it to be carried by crane to the converters. This draining process is known as tapping the furnace. The matte taphole is normally a hole through a water - cooled copper block that prevents erosion of the refractory bricks lining the furnace. When the removal of the matte or slag is complete, the hole is normally plugged with clay, which is removed when the furnace is ready to be tapped again.
Reverberatory furnaces were often used to treat molten converter slag to recover contained copper. This would be poured into the furnaces from ladles carried by cranes. However, the converter slag is high in magnetite and some of this magnetite would precipitate from the converter slag (due to its higher melting point), forming an accretion on the hearth of the reverberatory furnace and necessitating shut downs of the furnace to remove the accretion. This accretion formation limits the quantity of converter slag that can be treated in a reverberatory furnace.
While reverberatory furnaces have very low copper losses to slag, they are not very energy - efficient and the low concentrations of sulfur dioxide in their offgases make its capture uneconomic. Consequently, smelter operators devoted a lot of money in the 1970s and 1980s to developing new, more efficient copper smelting processes. In addition, flash smelting technologies had been developed in earlier years and began to replace reverberatory furnaces. By 2002, 20 of the 30 reverberatory furnaces still operating in 1994 had been shut down.
In flash smelting, the concentrate is dispersed in an air or oxygen stream and the smelting reactions are largely completed while the mineral particles are still in flight. The reacted particles then settle in a bath at the bottom of the furnace, where they behave as does calcine in a reverberatory furnace. A slag layer forms on top of the matte layer, and they can separately be tapped from the furnace.
The matte, which is produced in the smelter, contains 30 -- 70 % copper (depending on the process used and the operating philosophy of the smelter), primarily as copper sulfide, as well as iron sulfide. The sulfur is removed at high temperature as sulfur dioxide by blowing air through molten matte:
In a parallel reaction the iron sulfide is converted to slag:
The purity of this product is 98 %, it is known as blister because of the broken surface created by the escape of sulfur dioxide gas as blister copper pigs or ingots are cooled. By - products generated in the process are sulfur dioxide and slag. The sulfur dioxide is captured for use in earlier leaching processes.
The blister copper is put into an anode furnace, a furnace that refines the blister copper to anode - grade copper in two stages by removing most of the remaining sulfur and iron, and then removing oxygen introduced during the first stage. This second stage, often referred to as poling is done by blowing natural gas, or some other reducing agent, through the molten copper oxide. When this flame burns green, indicating the copper oxidation spectrum, the oxygen has mostly been burned off. This creates copper at about 99 % pure. The anodes produced from this are fed to the electrorefinery.
The copper is refined by electrolysis. The anodes cast from processed blister copper are placed into an aqueous solution of 3 -- 4 % copper sulfate and 10 -- 16 % sulfuric acid. Cathodes are thin rolled sheets of highly pure copper or, more commonly these days, reusable stainless steel starting sheets (as in the IsaKidd process). A potential of only 0.2 -- 0.4 volts is required for the process to commence. At the anode, copper and less noble metals dissolve. More noble metals such as silver, gold, selenium, and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode slime, which forms a salable byproduct. Copper (II) ions migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode. At the cathode, copper metal plates out, but less noble constituents such as arsenic and zinc remain in solution unless a higher voltage is used. The reactions are:
At the anode: Cu → Cu + 2e
At the cathode: Cu + 2e → Cu
Copper concentrates produced by mines are sold to smelters and refiners who treat the ore and refine the copper and charge for this service via treatment charges (TCs) and refining charges (RCs). The TCs are charged in US $ per tonne of concentrate treated and RCs are charged in cents per pound treated, denominated in US dollars, with benchmark prices set annually by major Japanese smelters. The customer in this case can be a smelter, who on - sells blister copper ingots to a refiner, or a smelter - refiner which is vertically integrated.
One prevalent form of copper concentrate contains gold and silver, like the one produced by Bougainville Copper Limited from the Panguna mine from the early 1970s to the late 1980s.
The typical contract for a miner is denominated against the London Metal Exchange price, minus the TC - RCs and any applicable penalties or credits. Penalties may be assessed against copper concentrates according to the level of deleterious elements such as arsenic, bismuth, lead or tungsten. Because a large portion of copper sulfide ore bodies contain silver or gold in appreciable amounts, a credit can be paid to the miner for these metals if their concentration within the concentrate is above a certain amount. Usually the refiner or smelter charges the miner a fee based on the concentration; a typical contract will specify that a credit is due for every ounce of the metal in the concentrate above a certain concentration; below that, if it is recovered, the smelter will keep the metal and sell it to defray costs.
Copper concentrate is traded either via spot contracts or under long term contracts as an intermediate product in its own right. Often the smelter sells the copper metal itself on behalf of the miner. The miner is paid the price at the time that the smelter - refiner makes the sale, not at the price on the date of delivery of the concentrate. Under a Quotational Pricing system, the price is agreed to be at a fixed date in the future, typically 90 days from time of delivery to the smelter.
A-grade copper cathode is of 99.99 % copper in sheets that are 1 cm thick, and approximately 1 meter square weighing approximately 200 pounds. It is a true commodity, deliverable to and tradeable upon the metal exchanges in New York City (COMEX), London (London Metals Exchange) and Shanghai (Shanghai Futures Exchange). Often copper cathode is traded upon the exchanges indirectly via warrants, options, or swap contracts such that the majority of copper is traded upon the LME / COMEX / SFE but delivery is achieved directly, logistically moving the physical copper, and transferring the copper sheet from the physical warehouses themselves.
The chemical specification for electrolytic grade copper is ASTM B 115 - 00 (a standard that specifies the purity and maximum electrical resistivity of the product).
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.