question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
factors that can affect the accuracy of a polygraph test include all of the following except quizlet | Polygraph - wikipedia
A polygraph, popularly referred to as a lie detector, measures and records several physiological indices such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions. The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non-deceptive answers.
The polygraph was invented in 1921 by John Augustus Larson, a medical student at the University of California, Berkeley and a police officer of the Berkeley Police Department in Berkeley, California. The polygraph was on the Encyclopædia Britannica 2003 list of greatest inventions, described as inventions that "have had profound effects on human life for better or worse. ''
The efficacy of polygraphs is debated in the scientific community. In 1991, two thirds of the scientific community who have the requisite background to evaluate polygraph procedures considered polygraphy to be pseudoscience. In 2002, a review by the National Research Council found that, in populations "untrained in countermeasures, specific - incident polygraph tests can discriminate lying from truth telling at rates well above chance, though well below perfection ''. The review also warns against generalization from these findings to justify the use of polygraphs -- "polygraph accuracy for screening purposes is almost certainly lower than what can be achieved by specific - incident polygraph tests in the field '' -- and notes some examinees may be able to take countermeasures to produce deceptive results.
In some countries, polygraphs are used as an interrogation tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector employment. US law enforcement and federal government agencies such as the FBI, NSA and the CIA and many police departments such as the LAPD use polygraph examinations to interrogate suspects and screen new employees. Within the US federal government, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD) examination.
Polygraph testing is designed to analyze the physiological reactions of subjects. However, research has indicated that there is no specific physiological reaction associated with lying and that the brain activity and mechanisms associated with lying are unknown, making it difficult to identify factors that separate liars from truth tellers. Polygraph examiners also prefer to use their own individual scoring method, as opposed to computerized techniques, as they may more easily defend their own evaluations.
The validity of polygraph testing is again called into question with the relevant - irrelevant testing technique, designed to gauge reactions of subjects against crime questions and other non-crime related questions. Studies have indicated that this questioning technique is not ideal, as many innocent subjects exert a heightened physiological reaction to the crime relevant questions.
The control question test, also known as the probable lie test, was developed to combat the issues with the relevant - irrelevant testing method. Although the relevant questions in the probable lie test are used to obtain a reaction from liars, the physiological reactions that "distinguish '' liars may also occur in innocent individuals who fear a false detection or feel passionately that they did not commit the crime. Therefore, although a physiological reaction may be occurring, the reasoning behind the response may be different. Further examination of the probable lie test has indicated that it is biased against innocent subjects. Those who are unable to think of a lie related to the relevant question will automatically fail the test.
Polygraph examiners, or polygraphers, are licensed or regulated in some jurisdictions. The American Polygraph Association sets standards for courses of training of polygraph operators, though it does not certify individual examiners.
The examiner typically begins polygraph test sessions with a pre-test interview to gain some preliminary information which will later be used to develop diagnostic questions. Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a "stim test '' is often conducted: the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Guilty subjects are likely to become more anxious when they are reminded of the test 's validity. However, there are risks of innocent subjects being equally or more anxious than the guilty. Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are "irrelevant '' ("Is your name Fred? ''), others are "diagnostic '' questions, and the remainder are the "relevant questions '' that the tester is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the physiological responses to the diagnostic questions are larger than those during the relevant questions.
Criticisms have been given regarding the validity of the administration of the Control Question Technique. The CQT may be vulnerable to being conducted in an interrogation - like fashion. This kind of interrogation style would elicit a nervous response from innocent and guilty suspects alike. There are several other ways of administering the questions.
An alternative is the Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT), or the Concealed Information Test, which is used in Japan. The administration of this test is given to prevent potential errors that may arise from the questioning style. The test is usually conducted by a tester with no knowledge of the crime or circumstances in question. The administrator tests the participant on their knowledge of the crime that would not be known to an innocent person. For example: "Was the crime committed with a. 45 or a 9 mm? '' The questions are in multiple choice and the participant is rated on how they react to the correct answer. If they react strongly to the guilty information, then proponents of the test believe that it is likely that they know facts relevant to the case. This administration is considered more valid by supporters of the test because it contains many safeguards to avoid the risk of the administrator influencing the results.
Polygraphy is widely criticized. Despite claims of 90 % validity by polygraph advocates, the National Research Council has found no evidence of effectiveness. The utility among sex offenders is also poor, with insufficient evidence to support accuracy or improved outcomes in this population.
Even using the high estimates of the polygraph 's accuracy, false positives do occur, and these people suffer the consequences of "failing '' the polygraph. In the 1998 US Supreme Court case United States v. Scheffer, the majority stated that "There is simply no consensus that polygraph evidence is reliable '' and "Unlike other expert witnesses who testify about factual matters outside the jurors ' knowledge, such as the analysis of fingerprints, ballistics, or DNA found at a crime scene, a polygraph expert can supply the jury only with another opinion. '' The Supreme Court summarized their findings by stating that the use of polygraph was "no more accurate than coin flip. '' In 2005, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals stated that "polygraphy did not enjoy general acceptance from the scientific community ''. In 2001, William Iacono, Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at the University of Minnesota, concluded that:
Although the CQT (Control Question Test) may be useful as an investigative aid and tool to induce confessions, it does not pass muster as a scientifically credible test. CQT theory is based on naive, implausible assumptions indicating (a) that it is biased against innocent individuals and (b) that it can be beaten simply by artificially augmenting responses to control questions. Although it is not possible to adequately assess the error rate of the CQT, both of these conclusions are supported by published research findings in the best social science journals (Honts et al., 1994; Horvath, 1977; Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984; Patrick & Iacono, 1991). Although defense attorneys often attempt to have the results of friendly CQTs admitted as evidence in court, there is no evidence supporting their validity and ample reason to doubt it. Members of scientific organizations who have the requisite background to evaluate the CQT are overwhelmingly skeptical of the claims made by polygraph proponents.
Summarizing the consensus in psychological research, professor David W. Martin, PhD, from North Carolina State University, states that people have tried to use the polygraph for measuring human emotions, but there is simply no royal road to (measuring) human emotions. Therefore, since one can not reliably measure human emotions (especially when one has an interest in hiding his / her emotions), the idea of valid detection of truth or falsehood through measuring respiratory rate, blood volume, pulse rate and galvanic skin response is a mere pretense. Psychologists can not ascertain what emotions one has, with or without the use of polygraph.
Polygraphs measure arousal, which can be affected by anxiety, anxiety disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), nervousness, fear, confusion, hypoglycemia, psychosis, depression, substance induced states (nicotine, stimulants), substance withdrawal state (alcohol withdrawal) or other emotions; polygraphs do not measure "lies ''. A polygraph can not differentiate anxiety caused by dishonesty and anxiety caused by something else.
The polygraph is inherently subjective. It relies heavily on interpretation by the examiner, so human error (which could be caused by examiner inexperience) and bias can result in the examiner drawing the wrong conclusion.
In 1983, the US Congress Office of Technology Assessment published a review of the technology and found:
... there is at present only limited scientific evidence for establishing the validity of polygraph testing. Even where the evidence seems to indicate that polygraph testing detects deceptive subjects better than chance, significant error rates are possible, and examiner and examinee differences and the use of countermeasures may further affect validity.
The accuracy of the polygraph has been contested almost since the introduction of the device. In 2003, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) issued a report entitled "The Polygraph and Lie Detection ''. The NAS found that the majority of polygraph research was "unreliable, unscientific and biased '', concluding that 57 of the approximately 80 research studies that the American Polygraph Association relies on to come to their conclusions were significantly flawed. These studies did show that specific - incident polygraph testing, in a person untrained in counter-measures, could discern the truth at "a level greater than chance, yet short of perfection ''. However, due to several flaws, the levels of accuracy shown in these studies "are almost certainly higher than actual polygraph accuracy of specific - incident testing in the field ''.
When polygraphs are used as a screening tool (in national security matters and for law enforcement agencies for example) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that "Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in federal agencies. '' The NAS concluded that the polygraph "... may have some utility '' but that there is "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy ''.
The NAS conclusions paralleled those of the earlier United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment report "Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation ''. Similarly, a report to Congress by the Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy on national security concluded that "The few Government - sponsored scientific research reports on polygraph validity (as opposed to its utility), especially those focusing on the screening of applicants for employment, indicate that the polygraph is neither scientifically valid nor especially effective beyond its ability to generate admissions... ''.
Several countermeasures designed to pass polygraph tests have been described. Asked how he passed the polygraph test, Aldrich Ames explained that he sought advice from his Soviet handler and received the simple instruction to: "Get a good night 's sleep, and rest, and go into the test rested and relaxed. Be nice to the polygraph examiner, develop a rapport, and be cooperative and try to maintain your calm ''. Additionally, Ames explained, "There 's no special magic... Confidence is what does it. Confidence and a friendly relationship with the examiner... rapport, where you smile and you make him think that you like him ''.
Other suggestions for countermeasures include for the subject to mentally record the control and relevant questions as the examiner reviews them before the interrogation begins. During the interrogation the subject is supposed to carefully control their breathing while answering the relevant questions, and to try to artificially increase their heart rate during the control questions, for example by thinking of something scary or exciting, or by pricking themselves with a pointed object concealed somewhere on their body. In this way the results will not show a significant reaction to any of the relevant questions.
There are two types of countermeasures: General State (intending to alter the physiological or psychological state of the examinee for the length of the test), and Specific Point (intending to alter the physiological or psychological state of the examinee at specific periods during the examination, either to increase or decrease responses during critical examination periods).
Law enforcement agencies and intelligence agencies in the United States are by far the biggest users of polygraph technology. In the United States alone most federal law enforcement agencies either employ their own polygraph examiners or use the services of examiners employed in other agencies. In 1978 Richard Helms, the 8th Director of Central Intelligence, stated that:
Susan McCarthy of Salon said in 2000 that "The polygraph is an American phenomenon, with limited use in a few countries, such as Canada, Israel and Japan ''.
In Canada, the 1987 decision of R v Béland, the Supreme Court of Canada rejected the use of polygraph results as evidence in court. This decision did not, however, affect the use of the polygraph in criminal investigations. The polygraph is regularly used as a forensic tool in the investigation of criminal acts and sometimes employed in the screening of employees for government organizations.
In the province of Ontario, the use of polygraphs is not permitted by an employer. A police force does have the authorization to use a polygraph in the course of the investigation of an offence.
In 2007, polygraph testimony was admitted by stipulation in 19 states, and was subject to the discretion of the trial judge in federal court. The use of polygraph in court testimony remains controversial, although it is used extensively in post-conviction supervision, particularly of sex offenders. In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993), the old Frye standard was lifted and all forensic evidence, including polygraph, had to meet the new Daubert standard in which "underlying reasoning or methodology is scientifically valid and properly can be applied to the facts at issue. '' While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US, no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test. In United States v. Scheffer (1998), the US Supreme Court left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court cases. Nevertheless, it is used extensively by prosecutors, defense attorneys, and law enforcement agencies. In the states of Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, Oregon, Delaware and Iowa it is illegal for any employer to order a polygraph either as conditions to gain employment, or if an employee has been suspected of wrongdoing. The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (EPPA) generally prevents employers from using lie detector tests, either for pre-employment screening or during the course of employment, with certain exemptions. As of 2013, about 70,000 job applicants are polygraphed by the federal government on an annual basis.
In the United States, the State of New Mexico admits polygraph testing in front of juries under certain circumstances. In many other states, polygraph examiners are permitted to testify in front of judges in various types of hearings (Motion to Revoke Probation, Motion to Adjudicate Guilt).
In 2010 the NSA produced a video explaining its polygraph process. The video, ten minutes long, is titled "The Truth About the Polygraph '' and was posted to the website of the Defense Security Service. Jeff Stein of The Washington Post said that the video portrays "various applicants, or actors playing them -- it 's not clear -- describing everything bad they had heard about the test, the implication being that none of it is true. '' AntiPolygraph.org argues that the NSA - produced video omits some information about the polygraph process; it produced a video responding to the NSA video. George Maschke, the founder of the website, accused the NSA polygraph video of being "Orwellian ''.
In 2013, the US federal government had begun indicting individuals who stated that they were teaching methods on how to defeat a polygraph test. During one of those investigations, upwards of 30 federal agencies were involved in investigations of almost 5000 people who had various degrees of contact with those being prosecuted or who had purchased books or DVDs on the topic of beating polygraph tests.
In 2008, an Indian court adopted the Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling test as evidence to convict a woman, who was accused of murdering her fiance. It is the first time that the result of polygraph was used as evidence in court. On May 5, 2010, The Supreme Court of India declared use of narcoanalysis, brain mapping and polygraph tests on suspects as illegal and against the constitution if consent is not obtained and forced. Article 20 (3) of the Indian Constitution -- "No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. '' Polygraph tests are still legal if the defendant requests one.
The Supreme Court of Israel, in Civil Appeal 551 / 89 (Menora Insurance Vs. Jacob Sdovnik), ruled that as the polygraph has not been recognized as a reliable device. In other decisions, polygraph results were ruled inadmissible in criminal trials. It has not been clearly decided if polygraph results are inadmissible as evidence in a civil trial.
In the private discipline, some insurance companies attempt to include a clause in insurance contracts, in which the beneficiary agrees that polygraph results be admissible as evidence. In such cases, where the beneficiary has willingly agreed to such a clause, signed the contract, and taken the test, the courts will honor the contract, and take the polygraph results into consideration. However, it is common practice for lawyers to advise people who signed such contracts to refuse to take the test. Depending on whether or not the beneficiary signed an agreements clause, and whether the test was already taken or not, such a refusal usually has no ill effects; at worst, the court will simply order the person to take the test as agreed. At best, the court will cancel the clause and release the person from taking the test, or rule the evidence inadmissible.
In most European jurisdictions, practice varies by country but polygraphs are generally not considered reliable evidence and are not generally used by law enforcement. Polygraph testing is widely seen in Europe to violate the right to remain silent.
As of 2017 the justice ministry and Supreme Court of each of the Netherlands and Germany had rejected use of polygraphs.
As of 2017 Belgium was the European country with the most prevalent use of polygraph testing by police, with about 300 polygraphs carried out each year in the course of police investigations. The results are not considered viable evidence in bench trials, but have been used in jury trials. The polygraph was used in Lithuania for the first time in 1992. From the 2004 surveys on the use of the Ewent Knowledge Test (new version of the Concealed Information Test) for criminal investigation.
The High Court of Australia has not yet considered the admissibility of polygraph evidence. However, the New South Wales District Court rejected the use of the device in a criminal trial. In Raymond George Murray 1982 7A Crim R48 Sinclair DCJ refused to admit polygraph evidence tending to support the defense. The judge rejected the evidence because
The Court cited, with approval, the Canadian case of Phillion v R 1978 1SCR 18.
Lie detector evidence is currently inadmissible in New South Wales courts under the Lie Detectors Act. Under the same act, it is also illegal to use lie detectors for the purpose of granting employment, insurance, financial accommodation, and several other purposes for which lie detectors may be used in other jurisdictions.
Contrary to popular belief, a security clearance may not be revoked based solely on polygraph results. However, a person 's access to sensitive information may be denied if the polygraph results are not favorable. In addition, persons being considered for a government position or job may be denied the employment, if the position specifically requires successful completion of a polygraph examination. It is difficult to precisely determine the effectiveness of polygraph results for the detection or deterrence of spying. It is inadmissible as evidence in most federal courts and military courts martial. The polygraph is more often used as a deterrent to espionage rather than detection. One exception to this was the case of Harold James Nicholson, a CIA employee later convicted of spying for Russia. In 1995, Nicholson had undergone his periodic five year reinvestigation where he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit. This polygraph test later launched an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction. In most cases, however, polygraphs are more of a tool to "scare straight '' those who would consider espionage. Jonathan Pollard was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test. Likewise, John Anthony Walker was advised by his handlers not to engage in espionage until he had been promoted to the highest position for which a polygraph test was not required, to refuse promotion to higher positions for which polygraph tests were required, and to retire when promotion was mandated. As part of his plea bargain agreement for his case of espionage for the Soviet Union Robert Hanssen would be made to undergo a polygraph at any time as a means of damage assessment. In Hanssen 's 25 - year career with the FBI, not once was he made to undergo a polygraph.
Alternatively, the use of polygraph testing, where it causes desperation over dismissal for past dishonesty, may encourage spying. For example, Edward Lee Howard was dismissed from the CIA when, during a polygraph screening, he truthfully answered a series of questions admitting to minor crimes such as petty theft and drug abuse. In retaliation for his perceived unjust punishment for minor offenses, he later sold his knowledge of CIA operations to the Soviet Union.
It is also worth noting that polygraph tests may not deter espionage. From 1945 to the present, at least six Americans have committed espionage while successfully passing polygraph tests. Notable cases of two men who created a false negative result with the polygraphs were Larry Wu - Tai Chin and Aldrich Ames. Ames was given two polygraph examinations while with the CIA, the first in 1986 and the second in 1991. The CIA reported that he passed both examinations after experiencing initial indications of deception. According to a Senate investigation, an FBI review of the first examination concluded that the indications of deception were never resolved. The Senate committee reported that the second examination, at a time when Ames was under suspicion, resulted in indications of deception and a retest a few days later with a different examiner. The second examiner concluded that there were no further indications of deception. In the CIA 's analysis of the second exam, they were critical of their failure to convey to the second examiner the existing suspicions. Ana Belen Montes, a Cuban spy, passed a counterintelligence scope polygraph test administered by DIA in 1994.
Despite these errors, in August 2008, the US Defense Intelligence Agency announced that it would subject each of its 5,700 prospective and current employees to polygraph testing at least once annually. This expansion of polygraph screening at DIA occurred while DIA polygraph managers ignored documented technical problems discovered in the Lafayette computerized polygraph system. DIA uses computerized Lafayette polygraph systems for routine counterintelligence testing. The impact of the technical flaws within the Lafayette system on the analysis of recorded physiology and on the final polygraph test evaluation is currently unknown.
In 2012, a McClatchy investigation found that the National Reconnaissance Office was possibly breaching ethical and legal boundaries by encouraging its polygraph examiners to extract personal and private information from DoD personnel during polygraph tests that purported to be limited to counterintelligence issues. Allegations of abusive polygraph practices were brought forward by former NRO polygraph examiners.
Most polygraph researchers have focused more the exam 's predictive value on a subject 's guilt. However, there have been no empirical theories established to explain how a polygraph measures deception. Recent research indicates that Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) may benefit in explaining the psychological correlations of polygraph exams. It could also explain which parts of the brain are active when subjects use artificial memories. Most brain activity occurs in both sides of the prefrontal cortex, which is linked to response inhibition. This indicates that deception may involve inhibition of truthful responses. Recalling artificial memories are known to activate the posterior cingulate cortex. However, fMRIs are limited by being expensive, immobile, and having inconsistent lying responses. Some researchers believe that reaction time (RT) based tests may replace polygraphs in concealed information detection. RT based tests differ from polygraphs in stimulus presentation duration, and can be conducted without physiological recording as subject response time is measured via computer. However, researchers have found limitations to these tests as subjects voluntarily control their reaction time, deception can still occur within the response deadline, and the test itself lacks physiological recording.
Earlier societies utilized elaborate methods of lie detection which mainly involved torture; for instance, the Middle Ages used boiling water to detect liars as it was believed honest men would withstand it better than liars. Early devices for lie detection include an 1895 invention of Cesare Lombroso used to measure changes in blood pressure for police cases, a 1904 device by Vittorio Benussi used to measure breathing, and an abandoned project by American William Moulton Marston which used blood pressure to examine German prisoners of war (POWs). Marston 's machine indicated a strong positive correlation between systolic blood pressure and lying.
Marston wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered Harvard Law School and graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917. Marston 's main inspiration for the device was his wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston. "According to Marston 's son, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston 's wife, who suggested to him that ' When she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb ' '' (Lamb, 2001). Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston 's collaborator in his early work, Lamb, Matte (1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth 's work on her husband 's deception research. She also appears in a picture taken in his polygraph laboratory in the 1920s (reproduced in Marston, 1938). ''
Despite his predecessor 's contributions, Marston styled himself the "father of the polygraph. '' (Today he is often equally or more noted as the creator of the comic book character Wonder Woman.) Marston remained the device 's primary advocate, lobbying for its use in the courts. In 1938 he published a book, The Lie Detector Test, wherein he documented the theory and use of the device. In 1938 he appeared in advertising by the Gillette company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette razors were better than the competition.
A device recording both blood pressure and breathing was invented in 1921 by Dr. John Augustus Larson of the University of California and first applied in law enforcement work by the Berkeley Police Department under its nationally renowned police chief August Vollmer. Further work on this device was done by Leonarde Keeler. As Larson 's protege, Keeler updated the device by making it portable and added the galvanic skin response to it in 1939. His device was then purchased by the FBI, and served as the prototype of the modern polygraph.
Several devices similar to Keeler 's polygraph version included the Berkeley Psychograph, a blood pressure - pulse - respiration recorder developed by C.D. Lee in 1936 and the Darrow Behavior Research Photopolygraph, which was developed and intended solely for behavior research experiments.
A device which recorded muscular activity accompanying changes in blood pressure was developed in 1945 by John E. Reid, who claimed that greater accuracy could be obtained by making these recordings simultaneously with standard blood pressure - pulse - respiration recordings.
Lie detection has a long history in mythology and fairy tales; the polygraph has allowed modern fiction to use a device more easily seen as scientific and plausible. Notable instances of polygraph usage include uses in crime and espionage themed television shows and some daytime television talk shows, cartoons and films. The most notable polygraph TV show is Lie Detector, which first aired in the 1950s created and hosted by Ralph Andrews. In the 1960s Andrews produced a series of specials hosted by Melvin Belli. In the 1970s the show was hosted by Jack Anderson. In 1998 TV producer Mark Phillips with his Mark Phillips Philms & Telephision put Lie Detector back on the air on the FOX Network -- on that program Dr. Ed Gelb with host Marcia Clark questioned Mark Fuhrman about the allegation that he "planted the bloody glove ''. Later Phillips produced Lie Detector as a series for PAX / ION -- some of the guests included Paula Jones, Reverend Paul Crouch accuser Lonny Ford, Ben Rowling, Jeff Gannon and Swift Boat Vet, Steve Garner.
FOX has taken this one step further with their game show The Moment of Truth, which pits people 's honesty against their own sense of modesty, propriety and other values. Contestants are given a polygraph test administered by a polygraph expert in a pre-screening session during which they answer over 50 questions. Later, they must sit in front of a studio audience that including their friends and family for the televised portion of the show. They need only answer 21 answers truthfully "as determined by the polygraph '' to win $500,000. The questions get more personal or revealing as they advance. Most polygraph experts caution that the techniques used on Moment of Truth do not conform to accepted methods of polygraphy.
Daytime talk shows, such as Maury Povich, Jeremy Kyle and Steve Wilkos, frequently use polygraphs to detect deception in regards to social issues such as cheating, child abuse and theft.
In one MacGyver episode ' Slow Death ', MacGyver assists the Indian tribesmen by improvising a polygraph to weed out the crooked doctor. This is made possible by using an analog sphygmomanometer to monitor blood pressure change, and an electronic alarm clock to detect sweat. To test its reliability, MacGyver asked a passenger on the train a few "placebo '' questions. The culprit was only discovered when he was trying to hide his crime, thus his sweat triggered the alarm clock and blood pressure climbed up.
In the movie Harsh Times the protagonist, played by actor Christian Bale, is caught trying to "beat '' a polygraph test during a pre-employment screening for a federal law enforcement job. He stores a tack in the toe of his shoe and uses the pain sensation to mask his true apprehension of certain questions. The polygrapher is immediately suspicious and threatens to terminate the test.
In the movie Ocean 's 13, one of the characters beats a polygraph test by stepping on a tack when answering truthfully, which supposedly raises the polygraph 's readings for the truthful answers so they equal the deceptive ones.
In the television series Profit, there is a memorable sequence at the end of episode "Healing '' where the eponymous character, Jim Profit, manages to fool a polygraph. He does that by putting a nail through the sole of his shoe and pushing it inside of his heel while answering every question in order to even out the readings. This scene is very graphic, especially for its time, 1996. During a voice - over, Profit explains the theory behind the polygraph and the flaws he intends to exploit in it.
In the 20th episode of The Americans, "Arpanet '', Nina, a KGB double agent, misleads her FBI handler after receiving coaching on how to beat the polygraph from Oleg, her Soviet superior. Oleg describes the machine as being similar to a camera in that it does n't know if the subject 's smiles convey genuine happiness. He also uses the asp killing Cleopatra as a metaphor, stating it only killed her when she moved. One technique suggested to Nina is visualizing her KGB superior in the room, as well as clenching her anus. She appears to utilize and benefit from these techniques as she passes the test.
In episode 93 of the US popular science show MythBusters, they attempted to fool the polygraph by using pain to try to increase the readings when answering truthfully (so the machine will supposedly interpret the truthful and non-truthful answers as the same.) They also attempted to fool the polygraph by thinking happy thoughts when lying and thinking stressful thoughts when telling the truth to try to confuse the machine. However, neither technique was successful for a number of reasons. Michael Martin correctly identified each guilty and innocent subject. The show also noted the opinion that, when done properly, polygraphs are correct 80 -- 99 % of the time.
A hand - held lie detector is being deployed by the US Department of Defense according to a report in 2008 by investigative reporter Bill Dedman of MSNBC. The Preliminary Credibility Assessment Screening System, or PCASS, captures less physiological information than a polygraph, and uses an algorithm, not the judgment of a polygraph examiner, to render a decision whether it believes the person is being deceptive or not. The device will be used first in Afghanistan by US Army troops. The Department of Defense ordered its use be limited to non-US persons, in overseas locations only.
Polygraphy has been faulted for failing to trap known spies such as double - agent Aldrich Ames, who passed two polygraph tests while spying for the Soviet Union. However Ames did fail several tests while at the CIA that were never acted on. Other spies who passed the polygraph include Karl Koecher, Ana Belen Montes, and Leandro Aragoncillo. However, CIA spy Harold James Nicholson failed his polygraph examinations, which aroused suspicions that led to his eventual arrest. Polygraph examination and background checks failed to detect Nada Nadim Prouty, who was not a spy but was convicted for improperly obtaining US citizenship and using it to obtain a restricted position at the FBI.
The polygraph also failed to catch Gary Ridgway, the "Green River Killer ''. Another suspect allegedly failed a given lie detector test, whereas Ridgway passed. Ridgway passed a polygraph in 1984; he confessed almost 20 years later when confronted with DNA evidence. In the interim he had killed seven additional women.
Conversely, innocent people have been known to fail polygraph tests. In Wichita, Kansas in 1986, because he failed two polygraph tests (one police administered, the other given by an expert that he had hired), Bill Wegerle had to live under a cloud of suspicion of murdering his wife Vicki Wegerle, although he was neither arrested nor convicted of her death. In March 2004, evidence surfaced connecting her death to the serial killer known as BTK, and in 2005 DNA evidence from the Wegerle murder confirmed that the BTK Killer was Dennis Rader and established Bill Wegerle 's innocence.
Prolonged polygraph examinations are sometimes used as a tool by which confessions are extracted from a defendant, as in the case of Richard Miller, who was persuaded to confess largely by polygraph results combined with appeals from a religious leader.
In the high - profile disappearance of 7 - year - old Danielle van Dam of San Diego in 2002, police suspected neighbor David Westerfield; he became the prime suspect when he allegedly failed a polygraph test. He was ultimately tried and convicted of kidnapping and first degree murder.
|
the display of wealth for social prestige is called | Conspicuous consumption - wikipedia
Conspicuous consumption is the spending of money on and the acquiring of luxury goods and services to publicly display economic power -- of the income or of the accumulated wealth of the buyer. To the conspicuous consumer, such a public display of discretionary economic power is a means of either attaining or maintaining a given social status.
The development of Thorstein Veblen 's sociology of conspicuous consumption produced the term invidious consumption, the ostentatious consumption of goods that is meant to provoke the envy of other people; and the term conspicuous compassion, the deliberate use of charitable donations of money in order to enhance the social prestige of the donor, with a display of superior socio - economic status.
In the 19th century, the term conspicuous consumption was introduced by the economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen (1857 -- 1929), in the book The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions (1899), to describe the behavioural characteristics of the nouveau riche (new rich) social class who emerged as a result of capital accumulation during the Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1860 -- 1914). In that 19th - century social and historical context, the term "conspicuous consumption '' was narrowly applied to describe the men, women, and families of the upper class who applied their great wealth as a means of publicly manifesting their social power and prestige, either real or perceived.
In the 20th century, the significant improvement of the material standard of living of a society, and the consequent emergence of the middle class, broadly applied the term "conspicuous consumption '' to the men, women, and households who possessed the discretionary income that allowed them to practice the patterns of economic consumption -- of goods and services -- which were motivated by the desire for prestige, the public display of social status, rather than by the intrinsic, practical utility of the goods and the services proper. In the 1920s, economists, such as Paul Nystrom (1878 -- 1969), proposed that changes in the style of life, made feasible by the economics of the industrial age, had induced to the mass of society a "philosophy of futility '' that would increase the consumption of goods and services as a social fashion; an activity done for its own sake. In that context, "conspicuous consumption '' is discussed either as a behavioural addiction or as a narcissistic behaviour, or both, which are psychologic conditions induced by consumerism -- the desire for the immediate gratification of hedonic expectations.
Sociologically, conspicuous consumption was thought to comprise socio - economic behaviours practiced by rich people; yet, economic research indicated that conspicuous consumption is a socio - economic behaviour common to the poor social - classes and economic groups, and common to the societies of countries with emerging economies. That among such people, displays of wealth are used to psychologically combat the impression of poverty, usually because such men and women belong to a socio - economic class society perceives as poor. In The Millionaire Next Door: The Surprising Secrets of America 's Wealthy (1996), Thomas J. Stanley and William D. Danko reported that Americans with a net worth of more than one million dollars are likely to avoid conspicuous consumption. That millionaires tend to practice frugality, e.g. prefer to buy used cars with cash rather than new cars with credit, in order to avoid material depreciation and paying interest for a loan to buy a new car.
Conspicuous compassion, the practice of publicly donating great sums of money to charity to enhance the social prestige of the donor, is sometimes described as a type of conspicuous consumption. This behaviour has long been recognised and sometimes attacked -- for example, the New Testament story Lesson of the widow 's mite criticises wealthy people who make large donations ostentatiously while praising poorer people who make small but comparatively more difficult donations in private.
As proposed by Thorstein Veblen in the 19th century, conspicuous consumption (spending money to buy goods and services for their own sake) explains the psychological mechanics of a consumer society, and the increase in the number and the types of the goods and services that people consider necessary to and for their lives in a developed economy.
Supporting interpretations and explanations of contemporary conspicuous consumption are presented in Consumer Culture (1996), by C. Lury, Consumer Culture and Modernity (1997), by D. Slater, Symbolic Exchange and Death (1998), by Jean Baudrillard, and Spent: Sex, Evolution, and the Secrets of Consumerism (2009), by Geoffrey Miller. Moreover, Hiding in the Light (1994), by D. Hebdige, proposed that conspicuous consumption is a form of displaying a personal identity, and a consequent function of advertising, as proposed in Ads, Fads, and Consumer Culture (2000), by A.A. Berger.
Each variant interpretation and complementary explanation is derived from Thorstein Veblen 's original sociologic proposition in The Theory of the Leisure Class: that conspicuous consumption is a psychological end in itself, from which the practitioner (man, woman, family) derived the honour of superior social status.
High levels of conspicuous consumption may be seen as socially undesirable on two grounds; firstly, as it is often associated with high relative income, high levels of conspicuous consumption may be an indicator of high levels of income inequality, which may be found intrinsically or instrumentally objectionable; secondly conspicuous consumption differs from other forms of consumption in that the main reason for the purchase of positional goods is not due to the additional direct utility provided by the goods alleged high quality, but rather the social prestige associated with the consumption of that good. One downside of this search for status is that individual purchases of positional goods may at a social level be self - defeating due to external effects. In this case, the externality is status anxiety, the loss of social status suffered by people whose stock of high - status goods (positional goods) is diminished, in relation to the stocks of other conspicuous consumers, as they increase their consumption of high - status goods and services; effectively, status - seeking is a zero - sum game -- by definition, the rise of one person in the social hierarchy can occur only at the expense of other people. Therefore, the conspicuous consumption of luxury goods and services (positional goods) is an economic loss -- like competitive military spending (an arms race), wherein each country must match the military expenditures of other countries in the arms race, or suffer a loss of relative military power. In the case of conspicuous consumption, taxes upon luxury goods diminish societal expenditures on high - status goods, by rendering them more expensive than non-positional goods. In this sense, luxury taxes can be seen as a market failure correcting Pigovian tax -- with an apparent negative deadweight loss, these taxes are a more efficient mechanism for increasing revenue than ' distorting ' labour or capital taxes.
A luxury tax applied to goods and services for conspicuous consumption is a type of progressive sales tax that at least partially corrects the negative externality associated with the conspicuous consumption of positional goods. In Utility from Accumulation (2009), Louis Kaplow said that assets exercise an objective social - utility function, i.e. the rich man and the rich woman hoard material assets, because the hoard, itself, functions as status goods that establish his and her socio - economic position within society. When utility is derived directly from accumulation of assets, this lowers the dead weight loss associated with inheritance taxes and raises the optimal rate of inheritance taxation.
In place of luxury taxes, the economist Robert H. Frank proposed the application of a progressive consumption tax; in the article "The Big City: Rich and Poor, Consumed by Consuming '' (1998), John Tierney said that a remedy for the social and psychological malaise that is conspicuous consumption, the personal income tax should be replaced with a progressive tax upon the yearly sum of discretionary income spent on the conspicuous consumption of goods and services. Another option is the redistribution of wealth, either by means of an incomes policy or by progressive taxation. Because the activity of conspicuous consumption, itself, is a form of superior good, diminishing the income inequality of the income distribution by way of an egalitarian policy reduces the conspicuous consumption of positional goods and services. In Wealth and Welfare (1912), the economist A.C. Pigou said that the redistribution of wealth might lead to great gains in social welfare:
Now the part played by comparative, as distinguished from absolute, income is likely to be small for incomes that only suffice to provide the necessaries and primary comforts of life, but to be large with large incomes. In other words, a larger proportion of the satisfaction yielded by the incomes of rich people comes from their relative, rather than from their absolute, amount. This part of it will not be destroyed if the incomes of all rich people are diminished together. The loss of economic welfare suffered by the rich when command over resources is transferred from them to the poor will, therefore, be substantially smaller relatively to the gain of economic welfare to the poor than a consideration of the law of diminishing utility taken by itself suggests.
The economic case for the taxation of positional, luxury goods has a long history; in the mid-19th century, in Principles of Political Economy with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy (1848), John Stuart Mill said:
I disclaim all asceticism, and by no means wish to see discouraged, either by law or opinion, any indulgence which is sought from a genuine inclination for, any enjoyment of, the thing itself; but a great portion of the expenses of the higher and middle classes in most countries... is not incurred for the sake of the pleasure afforded by the things on which the money is spent, but from regard to opinion, and an idea that certain expenses are expected from them, as an appendage of station; and I can not but think that expenditure of this sort is a most desirable subject of taxation. If taxation discourages it, some good is done, and if not, no harm; for in so far as taxes are levied on things which are desired and possessed from motives of this description, nobody is the worse for them. When a thing is bought not for its use but for its costliness, cheapness is no recommendation.
|
who helped lead the french army to victory at orleans | Siege of Orléans - wikipedia
The Siege of Orléans (12 October 1428 -- 8 May 1429) was the watershed of the Hundred Years ' War between France and England. It was the French royal army 's first major military victory to follow the crushing defeat at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, and also the first while Joan of Arc was with the army.
The siege took place at the pinnacle of English power during the later stages of the war. The city held strategic and symbolic significance to both sides of the conflict. The consensus among contemporaries was that the English regent, John of Lancaster, would have succeeded in realizing his brother King Henry V 's dream of conquering all of France if Orléans fell. For half a year the English and their French allies appeared to be winning but the siege collapsed nine days after Joan 's arrival.
The siege of Orléans occurred during the Hundred Years ' War, contested between the ruling houses of France and England for supremacy over France. The conflict had begun in 1337 when England 's King Edward III decided to press his claim to the French throne, a claim based on his being the son of Isabella of France and thus of the contested French royal line.
Following a decisive victory at Agincourt in 1415, the English gained the upper hand in the conflict, occupying much of northern France. Under the Treaty of Troyes of 1420, England 's Henry V became regent of France. By this treaty, Henry married Catherine, the daughter of the current French king, Charles VI, and would then succeed to the French throne upon Charles 's death. Charles of Valois (bearing the title "Dauphin of France ''), the son of Charles VI and apparent heir prior to the treaty, was then disinherited.
Orléans is located on the Loire River in north - central France. During the time of this siege it was the northernmost city that remained loyal to the Valois French crown. The English and their Burgundian allies controlled the rest of northern France, including Paris. Orléans 's position on a major river made it the last obstacle to a campaign into central France. England already controlled France 's southwestern coast.
As the capital of the duchy of Orléans, this city held symbolic significance in early 15th century politics. The dukes of Orléans were at the head of a political faction known as the Armagnacs, who rejected the Treaty of Troyes and supported the claims of the disinherited and banished Dauphin Charles to the French throne. This faction had been in existence for two generations. Its leader, the Duke of Orléans, also in line the throne, was one of the very few combatants from Agincourt who remained a prisoner of the English fourteen years after the battle.
Under the customs of chivalry, a city that surrendered to an invading army without a struggle was entitled to lenient treatment from its new ruler. A city that resisted could expect a harsh occupation. Mass executions were not unknown in this type of situation. By late medieval reasoning, the city of Orléans had escalated the conflict and forced the use of violence upon the English, so a conquering lord would be just in exacting vengeance upon its citizens. The city 's association with the Armagnac party made it unlikely to be spared if it fell.
After the brief fallout over Hainaut in 1425 -- 26, English and Burgundian arms renewed their alliance and offensive on the Dauphin 's France in 1427. The Orléanais region southwest of Paris was of key importance, not only for controlling the Loire river, but also to smoothly connect the English area of operations in the west and the Burgundian area of operations in the east. French arms had been largely ineffective before the Anglo - Burgundian onslaught until the siege of Montargis in late 1427, when they managed to successfully force it to be lifted. The relief of Montargis, the first effective French action in years, emboldened sporadic uprisings in the thinly - garrisoned English - occupied region of Maine to the west, threatening to undo recent English gains.
However, the French failed to capitalize on the aftermath of Montargis, in large part because the French court was embroiled in an internal power struggle between the constable Arthur de Richemont and the chamberlain Georges de la Trémoille, a new favorite of the Dauphin Charles. The French military leaders John of Orléans (called the "Bastard of Orléans '', later "Dunois ''), La Hire and Jean de Xaintrailles were partisans of La Trémoille, while Charles of Bourbon (Count of Clermont), the marshal Jean de Brosse and John Stewart of Darnley (head of the Scottish auxiliary forces), were lined up with the constable. The inner French conflict had reached such a point that their partisans were fighting each other in the open field by mid-1428.
The English availed themselves of French paralysis to raise fresh reinforcements in England in early 1428, raising a new force of 2,700 men (450 men - at - arms and 2,250 longbowmen), brought over by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, who was regarded as the most effective English commander of the time. These were bolstered by new levies raised in Normandy and Paris, and joined by auxiliaries from Burgundy and vassal domains in Picardie and Champagne, to a total strength possibly as great as 10,000.
At the council of war in the spring of 1428, the English regent John, Duke of Bedford determined the direction of English arms would be towards the west, to stomp out the fires in the Maine and lay siege to Angers. The city of Orléans was not originally on the menu -- indeed, Bedford had secured a private deal with Dunois, whose attentions were focused on the Richemont - La Trémoille conflict, then raging violently in the Berri. As Charles, Duke of Orléans was at the time in English captivity, it would have been contrary to the customs of knightly war to seize the possessions of a prisoner. Bedford agreed to leave Orléans alone, but, for some reason, changed his mind shortly after the arrival of English reinforcements under Salisbury in July 1428. In a memorandum written in later years, Bedford expressed that the siege of Orléans "was taken in hand, God knoweth by what advice '', suggesting it was probably Salisbury 's idea, not his.
Between July and October, the Earl of Salisbury swept through the countryside southwest of Paris -- recovering Nogent - le - Roi, Rambouillet and the area around Chartres. Then, rather than continuing southwest to Angers, Salisbury turned abruptly southeast towards Orléans instead. Pressing towards the Loire, Salisbury seized Le Puiset and Janville (with some difficulty) in August. From there, rather than descending directly on Orléans from the north, Salisbury skipped over the city to seize the countryside west of it. He reached the Loire river at Meung - sur - Loire, which he promptly seized (a detachment of his men crossed the river then to plunder the abbey of Cléry). He pressed a little downriver, in the direction of Blois, to take the bridge and castle of Beaugency. Salisbury crossed the Loire at the point, and turned up to approach Orléans from the south. Salisbury arrived at Olivet, just one mile south of Orléans, on October 7. In the meantime, an English detachment, under John de la Pole, had been sent to seize the regions upriver, east of Orléans: Jargeau fell on October 5, Châteauneuf - sur - Loire immediately after, while further upriver, the Burgundians took Sully - sur - Loire. Orléans was cut off and surrounded.
Manning the defenses of Orléans, John of Dunois had watched the tightening English noose and took care to prepare the city for siege. Dunois correctly anticipated that the English would aim for the bridge, nearly ⁄ mile (400 m) long, that led from the south shore of the Loire into the center of the city of Orléans on the north shore. The bridge passed over the riverine island of St. Antoine, an optimal location for Salisbury to position English cannon within range of Orléans city center. At the southern end of the bridge was a turreted gatehouse, Les Tourelles, which stood in the river, connected by a drawbridge to the southern bank. Dunois rapidly erected a large earthwork bulwark (Boulevart) on the south shore itself, which he packed with the bulk of his troops, thus creating a large fortified complex to protect the bridge. Just across from the Boulevart was an Augustinian friary, which could be used as a flanking firing position on any approach to the bridge, although it seems Dunois decided not to make use of it. On his orders, the southern suburbs of Orléans were evacuated and all structures leveled to prevent giving the English cover.
The siege of Orléans formally began on 12 October 1428, and initiated with an artillery bombardment that began on 17 October. The English assaulted the Boulevart on 21 October, but the assaulters were held back by French missile fire, rope nets, scalding oil, hot coals and quicklime. The English decided against a new frontal attack, and set about mining the bulwark. The French countermined, fired the pit props and fell back to the Tourelles on 23 October. But the Tourelles itself was taken by storm the next day, 24 October. The departing French blew up some of the bridge arches to prevent a direct pursuit.
With the fall of the Tourelles, Orléans seemed doomed. But the timely arrival of the Marshal de Boussac with sizeable French reinforcements prevented the English from repairing and crossing the bridge and seizing Orléans right then. The English suffered another setback two days later, when the Earl of Salisbury was struck in the face by debris kicked up in cannon fire while supervising the installation of the Tourelles. English operations were suspended while Salisbury was carried off to Meung to recover, but after lingering for about a week, he died of his injuries.
The lull in English operations following Salisbury 's injury and death gave the citizens of Orléans time to knock out the remaining arches of the bridge on their end, disabling the possibility of a quick repair and direct assault. The new siege commander appointed by Bedford in mid-November, William de la Pole (Earl of Suffolk) resolved on surrounding the city and starving it into submission. He did not have enough men to invest the city with continuous trenchlines, so he set up a series of outworks, (bastides). Over the next few months, seven strongholds were set up on the north bank, and four on the south bank, with the small riverine isle of Charlemagne (west of Orléans) commanding the bridges connecting the two banks.
In the winter, a Burgundian force numbering about 1,500 men arrived to support the English besiegers.
The establishment of the outworks was not without difficulty -- the French garrison sallied out repeatedly to harass the builders, and systematically destroyed other buildings (notably, all the churches) in the suburbs to prevent them serving as shelter for the English during the winter months. By the Spring of 1429, the English outworks covered only the south and west of the city, with the northeast basically left open (nonetheless swarming with English patrols). Sizeable contingents of French men - at - arms could push aside the patrols and move in and out of the city, but the entry of any lighter - escorted provisions and supplies was firmly blocked, there and further afield.
On the south bank, the English center was the bridge complex (composed of the Tourelles - Boulevart and the now - fortified Augustins). Guarding the approach to the bridge from the east was the bastille of St. Jean - le - Blanc, while to the west of the bridge complex was the bastille of Champ de St. Privé. St. Privé also guarded the bridge to the island of Charlemagne (which had another bastille). On the north bank of the Loire river, on the other side of Charlemagne bridge, was the bastille of St. Laurent, the largest English bulwark and the nerve center of English operations. Above that were a series of smaller outworks, in order: the bastille de la Croiz Boisse, the bastille des Douze Pierres (nicknamed "London ''), the bastille de Pressoir Aps (nicknamed "Rouen '') and, just north of the city, the bastille de St. Pouair (nicknamed "Paris ''), all on top of the main roads. Then came the great northeastern gap, although its back was mostly covered by thick forest of the Bois d'Orléans. Finally, some 2 km east of the city, on the north bank, there was the isolated bastille of St. Loup.
Orléans 's position seemed gloomy. Although the French still held isolated citadels like Montargis to the northeast and Gien upriver, any relief would have to come from Blois, to the southwest, exactly where the English had concentrated their forces. Provisions convoys had to follow dangerous circuitous routes swinging around to reach the city from the northeast. Few made it through, and the city soon began to feel the pinch. Should Orléans fall, it would effectively make the recovery of the northern half of France all but impossible, and prove fatal to the Dauphin Charles 's bid for the crown. When the French Estates met at Chinon in September 1428, they pressed the Dauphin to make peace with Philip III of Burgundy "at any price ''.
The threat to Orléans had prompted the partisans of Richemont and La Trémoille to make a quick temporary truce in October 1428. In early 1429, Charles de Bourbon (Count of Clermont) assembled a French - Scottish force in Blois for the relief of Orléans. Hearing of the dispatch of an English supply convoy from Paris, under the command of Sir John Fastolf for the English siege troops, Clermont decided to take a detour to intercept it. He was joined by a force from Orléans under John of Dunois, which had managed to slip past the English lines. The forces made junction at Janville and attacked the English convoy at Rouvray on 12 February, in an encounter known as the Battle of the Herrings, on account of the convoy being laden with a large supply of fish for the forthcoming Lenten season.
The English, aware of their approach, formed a "laager '' with the supply wagons, lining the circumference with bowmen. Clermont ordered the French to hold back, and let their cannon do the damage. But the Scottish regiments, led by John Stewart of Darnley, dissatisfied with the missile duel, decided to move in. The French lines hesitated, uncertain of whether to follow or remain back as ordered. Seeing the French immobilized or only timidly following, the English sensed an opportunity. The English cavalry burst out of the wagon fort, overwhelmed the isolated Scots, and threw back the hesitant French. Disorder and panic set in, and the French fell into retreat. Stewart of Darnley was killed, John of Dunois wounded. Fastolf brought the supplies in triumph to the English soldiers at Orléans three days later.
The defeat at Rouvray was disastrous for French morale. Bickering and recriminations immediately followed as Clermont and Dunois blamed each other for the disaster, reopening the fissures between the Richemont and La Tremoille parties. Clermont, disgusted, quit the field and retired to his estates, refusing to participate further. Once again, the Dauphin Charles was advised to sue for peace with Burgundy and should that fail, to consider abdicating and retiring to the Dauphiné, perhaps even going into exile in Scotland.
In March, John of Dunois made an irresistible offer to Philip III of Burgundy, offering to turn Orléans over to him, to hold as a neutral territory on behalf of his captive half - brother Charles, Duke of Orléans. A group of nobles and bourgeois from the city went to Philip to try to make him persuade the Duke of Bedford to lift the siege so that Orléans could surrender to Burgundy instead. The specific terms of the offer made are outlined in the letter by a contemporary merchant. Burgundy would be able to appoint the city 's governors on behalf of the Duke of Orléans, half the city 's taxes would go to the English, the other half would go for the ransom of the imprisoned duke, a contribution of 10,000 gold crowns was to be made to Bedford for war expenses, and the English would gain military access through Orléans, all in return for lifting the siege and handing the city to the Burgundians.
The agreement would have given the English the chance to pass through Orléans and strike into Bourges, the administrative capital of the Dauphin, which had been the primary motivator for the siege itself. Burgundy hurried to Paris in early April to persuade the English regent John of Bedford to take the offer. But Bedford, certain Orléans was on the verge of falling, refused to surrender his prize. The disappointed Philip withdrew his Burgundian auxiliaries from the English siege in a huff. The Burgundian contingent left on 17 April 1429, which left the English with an extremely small army to prosecute the siege. The decision proved a lost opportunity, and a terrible mistake in the long run for the English.
It was on the very day of the Battle of the Herrings that a young French peasant girl, Joan of Arc, was meeting with Robert de Baudricourt, the Dauphinois captain of Vaucouleurs, trying to explain to the sceptical captain her divinely - ordained mission to rescue the Dauphin Charles and deliver him to his royal coronation at Reims. She had met and been rebuffed by Baudricourt twice before, but apparently this time he assented and arranged to escort her to the Dauphin 's court in Chinon. According to the Chronique de la Pucelle, at this meeting with Baudricourt, Joan disclosed that the Dauphin 's arms had suffered a great reversal near Orléans that day, and if she were not sent to him soon, there would be others. Accordingly, when news of the defeat at Rouvray reached Vaucouleurs, Baudricourt became convinced of the girl 's prescience and agreed to escort her. Whatever the truth of the story -- and it is not accepted by all authorities -- Joan left Vaucouleurs on February 23 for Chinon.
For years, vague prophecies had been circulating in France concerning an armored maiden who would rescue France. Many of these prophecies foretold that the armored maiden would come from the borders of Lorraine, where Domrémy, Joan 's birthplace, is located. As a result, when word reached the besieged citizens of Orléans concerning Joan 's journey to see the King, expectations and hopes were high.
Escorted by Baudricourt, Joan arrived in Chinon on March 6 1429, and met with the skeptical La Trémoille. On March 9, she finally met the Dauphin Charles, although it would be a few days more before she had a private meeting where the Dauphin was finally convinced of her "powers '' (or at least, her usefulness). Nonetheless, he insisted she first proceed to Poitiers to be examined by church authorities. With the clerical verdict that she posed no harm and could be safely taken on, Dauphin Charles finally accepted her services on March 22. She was provided with a suit of plate armor, a banner, a pageboy, and heralds.
Joan 's first mission was to join a convoy assembling at Blois, under the command of Marshal Jean de La Brosse, Lord of Boussac bringing supplies to Orléans. It was from Blois that Joan dispatched her famous missives to the English siege commanders, calling herself "the Maiden '' (La Pucelle), and ordering them, in the name of God, to "Begone, or I will make you go ''.
The relief convoy, escorted by some 400 -- 500 soldiers, finally left Blois on 27 or 28 April, in nearly religious processional array. Joan had insisted on approaching Orléans from the north (through the Beauce region), where English forces were concentrated, intent on fighting them immediately. But the commanders decided to take the convoy in a circuitous route around the south (through the Sologne region) without telling Joan, reaching the south bank of the Loire at Rully (near Chécy), some four miles east of the city. Orléans ' commander, John of Dunois, came out to meet them across the river. Joan was indignant at the deception and ordered an immediate attack on St. Jean - le - Blanc, the nearest English bastille on the south bank. But Dunois, supported by the Marshals, protested and with some effort, finally prevailed on her to allow the city to be resupplied before any assaults on anything. The provisions convoy approached the landing of Port Saint - Loup, across the river from the English bastille of Saint - Loup on the north bank. While French skirmishers kept the English garrison of Saint - Loup contained, a fleet of boats from Orléans sailed down to the landing to pick up the supplies, Joan and 200 soldiers. One of Joan 's reputed miracles was said to have taken place here: the wind which had brought the boats upriver suddenly reversed itself, allowing them to sail back to Orléans smoothly under the cover of darkness. Joan of Arc entered Orléans in triumph, on April 29, around 8: 00 PM, to much rejoicing. The rest of the convoy returned to Blois.
Over the next couple of days, to boost morale, Joan paraded periodically around the streets of Orléans, distributing food to the people and salaries to the garrison. Joan of Arc also sent out messengers to the English bastions demanding their departure, which the English commanders greeted with jeers. Some even threatened to kill the messengers as "emissaries of a witch ''.
Joan participated in discussion of tactics with John of Dunois and the other French commanders. The Journal du siege d'Orléans, as quoted in Pernoud, reports several heated discussions over the next week concerning military tactics between Joan and Jean de Dunois, the Bastard of Orléans, who directed the city 's defense.
Believing the garrison too small for any action, on May 1, Dunois left the city in the hands of La Hire and made his way personally to Blois to arrange for reinforcements. During this interlude, Joan went outside the city walls and surveyed all of the English fortifications personally, at one point exchanging words with William Glasdale himself.
On May 3, Dunois 's reinforcement convoy left Blois to head for Orléans. At the same time, other troop convoys set out from Montargis and Gien in the direction of Orléans. Dunois 's military convoy arrived via the Beauce district, on the north bank of the river, in the early morning of May 4, in full view of the English garrison at St. Laurent. The English declined to challenge the convoy 's entry on account of its strength. Joan rode out to escort it in.
At noon that same day (May 4, 1429), apparently to secure the entry of more provisions convoys, which had taken the usual circuitous route via the east, Dunois launched an attack on the easterly English bastille of St. Loup together with the Montargis - Gien troops. Joan nearly missed out on it, having been napping when the assault began, but she hurried to join in. The English garrison of 400 was heavily outnumbered by the 1,500 French attackers. Hoping to divert the French away, the English commander, Lord John Talbot, launched an attack from St. Pouair, on the northern end of Orléans, but it was held back by a French sortie. After a few hours, St. Loup fell, with some 140 English killed and 40 prisoners taken. Some of the English defenders of St. Loup were captured in the ruins of a nearby church, their lives spared at Joan 's request. Hearing that St. Loup had fallen, Talbot retired the northern assault.
The next day, May 5, was Ascension Day, and Joan urged an attack on the largest English outwork, the bastille of St. Laurent to the west. But the French captains, knowing its strength and that their men needed rest, prevailed on her to allow them to honor the feast - day in peace. Overnight, in a war council, it was decided that the best course of action was to clear the English bastions on the south bank, where the English were weakest.
The operation began in the early morning of May 6. The citizens of Orléans, inspired by Joan of Arc, raised urban militias on her behalf and showed up at the gates, much to the distress of the professional commanders. Nonetheless, Joan prevailed upon the professionals to allow the militia to join. The French crossed the river from Orléans on boats and barges and landed on the island of St. Aignan, crossing over to the south bank via a makeshift pontoon bridge, landing on the stretch between the bridge complex and the bastille of St. Jean - le - Blanc. That plan had been to cut off and take St. Jean - le - Blanc from the west, but the English garrison commander, William Glasdale, sensing the intent of the French operation, had already hurriedly destroyed the St. Jean - le - Blanc outwork and concentrated his troops in the central Boulevart - Tourelles - Augustines complex.
Before the French had properly disembarked on the south bank, Joan of Arc reportedly launched a precipitous attack on the strongpoint of the Boulevart. This nearly turned into a disaster, as the assault was exposed on the flanks to English fire from the Augustines. The assault broke off when there were cries that the English garrison of the bastille of St. Privé further west was rushing upriver to reinforce Glasdale and cut them off. Panic set in, and the French attackers retreated from the Boulevart back to the landing grounds, dragging Joan back with them. Seeing the "witch '' on the run and the "spell '' broken, Glasdale 's garrison burst out to give chase, but according to legend, Joan turned around on them alone, raised her holy standard and cried out "Ou Nom De Dieu '' ("In the name of God ''), which reportedly was sufficient to impress the English to halt their pursuit and return to the Boulevart.. The fleeing French troops turned around and rallied to her.
Watching the turn of events, Gilles de Rais persuaded Joan to immediately resume the assault, but to direct the French soldiers not on the boulevart, but rather on the detached bastille of the Augustins. After heavy fighting that lasted the entire day, the Augustins was finally taken just before nightfall.
With the Augustins in French hands, Glasdale 's garrison was blockaded in the Tourelles complex. That same night, what remained of the English garrison at St. Privé evacuated their outwork and went north of the river to join their comrades in St. Laurent. Glasdale was isolated, but he could count on a strong and well - esconsed English garrison of 700 -- 800 troops.
Joan had been wounded in the foot in the assault on the Augustins, and taken back to Orléans overnight to recover, and as a result did not participate in the evening war council. The next morning, May 7, she was asked to sit out the final assault on the Boulevart - Tourelles, but she refused and roused to join the French camp on the south bank, much to the joy of the people of Orléans. The citizens raised more levies on her behalf and set about repairing the bridge with beams to enable a two - sided attack on the complex. Artillery was positioned on the island of Saint - Antoine.
The day was spent in a largely fruitless bombardment and attempts to undermine the foundations of the complex, by mining and burning barges. As evening was approaching, Jean de Dunois had decided to leave the final assault for the next day. Informed of the decision, Joan called for her horse and rode off for a period of quiet prayer, then returned to the camp, grabbed a ladder and launched the frontal assault on the Boulevart herself, reportedly calling out to her troops "Tout est vostre -- et y entrez! '' ("All is yours, -- go in! ''). The French soldiery rushed in after her, swarming up the ladders into the Boulevart. Joan was struck down early in the assault by a longbow arrow between the neck and left shoulder and was hurriedly taken away. Rumors of her death bolstered the English defenders and faltered French morale. But, according to eyewitnesses, she returned later during the evening and told the soldiers that a final assault would carry the fortress. Joan 's confessor / chaplain, Jean Pasquerel, later stated that Joan herself had some type of premonition or foreknowledge of her wound, stating the day before the attack that "tomorrow blood will flow from my body above my breast. ''
The French carried the day and forced the English out of the boulevart and back into the last redoubt of the Tourelles. But the drawbridge connecting them gave way, and Glasdale himself fell into the river and perished. The French pressed on to storm the Tourelles itself, from both sides (the bridge now repaired). The Tourelles, half - burning, was finally taken in the evening.
English losses were heavy. Counting other actions on the day (notably the interception of reinforcements rushed to the defense), the English had suffered nearly a thousand killed, and 600 prisoners. 200 French prisoners were found in the complex and released.
With the Tourelles complex taken, the English had lost the south bank of the Loire. There was little point of continuing the siege, as Orléans could now be easily re-supplied indefinitely.
On the morning of May 8, the English troops on the north bank, under the command of William de la Pole (Earl of Suffolk) and Lord John Talbot, demolished their outworks and assembled in battle array in the field near St. Laurent. The French army under Dunois lined up before them. They stood facing each other immobile for about an hour, before the English withdrew from the field and marched off to join other English units in Meung, Beaugency and Jargeau. Some of the French commanders urged an attack to destroy the English army then and there. Joan of Arc reportedly forbade it, on account of it being Sunday.
The English did not consider themselves beaten. Although they had suffered a setback and tremendous losses at Orléans itself, the surrounding perimeter of the Orleanais region -- Beaugency, Meung, Janville, Jargeau -- was still in their hands. Indeed, it was possible for the English to reorganize and resume the siege of Orléans itself soon after, this time perhaps with more success, as the bridge was now repaired, and thus more susceptible to being taken by assault. Suffolk 's priority that day (May 8) was to salvage what remained of English arms.
The French commanders realized as much, Joan less so. Leaving Orléans, she met the Dauphin Charles outside of Tours on May 13, to report her victory. She immediately called for a march northeast into Champagne, towards Reims, but the French commanders knew they had to first clear the English out of their dangerous positions on the Loire.
The Loire Campaign began a couple of weeks later, after a period of rest and reinforcement. Volunteers of men and supplies swelled the French army, eager to serve under Joan of Arc 's banner. Even the ostracized constable Arthur de Richemont was eventually permitted to join the campaign. After a series of brief sieges and battles at Jargeau (June 12), Meung (June 15) and Beaugency (June 17), the Loire was back in French hands. An English reinforcement army rushing from Paris under John Talbot was defeated at the Battle of Patay shortly after (June 18), the first significant field victory for French arms in years. The English commanders, the Earl of Suffolk and Lord Talbot, were taken prisoner in this campaign. Only thereafter did the French feel safe enough to accede to Joan 's request for a march on Reims.
After some preparation, the march on Rheims began from Gien on June 29, the Dauphin Charles following Joan and the French army through the dangerous Burgundian - occupied territory of Champagne. Although Auxerre (July 1) closed its gates and refused them entry, Saint - Florentin (July 3) yielded, as did, after some resistance, Troyes (July 11) and Châlons - sur - Marne (July 15). They reached Reims the next day and the Dauphin Charles, with Joan at his side, was finally consecrated as King Charles VII of France on July 17, 1429.
The city of Orléans commemorates the lifting of the siege with an annual festival, including both modern and medieval elements and a woman representing Joan of Arc in full armor atop a horse. On May 8, Orléans simultaneously celebrates the lifting of the siege and V-E Day (Victory in Europe, the day that Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allies to end World War II in Europe.)
Coordinates: 47 ° 54 ′ 09 '' N 1 ° 54 ′ 32 '' E / 47.9025 ° N 1.9089 ° E / 47.9025; 1.9089
|
ncis season 14 episode pay to play cast | NCIS (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American police procedural drama NCIS premiered on September 20, 2016, in the same time slot as in the previous seasons, Tuesdays at 8 pm. The season concluded on May 16, 2017.
NCIS revolves around a fictional team of special agents from the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, which conducts criminal investigations involving the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. The series was renewed for fourteenth and fifteenth seasons by CBS on Monday, February 29, 2016.
The series was renewed for fourteenth and fifteenth seasons by CBS on Monday, February 29, 2016. Production on this season started in late July. On January 5, 2016, CBS announced Michael Weatherly 's departure from the series after thirteen seasons, which occurred in the Season 13 finale, "Family First ''. After Weatherly 's exit, two new actors joined the cast as agents: Wilmer Valderrama, on June 16, 2016; and Jennifer Esposito, on July 11. In addition, July 11 also saw Duane Henry, who had appeared in the last two episodes of Season 13 as MI6 Officer Clayton Reeves, promoted to series regular. Sarah Clarke, who had appeared in the last 2 episodes of Season 13 as FBI Special Agent Tess Monroe, with a series regular option for Season 14, was not retained.
During production of this season, the showrunner Gary Glasberg died in his sleep on September 28, 2016. Thereafter, George Schenck and Frank Cardea, were both appointed as the new showrunners. Schenck and Cardea have been writers of NCIS since the beginning of the series.
After Abby 's homeland security think tank is compromised and she is found in possession of a real bomb, the NCIS team discovers the leader of the group has been murdered and a theoretical terror playbook has been stolen.
|
where is the er located in an animal cell | Endoplasmic reticulum - wikipedia
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type of organelle found in eukaryotic cells that forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane - enclosed sacs or tube - like structures known as cisternae. The membranes of the ER are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. The endoplasmic reticulum occurs in most types of eukaryotic cells, but is absent from red blood cells and spermatozoa. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: rough and smooth. The outer (cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid manufacture and metabolism, the production of steroid hormones, and detoxification. The smooth ER is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells. The lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 using electron microscopy.
The lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, Brody Meskers and Ernest F. Fullam, using electron microscopy. The word reticulum, which means "network '', was applied to describe this fabric of membranes.
The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes called cisternae. These sac - like structures are held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid membrane encloses the cisternal space (or lumen), which is continuous with the perinuclear space but separate from the cytosol. The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum can be summarized as the synthesis and export of proteins and membrane lipids, but varies between ER and cell type and cell function. The quantity of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a cell can slowly interchange from one type to the other, depending on the changing metabolic activities of the cell. Transformation can include embedding of new proteins in membrane as well as structural changes. Changes in protein content may occur without noticeable structural changes.
The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (often abbreviated RER or Rough ER) (also called granular endoplasmic reticulum) is studded with protein - manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough '' appearance (hence its name). The binding site of the ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the translocon. However, the ribosomes are not a stable part of this organelle 's structure as they are constantly being bound and released from the membrane. A ribosome only binds to the RER once a specific protein - nucleic acid complex forms in the cytosol. This special complex forms when a free ribosome begins translating the mRNA of a protein destined for the secretory pathway. The first 5 -- 30 amino acids polymerized encode a signal peptide, a molecular message that is recognized and bound by a signal recognition particle (SRP). Translation pauses and the ribosome complex binds to the RER translocon where translation continues with the nascent (new) protein forming into the RER lumen and / or membrane. The protein is processed in the ER lumen by an enzyme (a signal peptidase), which removes the signal peptide. Ribosomes at this point may be released back into the cytosol; however, non-translating ribosomes are also known to stay associated with translocons.
The membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum forms large double membrane sheets that are located near, and continuous with, the outer layer of the nuclear envelope. The double membrane sheets are stacked and connected through several right or left - handed helical ramps, the so - called Terasaki ramps, giving rise to a structure resembling a multi-storey car park. Although there is no continuous membrane between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, membrane - bound transport vesicles shuttle proteins between these two compartments. Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII. COPII targets vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and COPI marks them to be brought back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper destinations. A second method of transport out of the endoplasmic reticulum involves areas called membrane contact sites, where the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles are held closely together, allowing the transfer of lipids and other small molecules.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions:
In most cells the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (abbreviated SER) is scarce. Instead there are areas where the ER is partly smooth and partly rough, this area is called the transitional ER. The transitional ER gets its name because it contains ER exit sites. These are areas where the transport vesicles that contain lipids and proteins made in the ER, detach from the ER and start moving to the Golgi apparatus. Specialized cells can have a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and in these cells the smooth ER has many functions. It synthesizes lipids, phospholipids, and steroids. Cells which secrete these products, such as those in the testes, ovaries, and sebaceous glands have an abundance of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It also carries out the metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of natural metabolism products and of alcohol and drugs, attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins, and steroid metabolism. In muscle cells, it regulates calcium ion concentration. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in a variety of cell types (both animal and plant), and it serves different functions in each. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also contains the enzyme glucose - 6 - phosphatase, which converts glucose - 6 - phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis. It is connected to the nuclear envelope and consists of tubules that are located near the cell periphery. These tubes sometimes branch forming a network that is reticular in appearance. In some cells, there are dilated areas like the sacs of rough endoplasmic reticulum. The network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum allows for an increased surface area to be devoted to the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these enzymes.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek σάρξ sarx ("flesh ''), is smooth ER found in myocytes. The only structural difference between this organelle and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the medley of proteins they have, both bound to their membranes and drifting within the confines of their lumens. This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions: The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes molecules, while the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions and pumps them out into the sarcoplasm when the muscle fiber is stimulated. After their release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions interact with contractile proteins that utilize ATP to shorten the muscle fiber. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a major role in excitation - contraction coupling.
The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus. Correct folding of newly made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins, including protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), ERp29, the Hsp70 family member BiP / Grp78, calnexin, calreticulin, and the peptidylpropyl isomerase family. Only properly folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus -- unfolded proteins cause an unfolded protein response as a stress response in the ER. Disturbances in redox regulation, calcium regulation, glucose deprivation, and viral infection or the over-expression of proteins can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress response (ER stress), a state in which the folding of proteins slows, leading to an increase in unfolded proteins. This stress is emerging as a potential cause of damage in hypoxia / ischemia, insulin resistance, and other disorders.
Secretory proteins, mostly glycoproteins, are moved across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a signal sequence. The N - terminus (one end) of a polypeptide chain (i.e., a protein) contains a few amino acids that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Nascent peptides reach the ER via the translocon, a membrane - embedded multiprotein complex. Proteins that are destined for places outside the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into transport vesicles and moved along the cytoskeleton toward their destination. In human fibroblasts, the ER is always co-distributed with microtubules and the depolymerisation of the latter cause its co-aggregation with mitochondria, which are also associated with the ER.
The endoplasmic reticulum is also part of a protein sorting pathway. It is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell. The majority of its resident proteins are retained within it through a retention motif. This motif is composed of four amino acids at the end of the protein sequence. The most common retention sequences are KDEL for lumen located proteins and KKXX for transmembrane protein. However, variations of KDEL and KKXX do occur, and other sequences can also give rise to endoplasmic reticulum retention. It is not known whether such variation can lead to sub-ER localizations. There are three KDEL (1, 2 and 3) receptors in mammalian cells, and they have a very high degree of sequence identity. The functional differences between these receptors remain to be established.
Abnormalities in XBP1 lead to a heightened endoplasmic reticulum stress response and subsequently causes a higher susceptibility for inflammatory processes that may even contribute to Alzheimer 's disease. In the colon, XBP1 anomalies have been linked to the inflammatory bowel diseases including Crohn 's disease.
The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular stress response related to the endoplasmic reticulum. The UPR is activated in response to an accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. The UPR functions to restore normal function of the cell by halting protein translation, degrading misfolded proteins, and activating the signaling pathways that lead to increasing the production of molecular chaperones involved in protein folding. Sustained overactivation of the UPR has been implicated in prion diseases as well as several other neurodegenerative diseases and the inhibition of the UPR could become a treatment for those diseases.
|
where is the amalfi coast located in italy | Amalfi Coast - wikipedia
The Amalfi Coast (Italian: Costiera Amalfitana) is a stretch of coastline on the southern coast of the Salerno Gulf on the Tyrrhenian Sea, located in the Province of Salerno of southern Italy.
The Amalfi Coast is a popular tourist destination for the region and Italy as a whole, attracting thousands of tourists annually. In 1997, the Amalfi Coast was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
During the 10th -- 11th centuries, the Duchy of Amalfi existed on the territory of the Amalfi Coast, centered in the town of Amalfi. The Amalfi coast was later controlled by the Principality of Salerno, until Amalfi was sacked by the Republic of Pisa in 1137.
Like the rest of the region, the Amalfi Coast lies in a Mediterranean climate, featuring warm summers and mild winters. It is located on the relatively steep southern shore of the Sorrentine Peninsula, leaving little room for rural and agricultural territories. The coast comprises 11,231 hectares between the Gulf of Naples and the Gulf of Salerno. The only land route to the Amalfi Coast is the 40 kilometres (25 mi) long Strada Statale 163 which runs along the coastline from the town of Vietri sul Mare in the east to Positano in the west. Thirteen municipalities are located on the Amalfi Coast, many of them centered on tourism.
The Amalfi Coast is known for its production of limoncello liqueur as the area is a known cultivator of lemons, known as sfusato amalfitano in Italian, which are grown in terraced gardens along the entire coast between February and October. Amalfi is also a known maker of a hand - made thick paper which is called bambagina. Other renowned local products are a particular kind of anchovies (local Italian: alici) from Cetara, and the colorful handmade ceramics from Vietri.
There are buses and ferries along the Amalfi Coast. There are also boat excursions from Positano and Amalfi.
The nearest airport is the Salerno Costa d'Amalfi Airport. However, the most used airport to reach the area from abroad is Naples International Airport (Napoli - Capodichino).
The rulers of Amalfi are the central figures in John Webster 's Jacobean tragedy The Duchess of Malfi.
In the last episode of the popular TV series Entourage, Ari Gold (Jeremy Piven) and Mrs. Gold (Perrey Reeves) are seen relaxing at the Amalfi Coast when Ari receives a phone call to become the chairman of Time Warner.
The Amalfi Coast is a popular destination among tourists. It was featured in Positano, a short story written by American author John Steinbeck in 1953. It was also the setting in "Finding Positano, A Love Story '' written by author William James in 2010.
The Amalfi Coast also serves as a setting for fictional tracks in the Forza Motorsport 3, Forza Motorsport 4 and Gran Turismo 4.
The city of Positano featured prominently in scenes of the film Under the Tuscan Sun.
In the spy comedy Knight and Day, Tom Cruise 's character speaks of living on the Amalfi coast with nothing but a backpack and a motorcycle.
In season 5 of the popular TV show Psych, the Amalfi coast is the proposed vacation spot for Juliet O'Hara and love interest Declan Rand.
Audrey Hepburn stars in a Galaxy chocolate commercial set on the Amalfi coast. Caught in traffic, she accepts an offer to ride in a male interest 's car and switches transport. She is last seen riding up the coast.
Federico Fellini filmed some scenes of his movie Roma on the Amalfi Coast, and included shots of author Gore Vidal, who lived there at the time.
For the 2017 American superhero film Wonder Woman based on the DC Comics character of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, the filming location for the Amazon island of Themyscira, the birthplace of Wonder Woman herself, the movie 's producers searched all over the world, finally settling on shooting locations in Italy, specifically the Amalfi Coast. In the film, the idyllic island nation of Themyscira -- Princess Diana 's homeland -- displays a setting of cobalt - blue sea, tranquil beaches, craggy cliffs and lush greenery. The challenge for Wonder Woman 's production designer, Aline Bonetto, was finding such a place. The problem was, all the beautiful beaches in the world that sit below big cliffs disappear beneath the tide, so for a part of every day you have no beach. Bonetto and her location manager Charles Somers considered 47 different countries and visited several of them before they found what they were looking for: Italy 's dramatic Amalfi Coast. Bonetto explains in a Radio Times interview that, "Italy had beautiful weather, a beautiful blue - green sea, not too much tide, not too much wave. Our effects team added some cliffs in post-production, and it was the perfect way to go ''.
|
in korea what do you call someone older than you | Korean honorifics - wikipedia
The Korean language reflects the important observance of a speaker or writer 's relationships with both the subject of the sentence and the audience. Korean grammar uses an extensive system of honorifics to reflect the speaker 's relationship to the subject of the sentence and speech levels to reflect the speaker 's relationship to the audience. Originally, the honorifics expressed the differences in social status between speakers. In contemporary Korean culture, honorifics are used to differentiate between formal and informal speech based on the level of familiarity between the speaker and the listener.
When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer must indicate the subject 's superiority by using special nouns or verb endings. Generally, someone is superior in status if he or she is an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, an employer, a teacher, a customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if he or she is a younger stranger, a student, an employee or the like. The use of wrong speech levels or diction is likely to be considered insulting, depending on the degree of difference between the used form and the expected form.
One way of using honorifics is to use special "honorific '' nouns in place of regular ones. A common example is using 진지 (jinji) instead of 밥 (bap) for "food ''. Often, honorific nouns are used to refer to relatives. The honorific suffix - 님 (- nim) is affixed to many kinship terms to make them honorific. Thus, someone may address his own grandmother as 할머니 (halmeoni) but refer to someone else 's grandmother as 할머님 (halmeonim).
All verbs and adjectives can be converted into an honorific form by adding the infix - 시 - (- si -) or - 으시 - (- eusi -) after the stem and before the ending. Thus, 가다 (gada, "to go '') becomes 가시다 (gasida). A few verbs have suppletive honorific forms:
A few verbs have suppletive humble forms, used when the speaker is referring to him / herself in polite situations. These include 드리다 (deurida) and 올리다 (ollida) for 주다 (juda, "give ''). 드리다 (deurida) is substituted for 주다 (juda) when the latter is used as an auxiliary verb, while 올리다 (ollida, literally "raise up '') is used for 주다 (juda) in the sense of "offer ''.
Pronouns in Korean have their own set of polite equivalents (e.g., 저 (jeo) is the humble form of 나 (na, "I '') and 저희 (jeohui) is the humble form of 우리 (uri, "we '')). However, Korean language allows for coherent syntax without pronouns, effectively making Korean a so - called pro-drop language, thus Koreans usually avoid using the second - person singular pronoun, especially when using honorific forms. Third - Person Pronouns are occasionally avoided as well, mainly to maintain sense of politeness. Although honorific form of 너 (neo, singular "you '') is 당신 (dangsin, literally, "friend '' or "dear ''), that term is used only as a form of address in a few specific social contexts, such as between two married couples or in an ironic sense between strangers. Other words are usually substituted where possible (e.g., the person 's name, a kinship term, a professional title, the plural 여러분 yeoreobun, or no word at all, relying on context to supply meaning instead).
- ssi (씨) is the most commonly used honorific used amongst people of approximately equal speech level. It is attached at the end of the full name, such as Ho Yonghwan - ssi, or simply after the first name, Yonghwan - ssi if the speaker is more familiar with someone. Appending - ssi to the surname, for instance Ho - ssi, can be quite rude, as it indicates the speaker considers himself to be of a higher social status than the person he is speaking to.
- nim (Hangul: 님) is the highest form of honorifics and above - ssi, but is still used as a commonplace honorific for guests, customers, clients, and unfamiliar individuals. - nim is also used towards someone who is revered and admired for having a significant amount of skill, intellect, knowledge, etc. and is used for people who are of a higher rank than oneself. Examples include family members (eomeo - nim 어머님 & abeo - nim 아버님), teachers (seonsaeng - nim 선생님), holy men (e.g. pastors -- moksa - nim 목사님), and the Christian God (haneu - nim 하느님 / hana - nim 하나님). - nim will follow addressees ' names on letters / emails and postal packages.
- ya or - a (Hangul: 야, 아) is a casual title used at the end of names. It is not gender exclusive. If a name ends in a consonant - a is used (e.g. Gangcheol - a 강철 아), while - ya is used if the name ends in a vowel (e.g. Cheolsu - ya 철수 야). - ya / - a is used only between close friends and people who are familiar with each other, and its use between strangers or distant acquaintances would be considered extremely rude. - ya / - a is only used hierarchically horizontally or downwards: an adult or parent may use it for young children, and those with equal social standing may use it with each other, but a young individual will not use - ya or - a towards one who is older than their self.
Seonbae (선배) is used to address senior colleagues or mentor figures relating to oneself (e.g. older students in school, older / more experienced athletes, mentors, senior colleagues in academia, business, work, etc.). As with English titles such as Doctor, Seonbae can be used either by itself or as a title. Hubae (후배) is used to refer to juniors. However, an individual is not addressed as such directly, as the term is mainly used in the third person.
- gun (군) is used moderately in formal occasions (such as weddings), for young, unmarried males. - gun is also used to address young boys by an adult. - yang (양) is the female equivalent of 군 and is used to address young girls. Both are used in a similar fashion to - ssi, succeeding either the whole name or the first name in solitude.
When speaking to someone about another person, you must calculate the relative difference in position between the person you 're referring to and the person you are speaking to. This is known as apjonbeop 압존 법 or "relative honorifics ''.
For example, one must change the post positional particle and verb if the person you are speaking to is a higher position (age, title, etc.) than the person you are referring to. "부장님, 이 과장님 께서는 지금 자리 에 안 계십니다 (bujangnim, I gwajangnimkkeseoneun jigeum jarie an gyeshimnida) '' This means, "General Manager, Manager Lee is not at his desk now '', with the bolded parts elevating the Manager higher than the General Manager, even though they both are in a higher position than you. The General Manager would be offended by the fact that you elevated the Manager above him. Most Koreans perfect this while working at their first company job as it is confusing even for them.
|
who plays the driver in the handmaid's tale | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American television series created by Bruce Miller based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Canadian writer Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by streaming service Hulu with a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, with the production beginning in late 2016.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017, with the subsequent seven episodes added on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, it was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. The series received critical acclaim and won eight Primetime Emmy Awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. It is the first series on a streaming platform to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series.
In the near future, human fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos in place, the totalitarian, Christian theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read. Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an "extremist interpretation '' of a Biblical account. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape with their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the red - clad Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Wives are expected to run their households and wear blue, Marthas are housekeepers and cooks, Aunts train and oversee the Handmaids, Eyes watch over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). She is subject to the strictest rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment. Offred, who is named after her male master like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married with a daughter and had her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in the hope that she can someday live free and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands or modernizes the book. She also co-wrote every episode and also had a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes will cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season will consist of 13 episodes and will begin filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel will return as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned ten seasons of the show, stating "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017, with the subsequent seven episodes added on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo, beginning with the first two episodes premiering on April 30. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the UK and Ireland, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, and airs every Sunday on Channel 4.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand on July 6, 2017.
The Handmaid 's Tale has received high acclaim from television critics. On Metacritic, it has a score of 92 out of 100 based on 40 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. The season has a 96 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 8.63 out of 10 based on 92 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show and certainly its most important ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society following Donald Trump 's and Mike Pence 's election as President of the United States and Vice President of the United States, respectively.
|
who got the highest paid contract in the nba | Highest - paid NBA players by season - wikipedia
The highest - paid NBA players by season over the past twelve seasons have received contracts with salaries noted in the twenty - million - dollar range. In this twelve - year span, Kevin Garnett received $28,000,000, which was the highest salary payment of any NBA player, during the 2003 -- 04 season. Garnett has been the highest - paid NBA player per year in seven of the past twelve NBA seasons. Michael Jordan was the first NBA player to sign a contract worth over thirty million dollars in a season. During the 1997 -- 98 season, Jordan earned $33,000,000. Kobe Bryant become just the second player to reach this milestone when the 2013 -- 14 season began. LeBron James became the third in the 2016 -- 17 season. Stephen Curry became the first player to eclipse $40 - Million per year when he signed a record 5 - year contract worth $201 - Million in 2017.
Beginning in the 1984 -- 85 NBA season, the NBA 's first salary cap was introduced. The NBA salary cap is the maximum dollar amount each NBA team can spend on its players for the season. However, the NBA uses a "soft '' salary cap, which means that significant "salary exceptions '' allow NBA teams to exceed their allotted amount in order to sign players. The salary cap is determined during the offseason, but as stated earlier, it is liable to change.
An exception is necessary to sign a player for a contract that would exceed the salary cap threshold of the "soft cap ''. The Larry Bird exception, more commonly known as Bird Rights, allows teams to re-sign a current player only if he has played for that particular team for a minimum of three years. Another exception known as the mid-level exception allows for teams that are over the salary cap to sign one or more players as long as they do not exceed the total amount of the average NBA salary. Next, the bi-annual exception can be used by teams every other year to sign a free agent (s) for up to two years at an amount set by the NBA. Finally, the rookie player exception allows any NBA team to sign their first - round draft pick to a contract based upon a scale previously set forth by the NBA. Another option for teams would be to assign players to a league - assigned minimum salary contract for a maximum of two years.
According to 2010 -- 11 NBA season game performance, the league 's best players were not its highest - paid players. Each year there are ten players selected to one of the two All - NBA Teams. Out of those ten players chosen that year, Kobe Bryant was the only player that was also among the game 's ten highest - paid during the 2010 -- 11 NBA season.
|
who uses a signalling system known as tick tack | Tic - tac - wikipedia
Tic - tac (also tick - tack and non-hyphenated variants) is a traditional method of signs used by bookmakers to communicate the odds of certain horses. Until the turn of the 21st century it was a very common sight on racecourses in the UK, but with the advent of mobile technology it is now seldom seen. In 1999, only three practitioners were noted to be still working on the southern UK tracks -- Micky ' Hokey ' Stuart, Billie Brown and Rocky Roberts. A tic - tac man will usually wear bright white gloves to make his hand movements easily seen.
A few simple examples of signals:
Within the UK there are some regional variations in the signals, for example in the south odds of 6 / 4 are represented by the hand touching the opposite ear, giving the slang term "ear'ole '', whereas the same odds are indicated in the north by the hand touching the opposite elbow ("half arm '').
Some of the signals may be called out verbally too. These names have evolved over time in a mixture of Cockney rhyming slang and backslang. For example, 4 -- 1 is known as rouf (four backwards).
Essentially, bookmakers use tic - tac as a way of communicating between their staff and ensuring their odds are not vastly different from their competitors, an advantage the punters could otherwise exploit. In particular, if a very large bet is placed with one bookmaker, this may be signalled to the others as a way of lowering the price on all the boards.
British racing pundit John McCririck uses tic - tac as part of his pieces to camera when explaining the odds of the horses for the next race.
While this method of communication is used less frequently than before, many of the terms persist.
|
who was the dancing bird on the muppet show | List of Sesame Street Muppets - wikipedia
The Muppets are a group of puppet characters created by Jim Henson, many for the purpose of appearing on the children 's television program Sesame Street. Henson 's involvement in Sesame Street began when he and Joan Ganz Cooney, one of the creators of the show, met in the summer of 1968, at one of the show 's five three - day curriculum planning seminars in Boston. Author Christopher Finch reported that director Jon Stone, who had worked with Henson previously, felt that if they could not bring him on board, they should "make do without puppets ''.
Henson was initially reluctant but agreed to join Sesame Street in support of its social goals. He also agreed to waive his performance fee for full ownership of the Sesame Street Muppets and to split any revenue they generated with the Children 's Television Workshop (renamed to the Sesame Workshop in 2000), the series ' non-profit producer. The Muppets were a crucial part of the show 's popularity and it brought Henson national attention. The Muppet segments of the show were popular since its premiere, and more Muppets were added during the first few seasons. The Muppets were effective teaching tools because children easily recognized them, they were predictable, and they appealed to adults and older siblings.
During the production of Sesame Street 's first season, producers created five one - hour episodes to test the show 's appeal to children and examine their comprehension of the material. Not intended for broadcast, they were presented to preschoolers in 60 homes throughout Philadelphia and in day care centers in New York City in July 1969. The results were "generally very positive ''; children learned from the shows, their appeal was high, and children 's attention was sustained over the full hour. However, the researchers found that although children 's attention was high during the Muppet segments, their interest wavered during the "Street '' segments, when no Muppets were on screen. This was because the producers had followed the advice of child psychologists who were concerned that children would be confused if human actors and Muppets were shown together. As a result of this decision, the appeal of the test episodes was lower than the target.
The Street scenes were "the glue '' that "pulled the show together '', so producers knew they needed to make significant changes. The producers decided to reject the advisers ' advice and reshot the Street segments; Henson and his coworkers created Muppets that could interact with the human actors, specifically Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird, who became two of the show 's most enduring characters. These test episodes were directly responsible for what writer Malcolm Gladwell called "the essence of Sesame Street -- the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults ''. Since 2001, the full rights for the Muppets created for Sesame Street have been owned by Sesame Workshop.
|
when did fall out new vegas come out | Fallout (series) - Wikipedia
Fallout is a series of post-apocalyptic role - playing video games. It was created by Interplay Entertainment. The series is set during the 22nd and 23rd centuries, and its atompunk retrofuturistic setting and artwork are influenced by the post-war culture of 1950s America, with its combination of hope for the promises of technology and the lurking fear of nuclear annihilation. A forerunner for Fallout is Wasteland, a 1988 video game developed by Interplay Productions to which the Fallout series is regarded as a spiritual successor.
The first two titles in the series, Fallout and Fallout 2, were developed by Black Isle Studios. Micro Forté and 14 Degrees East 's 2001 Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel is a tactical role - playing game. In 2004, Interplay closed Black Isle Studios, and continued to produce an action game with role - playing elements for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox, Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel without Black Isle Studios. A third entry in the main series, Fallout 3, was released in 2008 by Bethesda Softworks. It was followed by Fallout: New Vegas in 2010, developed by Obsidian Entertainment. Fallout 4 was released in 2015. Fallout 76 was announced on May 30, 2018.
Bethesda Softworks owns the rights to produce Fallout games. Soon after acquiring the rights to the intellectual property, Bethesda licensed the rights to make a massively multiplayer online role - playing game (MMORPG) version of Fallout to Interplay. The MMORPG got as far as beta stage under Interplay, but a lengthy legal dispute between Bethesda Softworks and Interplay halted the development of the game and led to its eventual cancellation, as Bethesda claimed in court that Interplay had not met the terms and conditions of the licensing contract. The case was decided in favor of Bethesda.
Released in 1997, Fallout takes place in a post-apocalyptic Southern California, beginning in the year 2161. The protagonist, referred to as the Vault Dweller, is tasked with recovering a water chip in the Wasteland to replace the broken one in their underground shelter home, Vault 13. Afterwards, the Vault Dweller must thwart the plans of a group of mutants, led by a grotesque entity named the Master. Fallout was originally intended to run under the GURPS role - playing game system. However, a disagreement with the creator of GURPS, Steve Jackson, over the game 's violent content required Black Isle Studios to develop the new SPECIAL system. Fallout 's atmosphere and artwork are reminiscent of post-WWII America and the nuclear paranoia that was widespread at that time.
Fallout 2 was released in 1998, with several improvements over the first game, including an improved game engine, the ability to set attitudes of non-player character (NPC) party members and the ability to push people who are blocking doors. Additional features included several changes to the game world, including significantly more pop culture jokes and parodies, such as multiple Monty Python and The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy - referencing special random encounters, and self - parodying dialogue that broke the fourth wall to mention game mechanics. Fallout 2 takes place eighty years after Fallout, and centers around a descendant of the Vault Dweller, the protagonist of Fallout. The player assumes the role of the Chosen One as they try to save their village, Arroyo, from severe famine and droughts. After saving the village, the Chosen One must save it again, this time from the Enclave, the remnants of the pre-war United States Government.
Fallout 3 was developed by Bethesda Game Studios and released on October 28, 2008. The story picks up thirty years after the setting of Fallout 2 and 200 years after the nuclear war that devastated the game 's world. The player - character is a Vault - dweller in Vault 101 who is forced to flee when the Overseer tries to arrest them in response to their father leaving the Vault. Once free, the player is dubbed the Lone Wanderer and ventures into the Wasteland in and around Washington, D.C., known as the Capital Wasteland, to find their father. It differs from previous games in the series by utilizing 3D graphics, a free - roam gaming world, and real - time combat, in contrast to previous games ' 2D isometric graphics and turn - based combat. It was developed simultaneously for the PC, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 using the Gamebryo engine. It received highly positive reviews, garnering 94 / 100, 92 / 100, and 93 / 100 averages scores on Metacritic for the PC, PS3 and Xbox 360 versions of the game, respectively. It won IGN 's 2008 Overall Game of the Year Award, Xbox 360 Game of the Year, Best RPG, and Best Use of Sound, as well as E3 's Best of the Show and Best Role Playing Game.
Fallout 4, developed by Bethesda Game Studios, was released on November 10, 2015. On June 3, 2015 the game 's website went live revealing the game along with its box art, platforms, and the first trailer. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and takes place in Boston, Massachusetts, of the in - game New England Commonwealth and features voiced protagonists. The Xbox One version has been confirmed to have mods as of 2016. Bethesda also confirmed mods for PlayStation 4, after lengthy negotiations with Sony. A virtual reality version of the game was released on December 11, 2017. Fallout 4 takes place in the year 2287, ten years after the events of Fallout 3. Fallout 4 's story begins on the day the bombs dropped: October 23, 2077. The player 's character (voiced by either Brian T. Delaney or Courtenay Taylor), dubbed as the Sole Survivor, takes shelter in Vault 111, emerging 210 years later, after being subjected to suspended animation. The Sole Survivor goes on a search for their son who was taken away in the Vault.
Tactics is the first Fallout game not to require the player to fight in a turn - based mode, and it is also the first to allow the player to customize the skills, perks, and combat actions of the rest of the party. Fallout Tactics focuses on tactical combat rather than role - playing; the new combat system included different modes, stances, and modifiers, but the player had no dialogue options. Most of the criticisms of the game came from its incompatibility with the story of the original two games, not from its gameplay. Fallout: Tactics includes a multiplayer mode that allows players to compete against squads of other characters controlled by other players. Unlike the previous two games, which are based in California, Fallout Tactics takes place in the Midwestern United States. The game was released in early 2001 to generally favorable reviews.
Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel became the first Fallout game for consoles when it was released in 2004. It follows an initiate in the Brotherhood of Steel who is given a suicidal quest to find several lost Brotherhood Paladins. Brotherhood of Steel is an action role - playing game, representing a significant break from previous incarnations of the Fallout series in both gameplay and aesthetics. The game does not feature non-player characters that accompany the player in combat and uses heavy metal music, including Slipknot, Devin Townsend, and Killswitch Engage, which stands in contrast to the music of the earlier Fallout games, performed by The Ink Spots and Louis Armstrong. It was the last Fallout game developed by Interplay.
Fallout: New Vegas was developed by Obsidian Entertainment and released on October 19, 2010. The development team included developers who previously worked on Fallout and Fallout 2. Fallout: New Vegas is not a direct sequel to Fallout 3; rather, it is a stand - alone product. Events in the game follow four years after Fallout 3 and offer a similar role - playing experience, but no characters from that game appear. The player assumes the role of a courier in the post-apocalyptic world of the Mojave Wasteland. As the game begins, the Courier is shot in the head and left for dead shortly before being found and brought to a doctor in the nearby town of Goodsprings, marking the start of the game and the Courier 's search for their would - be murderer. The city of New Vegas is a post-apocalyptic interpretation of Las Vegas.
Fallout Shelter is a simulation game for Microsoft Windows, iOS, Android, Xbox One, PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch. The player acts as the Overseer, building and managing their Vault and its dwellers, sending them into the Wasteland on scouting missions and defending the Vault from attack. Fallout Shelter was released for iOS on June 14, 2015, Android on August 13, 2015, and for PC on July 15, 2016. On February 7, 2017, Bethesda launched Fallout Shelter on Xbox One. On June 10, 2018, Bethesda announced and launched Fallout Shelter on Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4.
Fallout 76 was announced on May 30, 2018. The announcement was preceded by a 24 - hour Twitch live stream that showed a Vault Boy bobblehead toy in front of a monitor with the "Please Stand By '' test pattern screen that teased the announcement. This stream was watched by a total of over two million people and over 100,000 people watching at almost any time. The stream concluded with a brief message from Bethesda 's Todd Howard, prior to a teaser trailer set to the song "Take Me Home, Country Roads ''. The trailer features scenes of Vault 76 (a location regarded in Fallout 3 as being a "control Vault '' in the Washington D.C. area, that was not subjected to experimentation), which is decorated to celebrate an event referred to as "Reclamation Day ''; a Pip - Boy device listing the current date as October 27, 2102 (just over 25 years after the Great War); an unknown dweller of Vault 76 and a broadcast containing the statement: "When the fighting has stopped and the fallout has settled, you must rebuild ''.
At the Bethesda E3 press conference on June 10, 2018, Howard confirmed that Fallout 76 would be the first online multiplayer game in the franchise, with a choice to play solo if the player wishes. It is set in West Virginia, with a majority of monsters and enemies based on regional folklore. There will be no non-player characters in the game. The map of Fallout 76 is four times larger than its predecessor Fallout 4. It is scheduled to be released on November 14, 2018.
Fallout Extreme was a title in development for several months in 2000 but was canceled.
Fallout Tactics 2 was a proposed sequel to Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel, although it was originally conceived as a sequel to Wasteland, the video game that inspired the Fallout series. It was developed by Micro Forté, but the production was cancelled in December 2001 after the poor sales of Fallout Tactics.
Van Buren was the codename for the canceled version of Fallout 3 developed by Black Isle Studios and published by Interplay Entertainment. It featured an improved engine with real 3D graphics as opposed to sprites, new locations, vehicles, and a modified version of the SPECIAL system. The story disconnected from the Vault Dweller / Chosen One bloodline in Fallout and Fallout 2. Plans for the game included the ability to influence the various factions. The game was cancelled in December 2003 when the budget cuts forced Interplay to dismiss the PC development team. Interplay subsequently sold the Fallout intellectual property to Bethesda Softworks, who began development on their own version of Fallout 3 unrelated to Van Buren. Main parts of the game were incorporated into Fallout 3 and its add - ons as well as Fallout: New Vegas.
Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel 2 is the canceled sequel to Brotherhood of Steel. The development of the game started before the completion of the original, and its development caused the cancellation of the "Van Buren '' project. Like its predecessor, the game would have used the Dark Alliance Engine. It was targeted for a Christmas 2004 release date. It featured fourteen new weapons and ten new enemies. The game would have used a simplified reputation system based on previous entries; depending on whether the player was good or evil, the game would play out differently. Each of the four characters that were playable had a different fighting style, therefore every new play - through would have been a different experience. It had two player co-op action for players to experience the game with their friends. The Dark Alliance Engine would be fleshed out to refine player experience. A new stealth system would have been added to the game. This system would have allowed players to stalk enemies or stealthily assassinate them with a sniper rifle. For characters that could not use the sniper rifle, Interplay added a turret mode allowing those characters to use turrets.
Fallout Online (previously known as Project V13) was a cancelled project by Interplay and Masthead Studios to develop a Fallout - themed massively multiplayer online game. It entered production in 2008. In 2009, Bethesda filed a lawsuit against Interplay regarding Project V13, claiming that Interplay has violated their agreement as development has not yet begun on the project. On January 2, 2012, Bethesda and Interplay reached a settlement, the terms of which include the cancellation of Fallout Online and transfer of all rights in the franchise to Bethesda. Since then, Project V13 has been revived as a completely different project called Mayan Apocalypse, unrelated to Fallout.
SPECIAL is a character creation and statistics system developed specifically for the Fallout series. SPECIAL is an acronym, representing the seven attributes used to define Fallout characters: Strength, Perception, Endurance, Charisma, Intelligence, Agility and Luck. SPECIAL is heavily based on GURPS, which was originally intended to be the character system used in the game.
The SPECIAL system involves the following sets of key features:
The SPECIAL system was used in Fallout, Fallout 2, and Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel. A modified version of the system was used in Fallout: Warfare, Fallout 3, Fallout: New Vegas, and Fallout 4. Fallout Shelter, the only mobile game in the series, also uses a form of SPECIAL.
Aside from Fallout games, modified versions of SPECIAL were also used in Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader (also referred to as Fallout Fantasy early in production), a fantasy role - playing video game that involved spirits and magic in addition to the traditional SPECIAL features, as well as the cancelled project Black Isle 's Torn.
The Pip - Boy (Personal Information Processor - Boy) is a wrist - computer given to the player early in Fallout, Fallout 2, Fallout 3, Fallout: New Vegas and Fallout 4 which serves various roles in quest, inventory, and battle management, as well as presenting player statistics. The model present in Fallout and Fallout 2 is identified as a Pip - Boy 2000, and both games feature the same unit, used first by the Vault Dweller and later inherited by the Chosen One. Fallout Tactics contains a modified version of the 2000 model, called Pip - Boy 2000BE, while Fallout 3 and Fallout: New Vegas uses a Pip - Boy 3000. Fallout: New Vegas also has a golden version of it, called the Pimp - Boy 3Billion that is given to the player as a reward for completing a quest in a certain way. Fallout 4 contains a modified version of the 3000, called the Pip - Boy 3000 Mark IV.
The Vault Boy character is Vault - Tec 's mascot, and is a recurring element in Vault - Tec products in the game world. This includes the Pip - Boy, where the Vault Boy illustrates all of the character statistics and selectable attributes. From Bethesda 's Fallout 3 onward Vault Boy models all of the clothing and weaponry as well. The character was originally designed by Leonard Boyarsky, based partly on Rich Uncle Pennybags ' aesthetic from the Monopoly board game, and drawn for Fallout by George Almond for the first few cards and by Tramell Ray Isaac, who finalized the look of the character.
The series is set in a fictionalized United States in an alternate history scenario that diverged from our reality following World War II. The transistor was not invented, while vacuum tubes and atomic physics became the cornerstones to scientific progress, eventually achieving the technological aspirations of the early Atomic Age and locking society into a 1950s cultural stasis. Thus, in this alternative atompunk "golden age '', a bizarre socio - technological status quo emerges, in which advanced robots, nuclear - powered cars, directed - energy weapons, and other futuristic technologies are seen alongside 1950s - era computers and televisions. The United States divides itself into 13 commonwealths and the aesthetics and Cold War paranoia of the 1950s continue to dominate the American lifestyle well into the 21st century, leading to America becoming a fascist police state and ultimately abandoning its democratic ideals in favor of a plutocratic system and pure capitalism. Political dissidents were sent to prison camps where they were experimented on, and anyone who spoke out against the Enclave - controlled government were executed en masse in the streets.
More than a hundred years before the start of the series, an energy crisis emerged caused by the depletion of petroleum reserves, leading to a period called the "Resource Wars '' -- a series of events which included a war between the European Commonwealth and the Middle East, the disbanding of the United Nations, the U.S. invasion of Mexico, as well as the annexation of Canada, and a Chinese invasion and subsequent military occupation of Alaska coupled with their release of the "New Plague '' that devastated the American mainland. These eventually culminated in the "Great War '' on October 23, 2077, a two - hour nuclear exchange on an apocalyptic scale, which subsequently created the post-apocalyptic United States, the setting of the Fallout world.
Having foreseen this outcome decades earlier, the U.S. government began a nationwide project in 2054 to build fallout shelters known as "Vaults ''. The Vaults were ostensibly designed by the government contractor Vault - Tec as public shelters, financed by junk bonds and each able to support up to a thousand people. Around 400,000 vaults would have been needed, but only 122 were commissioned and constructed. Each Vault is self - sufficient, so they could theoretically sustain their inhabitants indefinitely. However, the Vault project was n't intended as a viable method of repopulating the United States in these deadly events. Instead, most Vaults were secret, unethical social experiments and were designed to determine the effects of different environmental and psychological conditions on their inhabitants. Experiments were widely varied and included: a Vault filled with clones of an individual; a Vault where its residents were frozen in suspended animation; a Vault where its residents were exposed to psychoactive drugs; a Vault where one resident, usually the Vault 's Overseer, is sacrificed each year; a Vault with only one man and puppets; a Vault where its inhabitants were segregated; two Vaults with disproportionate ratios of men and women; a Vault where the inhabitants were exposed to the mutagenic Forced Evolutionary Virus (F.E.V.); and a Vault where the door never closed, exposing the inhabitants to the dangerous nuclear fallout. A few control Vaults were made to function as advertised in contrast with the Vault experiments, but were usually shoddy and unreliable due to most of the funding going towards the experimental Vaults. Subsequently, many Vaults had their experiments derailed due to unexpected events, and a number became occupied by raiders, mutated animals or ghouls.
In the years after the Great War, the United States has devolved into a post-apocalyptic environment commonly dubbed "the Wasteland ''. The Great War and subsequent nuclear Armageddon has severely depopulated the country, leaving large expanses of property decaying from neglect. In addition, virtually all food and water is irradiated and most lifeforms have mutated due to high radiation combined with mutagens of varied origins. Despite the large - scale devastation, some areas were fortunate enough to survive the nuclear apocalypse relatively unscathed, even possessing non-irradiated water, flora, and fauna. However, these areas are exceedingly rare. With a large portion of the country 's infrastructure in ruins, basic necessities are scarce. Barter is the common method of exchange, with bottle caps providing a more conventional form of currency. Most cities and towns are empty, having been looted or deserted in favor of smaller, makeshift communities scattered around the Wasteland.
Many humans who could not get into the Vaults survived the atomic blasts, but many of these, affected by the radiation, turned into so - called "ghouls. '' While they were given an extended lifespan, many lost their hair and their skin decayed. Often, their voices became raspy giving them a zombie - like appearance. Ghouls often have a hatred towards humans due to jealousy or in response to discrimination. Ghouls typically resent any comparison to zombies, and being called a zombie is viewed as a great insult. If ghouls continue to be exposed to high levels of radiation, irreversible damage to their brains can cause them to become feral ghouls that attack almost anything on sight, having lost their minds.
Although the wastelands of the Fallout series are home to innumerable self - supporting groups, there are a number of factions who have a significant presence across the former United States. These factions are often the major players in the larger events of each game 's primary storyline. In Fallout: New Vegas and Fallout 4 the player 's actions determine which factions emerge from the game 's events victorious.
Fallout draws from 1950s pulp magazine science fiction and superhero comic books, all rooted in Atomic Age optimism of a nuclear - powered future, though gone terribly awry by the time the events of the game take place. The technology is retro - futuristic, with various Raygun Gothic machines such as laser weaponry and boxy Forbidden Planet - style robots. Computers use vacuum tubes instead of transistors, architecture of ruined buildings feature Art Deco and Googie designs, energy weapons resemble those used by Flash Gordon, and what few vehicles remain in the world are all 1950s - styled. Fallout 's other production design, such as menu interfaces, are similarly designed to resemble advertisements and toys of the Atomic Age. Advertising in the game such as billboards and brochures has a distinct 1950s motif and feel. The lack of retro - stylization was a common reason for criticism in spin - off games.
A major influence was A Boy and His Dog, where the main character Vic and his dog Blood scavenge the desert of the Southwestern United States, stealing for a living and evading bands of marauders, berserk androids, and mutants. It "inspired Fallout on many levels, from underground communities of survivors to glowing mutants. '' Other film influences include the Mad Max series, with its depiction of a post-apocalyptic wasteland. In the first game, one of the first available armors is a one - sleeved leather jacket that resembles the jacket worn by Mel Gibson in Mad Max 2.
Fallout: Warfare is a tabletop wargame based on the Fallout Tactics storyline, using a simplified version of the SPECIAL system. The rulebook was written by Christopher Taylor, and was available on the Fallout Tactics bonus CD, together with cut - out miniatures. Fallout: Warfare features five distinct factions, vehicles, four game types and 33 different units. The rules only require ten - sided dice. The modifications to the SPECIAL system allow every unit a unique set of stats and give special units certain skills they can use, including piloting, doctor, and repair. A section of the Fallout: Warfare manual allows campaigns to be conducted using the Warfare rules. The game is currently available for free online from fansite No Mutants Allowed and several other sources. It has also been chosen for many awards and won game of the year.
Exodus is a role - playing game published by Glutton Creeper Games using the d20 Modern / OGL system. At the beginning of the development this game was known as Fallout: Pen and Paper - d20 however all connections to Fallout were dropped after a legal dispute with Bethesda.
A board game titled Fallout was announced by Fantasy Flight Games in August 2017 for a November release.
The tabletop wargame Fallout: Wasteland Warfare was announced by Modiphius Entertainment in April 2017. It is scheduled for release in March 2018.
Interplay was threatened with bankruptcy and sold the full Fallout franchise to Bethesda, but kept the rights to the Fallout MMO through a back license in April 2007 and began work on the MMO later that year. Bethesda Softworks sued Interplay Entertainment for copyright infringement on September 8, 2009, regarding the Fallout Online license and selling of Fallout Trilogy and sought an injunction to stop development of Fallout Online and sales of Fallout Trilogy. Key points that Bethesda were trying to argue is that Interplay did not have the right to sell Fallout Trilogy on the Internet via Steam, Good Old Games or other online services. Bethesda also said that "full scale '' development on Fallout Online was not met and that the minimum financing of 30 million of "secured funding '' was not met. Interplay launched a counter suit claiming that Bethesda 's claims were meritless and that it did have the right to sell Fallout Trilogy via online stores via its contract with Bethesda. Interplay also claimed secure funding had been met and the game was in full scale development by the cut off date. Interplay argued to have the second contract that sold Fallout voided which would result in the first contract that licensed Fallout to come back into effect. This would mean that Fallout would revert to Interplay. Bethesda would be allowed to make Fallout 5. Bethesda would also have to pay 12 % of royalties on Fallout 3, Fallout: New Vegas, Fallout 4 and expansions plus interest on the money owed. On December 10, 2009, Bethesda lost the first injunction.
Bethesda shortly afterward tried a new tactic and fired its first lawyer, replacing him and filing a second injunction, claiming that Interplay had only back - licensed the name Fallout but no content. Interplay has countered showing that the contract states that they must make Fallout Online that has the look and feel of Fallout and that in the event Interplay fails to meet the requirements (30 million minimum secure funding and "full scale '' development by X date) that Interplay can still release the MMO but they have to remove all Fallout content. The contract then goes on to list all Fallout content as locations, monsters, settings and lore. Bethesda has known that Interplay would use Fallout elements via internet emails shown in court documents and that the contract was not just for the name. The second injunction by Bethesda was denied on August 4, 2011, by the courts. Bethesda then appealed the denial of their second preliminary injunction. Bethesda then sued Masthead Studios and asked for a restraining order against the company. Bethesda was denied this restraining order before Masthead Studios could call a counter-suit. Bethesda then lost its appeal of the second injunction.
Bethesda then filed motion in limine against Interplay. Interplay then filed a motion in limine against Bethesda the day after. Shortly after, the trial by jury which Bethesda requested on October 26, 2010, was changed to a trial by court because the APA contract (aka the second contract that sold Fallout to Bethesda) stated that all legal matters would be resolved via a trial by court and not a trial by jury. The trial by court began on December 12. In 2012, in a press conference Bethesda revealed that in exchange for 2 million dollars, Interplay gave to them full rights for Fallout Online. Interplay 's rights to sell and merchandise Fallout, Fallout 2 and Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel expired on December 31, 2013.
The Fallout series has been met with positive reception. The highest rated title is Fallout 3 according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Not all fans are happy with the direction the Fallout series has taken since its acquisition by Bethesda Softworks. Notorious for their vitriolic support of the series ' first two games, Fallout and Fallout 2, members centered around one of the oldest Fallout fansites, No Mutants Allowed, have cried foul over departures from the original games ' stories, gameplay mechanics and setting. Minor criticisms include the prevalence of unspoiled food after 200 years, the survival of wood - framed dwellings after a nuclear blast, and the ubiquity of Super Mutants at early levels in the game. More serious criticisms involve the quality of the game 's writing, a perceived lack of verisimilitude, the switch to a first - person action game format, and the reactiveness of the surrounding game world to player actions. In response, Jim Sterling of Destructoid has called fan groups like No Mutants Allowed "selfish '' and "arrogant ''; stating that a new audience deserves a chance to play a Fallout game; and that if the series had stayed the way it was back in 1997, new titles would never have been made and brought to market. Luke Winkie of Kotaku tempers these sentiments, saying that it is a matter of ownership; and that in the case of Fallout 3, hardcore fans of the original series witnessed their favorite games become transformed into something else and that they are "not wrong '' for having grievances.
The redesigned dialogue interface featured in Fallout 4 received mixed reception by the community. Unsatisfied fans created mods for the game, providing subtitles and allowing the player to know what their character would say prior to choosing it as it was in previous games in the franchise such as in Fallout 3 and Fallout: New Vegas. Though even taking the mods into account, Patricia Hernandez of Kotaku still criticized the writing of the game in her review, describing it as "thin '', "You never have particularly long or nuanced conversations with the other characters. I like to play a Charisma - focused character, and I was disappointed. ''
In 1998, Interplay Entertainment founded the film division Interplay Films to make films based on its properties, and announced that a Fallout film was one of their first projects, along adaptations of Descent and Redneck Rampage. In 2000, Interplay confirmed that a film based on the original Fallout game was in production with Mortal Kombat: Annihilation screenwriter Brent V. Friedman attached to write a film treatment and with Dark Horse Entertainment attached to produce it. The division was later disbanded without any film produced, but Friedman 's treatment was leaked on the Internet in 2011.
In 2009, Bethesda Softworks expressed its interest in producing a Fallout film. After four extensions of the trademark without any use, Bethesda filed a "Statement of Use '' with the USPTO in January 2012. In next month, instead of a Fallout film, a special feature was made, entitled "Making of Fallout 3 DVD '', which was accepted as a film on March 27 of the same year. This action removed the requirement to continue to re-register that mark indefinitely. In the DVD commentary of Mutant Chronicles, voice actor Ron Perlman stated that if a Fallout film was made, he would like to reprise his role as the Narrator. In 2016, Todd Howard stated that Bethesda had turned down the offers of making a film based on Fallout, but that he did not rule out the possibility.
|
who sang if you go to san francisco | San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair) - wikipedia
"San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair) '' is an American pop music song, written by John Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas, and sung by Scott McKenzie. The song was produced and released in May 1967 by Phillips and Lou Adler, who used it to promote their Monterey International Pop Music Festival held in June of that year. John Phillips played guitar on the recording and session musician Gary L. Coleman played orchestra bells and chimes. The bass line of the song was supplied by session musician Joe Osborn. Hal Blaine played drums. The song became one of the best - selling singles of the 1960s in the world, reaching the fourth position on the US charts and the number one spot on the UK charts.
McKenzie 's version of the song has been called "the unofficial anthem of the counterculture movement of the 1960s, including the Hippie, Anti-Vietnam War and Flower power movements. ''
"... local authorities in Monterey were starting to get cold feet over the prospect of their town being overrun by hippies. To smooth things over, Phillips wrote a song, "San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Flowers In Your Hair). ''
Phillips reported writing the song in about 20 minutes.
The song, which tells the listeners, "If you 're going to San Francisco, be sure to wear some flowers in your hair '', is credited with bringing thousands of young people to San Francisco, California, during the late 1960s.
Released on May 13, 1967, the song was an instant hit. By the week ending July 1, 1967, it reached the number four spot on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US, where it remained for four consecutive weeks. Meanwhile, the song rose to number one in the UK Singles Chart, and most of Europe. The single is purported to have sold over seven million copies worldwide. In Central Europe, young people adopted "San Francisco '' as an anthem for freedom, and it was widely played during Czechoslovakia 's 1968 Prague Spring uprising.
The song has been featured in several films, including Frantic, The Rock, and Forrest Gump. It was also played occasionally by Led Zeppelin as part of the improvised section in the middle of "Dazed and Confused ''. U2 's Bono also led the audience in singing this song during their PopMart performances in the San Francisco Bay Area on June 18 and 19, 1997. New Order covered the song on July 11, 2014, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco.
The Bee Gees song "Massachusetts '' is a reaction to this song. The Bee Gees ' song is about someone who has been to San Francisco but is now homesick for Massachusetts.
The song was featured in the final story scene of the 2016 game Watch Dogs 2.
Bovic Shamar sang a cover in pidgin English, released by African Fiesta Sukisa as Sukisa 88b in 1967.
Notes
Bibliography
|
tick borne disease that makes you allergic to meat | Alpha - gal allergy - wikipedia
Alpha - gal allergy, also known as meat allergy or Mammalian Meat Allergy (MMA), is a reaction to galactose - alpha - 1, 3 - galactose (alpha - gal), whereby the body is overloaded with immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies on contact with the carbohydrate. The alpha - gal molecule is found in all mammals apart from Old World monkeys and the apes, which include humans. Anti-Gal is a human natural antibody which interacts specifically with the mammalian carbohydrate structure Gal alpha 1 - 3Gal beta 1 - 4GlcNAc - R, termed, the alpha - galactosyl epitope. Whereas anti-Gal is abundant in humans, apes and Old World monkeys, it is absent from New World monkeys, prosimians and nonprimate mammals.
Bites from certain ticks, such as the lone star tick in the US, which can transfer this carbohydrate to the victim have been implicated in the development of this delayed allergic response which is triggered by the consumption of mammalian meat products. Despite myths to the contrary, an alpha - gal allergy does not require the afflicted to become a vegetarian, as poultry and fish do not trigger a reaction.
The allergy most often occurs in the central and southern United States, which corresponds to the distribution of the lone star tick. In the Southern United States, where the tick is most prevalent, allergy rates are 32 % higher than elsewhere. However, as doctors are not required to report the number of patients suffering the alpha - gal allergies, the true number of affected individuals is unknown. While there is no known cure, symptoms of the allergy may recede over time. Some patients report observing symptoms for over 20 years.
A typical allergic reaction to alpha - gal has a delayed onset, occurring 3 -- 8 hours after the consumption of mammalian meat products, instead of the typical rapid onset with most food allergies. After the delayed onset, the allergic response is typical of most food allergies, and especially an IgE mediated allergy, including severe whole - body itching, hives, angioedema, gastrointestinal upset, and possible anaphylaxis. In 70 % of cases the reaction is accompanied by respiratory distress and as such is particularly harmful to those with asthma.
Alpha - gal allergies are the first food allergies to come with the possibility of delayed anaphylaxis. It is also the first food - related allergy to be associated with a carbohydrate, rather than a protein.
Alpha - gal allergies develop after a person has been bitten by the lone star tick in the United States, the European castor bean tick, or the paralysis tick in Australia. Alpha - gal is not naturally present in apes and humans, but is in all other mammals. If a tick feeds on another mammal, the alpha - gal will remain in its alimentary tract. The tick will then inject the alpha - gal into a person 's skin, which in turn will cause the immune system to release a flood of IgE antibodies to fight off the foreign carbohydrate. Researchers still do not know which specific component of tick saliva causes the reaction.
A 2012 preliminary study found unexpectedly high rates of alpha - gal allergies in the Western and North Central parts of the United States, which suggests that the allergy may be spread by unknown tick species. Examples of alpha - gal allergies were even present in Hawaii, where none of the ticks identified with the allergies live. Human factors were suggested but no specific examples were provided.
Alpha - gal is present in the anti-cancer drug cetuximab, as well as the IV fluid replacements Gelofusine and Haemaccel. Blood thinners derived from porcine intestine and replacement heart valves derived from porcine tissue may also contain alpha - gal.
There has been at least one instance of a man with an alpha - gal allergy going into anaphylaxis after receiving a heart valve transplant. Some researchers have suggested that the alpha - gal which is prevalent in pig 's tissue and used for xenografts may contribute to organ rejection.
The lone star tick injects alpha gal into the blood stream and then the immune system releases immunoglobulin E antibodies to fight this foreign sugar. After this reaction, the future intake of mammal meat with the same alpha gal will result in an allergy reaction. Symptoms of the allergy reaction are caused by too many IgE antibodies attacking the allergen, in this case the alpha - gal.
A traditional skin prick allergy test for allergy to meat may give a false negative answer. Blood tests for IgE response indicating alpha - gal allergy have not been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and must usually be purchased by private individuals, but are available and are in use. Determination of specific IgE to alpha - gal testing is commercially available. The highest sensitivity is observed with skin and basophil activation tests with cetuximab which is, however, limited by its high costs.
Unlike most food allergies, it may be possible for the alpha - gal allergy to recede with time, as long as the person is not bitten by another tick. The recovery period can take anywhere from eight months to five years. This recovery potential is not confirmed. More research needs to be conducted to determine why some patients seem to recover and some do not.
The allergy was first formally identified as originating from tick bites in 2002 by Thomas Platts - Mills. Platts - Mills and Scott Commins were attempting to discover why some people were reacting negatively to the carbohydrate in the cancer drug cetuximab. They had previously hypothesized that a fungal infection or parasite could lead to the allergy. It was n't until Platts - Mills was bitten by a tick and developed alpha - gal allergies that his team also came to the conclusion that there was a link between tick bites and the allergy. They found that the IgE antibody response to the mammalian oligosaccharide epitope, alpha - gal, was associated with both the immediate - onset anaphylaxis during first exposure to intravenous cetuximab and the delayed - onset anaphylaxis 3 to 6 hours after ingestion of mammalian food products, such as beef or pork.
Alpha - gal allergies are very similar to pork -- cat syndrome and hence misidentification can occur. Pork -- cat syndrome usually elicits an immediate allergic response, while a true alpha - gal allergy typically features a delayed allergic reaction of 3 to 8 hours after ingestion of the allergen.
|
who is the leader in why don't we | Why Do n't We - wikipedia
Why Do n't We (commonly abbreviated as WDW) is an American pop boyband, that was assembled on September 27, 2016, consisting of Jonah Marais, Corbyn Besson, Daniel Seavey, Jack Avery and Zachary "Zach '' Herron, each of whom had previously recorded as solo artists.
On October 7, 2016, the group released their debut single "Taking You '', a track from their debut EP, Only the Beginning, which was released on November 25 of the same year. Their second EP, Something Different, was released on April 21, 2017. Its title track was released as the lead single the same day. They released their third EP, Why Do n't We Just, on June 2, 2017. They finished their "Something Different '' tour around the United States. Another single, These Girls was released on August 29, 2017.
They have appeared in vlogs from YouTuber and friend, Logan Paul.
The band originally formed on September 27, 2016, and announced it the next day via their YouTube account. Since then, the band has released three EPs and five singles in all.
The band has currently been working with YouTube vlogger and friend, Logan Paul. Logan has currently directed three music videos for Why Do n't We, one involving their collaboration "Help Me Help You. '' The band has made various appearances on Logan Paul 's daily vlogs. They have also helped Logan Paul on a diss track about Jake Paul called "The Fall of Jake Paul ''.
|
what is the average living age in the uk | List of countries by life expectancy - wikipedia
This is a collection of lists of countries by average life expectancy at birth.
Life expectancy equals the average number of years a person born in a given country is expected to live if mortality rates at each age were to remain steady in the future. The life expectancy is shown separately for males and females, as well as a combined figure. Several non-sovereign entities are also included in this list.
The figures reflect the quality of healthcare in the countries listed as well as other factors including ongoing wars, obesity, and HIV infections.
Worldwide, the average life expectancy at birth was 71.5 years (68 years and 4 months for males and 72 years and 8 months for females) over the period 2010 -- 2015 according to United Nations World Population Prospects 2015 Revision, or 69 years (67 years for males and 71.1 years for females) for 2016 according to The World Factbook. According to the 2015 World Health Organization (WHO) data, women on average live longer than men in all major regions and in all individual countries except for Mali and Swaziland.
The countries with the lowest overall life expectancies per the WHO are Sierra Leone, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea - Bissau, Lesotho, Somalia, Swaziland, Angola, Chad, Mali, Burundi, Cameroon, and Mozambique. Of those countries, only Lesotho, Swaziland, and Mozambique in 2011 were suffering from an HIV prevalence rate of greater than 10 percent in the 15 -- 49 age group.
Comparing life expectancies from birth across countries can be problematic. There are differing definitions of live birth vs stillbirth even among more developed countries and less developed countries often have poor reporting.
Republic of China (Taiwan) 's data is not included in the following WHO statistics. According to the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of China, the life expectancy of the 23.5 - million Taiwanese people reached 80.2 years in 2015, up from 79.84 years in 2014. The life expectancy of Taiwanese males averaged 77.01, while that of females reached 83.62, both of which were record highs.
Hong Kong is a territory with the world 's highest life expectancy according to Hong Kong Department of Health, the life expectancy reached 84.0 years in 2015 surpassing Japan 's 83.7 years. With men at 81.2 years and women at 87.3 years. The data is not included in the following WHO statistics as a separate entity since Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of China, and is not itself a member of the WHO.
2015 data published in May 2016.
HALE: Health - adjusted life expectancy
On July 2015, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), released World Population Prospects, The 2015 Revision. The following table shows the life expectancy at birth for the period 2010 to 2015.
The Global Burden of Disease 2010 study published updated figures in 2012, including recalculations of life expectancies which differ substantially in places from the UN estimates for 2010 (reasons for this are discussed in the freely available appendix to the paper, pages 25 -- 27, currently not available). Although no estimate is given for the sexes combined, for the first time life expectancy estimates have included uncertainty intervals.
The US CIA published the following life expectancy data in its World Factbook.
Figures are from the CIA World Factbook 2009 and from the 2010 revision of the United Nations World Population Prospects report, for 2005 -- 2010, (data viewable at http://esa.un.org/wpp/Sorting-Tables/tab-sorting_mortality.htm, with equivalent spreadsheets here, here, and here).
Only countries / territories with a population of 100,000 or more in 2010 are included in the United Nations list. WHO database 2013 http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/EN_WHS2013_Full.pdf
|
when do flags fly at half mast on veterans day | Half - mast - wikipedia
Half - mast or half - staff refers to a flag flying below the summit on a pole. In many countries this is seen as a symbol of respect, mourning, distress, or in some cases, a salute. Strictly speaking, flags are said to be half - mast if flown from ships, and half - staff if on land, although not all regional variations of English use "half - staff ''.
The tradition of flying the flag at half - mast began in the 17th century. According to some sources, the flag is lowered to make room for an "invisible flag of death '' flying above. However, there is disagreement about where on a flagpole a flag should be when it is at half - staff. It is often recommended that a flag at half - staff should be lowered only as much as the hoist, or width, of the flag. British flag protocol is that a flag should be flown no less than two - thirds of the way up the flagpole, with at least the height of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole. It is common for the phrase to be taken literally and for a flag to be flown only halfway up a flagpole, although some authorities deprecate that practice.
When hoisting a flag that is to be displayed at half - mast, it should be raised to the finial of the pole for an instant, then lowered to half - mast. Likewise, when the flag is lowered at the end of the day, it should be hoisted to the finial for an instant, and then lowered.
The flag of Australia is flown half - mast in Australia:
The flag of Cambodia flew at half mast upon the death of King - Father Norodom Sihanouk for 7 days, from 15 -- 22 October 2012.
The term half - mast is the official term used in Canada, according to the Rules For Half - Masting the National Flag of Canada. The decision to fly the flag at half - mast on federal buildings rests with the Department of Canadian Heritage. Federally, the national flag of Canada is flown at half - mast to mark the following occasions:
Certain events are also marked by flying the national flag at half - mast on the Peace Tower at Parliament Hill. These include:
On occasion discretion can dictate the flying of the national flag at half - mast, not only on the Peace Tower, but on all federal facilities. Some examples include September 11, 2001, September 11, 2002, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Mayerthorpe tragedy, the death of Pope John Paul II, the 2005 London bombings, the death of Smokey Smith, the state funerals of former U.S. presidents Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford, and the death of Jack Layton
There are, however, exceptions to the rules of half - masting in Canada: if Victoria Day or Canada Day fall during a period of half - masting, the flags are to be returned to full - mast for the duration of the day. The national flag on the Peace Tower is also hoisted to full mast if a foreign head of state or head of government is visiting the parliament. These exemptions, though, do not apply to the period of mourning for the death of a Canadian monarch. The Royal Standard of Canada also never flies at half - mast, as it is considered representative of the sovereign, who ascends to the throne automatically upon the death of his or her predecessor. Each province can make its own determination of when to fly the flag at half - mast when provincial leaders or honoured citizens pass away.
To raise a flag in this position, the flag must be flown to the top of the pole first, then brought down halfway before the flag is secured for flying. When such mourning occurs, all flags should be flown at that position or not be flown at all, with the exception of flags permanently attached to poles.
A controversy surfaced in April, 2006, when the newly elected Conservative government discontinued the practice, initiated by the previous Liberal government following the Tarnak Farm incident, of flying the flag at half - mast on all government buildings whenever a Canadian soldier was killed in action in Afghanistan. The issue divided veterans ' groups and military families, some of whom supported the return to the original tradition of using Remembrance Day to honour all soldiers killed in action, while others felt it was an appropriate way to honour the fallen and to remind the population of the costs of war. In spite of the federal government 's policy, local authorities have often decided to fly the flag at half - mast to honour fallen soldiers who were from their jurisdiction, including Toronto and Saskatchewan.
On April 2, 2008, the House of Commons voted in favour of a motion calling on the government to reinstate the former policy regarding the half - masting of the flag on federal buildings. The motion, however, was not binding and the Cabinet refused to recommend any revision in policy to the Governor General. At the same time, a federal advisory committee tabled its report on the protocol of flying the national flag at half - mast, recommending that the Peace Tower flag remain at full height on days such as the Police Officers National Memorial Day and the National Day or Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women, stating that the flag should only be half - masted on Remembrance Day. At last report, the committee 's findings had been forwarded to the House of Commons all - party heritage committee for further study.
The National Flag Law provides for a number of situations on which the flag should be flown at half - mast, and authorizes the State Council to make such executive orders:
In Finland, the official term for flying a flag at half - mast is known as suruliputus (mourning by flag (ging)). It is performed by raising the flag briefly to the top of the mast and lowering it approximately one - third of the length of the flagpole, placing the lower hoist corner at half - mast. On wall - mounted and roof - top flagpoles the middle of the flag should fly at the middle of the flagpole. When removing the flag from half - mast, it is briefly hoisted to the finial before lowering.
Traditionally, private residences and apartment houses fly the national flag at half - mast on the day of the death of a resident, when the flag is displayed at half - mast until sunset or 21: 00, whichever comes first. Flags are also flown at half - mast on the day of the burial, with the exception that the flag is to be hoisted to the finial after the inhumation takes place.
Flags are also to be flown at half - mast on the days of national mourning. Such days are the deaths of former or current Finnish presidents, as well as significant catastophical events such as the aftermath of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, 2011 Norway attacks and significant national events such as the 2004 Konginkangas bus disaster and school shootings of Jokela and Kauhajoki.
Historically, flags were flown at half - mast on the Commemoration Day of Fallen Soldiers which takes place on the third Sunday of May. Originally, flag was raised to the finial in the morning, displayed at half - mast from 10: 00 to 14: 00, and again raised to the finial for the rest of the day. In 1995, the 50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War, the tradition of flying the flag at half - mast was discontinued and flag is displayed at the finial in a usual manner.
The French flag is flown half mast on any Day of Mourning by order of the government (for example after the Charlie Hebdo attack on 7 January 2015, the Paris attacks on 13 November 2015 and the Nice attack on 14 July 2016). Other countries have also flown the French flag at half mast because of this too. (Australia 's Sydney Harbour Bridge flew the French flag at half mast because of the Paris attacks on November 13 of 2015).
Some occurrences of the French flag being flown half mast have been controversial, especially after the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005 but also in a lesser measure at the time following the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953.
The flag of Germany and the flags of its federal states are flown at half - mast:
According to Law 851 / 1978, the only day specified on which the Greek flag is flown at half - mast is Good Friday. Also, on other national and public mourning days.
Similar rules as in China apply for Hong Kong. See Flag of Hong Kong for details. Prior to the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, the rules for flying the flag at half - mast were the same as the British ones.
The flag of India is flown at half - mast for the death of a President, Vice-President, or Prime Minister, all over India. For the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Chief Justice of The Supreme Court of India, it is flown in Delhi and for a Union Cabinet Minister it is flown in Delhi and the state capitals, from where he or she came. For a Minister of State, it is flown only in Delhi. For a Governor, Lt. Governor, or Chief Minister of a state or union territory, it is flown in the concerned state.
If the intimation of the death of any dignitary is received in the afternoon, the flag shall be flown at halfmast on the following day also at the place or places indicated above, provided the funeral has not taken place before sunrise on that day. On the day of the funeral of a dignitary mentioned above, the flag shall be flown at half - mast at the place of the funeral.
In the event of a halfmast day coinciding with the Republic Day, Independence Day, Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday, National Week (6 to 13 April), any other particular day of national rejoicing as may be specified by the Government of India, or, in the case of a state, on the anniversary of formation of that state, flags are not permitted to be flown at half - mast except over the building where the body of the deceased is lying until it has been removed and that flag shall be raised to the full - mast position after the body has been removed.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Home Ministry) in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag on the above - mentioned days. India observed a five - day period of National Mourning on the death of Nelson Mandela in 2013. India also declared 29 March 2015 as a day of National Mourning as a mark of respect to the former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew.
The flag of Iran is flown at half - mast on the death of a national figure or mourning days.
The flag of Ireland is flown at half - mast on the death of a national or international figure, that is, former and current Presidents or Taoiseach, on all prominent government buildings equipped with a flag pole. The death of a prominent local figure can also be marked locally by the flag being flown at half - mast. When the national flag is flown at half - mast, no other flag should be half - masted. When a balcony in Berkeley, California, collapsed, killing six Irish people, flags were flown at half mast above all state buildings.
The flag of Israel is flown at half - mast in Israel:
The flag of Italy was flown at half - mast after the 2013 Sardinia floods on November 22, 2013.
The flag of Indonesia is or has been flown half - mast during several occasions:
The flag of Japan is flown at half - mast upon the death of the Emperor of Japan, other members of the Imperial Family, or a current or former Prime Minister, and also following national disasters such as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In addition to the tradition of half - mast, the national flag topped by black cloth may be flown to designate mourning. See the flag of Japan for more.
The flag of Malaysia (Jalur Gemilang) is flown at half - mast all over the country:
As a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and their family members, some states had their states flag flown at half - mast. Similarly, as a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 and their family members, the national flag was flown at half - mast for three days and also on the national day of mourning, 22 August 2014. The 2015 Sabah earthquake had a mourning day and the flag half - mast on 8 June 2015.
The flag of Malta is flown at half - mast on government buildings by instruction of the government through the Office of the Prime Minister, for example after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of the Netherlands is nationally flown at half - mast:
The royal standard and other flags of the Dutch royal family are never flown at half - mast. Instead, a black pennon may be affixed to the flag in times of mourning.
For both government and public buildings, the flag of New Zealand is flown at half - mast for the following people:
In addition, it can also be flown at half - mast at the request of the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage. Examples of this are for the deaths of prominent New Zealanders (e.g. Sir Edmund Hillary and Te Arikinui Dame Te Atairangikaahu, the Maori Queen), and for national tragedies (e.g. the Pike River Mine disaster)
According to the Ministry of Culture and Heritage, the position is always referred to as half - mast. The flag should be at least its own height from the top of the flagpole, though the actual position will depend on the size of the flag and the length of the flagpole.
The flag of Pakistan is routinely flown at half - mast on following days:
Any other day notified by the Government. For example, on the death of Saudi king King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz, the flag was flown at half - mast for seven days (the flag of Saudi Arabia was n't at half - mast because the flag contains the Shahada). Upon the Assassination of Benazir Bhutto, the flag was ordered to be flown at half - mast for three days. On the death of Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, spiritual leader of Dawoodi Bohra community, the flag has been ordered by Sindh Chief Minister Qaim Ali Shah, to be flown at half - mast for two days (January 17 and 18) to express solidarity with the bereaved community. In 2014, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif announced a three - day mourning period from 16 December, including flying the flag at half - mast nationwide and at all Embassies and High Commissions of Pakistan, for the attack on Army Public School in Peshawar.
The flag of the Philippines may be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. Upon the official announcement of the death of the President or a former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Vice President, the Chief Justice, the President of the Senate or the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
The flag may also be required to fly at half - mast upon the death of other persons to be determined by the National Historical Institute, for a period less than seven days. The flag shall be flown at half - mast on all the buildings and places where the decedent was holding office, on the day of death until the day of interment of an incumbent member of the Supreme Court, the Cabinet, the Senate or the House of Representatives, and such other persons as may be determined by the National Historical Institute. Such other people determined by the National Historical Institute have included Pope John Paul II, and former U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
As per Republic Act No. 229, flags nationwide are flown at half - mast every Rizal Day on December 30 to commemorate the death of national hero José Rizal.
When flown at half - mast, the flag should be first hoisted to the peak for a moment then lowered to the half - mast position. It should be raised to the peak again before it is lowered for the day.
The flag may also be used to cover the caskets of the dead of the military, veterans of previous wars, national artists, and outstanding civilians as determined by the local government. In such cases, the flag must be placed such that the white triangle is at the head and the blue portion covers the right side of the casket. The flag should not be lowered to the grave or allowed to touch the ground, but should be solemnly folded and handed to the heirs of the deceased.
Flags must also be raised to half - mast immediately in any area recovering from natural disasters such as a typhoon or an earthquake.
The flag of Russia is flown at half - mast and (or) topped by black ribbon:
All the regional flags and the departmental ensigns are flown at half - mast on national or regional mourning days as well as the national flag. Firms and non-governmental organizations, embassies and representatives of international organizations often join the mourning. National or regional mourning usually lasts for one day.
The flag of Saudi Arabia is one of the four flags in the world that are never flown at half - mast because it shows the Shahada. The flag of Somaliland, a self - declared state internationally recognized as part of Somalia, also displays the Shahada. The flag of Iraq bears the Takbir once. The flag of Afghanistan displays the Takbir beneath the Shahada on the top. Since all four bear the concept of oneness of God, the flag is never lowered to half - mast even as a sign of mourning.
The flag of Singapore is flown at half - mast in Singapore following the deaths of an "important personage '' (such as state leaders) and during periods of national mourning. Examples include:
The flag of South Africa is flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning when ordered by the President of South Africa. Upon the official announcement of the death of the current or former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Deputy President, the Chairperson of NCOP, the Speaker of the National Assembly or the Chief Justice. For example, the flag was flown at half - mast from 6 -- 15 December 2013 during the national mourning period for Nelson Mandela.
The flag was flown at half - mast during the week of national mourning following the Marikana massacre in August 2012.
The flag of South Korea (Taegeukgi) is flown at half - mast on Hyeonchungil (Korean Memorial Day).
The flag of Sri Lanka is nationally flown at half - mast on a National day of mourning.
The flag of the Republic of China is flown at half - mast on February 28 to mark the anniversary of the February 28 Incident. On 5 August 2014, Taiwan flew their flag in half - mast for three days to commemorate the victims of the Kaohsiung gas explosions and TransAsia Airways Flight 222 crash.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast for 15 days to mourn for the victims of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast from January 2 to January 15, 2008 on the death of Princess Galyani Vadhana, the Princess of Naradhiwas.
Also from October 14 to November 13, 2016 the flag of Thailand was flown half - mast for 30 days; following the death of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX).
The flag of Turkey is flown at half - mast throughout Turkey every 10 November, between 09: 05 and the sunset, in memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who died on November 10, 1938 at five past nine in the morning. At other times, the government may issue an order for the national flag to be flown at half - mast upon the death of principal figures of the Turkish political life as a mark of respect to their memory (such as Turgut Özal). When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools and military bases are to fly their flags at half - mast. To show the sympathy of Turkish people to a foreign leader, flags are also flown at half - mast by governmental order (such as after the deaths of Yasser Arafat or Pope John Paul II). The flag at the Grand National Assembly in Ankara is never lowered to half - mast, regardless of the occasion. The flag at Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of Turkey, is only lowered to half - mast on November 10. At those times when the flag is to be flown at half - mast, it must first be raised to full height, then lowered to half - mast.
The flag of the United Arab Emirates is flown at half mast on 30 November (Martyrs ' Day) of every year from 08: 00 to 11: 30. The flag is also flown at half mast by decree of the President of the United Arab Emirates usually for three days. Each of the seven Emirs has the right to order flags to be flown at half mast in his Emirate.
The Royal Standard, the flag of the British monarch, is never flown at half - mast, because there is always a living monarch: the throne passes immediately to the successor.
There was some controversy in the United Kingdom in 1997 following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales that no flag was flying at half - mast at Buckingham Palace. Until 1997, the only flag to fly from Buckingham Palace was the Royal Standard, the official flag of the reigning British sovereign, which would only fly when the sovereign was in residence at the Palace (or, exceptionally, after the death of the sovereign, the flag of the next senior member of the Royal Family would be raised, if the new sovereign were not present); otherwise, no flag would fly.
In response to public outcry that the palace was not flying a flag at half mast, Queen Elizabeth II ordered a break with protocol, replacing the Royal Standard with the Union Flag at half - mast as soon as the Queen left the Palace to attend the Princess 's funeral at Westminster Abbey. The Royal Standard was again flown (at full hoist) on her return to the Palace. Since then, the Union Flag flies from the Palace when the Queen is not in residence, and has flown at half mast upon the deaths of members of the Royal Family, such as Princess Margaret and the Queen Mother in 2002 and other times of national mourning such as following the terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005.
In the UK, the correct way to fly the flag at half - mast is two - thirds between the bottom and top of the flagstaff, with at least the width of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole according to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, which decides the flying, on command of the Sovereign. The flag may be flown on a government building at half - mast on the following days:
According to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, the correct term is Half Mast.
If a flag flying day coincides with a half - mast flag flying day (including the death of a member of the royal family), the flag is flown at full - mast unless a specific command is received from the Sovereign.
If more than one flag is flown on a half - mast day, they must all be flown at half - mast, or not at all. The flag of a foreign nation must never be flown at half - mast on UK soil unless that country has declared mourning.
At the United Nations offices in New York and Geneva, the flag of the United Nations flies at half - mast on the day after the death of a Head of State or a Head of Government of a member state, but generally not during the funeral. Other occasions are at the Secretary - General 's discretion. Other offices may follow local practice. To honor the memory of Dag Hammarskjöld the UN issued postage stamps showing its flag at half - mast.
In the United States, the usual government term for non-nautical use is "half - staff. '' While the term "half - mast '' is commonly used in place of half - staff, U.S. law and post-WW - I military tradition indicate that "half - mast '' is reserved to usage aboard a ship, where flags are typically flown from masts, and at naval ships ashore. Elsewhere ashore, flags are flown at "half - staff. '' In addition, flags are lowered to half - staff, not raised.
In the United States, the President can issue an executive order for the flag of the United States to be flown at half - staff upon the death of principal figures of the United States government and others, as a mark of respect to their memory. When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools, and military bases are to fly their flags at half - staff. Under federal law (4 U.S.C. § 7 (f)), the flags of states, cities, localities, and pennants of societies, shall never be placed above the flag of the United States; thus, all other flags also fly at half - staff when the U.S. flag has been ordered to fly at half - staff. There is no penalty for failure to comply with the above law as to enforce such a penalty would violate the First Amendment.
Governors of U.S. states and territories are authorized by federal law to order all U.S. and state flags in their jurisdiction flown at half - staff as a mark of respect for a former or current state official who has died, or for a member of the armed forces who has died in active duty. The governor 's authority to issue the order is more restricted than the president 's, and does not include discretion to issue the order for state residents who do not meet the criteria stated. Since a governor 's executive order affects only his or her state, not the entire country, these orders are distinguished from presidential proclamations.
Under 4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) and established traditions by Presidential proclamations, the flag of the United States is to be flown at half - staff on rare occasions, in the following circumstances:
Federal law includes a Congressional request that the flag be flown at half - staff on Peace Officers Memorial Day (May 15), unless that day is also Armed Forces Day. Presidential proclamations also call for the flag to be flown at half - staff on Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (December 7), and Patriot Day (September 11).
On October 16, 2001, President George W. Bush approved legislation requiring the United States flag to be lowered to half - staff on all Federal buildings to memorialize fallen firefighters. Pub. L. 107 -- 51 requires this action to occur annually in conjunction with observance of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service. The date of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service is traditionally the first Sunday in October. It is held at the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial in Emmitsburg, Maryland.
4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) was modified with new legislation signed into effect on June 29, 2007, by President Bush, requiring any federal facility within a region, which proclaims half - staff to honor a member of the U.S. Armed Forces who died on active duty, to follow the half - staff proclamation.
Apart from the lowered position of the flag of Vietnam, state mourning also warrants a black ribbon 1 / 10 the width of the flag 's width and equal to the length of the flag to be tied at the summit. Variants have the black ribbon wrapped around the flag itself, preventing it from being unfurled.
The flag of Zimbabwe is flown at half - mast at the conferment of National Hero Status to the deceased. As a first - generation republic, adjudication over such a status is currently done by the politburo of the ZANU -- PF.
|
what does the number 41 mean in the bible | 40 (number) - wikipedia
40 (forty) is the natural number following 39 and preceding 41.
Though the word is related to "four '' (4), the spelling "forty '' replaced "fourty '' in the course of the 17th century and is now the standard form.
The number 40 is used in Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and other Middle Eastern traditions to represent a large, approximate number, similar to "umpteen ''.
Christianity similarly uses forty to designate important time periods.
In the Hindu system some of the popular fasting periods consist 40 days and is called the period One ' Mandl kal ' Kal means a period and Mandal kal means a period of 40 days. For example, the devotees of Swami Ayyappa, the name of a Hindu god very popular in Kerala, India (Sabarimala Swami Ayyappan) strictly observed forty days fasting and visit (only male devotees are permitted to enter into the god 's temple) with their holy submittance or offerings on 41st or a convenient day after a minimum 40 days practice of fasting. The offering is called "Kanikka ''.
A large number of myths about Enki have been collected from many sites, stretching from Southern Iraq to the Levantine coast. He figures in the earliest extant cuneiform inscriptions throughout the region and was prominent from the third millennium down to Hellenistic times.
The exact meaning of his name is uncertain: the common translation is "Lord of the Earth '': the Sumerian en is translated as a title equivalent to "lord ''; it was originally a title given to the High Priest; ki means "earth ''; but there are theories that ki in this name has another origin, possibly kig of unknown meaning, or kur meaning "mound ''. The name Ea is allegedly Hurrian in origin while others claim that it is possibly of Semitic origin and may be a derivation from the West - Semitic root * hyy meaning "life '' in this case used for "spring '', "running water. '' In Sumerian E-A means "the house of water '', and it has been suggested that this was originally the name for the shrine to the God at Eridu.
Forty is also:
|
where was the first ever world cup held | 1930 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 1930 FIFA World Cup was the inaugural FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men 's national association football teams. It took place in Uruguay from 13 to 30 July 1930. FIFA, football 's international governing body, selected Uruguay as host nation, as the country would be celebrating the centenary of its first constitution, and the Uruguay national football team had successfully retained their football title at the 1928 Summer Olympics. All matches were played in the Uruguayan capital, Montevideo, the majority at the Estadio Centenario, which was built for the tournament.
Thirteen teams (seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America) entered the tournament. Only a few European teams chose to participate because of the difficulty of travelling to South America. The teams were divided into four groups, with the winner of each group progressing to the semi-finals. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously, and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4 -- 1 and Belgium 3 -- 0, respectively. Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history, while US goalkeeper Jimmy Douglas posted the first official "clean sheet '' in the tournament.
Argentina, Uruguay, the United States and Yugoslavia each won their respective groups to qualify for the semi-finals. In the final, hosts and pre-tournament favourites Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 -- 2 in front of a crowd of 68,346 people, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.
The first World Cup was the only one without qualification. Every country affiliated with FIFA was invited to compete, and given a deadline of 28 February 1930 to accept. Plenty of interest was shown by nations in the Americas; Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and the United States all entered. A total of seven South American teams participated, more than in any subsequent World Cup Finals. However, because of the long and costly trip by ship across the Atlantic Ocean, and the length of absence required for players, very few European teams were inclined to take part. Some refused to countenance travel to South America in any circumstances, and no European entries were received before the February deadline. In an attempt to gain some European participation, the Uruguayan Football Association sent a letter of invitation to The Football Association, even though the British Home Nations (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) had resigned from FIFA at the time. This was rejected by the FA Committee on 18 November 1929. Two months before the start of the tournament, no team from Europe had officially entered. FIFA president Jules Rimet intervened, and eventually four European teams made the trip by sea: Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The Romanians, managed by Constantin Rădulescu and coached by their captain Rudolf Wetzer and Octav Luchide, entered the competition following the intervention of newly crowned King Carol II. He selected the squad personally, and negotiated with employers to ensure that the players would still have jobs upon their return. The French entered at the personal intervention of Rimet, but neither France 's star defender Manuel Anatol nor the team 's regular coach Gaston Barreau could be persuaded to make the trip. The Belgians participated at the instigation of German - Belgian FIFA vice-president Rodolphe Seeldrayers.
Lucien Laurent
The Romanians boarded the SS Conte Verde at Genoa, the French were picked up at Villefranche - sur - Mer on 21 June 1930; and the Belgians embarked at Barcelona. The Conte Verde carried Rimet, the trophy and the three designated European referees: the Belgians Jean Langenus and Henri Christophe, along with Thomas Balway, a Parisian who may have been English. The Brazilian team were picked up when the boat docked in Rio de Janeiro on 29 June before arriving in Uruguay on 4 July. Yugoslavia travelled via the mail steamship Florida from Marseille.
In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia there were doubts about their participation at first. Since the Croatians decided to boycott the national team, King Alexander I did not want to finance the whole idea, but in the end they found a solution. Belgrade football association officials decided to round up only domestic (Serbian) star players, mainly from two rival Belgrade clubs, BSK and SK Jugoslavija, with an additional three Serbs who played for French clubs (Ivan Bek among them). Therefore, the Yugoslavia team was exclusively made up of Serbian players; and with the two biggest stars of the team, Blagoje Marjanović ("Moša '') and Aleksandar Tirnanić ("Tirke ''), both from BSK, they were ready for a trip to South America to represent Yugoslavia in the World Cup. The Yugoslavians were the youngest team in the World Cup; with an average age of 21 years and 258 days. After their first match, against Brazil, they received a new nickname "The Ich - es '' or "Ichachos '' (in Spanish) by the Uruguayan press; referring to most of the player 's surnames that ended up with the "- ić '' or "- vić '' suffix, which is quite common for Serbian last names. They achieved the joint -- biggest success in both Yugoslav and Serbian subsequent World Cup footballing history, by earning fourth place, a result that would be repeated in 1962.
Italy, Sweden, the Netherlands, Spain, Hungary and Uruguay all lodged applications to host the event. Uruguay 's bid became the clear selection after all the other countries withdrew their bids.
All matches took place in Montevideo. Three stadiums were used: Estadio Centenario, Estadio Pocitos, and Estadio Parque Central. The Estadio Centenario was built both for the tournament and as a celebration of the centenary of Uruguayan independence. Designed by Juan Scasso, it was the primary stadium for the tournament, referred to by Rimet as a "temple of football ''. With a capacity of 90,000, it was the largest football stadium outside the British Isles. The stadium hosted 10 of the 18 matches, including both semi-finals and the final. However, a rushed construction schedule and delays caused by the rainy season meant the Centenario was not ready for use until five days into the tournament. Early matches were played at smaller stadiums usually used by Montevideo football clubs Nacional and Peñarol, the 20,000 capacity Parque Central and the Pocitos.
Fifteen referees participated in the tournament: four Europeans -- two Belgians (Henri Christophe and John Langenus), a Frenchman, and a Romanian (Constantin Rădulescu, also the Romanian team coach), and eleven from the Americas -- among them six Uruguayans. In order to eliminate differences in the application of the Laws of the Game, the referees were invited to one short meeting to iron out the most conflicting issues arising from the game.
Of all the refereeing appointments, the two that attracted most attention were that of Gilberto de Almeida Rêgo in the match between Argentina and France, in which the Brazilian referee blew for full - time six minutes early, and that of the Bolivian Ulises Saucedo 's in the Argentina and Mexico encounter, which Argentina won 6 -- 3. During the game Saucedo, who was also the coach of Bolivia, awarded three penalties.
The following is the list of officials to serve as referees and linesmen. Officials in italics were only employed as linesmen during the tournament.
The 13 teams were drawn into four groups, with Group 1 containing four teams, and the others containing three. Each group played a round - robin format, with the four group winners progressing to the knockout semi-final stage.
Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, and the United States were seeded, and were kept apart in the draw, which took place in Montevideo once all the teams arrived.
Since there were no qualifying games, the opening two matches of the tournament were the first World Cup games ever played, taking place simultaneously on 13 July 1930; France beat Mexico 4 -- 1 at the Estadio Pocitos, while the United States defeated Belgium 3 -- 0 at the same time at the Estadio Gran Parque Central. France 's Lucien Laurent was the scorer of the first World Cup goal.
Lucien Laurent
The first group was the only one to contain four teams: Argentina, Chile, France and Mexico. Two days after France 's victory over Mexico, they faced group favourites Argentina. Injuries hindered France; goalkeeper Alex Thépot had to leave the field after 20 minutes, and Laurent, after a fierce tackle by Luis Monti, spent most of the match limping. However, they held out for most of the match, only succumbing to an 81st - minute goal scored from a Monti free kick. The game featured an officiating controversy when referee Almeida Rêgo erroneously blew the final whistle six minutes early, with Frenchman Marcel Langiller clear on goal; play only resumed after protests from the French players. Although France had played twice in 48 hours, Chile had yet to play their first match. They faced Mexico the following day, gaining a comfortable 3 -- 0 win.
France 's final match, against Chile, featured the first penalty kick of the World Cup. The first goalkeeper to save a penalty was Alex Thépot of France on 19 July 1930, saving from Chile 's Carlos Vidal in the 30th minute of the match. In Argentina 's second match, against Mexico, three penalty kicks were awarded. During the same match on 19 July 1930 Mexico 's Oscar Bonfiglio Martínez saved another penalty at the 23rd minute of the match against Argentina 's Fernando Paternoster. Guillermo Stábile scored a hat - trick in his international debut as Argentina won 6 -- 3, despite the absence of their captain Manuel Ferreira, who had returned to Buenos Aires to take a law exam. Qualification was decided by the group 's final match, contested by Argentina and Chile, who had beaten France and Mexico, respectively. The game was marred by a brawl sparked by a foul on Arturo Torres by Monti. Argentina won 3 -- 1 against their neighbours and advanced to the semi-finals.
The second group contained Brazil, Bolivia and Yugoslavia. Brazil, the group seeds, were expected to progress, but in the group 's opening match, unexpectedly lost 2 -- 1 to Yugoslavia. Going into the tournament Bolivia had never previously won an international match. For their opener they paid tribute to the hosts by wearing shirts each emblazoned with a single letter, spelling "Viva Uruguay '' as the team lined up. Both of Bolivia 's matches followed a similar pattern, a promising start gradually transforming into heavy defeat. Against Yugoslavia, they held out for an hour before conceding, but were four goals down by the final whistle. Misfortune played its part; several Bolivian goals were disallowed. Against Brazil, when both teams had only pride to play for, the score was 1 -- 0 to Brazil at half - time. Brazil added three more in the second half, two of them scored by the multi-sportsman Preguinho. Yugoslavia qualified for the semi-finals.
Hosts Uruguay were in a group with Peru and Romania. The opening match in this group saw the first player expulsion in the competition, when Plácido Galindo of Peru was dismissed against Romania. The Romanians made their man advantage pay; their 3 -- 1 win included two late goals. This match had the smallest crowd of any in World Cup history. The official attendance was 2,459, but the actual figure is generally accepted to be around 300.
Because of construction delays at Estadio Centenario, Uruguay 's first match was not played until five days into the tournament. The first to be held at the Centenario, it was preceded by a ceremony in honour of the Uruguayan centenary celebrations. The Uruguayan team spent the four weeks preceding the match in a training camp, at which strict discipline was exercised. Goalkeeper Andrés Mazali was dropped from the squad for breaking a curfew to visit his wife. One hundred years to the day of the creation of Uruguay 's first constitution, the hosts won a tight match against Peru 1 -- 0. Spectators praised Peru 's defense, and this turned out to be the only tournament match in which Uruguay scored only one goal. The result was viewed as a poor performance by the Uruguayan press, but lauded in Peru. Uruguay subsequently defeated Romania with ease, scoring four first half goals to win 4 -- 0.
The fourth group contained Belgium, Paraguay and The United States. The American team, which contained a significant number of new caps, were reputedly nicknamed "the shot - putters '' by an unnamed source in the French contingent. They beat their first opponents, Belgium, 3 -- 0. The ease of the victory was unexpected; Uruguayan newspaper Imparcial wrote that "the large score of the American victory has really surprised the experts ''. Belgian reports bemoaned the state of the pitch and refereeing decisions, claiming that the second goal was offside. The group 's second match, played in windy conditions, witnessed the first tournament hat - trick, scored by Bert Patenaude of the United States against Paraguay. Until 10 November 2006, the first hat - trick that FIFA acknowledged had been scored by Guillermo Stábile of Argentina, two days after Patenaude; however, in 2006 FIFA announced that Patenaude 's claim to being the first hat - trick scorer was valid, as a goal previously assigned to teammate Tom Florie was reattributed to Patenaude. With the United States having secured qualification, the final match in the group was a dead rubber. Paraguay beat Belgium by a 1 -- 0 margin.
The four group winners, Argentina, Yugoslavia, Uruguay and the United States, moved to the semi-finals. The two semi-final matches saw identical scores. The first semi-final was played between the US and Argentina on a rain - drenched pitch. The United States team, which featured six British - born players, lost midfielder Raphael Tracy after ten minutes to a broken leg as the match became violent. A Monti goal halfway through the first half gave Argentina a 1 -- 0 half - time lead. In the second half, the strength of the United States team was overwhelmed by the pace of the Argentinian attacks, the match finishing 6 -- 1 to Argentina.
In the second semi-final there were shades of the 1924 Summer Olympics match between Yugoslavia and Uruguay. Here, though, Yugoslavia took a surprise lead through Vujadinović. Uruguay then took a 2 -- 1 lead. Then shortly before half - time Yugoslavia had a goal disallowed by a controversial offside decision. The hosts scored three more in the second half to win 6 -- 1, Pedro Cea completing a hat - trick.
The now - traditional third place play - off was not established until 1934, so the format of the 1930 World Cup is unique in not distinguishing between the third and fourth placed teams. Occasional sources, notably a FIFA Bulletin from 1984, incorrectly imply that a third - place match occurred and was won 3 -- 1 by Yugoslavia. Accounts differ as to whether a third - place match was originally scheduled. According to a 2009 book by Hyder Jawad, Yugoslavia refused to play a third - place match because they were upset with the refereeing in their semi-final against Uruguay.
At the end of the championship, the captains of the United States team (Tom Florie) and Yugoslavia (Milutin Ivković) both received bronze medals. Yet a FIFA technical committee report on the 1986 World Cup included full retrospective rankings of all teams at all previous World Cup finals; this report ranked the United States third and Yugoslavia fourth, due to a better goal difference on otherwise identical records, a practice since continued by FIFA. In 2010, the son of Kosta Hadži, the chief of Yugoslav delegation at the 1930 World Cup and the vice-president of the Football Association of Yugoslavia at the time, claimed that Yugoslavia, as a team, has been awarded one bronze medal, which has been kept by Hadži himself and his family for the following 80 years. According to this source, Yugoslavia was placed third because of the semi-finals loss to the eventual champions, Uruguay.
The resounding wins for Uruguay and Argentina in the semi-finals meant the final was a repeat of the matchup in the 1928 Olympic final, which Uruguay had won 2 -- 1 after a replay.
The final was played at the Estadio Centenario on 30 July. Feelings ran high around the La Plata Basin as the Argentine supporters crossed the river with the war cry Victoria o muerte ("victory or death ''), dispelling any uncertainty as to whether the tournament had captured the imagination of the public. The ten boats earmarked to carry Argentine fans from Buenos Aires to Montevideo proved inadequate, and any number of assorted craft attempted the crossing. An estimated 10 -- 15,000 Argentinians made the trip, but the port at Montevideo was so overwhelmed that many did not even make landfall before kick - off, let alone reach the stadium. At the stadium, supporters were searched for weapons. The gates were opened at eight o'clock, six hours before kick - off, and at noon the ground was full, the official attendance 93,000. A disagreement overshadowed the build - up to the match as the teams failed to agree on who should provide the match ball, forcing FIFA to intervene and decree that the Argentine team would provide the ball for the first half and the Uruguayans would provide their own for the second. Uruguay made one change from their semi-final line - up. Castro replaced Anselmo, who missed out due to illness. Monti played for Argentina despite receiving death threats on the eve of the match. The referee was Belgian John Langenus, who only agreed to officiate a few hours before the game, having sought assurances for his safety. One of his requests was for a boat to be ready at the harbour within one hour of the final whistle, in case he needed to make a quick escape.
The hosts scored the opening goal through Pablo Dorado, a low shot from a position on the right. Argentina, displaying superior passing ability, responded strongly. Within eight minutes they were back on level terms; Carlos Peucelle received a Ferreira through - ball, beat his marker and equalised. Shortly before half - time leading tournament goalscorer Guillermo Stábile gave Argentina a 2 -- 1 lead. Uruguay captain Nasazzi protested, maintaining that Stábile was offside, but to no avail. In the second half Uruguay gradually became ascendant. Shortly after Monti missed a chance to make the score 3 -- 1, Uruguay attacked in numbers, and Pedro Cea scored an equaliser. Ten minutes later a goal by Santos Iriarte gave Uruguay the lead, and just before full - time Castro made it 4 -- 2 to seal the win. Langenus ended the match a minute later, and Uruguay thus added the title World Cup winners to their mantle of Olympic champions. Jules Rimet presented the World Cup Trophy, which was later named for him, to the head of the Uruguayan Football Association, Raúl Jude. The following day was declared a national holiday in Uruguay; in the Argentinian capital, Buenos Aires, a mob threw stones at the Uruguayan consulate. Francisco Varallo (who played as a forward for Argentina) was the last player of the final to die, on 30 August 2010.
France, Yugoslavia and the United States all played friendlies in South America following the competition. Brazil played France on 1 August, Yugoslavia on 10 August and the United States on 17 August, while Argentina hosted Yugoslavia on 3 August.
Uruguay 's aggregate goal difference of + 12 over four games, at an average of + 3 per match, remains the highest average goal difference per match of any World Cup champion, and the second highest of any World Cup Finals participant, after Hungary in 1954.
With eight goals, Guillermo Stábile was the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 70 goals were scored by 36 players, with only one of them credited as an own goal.
In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. The rankings for the 1930 tournament were as follows:
The last surviving player from Uruguay 's World Cup - winning side was Ernesto Mascheroni, who died on 3 July 1984 at the age of 76. He was outlived by reserve defender Emilio Recoba who died on 12 September 1992 (aged 87), but did not play any matches in the tournament. However, many other players who participated in the tournament were still alive by this stage and the last surviving player from the tournament was Argentina 's Francisco Varallo, who died on 30 August 2010 at the age of 100 -- eighty years after the tournament. Lucien Laurent, the scorer of the first ever World Cup Goal was the last surviving Member of the France Squad and was invited in 1998 Final seeing France lifting its first ever World Cup win also as the only France member. He died in 2005 at the age of 97.
|
what kind of diseases are caused by water pollution | Waterborne diseases - wikipedia
Waterborne diseases are conditions caused by pathogenic micro-organisms that are transmitted in water. Disease can be spread while bathing, washing or drinking water, or by eating food exposed to infected water. Various forms of waterborne diarrheal disease are the most prominent examples, and affect children in developing countries most dramatically.
According to the World Health Organization, waterborne diseases account for an estimated 3.6 % of the total DALY (disability - adjusted life year) global burden of disease, and cause about 1.5 million human deaths annually. The World Health Organization estimates that 58 % of that burden, or 842,000 deaths per year, is attributable to a lack of safe drinking water supply, sanitation and hygiene (summarized as WASH).
The term waterborne disease is reserved largely for infections that predominantly are transmitted through contact with or consumption of infected water. Trivially, many infections may be transmitted by microbes or parasites that accidentally, possibly as a result of exceptional circumstances, have entered the water, but the fact that there might be an occasional freak infection need not mean that it is useful to categorise the resulting disease as "waterborne ''. Nor is it common practice to refer to diseases such as malaria as "waterborne '' just because mosquitoes have aquatic phases in their life cycles, or because treating the water they inhabit happens to be an effective strategy in control of the mosquitoes that are the vectors.
Microorganisms causing diseases that characteristically are waterborne prominently include protozoa and bacteria, many of which are intestinal parasites, or invade the tissues or circulatory system through walls of the digestive tract. Various other waterborne diseases are caused by viruses. (In spite of philosophical difficulties associated with defining viruses as "organisms '', it is practical and convenient to regard them as microorganisms in this connection.)
Yet other important classes of water - borne diseases are caused by metazoan parasites. Typical examples include certain Nematoda, that is to say "roundworms ''. As an example of water - borne Nematode infections, one important waterborne nematodal disease is Dracunculiasis. It is acquired by swallowing water in which certain copepoda occur that act as vectors for the Nematoda. Anyone swallowing a copepod that happens to be infected with Nematode larvae in the genus Dracunculus, becomes liable to infection. The larvae cause guinea worm disease.
Another class of waterborne metazoan pathogens are certain members of the Schistosomatidae, a family of blood flukes. They usually infect victims that make skin contact with the water. Blood flukes are pathogens that cause Schistosomiasis of various forms, more or less seriously affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide.
Long before modern studies had established the germ theory of disease, or any advanced understanding of the nature of water as a vehicle for transmitting disease, traditional beliefs had cautioned against the consumption of water, rather favouring processed beverages such as beer, wine and tea. For example, in the camel caravans that crossed Central Asia along the Silk Road, the explorer Owen Lattimore noted, "The reason we drank so much tea was because of the bad water. Water alone, unboiled, is never drunk. There is a superstition that it causes blisters on the feet. ''
Waterborne diseases can have a significant impact on the economy, locally as well as internationally. People who are infected by a waterborne disease are usually confronted with related costs and not seldom with a huge financial burden. This is especially the case in less developed countries. The financial losses are mostly caused by e.g. costs for medical treatment and medication, costs for transport, special food, and by the loss of manpower. Many families must even sell their land to pay for treatment in a proper hospital. On average, a family spends about 10 % of the monthly households income per person infected.
|
what is the percentage of race in america | Race and ethnicity in the United States - wikipedia
The United States of America has a racially and ethnically diverse population. The United States Census officially recognizes six racial categories: White American, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and people of two or more races; a category called "some other race '' is also used in the census and other surveys, but is not official. The United States Census Bureau also classifies Americans as "Hispanic or Latino '' and "Not Hispanic or Latino '', which identifies Hispanic and Latino Americans as an ethnicity (not a race) distinct from others, and comprising the largest minority group in the nation.
The United States Supreme Court unanimously held that "race '' is not limited to Census designations on the "race question '' but extends to all ethnicities, and thus can include Jewish and Arab as well as Polish or Italian or Irish, etc. In fact, the Census asks an "Ancestry Question '' which covers the broader notion of ethnicity initially in the 2000 Census long form and now in the American Community Survey. The ancestry question will return in the 2020 Census.
As of July 2016, White Americans are the racial majority. African Americans are the largest racial minority, amounting to an estimated 12.7 % of the population. Hispanic and Latino Americans amount to an estimated 17.8 % of the total U.S. population, making up the largest ethnic minority. The White, non-Hispanic or Latino population make up 61.3 % of the nation 's total, with the total White population (including White Hispanics and Latinos) being 76.9 %.
White Americans are the majority in every census - defined region (Northeast, Midwest, South, West) and in every state except Hawaii, but contribute the highest proportion of the population in the Midwestern United States, at 85 % per the Population Estimates Program (PEP), or 83 % per the American Community Survey (ACS). Non-Hispanic Whites make up 79 % of the Midwest 's population, the highest ratio of any region. However, 35 % of White Americans (whether all White Americans or non-Hispanic / Latino only) live in the South, the most of any region.
55 % of the African American population lives in the South. A plurality or majority of the other official groups reside in the West. The latter region is home to 42 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans, 46 % of Asian Americans, 48 % of American Indians and Alaska Natives, 68 % of Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, 37 % of the "two or more races '' population (Multiracial Americans), and 46 % of those self - designated as "some other race ''.
In the 2000 Census and subsequent United States Census Bureau surveys, Americans self - described as belonging to these racial groups:
Each person has two identifying attributes, racial identity and whether or not they are of Hispanic ethnicity. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature. They have been changed from one census to another, and the racial categories include both "racial '' and national - origin groups.
In 2007, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the US Department of Labor finalized its update of the EEO - 1 report format and guidelines to come into an effect on September 30, 2007. In particular, this update concerns the definitions of racial / ethnic categories.
The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race. Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Latin America, Spain, and Portugal. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse. Consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. When responding to the race question on the census form, each person is asked to choose from among the same racial categories as all Americans, and are included in the numbers reported for those races.
Each racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans. For example: the White (European - American) race category contains Non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanic Whites (see White Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Black or African - American category contains Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic Blacks (see Black Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Asian - American category contains Non-Hispanic Asians and Hispanic Asians (see Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans); and likewise for all the other categories. See the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article.
Self - identifying as both Hispanic or Latino and not Hispanic or Latino is neither explicitly allowed nor explicitly prohibited.
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, Africans and Europeans were considered to belong to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria for membership in these groups were similar, comprising a person 's appearance, their social circle (how they lived), and their known non-White ancestry. History played a part, as persons with known slave ancestors were assumed to be African (or, in later usage, black), regardless of whether they also had European ancestry.
The differences between how Native American and Black identities are defined today (blood quantum versus one - drop and political assumptions) have been based on different historical circumstances. According to the anthropologist Gerald Sider, such racial designations were a means to concentrate power, wealth, privilege and land in the hands of Whites in a society of White hegemony and privilege (Sider 1996; see also Fields 1990). The differences had little to do with biology and more to do with the history of slavery and its racism, and specific forms of White supremacy (the social, geopolitical and economic agendas of dominant Whites vis - à - vis subordinate Blacks and Native Americans). They related especially to the different social places which Blacks and Amerindians occupied in White - dominated 19th - century America. Sider suggests that the blood quantum definition of Native American identity enabled mixed - race Whites to acquire Amerindian lands during the allotment process. The one - drop rule of Black identity, enforced legally in the early 20th century, enabled Whites to preserve their agricultural labor force in the South. The contrast emerged because, as peoples transported far from their land and kinship ties on another continent, Black labor was relatively easy to control, and they became reduced to valuable commodities as agricultural laborers. In contrast, Amerindian labor was more difficult to control; moreover, Amerindians occupied large territories that became valuable as agricultural lands, especially with the invention of new technologies such as railroads. Sider thinks the blood quantum definition enhanced White acquisition of Amerindian lands in a doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which subjected Native Americans to marginalization and resulted in numerous conflicts related to American expansionism.
The political economy of race had different consequences for the descendants of aboriginal Americans and African slaves. The 19th - century blood quantum rule meant that it was relatively easier for a person of mixed Euro - Amerindian ancestry to be accepted as White. The offspring of a few generations of intermarriage between Amerindians and Whites likely would not have been considered Amerindian (at least not in a legal sense). Amerindians could have treaty rights to land, but because an individual with only one Amerindian great - grandparent no longer was classified as Amerindian, he lost a legal claim to Amerindian land, under the allotment rules of the day. According to Sider 's theory, Whites were more easily able to acquire Amerindian lands. On the other hand, the same individual who could be denied legal standing in a tribe, according to the government, because he was "too White '' to claim property rights, might still have enough visually identifiable Amerindian ancestry to be considered socially as a "half - breed '' or breed, and stigmatized by both communities.
The 20th - century one - drop rule made it relatively difficult for anyone of known Black ancestry to be accepted as White. The child of an African - American sharecropper and a White person was considered Black by the local communities. In terms of the economics of sharecropping, such a person also would likely become a sharecropper as well, thus adding to the landholder or employer 's labor force. In short, this theory suggests that in a 20th - century economy that benefited from sharecropping, it was useful to have as many Blacks as possible.
Although some scholars of the Jim Crow period agree that the 20th - century notion of invisible Blackness shifted the color line in the direction of paleness, and "expanded '' the labor force in response to Southern Blacks ' Great Migration to the North. But, others (such as the historians Joel Williamson, C. Vann Woodward, George M. Fredrickson, and Stetson Kennedy) considered the one - drop rule a consequence of the need to define Whiteness as being pure, and justifying White - on - Black oppression.
Over the centuries when Whites wielded power over both Blacks and Amerindians and believed in their inherent superiority over people of color, they created a social order of hypodescent, in which they assigned mixed - race children to the lower - status groups. They were often ignorant of the systems among Native American tribes of social classification, including kinship and hypodescent. The Omaha people, for instance, who had a patrilineal kinship system, classified all children with white fathers as "white '', and excluded them as members of the clans and tribe, unless one was formally adopted by a male member. Tribal members might care for mixed - race children of white fathers, but considered them outside the hereditary clan and kinship fundamental to tribal society.
The hypodescent social construction related to the racial caste that was associated with African slavery and the conditions of the slave societies. It was made explicit by Virginia and other colonies ' laws as early as 1662. Virginia incorporated the Roman principle of partus sequitur ventrem into slave law, saying that children of slave mothers were born into their status. Under English common law for subjects, children 's social status was determined by the father, not the mother. But the colonists put Africans outside the category of English subjects. Generally, white men were in positions of power to take sexual advantage of black women slaves. But, historian Paul Heinegg has shown that most free African - American families listed in the censuses of 1790 -- 1810 were, in fact, descended from unions between white women and African men in colonial Virginia, from the years when working classes lived and worked closely together, and before slavery had hardened as a racial caste.
In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time by whites that classified individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997), but these were always porous. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790, after slavery was well established in the United States, included classification of persons by race: white, black, mulatto, and Indian (Nobles 2000). But, the inclusion of mulatto was an explicit acknowledgement of mixed race. In addition, before the Civil War, Virginia and some other states had legal definition of "whiteness '' that provided for people being classified as white if no more than 1 / 8 black. (For example, if not born into slavery, Thomas Jefferson 's children by his slave Sally Hemings would have been classified as legally white, as they were 7 / 8 white by ancestry. Three of the four surviving children entered white society as adults, and their descendants have identified as white.) In the late 18th and 19th centuries, people of mixed race often migrated to frontiers where societies were more open, and they might be accepted as white if satisfying obligations of citizenship.
The more familiar "one - drop rule '' was not adopted by Virginia and other states until the 20th century, but it classified persons with any known African ancestry as black (Davis 2001). Passage of such laws was often urged by white supremacists and people promoting "racial purity '' through eugenics, having forgotten the long history of multi-racial unions in the South that comprised the ancestry of many families.
In other countries in the Americas, where mixing among groups was overtly more extensive, social categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid. In some cases, people may move into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry, and appearance (Mörner 1967).
The term Hispanic as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century, with the rise of migration of laborers from Spanish - speaking countries of the western hemisphere to the United States. It includes people who may have been considered racially distinct (Black, White, Amerindian or other mixed groups) in their home countries. Today, the word "Latino '' is often used as a synonym for "Hispanic ''. Even if such categories were earlier understood as racial categories, today they have begun to represent ethno - linguistic categories (regardless of perceived race). Similarly, "Anglo '' is now used among many Hispanics to refer to non-Hispanic White Americans or European Americans, most of whom speak the English language but are not of primarily English descent.
The United States is a racially diverse country. The growth of the Hispanic population through immigration and high birth rates is noted as a partial factor for the US ' population gains in the last quarter - century. The 2000 census revealed that Native Americans had reached their highest documented population, 4.5 million, since the US was founded in 1776.
The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continents. In the United States, for example, most people who identify as African American have some European ancestors, as revealed by genetic studies. In one analysis of those genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7 % for a sample of Jamaicans to ~ 23 % for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans, where there was historically a large class of mixed race (now called Louisiana Creoles) (Parra et al. 1998).
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, African Americans, and European Americans were classified as belonging to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria among whites for membership in these groups were similar, comprising physical appearance, assumption of non-European ancestry, and social circle. The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During and after Reconstruction, after the emancipation of slaves after the Civil War, in the effort to restore white supremacy in the South, whites began to classify anyone with "one drop '' of "black blood '', or known African ancestry, to be black. Such a legal definition was not put into law until the early 20th century in most southern states, but many established racial segregation of facilities during the Jim Crow era, after white Democrats regained control of state legislatures in the South.
Efforts to track mixing between groups led to an earlier proliferation of historical categories (such as "mulatto '' and "octaroon '' among persons with partial African descent) and "blood quantum '' distinctions, which became increasingly untethered from self - reported ancestry. In the 20th century, efforts to classify the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete categories generated many difficulties (Spickard 1992). By the standards used in past censuses, many mixed - race children born in the United States were classified as of a different race than one of their biological parents. In addition, a person may change personal racial identification over time because of cultural aspects, and self - ascribed race can differ from assigned race (Kressin et al. 2003).
Until the 2000 census, Latinos were required to identify as one race, and none was Latino. Partly as a result of the confusion generated by the distinction, 32.9 % (U.S. census records) of Latino respondents in the 2000 census ignored the specified racial categories and checked "some other race ''. (Mays et al. 2003 claim a figure of 42 %)
Historical trends influencing the ethnic demographics of the United States include:
In some cases, immigrants and migrants form ethnic enclaves; in others, mixture creates ethnically diverse neighborhoods.
(For demographics by specific ethnic groups rather than general race, see "Ancestry '' below.)
The majority of people currently living in the United States are White and European Americans. The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. '' Like all official U.S. racial categories, "White '' has a "not Hispanic or Latino '' and a "Hispanic or Latino '' component, the latter consisting mostly of White Mexican Americans and White Cuban Americans.
White Americans are the majority in 49 of the 50 states, with Hawaii as the exception. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states; Hawaii, New Mexico, California, and Texas (and the District of Columbia) are the exceptions. These five jurisdictions have "minority majorities '', i.e. minority groups compose the majority of the population.
The non-Hispanic White percentage (63 % in 2012) tends to decrease every year, and this sub-group is expected to become a plurality of the overall U.S. population after the year 2043. White Americans overall (non-Hispanic Whites together with White Hispanics) are projected to continue as the majority, at 73.1 % (or 303 million out of 420 million) in 2050, from currently 77.1 %.
Although a high proportion of the population is known to have multiple ancestries, in the 2000 census, the first with the option to choose more than one, most people still identified with one racial category. In the 2000 census, self - identified German Americans made up 17.1 % of the U.S. population, followed by Irish Americans at 12 %, as reported in the 2000 U.S. Census. This makes German and Irish the largest and second - largest self - reported ancestry groups in the United States. Both groups had high rates of immigration to the U.S. beginning in the mid-19th century, triggered by the Great Famine in Ireland and the failed 1848 Revolution in Germany. However, English Americans and British Americans are still considered the largest ethnic group due to a serious under count following the 2000 census whereby many English and British Americans self - identified under the new category entry ' American ' considering themselves ' indigenous ' because their families had resided in the US for so long or, if of mixed European ancestry, identified with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.
7.2 % of the population listed their ancestry as American on the 2000 census (see American ethnicity). According to the United States Census Bureau, the number of people in the U.S. who reported American and no other ancestry increased from 12.4 million in 1990 to 20.2 million in 2000. This change in reporting represented the largest "growth '' of any ethnic group in the United States during the 1990s, but it represented how people reported themselves more than growth through birth rates, for instance, and certainly did not reflect immigration.
Most French Americans are believed descended from colonists of Catholic New France; exiled Huguenots, much fewer in number and settling in the eastern English colonies in the late 1600s and early 1700s, needed to assimilate into the majority culture and have intermarried over generations. Isleños of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest have had, in part, direct Spanish ancestry; most self - reported White Hispanics are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban origins, each of which are multi-ethnic nations. Hispanic immigration has increased from nations of Central and South America.
Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self - identify as African - American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual 's self - identification since not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are "Black ''. Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Hamito - Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa.
African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro - Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4 % of the population. In addition, there were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1 % of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14 % of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55 %) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest.
Most African Americans are the direct descendants of captives from West Africa, who survived the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States. As an adjective, the term is usually written African - American. The first West Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. The English settlers treated these captives as indentured servants and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually replaced by the system of race - based slavery used in the Caribbean. All the American colonies had slavery, but it was usually the form of personal servants in the North (where 2 % of the people were slaves), and field hands in plantations in the South (where 25 % were slaves); by the beginning of the American Revolutionary War 1 / 5th of the total population was enslaved. During the revolution, some would serve in the Continental Army or Continental Navy, while others would serve the British Empire in Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment, and other units. By 1804, the northern states (north of the Mason -- Dixon line) had abolished slavery. However, slavery would persist in the southern states until the end of the American Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Following the end of the Reconstruction Era, which saw the first African American representation in Congress, African Americans became disenfranchised and subject to Jim Crow laws, legislation that would persist until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 due to the Civil Rights Movement.
According to US Census Bureau data, very few African immigrants self - identify as African - American. On average, less than 5 % of African residents self - reported as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' on the 2000 US Census. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants (~ 95 %) identified instead with their own respective ethnicities. Self - designation as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' was highest among individuals from West Africa (4 % - 9 %), and lowest among individuals from Cape Verde, East Africa and Southern Africa (0 % - 4 %). None the less, African immigrants often develop very successful professional and business working - relationships with African - Americans.
In 2008, "Hispanic or Latino origin '' was the self - identification of 47 million Americans. They chiefly have origins in the Spanish - speaking nations of Latin America. Very few also come from other places, for example: 0.2 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in Asia. The group is heterogeneous in race and national ancestry.
The Census Bureau defines "Hispanic or Latino origin '' thus:
The leading country - of - origin for Hispanic Americans is Mexico (30.7 million), followed by Puerto Rico (4.2 million) (which actually has a special relationship with the US, of which its people are citizens), and Cuba (1.6 million), as of 2008. However, as of 2010, there were 1,648,968 Salvadorans in the United States, the largest of the U.S. - Central American community. Salvadorans are poised to become the third largest Hispanic group by the next census, significantly overtaking and replacing Cubans. Recent estimates already put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013, the third largest Hispanic - American group.
62.4 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans identified as white. 30.5 % identified as "some other race '' (other than the ones listed). According to the PEP 91.9 % of Latinos are white, as these official estimates do not recognize "some other race ''. In the official estimates, Black or African American Hispanics are the second - largest group, with 1.9 million, or 4.0 % of the whole group. The remaining Hispanics are accounted as follows, first per the PEP: 1.6 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.5 % two or more races, 0.7 % Asian, and 0.03 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Per the ACS: 3.9 % two or more races, 1.9 % Black or African American, 1.0 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.4 % Asian, and 0.05 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.
In the United States the Hispanic and Latino population has reached 58 million in 2016. According to Pew Research Center the Latino population has been the principal driver of United States demographic growth since 2000. Mexicans make up most of the Hispanic and Latino population 35,758,000. There is also a growth of Hispanics who are receiving a college education in 2015, 40 % of Hispanics age 25 and older have had a college experience. In 2000 the percentage was at a low 30 %. In all the 50 US states California houses the largest population percentage of Latinos. In 2015, 15.2 million Hispanics lived in California.
The Hispanic or Latino population is young and fast - growing, due to immigration and higher birth rates. For decades it has contributed significantly to U.S. population increases, and this is expected to continue. The Census Bureau projects that by 2050, one - quarter of the population will be Hispanic or Latino.
A third significant minority is the Asian American population, comprising 19.4 million in 2013, or 6.0 % of the U.S. population. California is home to 4.5 million Asian Americans, whereas 495,000 live in Hawaii, where they compose the plurality, at 38.5 % of the islands ' people. This is their largest share of any state. Historically first concentrated on Hawaii and the West Coast, Asian Americans now live across the country, living and working in large numbers in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Houston, and other major urban centers.
Their histories are diverse. As with the new immigration from central and eastern Europe to the East Coast from the mid-19th century on, Asians started immigrating to the United States in large numbers in the 19th century. This first major wave of immigration consisted predominantly of Chinese and Japanese laborers, but also included Korean and South Asian immigrants. Many immigrants also came during and after this period from the Philippines, which was a US colony from 1898 to 1946. Exclusion laws and policies largely prohibited and curtailed Asian immigration until the 1940s. After the US changed its immigration laws during the 1940s to 1960s to make entry easier, a much larger new wave of immigration from Asia began. Today the largest self - identified Asian American sub-groups according to census data are Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, Indian Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Korean Americans, and Japanese Americans, among other groups.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas, particularly Native Americans, made up 0.8 % of the population in 2008, numbering 2.4 million. An additional 2.3 million persons declared part - American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry.
The legal and official designation of who is Native American has aroused controversy by demographers, tribal nations, and government officials for many decades. Federally recognized tribes and state recognized tribes set their own membership requirements; tribal enrollment may require residency on a reservation, documented lineal descent from recognized records, such as the Dawes Rolls, and other criteria. Some tribes have adopted the use of blood quantum, requiring members to have a certain percentage. The federal government requires individuals to certify documented blood quantum of ancestry for certain federal programs, such as education benefits, available to members of recognized tribes. But Census takers accept any respondent 's identification. Genetic scientists estimated that more than 15 million other Americans, including African Americans and Hispanic Americans (specifically those of Mexican heritage), may have up to one quarter of American Indian ancestry.
Once thought to face extinction as a race or culture, Native Americans of numerous tribes have achieved revival of aspects of their cultures, together with asserting their sovereignty and direction of their own affairs since the mid-20th century. Many have started language programs to revive use of traditional languages; some have established tribally controlled colleges and other schools on their reservations, so that education is expressive of their cultures. Since the late 20th century, many tribes have developed gaming casinos on their sovereign land to raise revenues for economic development, as well as to promote the education and welfare of their people through health care and construction of improved housing.
Today more than 800,000 to one million persons claim Cherokee descent in part or as full - bloods; of these, an estimated 300,000 live in California, 70,000 -- 160,000 in Oklahoma, and 15,000 in North Carolina in ancestral homelands.
The second largest tribal group is the Navajo, who call themselves Diné and live on a 16 - million acre (65,000 km2) Indian reservation covering northeast Arizona, northwest New Mexico, and southeast Utah. It is home to half of the 450,000 Navajo Nation members. The third largest group are the Lakota (Sioux) Nation, with distinct federally recognized tribes located in the states of Minnesota, Nebraska, Montana, Wyoming; and North and South Dakota.
Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders numbered 427,810 in 2008, or 0.1 % of the population. Additionally, nearly as many individuals identify as having partial Native Hawaiian ancestry, for a total of 829,949 people of full or part Native Hawaiian ancestry. This group constitutes the smallest minority in the United States. More than half identify as "full - blooded '', but historically most Native Hawaiians on the island chain of Hawaii are believed to have admixture with Asian and European ancestries. But, the Census takes reporting by individuals as to how they identify.
Some demographers believe that by the year 2025, the last full - blooded Native Hawaiian will die off, leaving a culturally distinct, but racially mixed population. The total number of persons who have identified as Native Hawaiian in 2008 was more than the estimated Hawaiian population when the US annexed the islands in 1898. Native Hawaiians are receiving ancestral land reparations. Throughout Hawaii, they are working to preserve and assert adaptation of Native Hawaiian customs and the Hawaiian language. They have cultural schools solely for legally Native Hawaiian students.
According to the Arab American Institute (AAI), countries of origin for Arab Americans include Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
There are an estimated 1.9 - 2.0 million Middle Eastern Americans according to the U.S. Census, including both Arab and non-Arab Americans, comprising 0.6 % of the total U.S. population; however, the Arab American Institute estimates a population closer to 3.6 million. U.S. Census population estimates are based on responses to the ancestry question on the census, which makes it difficult to accurately count Middle Eastern Americans. Though Middle Eastern American communities can be found in each of the 50 states, the majority live in just 10 states with nearly "one third of the total liv (ing) in California, New York, and Michigan ''. More Middle Eastern Americans live in California than any other state, but Middle Eastern Americans represent the highest percentage of the population of Michigan. In particular, Dearborn, Michigan has long been home to a high concentration of Middle Eastern Americans.
The United States Census Bureau is presently finalizing the ethnic classification of MENA populations. In 2012, prompted in part by post-9 / 11 discrimination, the American - Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee petitioned the Department of Commerce 's Minority Business Development Agency to designate the MENA populations as a minority / disadvantaged community. Following consultations with MENA organizations, the US Census Bureau announced in 2014 that it would establish a new MENA ethnic category for populations from the Middle East, North Africa and the Arab world, separate from the "white '' classification that these populations had previously sought in 1909. The expert groups, including some Jewish organizations, felt that the earlier "white '' designation no longer accurately represents MENA identity, so they successfully lobbied for a distinct categorization. This process does not currently include ethnoreligious groups such as Jews or Sikhs, as the Bureau only tabulates these groups as followers of religions rather than members of ethnic groups.
As of December 2015, the sampling strata for the new MENA category includes the Census Bureau 's working classification of 19 MENA groups, as well as Turkish, Sudanese, Somali, Mauritanian, Armenian, Cypriot, Afghan, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups.
Self - identified multiracial Americans numbered 7.0 million in 2008, or 2.3 % of the population. They have identified as any combination of races (White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, "some other race '') and ethnicities. The U.S. has a growing multiracial identity movement.
While the colonies and southern states protected white fathers by making all children born to slave mothers be classified as slaves, regardless of paternity, they also banned miscegenation or interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks. This did little to stop interracial relationships, except as legal, consensual unions.
Demographers state that, due to new waves of immigration, the American people through the early 20th century were mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities, who maintained cultural distinctiveness until, over time, assimilation, migration and integration took place. The Civil Rights Movement through the 20th century gained passage of important legislation to enforce constitutional rights of minorities.
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations in the 2000 Census, the multiracial population that is part white (which is the largest percentage of the multiracial population), is as follows:
A 2002 study found an average of 18.6 % European genetic contribution and 2.7 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 1.5 % and 1.4 % respectively) in a sample of 232 African Americans. Meanwhile, in a sample of 187 European Americans from State College, Pennsylvania, there was an average of 0.7 % West African genetic contribution and 3.2 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 0.9 % and 1.6 % respectively). Most of the non-European admixture was concentrated in 30 % of the sample, with West African admixture ranging from 2 to 20 %, with an average of 2.3 %.
In 1958 Robert Stuckert produced a statistical analysis using historical census data and immigration statistics. He concluded that the growth in the White population could not be attributed solely to births in the White population and immigration from Europe, but was also due to people identifying as white who were partly black. He concluded that 21 percent of white Americans had some recent African - American ancestors. He also concluded that the majority of Americans of known African descent were partly European and not entirely sub-Saharan African.
More recently, many different DNA studies have shown that many African Americans have European admixture, reflecting the long history in this country of the various populations. Proportions of European admixture in African - American DNA have been found in studies to be 17 % and between 10.6 % and 22.5 %. Another recent study found the average to be 21.2 %, with a standard error of 1.2 %.
The Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group of the National Human Genome Research Institute notes that "although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person 's ancestors coming from various continental populations, these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history. ''
In the 2000 census, the non-standard category of "Other '' was especially intended to capture responses such as Mestizo and Mulatto, two large multiracial groups in most of the countries of origin of Hispanic and Latino Americans. However, many other responses are captured by the category.
In 2008 15.0 million people, nearly 5 % of the total U.S. population, were estimated to be "some other race '', with 95 % of them being Hispanic or Latino.
Due to this category 's non-standard status, statistics from government agencies other than the Census Bureau (for example: the Centers for Disease Control 's data on vital statistics, or the FBI 's crime statistics), but also the Bureau 's own official Population Estimates, omit the "some other race '' category and include most of the people in this group in the white population, thus including the vast majority (about 90 %) of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the white population. For an example of this, see The World Factbook, published by the Central Intelligence Agency.
The ancestry of the people of the United States of America is widely varied and includes descendants of populations from around the world. In addition to its variation, the ancestry of people of the United States is also marked by varying amounts of intermarriage between ethnic and racial groups.
While some Americans can trace their ancestry back to a single ethnic group or population in Europe, Africa, or Asia, these are often first - and second - generation Americans. Generally, the degree of mixed heritage increases the longer one 's ancestors have lived in the United States (see melting pot). In theory, there are several means available to discover the ancestry of the people residing in the United States, including genealogy, genetics, oral and written history, and analysis of Federal Population Census schedules. In practice, only few of these have been used for a larger part of the population.
According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the twenty largest ancestry groups in the United States were (see above for the OMB self - designation options):
These images display frequencies of self - reported ancestries, as of the 2000 U.S. Census. Regional African ancestries are not listed, though an African American map has been added from another source.
Frequency of American ancestry
Density of Asian Americans
Percent of Asian Americans
Density of African Americans
Percent of African Americans
Density of Native Hawaiian Americans
Percent of Native Hawaiian Americans
Density of Native Americans
Percent of Native Americans
Density of White Americans
Percent of White Americans
Black ancestry
Arab ancestry
Density of Hispanic ancestry
Percent of Hispanic ancestry
West Indian ancestry
These images display frequencies of self - reported European American ancestries as of the 2000 U.S. Census.
Czech ancestry
Danish ancestry
Dutch ancestry
English ancestry
Finnish ancestry
French ancestry
French Canadian ancestry
German ancestry
Greek ancestry
Hungarian ancestry
Icelandic ancestry
Irish ancestry
Italian ancestry
Lithuanian ancestry
Norwegian ancestry
Polish ancestry
Portuguese ancestry
Romanian ancestry
Russian ancestry
Scots - Irish ancestry
Scottish ancestry
Slovak ancestry
Swedish ancestry
Ukrainian ancestry
Welsh ancestry
|
what is the function of the diffuse lymphatic tissue | Peyer 's patch - wikipedia
Peyer 's patches (or aggregated lymphoid nodules, or occasionally PP for brevity) are organized lymphoid follicles, named after the 17th - century Swiss anatomist Johann Conrad Peyer. They are an important part of gut associated lymphoid tissue usually found in humans in the lowest portion of the small intestine, mainly in the distal jejunum and the ileum, but also could be detected in the duodenum.
Peyer 's patches are observable as elongated thickenings of the intestinal epithelium measuring a few centimeters in length. About 100 are found in humans. Microscopically, Peyer 's patches appear as oval or round lymphoid follicles (similar to lymph nodes) located in the submucosa layer of the ileum and extend into the mucosa layer. The number of Peyer 's patches peaks at age 15 -- 25 and then declines during adulthood. In the distal ileum, they are numerous and they form a lymphoid ring. At least 46 % of Peyer 's patches are concentrated in the distal 25 cm of ileum in humans. It is important to note that there are large variations in size, shape, and distribution of Peyer 's patches from one individual to another one. In adults, B lymphocytes are seen to dominate the follicles ' germinal centers. T lymphocytes are found in the zones between follicles. Among the mononuclear cells, CD4+ / CD25+ (10 %) cells and CD8+ / CD25+ (5 %) cells are more abundant in Peyer 's patches than in the peripheral blood.
Peyer 's patches are characterized by the follicle - associated epithelium (FAE), which covers all lymphoid follicles. FAE differs from typical small intestinal villus epithelium: it has fewer goblet cells therefore mucus layer is thinner, and it is also characterized by the presence of specialized M cells or microfold cells, which provide uptake and transport of antigens from lumen. Moreover, basal lamina of follicle - associated epithelium is more porous compare to intestinal villus. Finally, follicle - associated epithelium is less permeable for ions and macromolecules, basically due to higher expression of tight junction proteins.
Because the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract is exposed to the external environment, much of it is populated with potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Peyer 's patches thus establish their importance in the immune surveillance of the intestinal lumen and in facilitating the generation of the immune response within the mucosa.
Pathogenic microorganisms and other antigens entering the intestinal tract encounter macrophages, dendritic cells, B - lymphocytes, and T - lymphocytes found in Peyer 's patches and other sites of gut - associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). Peyer 's patches thus act for the gastrointestinal system much as the tonsils act for the respiratory system, trapping foreign particles, surveilling them, and destroying them.
Peyer 's patches are covered by a special follicle - associated epithelium that contains specialized cells called microfold cells (M cells) which sample antigen directly from the lumen and deliver it to antigen - presenting cells (located in a unique pocket - like structure on their basolateral side). Dendritic cells and macrophages can also directly sample the lumen by extending dendrites through transcellular M cell - specific pores. At the same time the paracellular pathway of follicle - associated epithelium is closed tightly to prevent penetration of antigens and continuous contact with immune cells. T cells, B - cells and memory cells are stimulated upon encountering antigen in Peyer 's patches. These cells then pass to the mesenteric lymph nodes where the immune response is amplified. Activated lymphocytes pass into the blood stream via the thoracic duct and travel to the gut where they carry out their final effector functions. The maturation of B - lymphocytes takes place in the Peyer 's patch.
Although important in the immune response, excessive growth of lymphoid tissue in Peyer 's patches is pathologic, as hypertrophy of Peyer 's patches has been closely associated with idiopathic intussusception.
The hypertrophy of Peyer 's patches has also been associated with susceptibility to transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (commonly known as prion diseases).
Salmonella typhi and poliovirus also target this section of the intestine.
|
what is the wealthiest company in the world | List of largest companies by revenue - wikipedia
This list comprises the world 's largest businesses by consolidated revenue as of 2016, according to the Fortune Global 500 tally. The list is limited to 35 companies, all of which have annual revenues exceeding $120 billion US dollars.
The availability and reliability of up - to - date information on prior state - owned companies is limited (for example Saudi Aramco does not publish any financial data) and varies from country to country; thus, this list may be incomplete. This list is shown in U.S. dollars, but many of the companies on it prepare their accounts in other currencies. The dollar value of their revenue may change substantially in a short period of time due to exchange rate fluctuations.
State - owned enterprise
|
the moral of the story of the lion and the mouse | The lion and the mouse - wikipedia
The Lion and the Mouse is one of Aesop 's Fables, numbered 150 in the Perry Index. There are also Eastern variants of the story, all of which demonstrate mutual dependence regardless of size or status. In the Renaissance the fable was provided with a sequel condemning social ambition.
In the oldest versions, a lion threatens a mouse that wakes him from sleep. The mouse begs forgiveness and makes the point that such unworthy prey would bring the lion no honour. The lion then agrees and sets the mouse free. Later, the lion is netted by hunters. Hearing it roaring, the mouse remembers its clemency and frees it by gnawing through the ropes. The moral of the story is that mercy brings its reward and that there is no being so small that it can not help a greater. Later English versions reinforce this by having the mouse promise to return the lion 's favor, to its sceptical amusement.
The Scottish poet Robert Henryson, in a version he included in his Morall Fabillis in the 1480s, expands the plea that the mouse makes and introduces serious themes of law, justice and politics. The poem consists of 43 seven - lined stanzas of which the first twelve recount a meeting with Aesop in a dream and six stanzas at the end draw the moral; the expanded fable itself occupies stanzas 13 - 36. A political lesson of a different kind occurs in Francis Barlow 's 1687 edition of the fables. There the poet Aphra Behn comments that no form of service is to be despised, for just as the humble mouse had aided the king of the beasts, so ' An Oak did once a glorious Monarch save ' by serving as a hiding place when King Charles II was escaping after the battle of Worcester.
The 16th century French poet Clément Marot also recounts an expanded version of the fable in the course of his Épitre à son ami Lyon Jamet (Letter to his friend Lyon Jamet), first published in 1534. This is an imitation of the Latin poet Horace 's Epistles, addressed to friends and often applying Aesopian themes to their situations. In this case, Marot has been imprisoned and begs Jamet to help him get released, playing on his friend 's forename and styling himself the lowly rat (rather than mouse). La Fontaine 's Fables included a more succinct version of the story (II. 11) in the following century.
The fable has been a favourite with artists and sculptors. The Flemish painter Frans Snyders was responsible for at least two versions. One of these used to hang in the Great Hall at Chequers, the country house of the Prime Minister, and was retouched by Winston Churchill so as to highlight the barely visible mouse. In 1973 the painting was restored and the overpainting removed; it now hangs in an ante room to the Great Parlour there.
The fable was also the subject of a painting by the French artist Vincent Chevilliard (1841 -- 1904) and exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1881. The Austrian artist Gustav Klimt incorporated a reference to the beginning of the story on the left hand side of his painting "The Fable '' in 1883. There a lion sleeps beneath a shrub, on the leafless twigs of which mice are at play.
Sculptors turned to the fable in the 20th century. One of them was the maker of church furniture, Robert (Mouseman) Thompson, who came by his name for incorporating a mouse into most of his carvings. He did this legitimately in the Church of Our Lady and St Michael in Workington, Cumbria, where the underside of one of the seats in the choir stalls, installed in 1926, depicts the fable of the lion and the mouse.
A Marshall Fredericks statue of 1957 seeks to make the lion less threatening to children. The sculpture was commissioned for the Eastland Center in Harper Woods, Michigan. The lion is carved from limestone and has a large round head with stylized, uniformly coiled ringlets. Reclining on its back, it grins at the little mouse perched on its paw. This was cast from gilt bronze and gold plated, which led to its being stolen numerous times. One was returned 50 years after its theft and exhibited at the Detroit Historical Museum in 2007. A copy of the whole statue is on exhibition in the sculpture garden of the Marshall M. Fredericks Sculpture Museum.
Another American sculptor, Tom Otterness, has made the fable the subject of an equally child - friendly sculpture among the 23 he installed on the outdoor terrace of the seaside Beelden aan Zee museum in Scheveningen, The Netherlands, in 2004. In this the lion is lying trussed up on its side, contemplated by the mouse that stands upright with its hands clasped behind its back. A similar piece of public art by German sculptor Peter Fritzsche (b. 1938) is in Eisenhüttenstadt. His lion lies on its back with its legs bound and is perched on a plinth round the sides of which is carved a translation of Ivan Krylov 's version of the fable. This dates the work back to the days of the Communist administration.
Among musical settings have been one published in New York by Mabel Wood Hill in her Aesop 's Fables Interpreted Through Music (1920) and Werner Egk 's Der Löwe und die Maus for small orchestra and children 's choir, performed in 1931. The fable was also included in Edward Hughes ' Songs from Aesop 's fables for children 's voices and piano (1965), as the second of Anthony Plog 's set for narrator, piano and horn (1989 / 93) and among the fables set by Yvonne Gillespie for narrator and full orchestra (2001). In addition, David Edgar Walther made of it a ' short operatic drama ' in his 2009 Aesop 's Fables.
Illustrations of the fable have appeared on domestic objects, including a Chelsea plate in 1755 and a tile in the Minton Aesop 's Fables series during the 1880s. In 1990 it was to be used on one of a set of four Zambian stamps featuring folk tales.
In 19th century Britain the political cartoonist John Doyle adapted the fable to one of his monthly series of prints in February 1844. In it the mouse nibbling at the net is Earl Russell, who prevailed on the House of Lords to free the leonine Daniel O'Connell from the imprisonment he had incurred for trying to repeal the Irish Act Of Union. In the United States the fable was applied to a case of corrupt lobbying in a Puck cartoon for 23 July 1913. Under the title ' Even a rat may help free a lion ', the House of Representatives is shown enmeshed in the nets of "Lobbyism '', from which Colonel (Martin) Mulhall is about to free it by his revelations of bribe - taking.
The fable was made into an animated cartoon by Aesop 's Film Fables in 1922; there was also a two - minute cartoon incorporating the fable and ending with an advertisement for Coca - Cola as a promoter of friendship that was issued in 1953. In 1966 the National Film Board of Canada (NFB) adapted the story as The Bear and the Mouse; it was issued as a short feature film using real animals with voice - over. This film was followed 10 years later by an NFB animated short The Lion and the Mouse, directed by Evelyn Lambart.
In 1946, a New York game company produced the attractive The Lion and the Mouse game, with detailed molded plastic pieces of a lion, a mouse and two hunters in each of four colors. A photo of the game can be found as part of an article on games based on books and fables.
Though the fable is frequently a subject of children 's literature, Jerry Pinkney 's The Lion & the Mouse (2009) tells it through pictures alone, without the usual text of such books, and won the 2010 Caldecott Medal for its illustrations. The story is updated and adapted to fit the conditions of the Serengeti National Park, in which it is set.
The Neo-Latin fabulist Laurentius Abstemius provided a sequel to the story with an opposite social message in his Hecatomythium (1499). In this the lion promises the mouse any reward it cares to name after setting him free. The mouse asks for the lion 's daughter in marriage, but the bride steps on her husband by accident on the marriage night. Where Aesop 's fable teaches that no - one should be despised, however low in the social scale, this reinterpretation suggests that one should not try to rise out of one 's class through marriage. A later verse treatment by Hieronymus Osius is followed by the same moral. In England, both the Francis Barlow (1687) and Roger L'Estrange (1692) collections include both versions of the fable, as does Samuel Croxall (1721). He, however, reads into the story a lesson on lack of judgment.
The story that Abstemius could have had in mind when inventing his fable of an unequal marriage ridiculously terminated occurs in the Hebrew Bible. Amaziah, king of the lesser power of Judah, sent a challenge to Jehoash, king of Israel, who replied with a dismissive fable:
The characters are different there, but the core of the story about the end of presumptuous ambition remains the same.
The fable is introduced as an illustration into a longer Egyptian myth in a papyrus of indeterminate date towards the start of the Common Era. A lion previously unacquainted with man comes across examples of his cruelty and exploitation of other animals and decides to hunt him down. On his way the lion spares a mouse that comes beneath his paw and it promises to return the favour. This the mouse does by gnawing the lion free when he is netted in a trap set by man. In general the evidence points to the tale being adapted from a Greek source. There was a long established Greek trading colony in Egypt and the document appeared during the reign of the Ptolemaic dynasty, which was of Greek origin itself.
There is also an Indian variant of the story in the Panchatantra, but that is told of mice and elephants. Here too it is introduced into a larger context, in this case a discussion about appropriate friendship, and illustrates the advice ' Make friends, however strong or weak they be '. An elephant herd inadvertently tramples a tribe of mice, who send representatives to beg the elephant king to avoid their settlement in future. Later the herd is trapped and the grateful mice come to their rescue and free them. When the story was carried to China by Buddhist monks, the benefitted animal reverted to a tiger, another member of the cat family.
|
how many stages in candy crush saga game | Candy Crush Saga - wikipedia
Candy Crush Saga is a free - to - play match - three puzzle video game released by King on April 12, 2012, for Facebook; other versions for iOS, Android, Windows Phone, and Windows 10 followed. It is a variation of their browser game Candy Crush.
In the game, players complete levels by swapping coloured pieces of candy on a game board to make a match of three or more of the same color, eliminating those candies from the board and replacing them with new ones, which could potentially create further matches. Matches of four or more candies create unique candies that act as power - ups with larger board - clearing abilities. Boards have various goals that must be completed within a fixed number of moves or limited amount of time, such as a certain score or collecting a specific number of a type of candy.
Candy Crush Saga is considered one of the first and most successful uses of a freemium model; while the game can be played completely through without spending money, players can buy special actions to help clear more difficult boards, from which King makes its revenues. Around 2014, over 93 million people were playing Candy Crush Saga, while revenue over a three - month period as reported by King was over $493 million. Five years after its release on mobile, the title has been downloaded over 2.7 billion times, and has been one of the top - ten grossing mobile apps for four years.
Candy Crush Saga is a "match three '' game, where the core gameplay is based on swapping two adjacent candies among several on the gameboard as to make a row or column of at least 3 matching - colored candies. On this match, the matched candies are removed from the board, and candies above them fall into the empty spaces, with new candies appearing from the top of the board. This may create a new matched set of candies, which is automatically cleared in the same manner. The player scores points for these matches and gains progressively more points for chain reactions. Additionally, creating matches of four or more candies will create a special candy that, when matched, can clear a row, column, or other section of the board.
The game is split among many levels, which must be completed in sequence. Each level poses a different challenge to the user, such as achieving a minimum score in a fixed number of moves or clearing candies in a fixed number of moves to bring special ingredients to the bottom of the board. Boards have a number of different configurations and may include special spaces that have their own unique rules, such as spaces covered with jelly that must be cleared by making a match on that space. If the player meets the level 's goal, they will be given from one to three stars based on their score and can proceed onto the next level. Otherwise, they will lose one life and must try again. If the player runs out of lives, they have to wait for some period of real - world time while their lives regenerate before attempting the level again. Completed levels can be replayed if desired.
The game has been expanded with a number of episodes, adding a few dozen new levels per episode as well as new gameplay mechanics. In the game 's first major expansion, the game added a separate set of levels in the Dreamworld. While levels had the same goals, the players had to balance matches of candies of two randomly selected colors to avoid disrupting the sleeping Odus the Owl; if they did, the level was considered lost and the player had to try again. If they collected enough matched candies to fill a meter, the player actived the Moon Struck power: the board was cleared of all candies of those two colors, and the player gained a few turns of additional matches without having to balance colors. After this, Odus returned to sleeping and two new colors were randomly selected for the balance. This continued until the player completed the level or ran out of turns as in the main game. Dreamworld levels used a different set of lives from the main game, allowing the player to switch back and forth between these modes. The Dreamworld is no longer accessible.
The game is primarily monetized through in - app purchases (through either a credit card, iTunes credits or Google Play credits); players begin with five "lives '', lost whenever a level is failed. This applies to all of King 's games. When they are exhausted, users can either send requests to their Facebook friends for more lives, wait for them to replenish themselves (a life is restored every half - hour), or purchase them. Initially when a player makes a purchase for new lives, he / she receives five new lives for a specific dollar amount. In a recent update, when a player makes a purchase for new lives, the player receives gold bars, the quantity depending on how much money he / she spends. Gold bars can be used for new lives, extra moves, boosters or to unlock a new episode. At certain points, primarily at the start of new "episodes '', users must also either purchase or receive a request from at least three friends before they may access the next set of levels. An update meant players only waited for 3 days to unlock the next episode.
Boosters, to make the levels easier, can be bought using in - app purchases. While the game includes freemium content, 97.7 % of those playing the game do so for free, while only 2.3 % pay.
Throughout the game, the player solves puzzles so Tiffi (short for Toffette) can solve problems plaguing the residents of the Candy Kingdom. These include tutorial guide Mr. Toffee, whose voice was changed from an over-the - top French accent in the original version of the game into a more modest deep male voice, the Easter Bunny, the shop owner Mr. Yeti, Odus the owl from Dreamworld levels, the villainous Bubblegum Troll, and many others.
In the Candy Crush Jelly Saga, the two main characters that the player plays against are the Jelly Queen and Cupcake Carl.
Prior to the release of Candy Crush Saga, most of King 's games were browser games offered through their website or partner portals such as Yahoo!. Several of their games featured tournament - style gameplay, where players could spend money to enter competitive tourneys for in - game boosts, which served as one of the main form of revenue for the company in addition to in - game item sale microtransactions and advertisements. Around 2009, Facebook began to pull in developers, in particular Zynga, to offer social network games that could be built on its fundamental services; for King, this resulting in a large drop in players that they saw from their game portals within a year. At this point, King started to determine how it could enter the Facebook and the associated mobile game markets, breaking up its web development department to work on Facebook and mobile games in 2010, including bringing several of their existing browser games to those platforms. Most of these existing games were introduced as beta versions to Facebook users, and the company used player counts and feedback to determine which of these titles had the most prospect for moving forward, allowing them to focus more intensive development on those titles while dropping the rest, in the style of a rapid prototyping approach. The Facebook platform allowed them to explore expansion of their existing tournament - style games and the ability to include microtransactions within the game.
In April 2011, King released its first cross-platform (Facebook and mobile) game, Miner Speed, which had a simple match - 3 concept that borrowed concepts from Bejeweled that helped the company figure out the transition between Facebook and mobile games for this new direction. King 's first major success in this area followed with Bubble Witch Saga, released in October 2011; by January 2012 it has attracted over 10 million players and was one of fastest rising Facebook games at that time. Bubble Witch Saga introduced the "saga '' approach in contrast to typical tile - matching games, where instead of having the game continue through a fixed amount of time or until the player reached an unplayable state, the game was divided into discrete levels that required the player to complete certain goals within a fixed set of moves, and where the next level could only be reached after completing the previous level. These saga elements allowed for the basics of social gameplay, but did not require the time investment that then - popular titles like Zynga 's Farmville required; players could play just for a few minutes each day through the saga model. The success of Bubble Witch Saga establishing King as a viable developer in this arena, becoming the second - largest developer by daily player count on the Facebook platform by April 2012, trailing only Zynga.
Candy Crush Saga was selected as King 's next Facebook game based on the popularity of the portal version of Candy Crush, first released in 2011 and which was one of the five most popular games by 2012. The basic ideas from Miner Speed were used to craft the foundation of Candy Crush Saga, adding the "saga '' elements from Bubble Witch Saga. Initial ideas for Candy Crush Saga were proposed by King 's chief creative officer, Sebastian Knutsson, around 2011. The game was first released for Facebook in April 2012, at the time featuring only 65 levels. The game quickly gained popularity, gaining more than 4 million players within a few weeks of release.
King later released mobile versions for iOS and Android that same year, adding a feature that allowed mobile users to synchronize their progress with the Facebook version. Knutsson stated that at that time, with Candy Crush Saga as popular as it was on Facebook, they knew that they "had to get it right '' in the transition process. King had previously discussed the nature of games that kept their state between a PC and mobile version with Fabrication Games, believing this was a necessary trend in the future of gaming, Both recognized several of the difficulties that would have to be addressed to provide both the progress synchronization and gameplay interface between mouse - driven PC computers and touch - driven mobile devices. King found that one issue with transiting Bubble Witch Saga to mobile was that the gameplay elements were too small for mobile devices, and aimed to correct that for Candy Crush Saga on mobile. The mobile release delay for Candy Crush Saga was in part due to adding the ability to play the mobile version in an offline mode that would still synchronize once the player returned online.
The mobile version helped to boost popularity of the game, attributed to the nature of the game being able to be played in a pick - up - and - go manner ideally suited for mobile devices. Tommy Palm, one of the four developers for Candy Crush Saga, stated that the first weekend numbers after the game 's mobile release were over ten times greater than the estimates they expected. By January 2013, Candy Crush Saga overtook Zynga 's Farmville 2 as the top - played game on the Facebook platform.
Candy Crush Saga was expanded over the years by adding new episodes, each containing a number of new levels. This enabled King to also introduce new gameplay features alongside other game improvements. New features were first tested on King 's own portal to see how players there responded and allowing them to tweak these as needed, then pushed these into the episodes on the Facebook / mobile version. By September 2016, King released its 2000th level for the game to celebrate the milestone of over 1 trillion Candy Crush Saga games having been played. More recently, with the game offered as a free - to - play model, King seeks to provide new content on weekly or biweekly basis, including time - limited content. Zacconi saw this approach as a means to keep players, who otherwise have not purchased anything, to keep coming back and playing the game.
According to review aggregator website Metacritic, the game received an average review score of 79 / 100, indicating generally positive reviews. Ellie Gibson of Eurogamer referred to Candy Crush Saga as 2013 's "Game of the Year ''.
Candy Crush Saga had over ten million downloads in December 2012. By 2013, Candy Crush Saga had been downloaded more than 500 million times across Facebook, iOS, and Android devices and considered the most downloaded app from the Apple App Store, and had at least 6.7 million active users on a daily basis; the game had a daily revenue of $633,000 from the United States section of the iOS App Store alone. By 2014, the game had over 245 million active players each month but has since dropped off, with that count falling to around 166 million by 2016.
Though initially released with advertising to help with revenue, King removed the advertising in 2013, and solely has earned money from the game in the form of in - app purchases. Only a small percentage of the player base has purchased in - game items, up to around 4 %, but this has led to millions of dollars in monthly revenue for King. In 2014, Candy Crush Saga players spent over $1.33 billion on in - app purchases. This is a decline from the previous year, since in the second half of 2013 players spent over $1.04 billion. By 2015, the monthly revenue was estimated at $120 million, but with declining players purchasing in - game items, down to 2 % by 2016, that revenue has dropped to just over $53 million per month.
Five years after its release on mobile, Candy Crush Saga has been downloaded over 2.7 billion times. Its revenue for the quarter ending September 2017 was $250 million, having gained significant improvement in year - to - year revenues from 2016. It remains one of the top gross - revenue earnings app for mobile in the four years leading up to 2017.
Candy Crush received particular mention in Hong Kong media, with reports that one in seven Hong Kong citizens plays the game. In December 2013, King entered the Japanese market with a series of television commercials in Japan, and by December 4 it had become the 23rd most downloaded game in Japan on Android devices and number 1 most downloaded from the App Store.
King filed for applications for trademarks on the word "candy '' in January 2013 with the United States Patent and Trademark Office, which became publicly known in January 2014. News of these pending trademarks raised concerns from other developers, fearing that King would use their trademark to intimidate smaller developers. In response to this criticism, King decided not to pursue the trademark.
The mobile game known as CandySwipe created in 2010, two years prior to the release of Candy Crush Saga, had many similarities that independent app developer Albert Ransom and maker of CandySwipe picked up on as Candy Crush Saga became more successful. Following news of the "candy '' trademark, Ransom issued a statement in February 2014, claiming that King intentionally copied elements from his own game including the app icon, the art for the candy pieces, and sound effects like the level - completion "Sweet! ''. While details were not given, Ransom stated that he "amicably '' resolved the matter with King by April of that year.
During this same period, it was discovered that King had successfully obtained trademark on the word "saga '', and they had taken action against Stoic, the developers of The Banner Saga; King had attempted to block Stoic 's registration of "The Banner Saga '', and after the game released in January 2014, it issued a cease and desist letter to the developers. Similar to the CandySwipe situation, Stoic announced in April 2014 that the situation with King had been resolved with both sides coming to an agreement allowing Stoic to continue to use their name.
Candy Crush Saga also received mixed reactions when it was announced that King had struck a deal with Microsoft to automatically install the game on devices that have been upgraded to Windows 10 Home.
The game was investigated by the UK Office of Fair Trading concerning exploitative game mechanics with regards to younger users.
In May 2014, a sequel titled Candy Crush Soda Saga was soft launched by King, with a similar design but new gameplay dynamics, such as a soda bottle piece that can shift gravity. As of January 2018, there are over 2080 Candy Crush Soda Saga levels.
On October 20, 2014, the Facebook version of Candy Crush Soda Saga was released worldwide and the mobile app was released in November on the Android and iOS platforms. The app was subsequently made available for Windows 10 and Windows Phone in October 2015.
In September 2015, another sequel entitled Candy Crush Jelly Saga was soft - launched in various countries for the Android platform. Candy Crush Jelly Saga was released worldwide in January 2016. Initially it was not made available in Facebook unlike in previous titles, but is now available as a game app as of May 2016. The Facebook version appears to no longer require Adobe Flash to play.
CBS produces a live - action Candy Crush game show in partnership with King that premiered on July 9, 2017. It is an hour - long competition among several two - person teams using interactive games that are based on Candy Crush. The show is produced by Lionsgate with executive producer Matt Kunitz, and with collaboration by Sebastian Knutsson, the creative developer of the first Candy Crush game. Mario Lopez hosts the show.
Four teams play in each episode doing various challenges based on the Candy Crush game, with the winning team earning a guaranteed $100,000.
The game is also featured in Psy 's music video "Gentleman ''. Part of The Emoji Movie takes place within Candy Crush Saga. Candy Crush Saga was used as a challenge theme for an episode of the sixth season of Project Runway All Stars.
|
what are the four main types of taste buds on the tongue | Taste bud - wikipedia
Taste buds contain the taste receptor cells, which are also known as gustatory cells. The taste receptors are located around the small structures known as papillae found on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate, upper esophagus, the cheek and epiglottis. These structures are involved in detecting the five elements of taste perception: salty, sour, bitter, sweet and umami; through the combination of these elements we detect "flavors. '' A popular myth assigns these different tastes to different regions of the tongue; in reality these tastes can be detected by any area of the tongue. Via small openings in the tongue epithelium, called taste pores, parts of the food dissolved in saliva come into contact with the taste receptors. These are located on top of the taste receptor cells that constitute the taste buds. The taste receptor cells send information detected by clusters of various receptors and ion channels to the gustatory areas of the brain via the seventh, ninth and tenth cranial nerves.
On average, the human tongue has 2,000 -- 8,000 taste buds.
The taste buds on the tongue sit on raised protrusions of the tongue surface called papillae. There are three types of lingual papillae that contain taste buds present on the human tongue:
The fourth type of papillae the filiform papillae are the most numerous but do not contain taste buds. They are characterized by increased keratinisation and are involved in the mechanical aspect of providing abrasion.
Salt, sweet, sour and umami tastes causes depolarization of the taste cells, although different mechanisms are applied.
Bitter causes an internal release of Ca, no external Ca is required.
The bud is formed by two kinds of cells: supporting cells and gustatory cells.
The supporting (sustentacular cells) are mostly arranged like the staves of a cask, and form an outer envelope for the bud. Some, however, are found in the interior of the bud between the gustatory cells.
The gustatory (taste) cells, a chemoreceptor, occupy the central portion of the bud; they are spindle - shaped, and each possesses a large spherical nucleus near the middle of the cell.
The peripheral end of the cell terminates at the gustatory pore in a fine hair filament, the gustatory hair.
The central process passes toward the deep extremity of the bud, and there ends in single or bifurcated varicosities.
The nerve fibrils after losing their medullary sheaths enter the taste bud, and end in fine extremities between the gustatory cells; other nerve fibrils ramify between the supporting cells and terminate in fine extremities; these, however, are believed to be nerves of ordinary sensation and not gustatory.
The average life of a taste bud is 10 days.
|
where do the terms right and left wing come from | Left -- right political spectrum - wikipedia
The left -- right political spectrum is a system of classifying political positions, ideologies and parties, from equality on the left to social hierarchy on the right. Left - wing politics and right - wing politics are often presented as opposed, although a particular individual or group may take a left - wing stance on one matter and a right - wing stance on another; and some stances may overlap and be considered either left - or right - wing depending on the ideology. In France, where the terms originated, the Left has been called "the party of movement '' and the Right "the party of order ''. The intermediate stance is called centrism and a person with such a position is a moderate or centrist.
The terms "left '' and "right '' appeared during the French Revolution of 1789 when members of the National Assembly divided into supporters of the king to the president 's right and supporters of the revolution to his left. One deputy, the Baron de Gauville, explained: "We began to recognize each other: those who were loyal to religion and the king took up positions to the right of the chair so as to avoid the shouts, oaths, and indecencies that enjoyed free rein in the opposing camp ''. However, the Right opposed the seating arrangement because they believed that deputies should support private or general interests but should not form factions or political parties. The contemporary press occasionally used the terms "left '' and "right '' to refer to the opposing sides.
When the National Assembly was replaced in 1791 by a Legislative Assembly comprising entirely new members, the divisions continued. "Innovators '' sat on the left, "moderates '' gathered in the centre, while the "conscientious defenders of the constitution '' found themselves sitting on the right, where the defenders of the Ancien Régime had previously gathered. When the succeeding National Convention met in 1792, the seating arrangement continued, but following the coup d'état of 2 June 1793 and the arrest of the Girondins the right side of the assembly was deserted and any remaining members who had sat there moved to the centre. However, following the Thermidorian Reaction of 1794 the members of the far - left were excluded and the method of seating was abolished. The new constitution included rules for the assembly that would "break up the party groups ''. However, following the Restoration in 1814 -- 1815 political clubs were again formed. The majority ultraroyalists chose to sit on the right. The "constitutionals '' sat in the centre while independents sat on the left. The terms extreme right and extreme left as well as centre - right and centre - left came to be used to describe the nuances of ideology of different sections of the assembly.
The terms "left '' and "right '' were not used to refer to political ideology per se, but only to seating in the legislature. After 1848, the main opposing camps were the "democratic socialists '' and the "reactionaries '' who used red and white flags to identify their party affiliation. With the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871, the terms were adopted by political parties: the Republican Left, the Centre Right and the Centre Left (1871) and the Extreme Left (1876) and Radical Left (1881). The beliefs of the group called the Radical Left were actually closer to the Centre Left than the beliefs of those called the Extreme Left. Beginning in the early twentieth century, the terms "left '' and "right '' came to be associated with specific political ideologies and were used to describe citizens ' political beliefs, gradually replacing the terms "reds '' and "the reaction ''. Those on the Left often called themselves "republicans '', while those on the Right often called themselves "conservatives ''. The words Left and Right were at first used by their opponents as slurs.
By 1914, the Left half of the legislature in France was composed of Unified Socialists, Republican Socialists and Socialist Radicals, while the parties that were called "Left '' now sat on the right side. The use of the words Left and Right spread from France to other countries and came to be applied to a large number of political parties worldwide, which often differed in their political beliefs. There was asymmetry in the use of the terms Left and Right by the opposing sides. The Right mostly denied that the left -- right spectrum was meaningful because they saw it as artificial and damaging to unity. However, the Left, seeking to change society, promoted the distinction. As Alain observed in 1931: "When people ask me if the division between parties of the Right and parties of the Left, men of the Right and men of the Left, still makes sense, the first thing that comes to mind is that the person asking the question is certainly not a man of the Left ''. In British politics, the terms "right '' and "left '' came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s in debates over the Spanish Civil War. The Scottish sociologist Robert M. MacIver noted in The Web of Government (1947):
The right is always the party sector associated with the interests of the upper or dominant classes, the left the sector expressive of the lower economic or social classes, and the centre that of the middle classes. Historically this criterion seems acceptable. The conservative right has defended entrenched prerogatives, privileges and powers; the left has attacked them. The right has been more favorable to the aristocratic position, to the hierarchy of birth or of wealth; the left has fought for the equalization of advantage or of opportunity, for the claims of the less advantaged. Defense and attack have met, under democratic conditions, not in the name of class but in the name of principle; but the opposing principles have broadly corresponded to the interests of the different classes.
Generally, the left - wing is characterized by an emphasis on "ideas such as freedom, equality, fraternity, rights, progress, reform and internationalism '', while the right - wing is characterized by an emphasis on "notions such as authority, hierarchy, order, duty, tradition, reaction and nationalism ''.
Political scientists and other analysts regard the Left as including anarchists, communists, socialists, democratic socialists, social democrats, left - libertarians, progressives and social liberals. Movements for racial equality and trade unionism have also been associated with the left.
Political scientists and other analysts regard the Right as including Christian democrats, conservatives, right - libertarians, neoconservatives, imperialists, monarchists, fascists, reactionaries and traditionalists.
A number of significant political movements -- including feminism and regionalism -- do not fit precisely into the left - right spectrum. Though nationalism is often regarded as a right - wing doctrine, many nationalists favor egalitarian distributions of resources. There are also "liberal nationalists ''. Populism is regarded as having both left - wing and right - wing manifestations (see left - wing populism and right - wing populism). Green politics is often regarded as a movement of the left, but in some ways the green movement is difficult to definitively categorize as left or right.
Political scientists have observed that the ideologies of political parties can be mapped along a single left -- right axis. Klaus von Beyme categorized European parties into nine families, which described most parties. Beyme was able to arrange seven of them from left to right: communist, socialist, green, liberal, Christian democratic, conservative and right - wing extremist. The position of agrarian and regional / ethnic parties varied. A study conducted in the late 1980s on two bases, positions on ownership of the means of production and positions on social issues, confirmed this arrangement.
There has been a tendency for party ideologies to persist and values and views that were present at a party 's founding have survived. However, they have also adapted for pragmatic reasons, making them appear more similar. Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan observed that modern party systems are the product of social conflicts played out in the last few centuries. They said that lines of cleavage had become "frozen ''.
The first modern political parties were liberals, organized by the middle class in the 19th century to protect them against the aristocracy. They were major political parties in that century, but declined in the twentieth century as first the working class came to support socialist parties and economic and social change eroded their middle class base. Conservative parties arose in opposition to liberals in order to defend aristocratic privilege, but in order to attract voters they became less doctrinaire than liberals. However, they were unsuccessful in most countries and generally have been able to achieve power only through cooperation with other parties.
Socialist parties were organized in order to achieve political rights for workers and were originally allied with liberals. However, they broke with the liberals when they sought worker control of the means of production. Christian democratic parties were organized by Catholics who saw liberalism as a threat to traditional values. Although established in the 19th century, they became a major political force following the Second World War. Communist parties emerged following a division within socialism first on support of the First World War and then support of the Bolshevik Revolution.
Right - wing extremist parties are harder to define other than being more right - wing than other parties, but include fascists and some extreme conservative and nationalist parties.
Green parties were the most recent of the major party groups to develop. They have mostly rejected socialism and are very liberal on social issues.
These categories can be applied to many parties outside Europe. Ware (1996) asserted that in the United States both major parties were liberal, even though there are left -- right policy differences between them.
In the 2001 book The Government and Politics of France, Andrew Knapp and Vincent Wright say that the main factor dividing the left and right wings in Western Europe is class. The Left seeks social justice through redistributive social and economic policies, while the Right defends private property and capitalism. The nature of the conflict depends on existing social and political cleavages and on the level of economic development. Left - wing values include the belief in the power of human reason to achieve progress for the benefit of the human race, secularism, sovereignty exercised through the legislature, social justice and mistrust of strong personal political leadership. To the Right, this is regularly seen as anti-clericalism, unrealistic social reform, doctrinaire socialism and class hatred. The Right are skeptical about the capacity for radical reforms to achieve human well - being while maintaining workplace competition. They believe in the established church both in itself and as an instrument of social cohesion; and believe in the need for strong political leadership to minimize social and political divisions. To the Left, this is seen as a selfish and reactionary opposition to social justice, a wish to impose doctrinaire religion on the population and a tendency to authoritarianism and repression.
The differences between left and right have altered over time. The initial cleavage at the time of the French Revolution was between supporters of absolute monarchy (the Right) and those who wished to limit the king 's authority (the Left). During the 19th century, the cleavage was between monarchists and republicans. Following the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871, the cleavage was between supporters of a strong executive on the Right and supporters of the primacy of the legislature on the Left.
The terms left - wing and right - wing are widely used in the United States, but as on the global level there is no firm consensus about their meaning. The only aspect that is generally agreed upon is that they are the defining opposites of the United States political spectrum. Left and right in the U.S. are generally associated with liberal and conservative respectively, although the meanings of the two sets of terms do not entirely coincide. Depending on the political affiliation of the individual using them, these terms can be spoken with varying implications. A 2005 poll of 2,209 American adults showed that "respondents generally viewed the paired concepts liberals and left - wingers and conservatives and right - wingers as possessing, respectively, generally similar political beliefs '', but also showed that around ten percent fewer respondents understood the terms left and right than understood the terms liberal and conservative.
The contemporary Left in the United States is usually understood as a category that includes New Deal social - liberals (in contrast to traditions of social democracy more common to Western Europe), Rawlsian liberals and civil libertarians, who are often identified with the Democratic Party. In general, the term left - wing is understood to imply a commitment to egalitarianism, support for social policies that appeal to the working class and multiculturalism. The contemporary center - left usually defines itself as promoting government regulation of business, commerce and industry; protection of fundamental rights such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion (separation of church and state); and government intervention on behalf of racial, ethnic and sexual minorities and the working class.
Some political scientists have suggested that the classifications of "left '' and "right '' are no longer meaningful in the modern complex world. Although these terms continue to be used, they advocate a more complex spectrum that attempts to combine political, economic and social dimensions.
A survey conducted between 1983 and 1994 by Bob Altemeyer of Canadian legislative caucuses showed an 82 % correlation between party affiliation and score on a scale for right - wing authoritarianism when comparing right - wing and social democratic caucuses. There was a wide gap between the scores of the two groups, which was filled by liberal caucuses. His survey of American legislative caucuses showed scores by American Republicans and Democrats were similar to the Canadian Right and liberals, with a 44 % correlation between party affiliation and score.
Norberto Bobbio saw the polarization of the Italian Chamber of Deputies in the 1990s as evidence that the linear left -- right axis remained valid. Bobbio thought that the argument that the spectrum had disappeared occurred when either the Left or Right were weak. The dominant side would claim that its ideology was the only possible one, while the weaker side would minimize its differences. He saw the Left and Right not in absolute terms, but as relative concepts that would vary over time. In his view, the left -- right axis could be applied to any time period.
Libertarian writer David Boaz argued that terms left and right are used to spin a particular point of view rather than as simple descriptors, with those on the "left '' typically emphasizing their support for working people and accusing the right of supporting the interests of the upper class; and those on the "right '' usually emphasizing their support for individualism and accusing the Left of supporting collectivism. Boaz asserts that arguments about the way the words should be used often displaces arguments about policy by raising emotional prejudice against a preconceived notion of what the terms mean.
In 2006, British Prime Minister Tony Blair described the main cleavage in politics as not left versus right, but open versus closed. In this model, attitudes towards social issues and globalism are more important than the conventional economic left -- right issues: "open '' voters tend to be socially liberal, multicultural and in favour of globalism, while "closed '' voters are culturally conservative, opposed to immigration and in favour of protectionism. This model has seen increased support following the rise of populist and centrist parties in the 2010s.
|
who plays ridge forrester on bold and the beautiful | Thorsten Kaye - wikipedia
Thorsten Kaye (born Thorsten Ernst Kieselbach on 22 February 1966 in Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany) is a German - British actor.
Raised in Mainz and London, Kaye moved to the United States in 1985 on a track (decathlon) scholarship to the United States International University in San Diego. Kaye majored in physical education (and minored in drama), but ultimately changed his major to drama and received his bachelor 's degree in fine arts.
After a rugby union tour through Europe, Kaye enrolled in graduate school at Wayne State University in Detroit, where he earned his master 's degree in theater and theater history.
Kaye appeared in many classical theater roles, including The Winter 's Tale, Tartuffe, Macbeth, Much Ado About Nothing, Hamlet, Love 's Labour 's Lost, Twelfth Night, and The Taming of the Shrew, both in London and with the Hilberry Repertory Company in Detroit.
Kaye then moved to Los Angeles, where he garnered roles in various television projects, including the miniseries, Sidney Sheldon 's Nothing Lasts Forever, before moving to New York to accept the role of an Irish poet, Patrick Thornhart, on ABC 's One Life to Live (1995 -- 1997). The character gained quite a bit of popularity, and it is where he would meet his real life partner, Susan Haskell. After completing a two - year stint on OLTL, Thorsten did some guest starring work for other shows, as well as starring in a few feature films.
In April 2000, Thorsten accepted the role of the dedicated physician Ian Thornhart (Patrick 's older brother) on the ABC daytime soap (and the spin - off show of General Hospital), Port Charles (2000 -- 2003). He appeared on the soap until its run ended in October 2003. Thorsten received two Daytime Emmy Award Nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor for his portrayal of Ian in 2003 and 2004.
In April 2004, Thorsten returned to New York to join the cast of the ABC soap All My Children in the role of casino owner, Zach Slater. He was nominated for two Daytime Emmy Awards in 2006 and 2009. Thorsten portrayed Slater until December 2009. He returned three times in 2010, and again in 2011 to bring Zach 's storyline to a close when AMC came to an end after 41 years, in September 2011.
Kaye has an extensive portfolio of work in television, film and theatre. In addition to his work on soaps, he has appeared in Sliders, Law & Order, and Air America. After working with director David Worth in the film The Prophet 's Game (which starred Dennis Hopper) Kaye re-teamed with the director in the thriller Shark Attack II. He has also appeared in the feature films The Silencers, Deadly Desire, and The Bone Collector.
Thorsten Kaye has one of the lead roles in a new psychological thriller (feature - length film) titled Occupant, which was released in the U.S and Canada in October 2011 on demand in many cable / satellite markets as well as on most digital platforms, including iTunes, Amazon, Blockbuster, and PlayStation.
In 2012, Kaye began appearing in the role of Nick, a recurring character on the NBC series Smash. In October 2013, it was announced that Kaye was cast to portray Ridge Forrester on The Bold and the Beautiful, replacing originator Ronn Moss, who departed the series in 2012 after 25 years in the role.
Kaye published a book of original poetry, entitled From Timber Ridge to Daymer Gardens, with Dorothy Bridges, widow of actor Lloyd Bridges. Proceeds from the book, which accompanied a CD release of the same name, go to Give Kids the World, a charity for sick children. His new children 's book will be coming out in March 2009 on the "Rock the Soap '' cruise.
When not working, Kaye enjoys music, literature and riding American motorcycles. He is a fan of the Miami Dolphins and the Detroit Red Wings.
While appearing on One Life to Live, he met his partner, Susan Haskell, who played his on - show love interest (Margaret "Marty '' Saybrooke). The two currently have two daughters, McKenna (born February 2003) and Marlowe (born January 2007).
Kaye was an active blogger for the Detroit Red Wings at NHL.com during the 2008 and 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs.
|
what is the song even flow by pearl jam about | Even Flow - wikipedia
"Even Flow '' is a song by the American rock band Pearl Jam. Featuring lyrics written by vocalist Eddie Vedder and music written by guitarist Stone Gossard, "Even Flow '' was released in 1992 as the second single from the band 's debut album, Ten (1991). The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. The song was included on Pearl Jam 's 2004 greatest hits album, rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991 -- 2003). A remixed version of the song was included on the 2009 Ten reissue.
"Even Flow '' features lyrics written by vocalist Eddie Vedder and music written by guitarist Stone Gossard. Bassist Jeff Ament said, "I know it was a great song all along, and I felt that it was the best song that we got the worst take of on the first record. There were a hundred takes on that song, and we just never nailed it. '' Drummer Dave Krusen said, "I was pretty green back then and ' Even Flow ' suffered from too much fluctuation. '' He added that "it was really tough for me. I do n't know why. Not sure why we did n't use that one from the demo as well, but I know it felt better. '' Guitarist Mike McCready stated, "We did ' Even Flow ' about 50, 70 times. I swear to God it was a nightmare. We played that thing over and over until we hated each other. I still do n't think Stone is satisfied with how it came out. ''
An alternate version of the song was recorded with drummer Dave Abbruzzese in 1992 while the band was recording songs for the soundtrack for the 1992 film, Singles. This version was used for the music video, and was used in single releases in the United Kingdom. This version can also be found on Pearl Jam 's 2004 greatest hits album, rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991 -- 2003).
"Even Flow '' was written in the key of D major, with Gossard performing his parts in open D tuning and McCready complementing it with a similar rhythm pattern in standard tuning. The recorded version of the song actually sounds slightly sharper than D major, with everything tuned up -- accidentally or otherwise -- around one quarter of a step. The song features a funk guitar riff by Gossard.
McCready on the song:
That 's me pretending to be Stevie Ray Vaughan, and a feeble attempt at that. Stone (Gossard, Pearl Jam guitarist) wrote the riff and song; I think it 's a D tuning. I just followed him in a regular pattern. I tried to steal everything I know from Stevie Ray Vaughan and put it into that song. A blatant rip - off. A tribute rip - off, if you will!
The vocal line that appears in the main verse begins with a very prominent tritone interval.
The stark lyrics by Vedder for "Even Flow '' describe the experience of being a homeless man. The subject sleeps "on a pillow made of concrete '' and panhandles passersby for spare change. In addition to being illiterate, he may also be mentally ill, as he "looks insane '' when he smiles and struggles to keep coherent thoughts ("Even flow, thoughts arrive like butterflies / Oh, he do n't know, so he chases them away '').
At Pearl Jam 's March 28, 1994 concert at the Bayfront Amphitheater in Miami, Florida, Vedder introduced the song by saying, "I thought I 'd throw in a bit of street education while you still have an open mind... Right across the street there 's a little homeless community that lives under the bridge. You should just know that those people ai n't all crazy and sometimes it 's not their fault. This song is called ' Even Flow '. ''
At the May 12, 2008 show in Toronto, Vedder stated that the song was written under the Space Needle in Seattle.
While the "Even Flow '' single was released commercially to international markets in 1992, the commercial single was not released in the United States until June 27, 1995 and was only available as a more expensive import version beforehand. The alternate studio recording of "Even Flow '', which was recorded in 1992 with Abbruzzese, was released as a CD single and 12 - inch white vinyl in the United Kingdom. The original version was used in single releases in the United States. The song was released as a single in 1992 with a previously unreleased funk B - side titled "Dirty Frank '', which can also be found as an extra track on European releases of Ten and as an alternate version on the compilation album, Lost Dogs (2003).
The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and number 21 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. Outside the United States, the single was released commercially in Australia, Austria, Brazil, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Canada, the song reached the top 80 on the Canadian Singles Chart. "Even Flow '' peaked at number 27 in the UK and number 22 on the Australian Singles Chart. It was a moderate top 20 success in New Zealand.
Chris True of Allmusic called "Even Flow '' "the somewhat less ballady more swaggering follow up to the breakout single ' Alive '. '' True said that the song "does n't even really have an intro -- it just starts and keeps going -- and the band seems more in the groove than on the overly earnest ' Alive '. '' True said that the song "confirmed that Pearl Jam were more than just one hit grunge rock wonders. '' The song was placed at number 77 on a list of "The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time '' by Rolling Stone. It was also included on VH1 's countdown of the "100 Greatest Hard Rock Songs '' at number 30.
Pearl Jam originally hired director Rocky Schenck to film a music video for "Even Flow ''. On January 31, 1992, on their way to England to begin a European tour, the band members came to Los Angeles, California to film the video. The concept for the video was based on an idea by Gossard. Schenck filmed Pearl Jam in a zoo setting. He had arranged a nighttime shoot at an old, closed facility, brought in different wildlife, and set up his lights among the cages and in the trees. Along with the animal footage, the members of Pearl Jam were filmed individually and as a band, standing on the side of a cliff and air jamming. The shoot took hours, and the band was not pleased with the end result. Schenck 's shoot was considered a waste of time and money by the band; it also damaged Abbruzzese 's wrists significantly. After shooting had finished, he was taken to the emergency room where he was advised not to put strain on his wrists. Abbruzzese would drum on the band 's European tour with a splint attached to his hands.
The original music video for "Even Flow '' was ultimately replaced by a performance clip directed by Josh Taft, who had previously directed the "Alive '' music video for the band, and who would later direct the music video for "Oceans ''. The video consists of performance footage of the band filmed during a January 17, 1992 show at the Moore Theatre in Seattle, Washington. Taft was filming that night not in his capacity as a director, but as a friend of Gossard 's. (At one point during the show, Vedder had even stopped the proceedings, clearly of the opinion that Taft 's presence was intrusive. "This is not a TV studio, Josh '' he 'd yelled indignantly, in an interlude that Taft left in his final cut but that MTV clipped out of most versions it aired. "Turn those lights out, it 's a fucking rock concert! '') The video shows Vedder climbing the theatre, and then jumping down between fans at the concert and ending with Mccready throwing his guitar towards the camera.
The footage used in the video is actually spliced from different songs: for instance Gossard and McCready each play two different guitars, Vedder wears a hat at some point and the theatre climb actually occurred during "Porch ''. Taft 's presence at the Moore Theatre show, and the fact that he had filmed sufficient footage to compile into a music video, proved to be a break for the band. Otherwise with Epic ready to provide MTV with an "Even Flow '' video and Schenck 's version already completed, Pearl Jam would have had little choice but to go with it, and the band members unanimously despised Schenck 's version when they saw the final edit. The alternate studio recording of "Even Flow '', which was recorded in 1992 with Abbruzzese, was used for the video as the band felt it synched up well with the live footage. The video was released in April 1992. The full January 17, 1992 show would eventually be released in 2013 as an audio download, Seattle, WA 17 - January - 1992.
"Even Flow '' was first performed live at the band 's October 22, 1990 concert in Seattle, Washington at the Off Ramp Café. Pearl Jam performed the song for its appearance on MTV Unplugged in 1992. "Even Flow '' has gone on to become the band 's most performed live song, having been played more than 800 times (the next most played song, "Alive '', is at more than 730 performances). Over the years, the tempo of the song has become slightly faster in live performances. Live performances of "Even Flow '' can be found on the "Dissident '' single, the live album Live on Two Legs, the compilation album Wild and Wooly: The Northwest Rock Collection, various official bootlegs, the live album Live in NYC 12 / 31 / 92, the Live at the Gorge 05 / 06 box set, the live album Live at Lollapalooza 2007, and the Drop in the Park LP included in the Super Deluxe edition of the Ten reissue. Performances of the song are also included on the DVDs Touring Band 2000, Live at the Garden, Immagine in Cornice, and the MTV Unplugged DVD included in the Ten reissue. On Live at the Garden, McCready performs an improv within "Even Flow '' that goes on for nearly five minutes.
|
total number of seats of bjp in rajya sabha | Rajya Sabha - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 0 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 30 '' E / 28.61667 ° N 77.20833 ° E / 28.61667; 77.20833
245
Government coalition (84) National Democratic Alliance (84)
Opposition Parties (161) United Progressive Alliance (63)
Janata Parivar Parties (5)
Unaligned Parties (74)
Others (19)
The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Membership of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of 250 members, and current laws have provision for 245 members. Most of the members of the House are indirectly elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes, while the President can appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. Members sit for staggered six - year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years.
The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions, and unlike the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, is not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha can be prorogued by the President. The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in all areas of legislation with Lok Sabha, except in the area of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses can be held. However, since the Lok Sabha has twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha, the former would normally hold the greater power. Joint sittings of the Houses of Parliament of India are rare, and in the history of the Republic, only three such joint - sessions have been held; the latest one for the passage of the 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Act.
The Vice-President of India (currently, Venkaiah Naidu) is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. The Deputy Chairman, who is elected from amongst the house 's members, takes care of the day - to - day matters of the house in the absence of the Chairman. The Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on 13 May 1952. The salary and other benefits for a member of Rajya Sabha are same as for a member of Lok Sabha.
Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislatures rather than directly through the electorate by single transferable vote method.
Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must:
In addition, twelve members are nominated by the President of India having special knowledge in various areas like arts and science. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Constitution.
The Constitution of India places some restrictions on Rajya Sabha which makes Lok Sabha more powerful in certain areas in comparison.
Money bills, as defined in the Constitution of India Act 110, can only be introduced in Lok Sabha. When Lok Sabha passes a money bill, and transmits it to Rajya Sabha, Rajya Sabha has only fourteen days to return the bill (with or without amendments) to Lok Sabha. If Rajya Sabha fails to return the bill in fourteen days, that bill is deemed to have passed by both the Houses. Also, if Lok Sabha rejects any (or all) of the amendments proposed by Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of Parliament in the form Lok Sabha finally passes it. Hence, Rajya Sabha can not stall, or amend, a money bill without Lok Sabha 's concurrence on the same.
Article 108 provides for a joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament in certain cases. A joint sitting can be convened by the President of India when one house has either rejected a bill passed by the other house, has not taken any action on a bill transmitted to it by the other house for six months, or has disagreed to the amendments proposed by the Lok Sabha on a bill passed by it. Considering that the numerical strength of Lok Sabha is more than twice that of Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha tends to have a greater influence in a joint sitting of Parliament. A joint session is chaired by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Also, because the joint session is convened by the President on advice of the government, which already has a majority in Lok Sabha, the joint session is usually convened to get bills passed through a Rajya Sabha in which the government has a minority.
Joint sessions of Parliament are a rarity, and have been convened three times in last 69 years, for the purpose of passage of a specific legislative act, the latest time being in 2002:
Unlike the Lok Sabha, a member of the Rajya Sabha can not bring to the house a no - confidence motion against the government.
In Indian federal structure, Rajya Sabha is a representative of the States in the Union legislature (Hence the name, Council of States). Hence, Rajya Sabha is granted powers that protect the rights of States against the Union.
The Constitution empowers Parliament of India to make laws on the matters reserved for States (States List). However, this can only be done if Rajya Sabha first passes a resolution by two - thirds special majority granting such a power to the Union Parliament. The union government can not make a law on a matter reserved for states without any authorisation from Rajya Sabha.
Rajya Sabha, by a two - thirds super majority can pass a resolution empowering the Government of India to create more All - India Services common to both Union and States, including a judicial service.
Seats are allotted in proportion to the population of people of each state or union territory in such a manner that smaller states have slight advantage over more populous states. In addition, smaller Union Territories, which are not States and which do not have legislatures, do not have representation in Rajya Sabha. Hence, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli do not send any representatives to Rajya Sabha. 12 members are nominated by the President.
As per the Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, the Rajya Sabha was to consist of 216 members of which 12 members were to be nominated by the President and the remaining 204 elected to represent the States. The present strength, however, is 245 members of whom 233 are representatives of the states and union territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The twelve nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are persons who are eminent in particular fields, and are well known contributors in the particular field. A few examples of such nominated persons are cricketing icon Sachin Tendulkar, former RBI Governor Bimal Jalan and famous lyricist and poet Javed Akhtar. As of March 2014, each state or union territory specified in the first column of the following table, there shall be allotted the number of seats specified in the second column thereof opposite to that State or that union territory, as the case may be:
Rajya Sabha Secretariat (As of 23 October 2017):
Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) and the Deputy Chairman, there is also a position called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister - the prime minister if he is a member of the House, or another nominated minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row.
Besides the Leader of the House, who is leading the majority, there is also a Leader of the Opposition (LOP) -- leading the minority parties. The function was only recognized in the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act 1977. This is commonly the leader of the largest non-government party, and is recognized as such by the Chairman.
The following people have been the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha:
The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows: - 98. Secretariat of Parliament - Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.
The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following:
(i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) possible to Members of Rajya Sabha; (iv) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (vi) recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and (vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day - to - day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees. In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary - General, who holds the rank equivalent (16) to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary - General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat.
Rajya Sabha Television (RSTV) is a 24 hour a day, seven day a week parliamentary TV channel fully owned and operated by the Rajya Sabha. The channel is aimed at providing in - depth coverage and analysis of parliamentary affairs especially the functioning of and developments related to Rajya Sabha. During sessions of Parliament, apart from telecasting live coverage of the proceedings of Rajya Sabha, RSTV presents incisive analysis of the proceedings of the House as well as other day - to - day parliamentary events and developments.
|
who was in charge of rome when the consuls were away | Roman consul - wikipedia
A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic (509 to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the highest level of the cursus honorum (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired).
Each year, the citizens of Rome elected two consuls to serve jointly for a one - year term. The consuls alternated in holding imperium each month, and a consul 's imperium extended over Rome, Italy, and the provinces. However, after the establishment of the Empire (27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome 's republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme authority.
After the legendary expulsion of the last Etruscan King, Tarquin the Proud, a harsh ruler at the end of the Roman Kingdom, most of the powers and authority of the king were ostensibly given to the newly instituted consulship. This change in leadership came about when the king 's son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped the wife and daughter of powerful Roman nobles. A group of nobles, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, and with support of the Roman Army, expelled Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC. Originally, consuls were called praetors ("leader ''), referring to their duties as the chief military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of Consul was being used. Ancient writers usually derive the title consul from the Latin verb consulere, "to take counsel '', but this is most likely a later gloss of the term, which probably derives -- in view of the joint nature of the office -- from con - and sal -, "get together '' or from con - and sell - / sedl -, "sit down together with '' or "next to ''. In Greek, the title was originally rendered as στρατηγὸς ὕπατος, strategos hypatos ("the supreme general ''), and later simply as ὕπατος.
The consul was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC. During the 440s, the office was quite often replaced with the establishment of the Consular Tribunes, who were elected whenever the military needs of the state were significant enough to warrant the election of more than the two usual consuls. These remained in place until the office was abolished in 367 / 366 BC and the consulship was reintroduced.
Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administrative, legislative and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by the highest state officials. Consuls also read auguries, an essential step before leading armies into the field.
Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other 's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. It is thought that originally only patricians were eligible for the consulship. Consuls were elected by the Comitia Centuriata, which had an aristocratic bias in its voting structure which only increased over the years from its foundation. However, they formally assumed powers only after the ratification of their election in the older Comitia Curiata, which granted the consuls their imperium by enacting a law, the "lex curiata de imperio ''.
If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removed from office, another would be elected by the Comitia Centuriata to serve the remainder of the term as consul suffectus (suffect consul). A consul elected to start the year - called a consul ordinarius (ordinary consul) - held more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls (see consular dating).
According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians and only in 367 BC did plebeians win the right to stand for this supreme office, when the Lex Licinia Sextia provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was elected the following year. Nevertheless, the office remained largely in the hands of a few families as, according to Gelzer, only fifteen novi homines - "new men '' with no consular background - were elected to the consulship until the election of Cicero in 63 BC. Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the early Republic (see Conflict of the Orders), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. It is possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus, came from a plebeian family. Another possible explanation is that during the 5th century social struggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolized by a patrician elite.
During times of war, the primary qualification for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the cursus honorum, the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman who chose to pursue political power and influence. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla regulated the cursus by law, the minimum age of election to consul became, in effect, 41 years of age.
Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a proconsul, the Roman Governor of one of the (senatorial) provinces. The most commonly chosen province for the proconsulship was Cisalpine Gaul.
Throughout the early years of the Principate although the consuls were still formally elected by the Comitia Centuriata, they were in fact nominated by the princeps. As the years progressed, the distinction between the Comitia Centuriata and the Comitia Tributa (which elected the lower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared, and so for the purposes of the consular elections, there came to be just a single "an assembly of the people '' which elected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps.
The imperial consulate during the period of the High Empire (until the 3rd century) was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration -- only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome. It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others. Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, consuls, even without regard to the age requirements. For example, Emperor Honorius was given the consulship at birth. Cassius Dio states that Caligula intended to make his horse Incitatus consul, but was assassinated before he could do so.
The need for a pool of men to fill the consular positions forced Augustus to remodel the suffect consulate, allowing more than the two elected for the ordinary consulate. During the reigns of the Julio - Claudians, the ordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished their office mid-year, with the election for the suffect consuls occurring at the same time as that for the ordinary consuls. During reigns of the Flavian and Antonine emperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after a period of four months, and the elections were moved to 12 January of the year in which they were to hold office. Election of the consuls were transferred to the Senate during the Flavian or Antonine periods, although through to the 3rd century, the people were still called on to ratify the Senate 's selections.
The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process, and the allocation of this office to homines novi tended over time to devalue the office. However, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned. Consequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break - away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260 -- 274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins.
By the end of the 3rd century, much had changed. The loss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions, meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls. This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger. As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators -- the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor. All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by the final years of the 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded by the first decades of the 4th century.
One of the reforms of Constantine I (r. 306 -- 337) was to assign one of the consuls to the city of Rome, and the other to Constantinople. Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of Theodosius I (r. 379 -- 395), the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls -- although on occasion an emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. The consulship, bereft of any real power, continued to be a great honor, but the celebrations attending it -- above all the chariot races -- had come to involve considerable expense, which only a few citizens could afford, to the extent that part of the expense had to be covered by the state. In the 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparsely given, until it was allowed to lapse under Justinian I (r. 527 -- 565): the western consulship lapsed in 534, with Decius Paulinus the last holder, and the consulship of the East in 541, with Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius. Consular dating had already been abolished in 537, when Justinian introduced dating by the emperor 's regnal year and the indiction. In the eastern court, the appointment to consulship became a part of the rite of proclamation of a new emperor from Justin II (r. 565 -- 578) on, and is last attested in the proclamation of the future Constans II (r. 641 -- 668) as consul in 632. In the late 9th century, Emperor Leo the Wise (r. 886 -- 912) finally abolished consular dating with Novel 94. By that time, the Greek titles for consul and ex-consul, "hypatos '' and "apo hypaton '', had been transformed to relatively lowly honorary dignities.
In the west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowed upon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to Charles Martel, although he refused it. About 853, Alfred the Great, then a child aged four or five, was made a Roman consul by the Pope.
After the expulsion of the kings and the establishment of the Republic, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices: that of the consuls and the Rex Sacrorum. While the Rex Sacrorum inherited the kings ' position as high priest of the state, the consuls were given the civil and military responsibilities (imperium). However, to prevent abuse of the kingly power, the imperium was shared by two consuls, each of whom could veto the other 's actions.
The consuls were invested with the executive power of the state and headed the government of the Republic. Initially, the consuls held vast executive and judicial power. In the gradual development of the Roman legal system, however, some important functions were detached from the consulship and assigned to new officers. Thus, in 443 BC, the responsibility to conduct the census was taken from the consuls and given to the censors. The second function taken from the consulship was their judicial power. Their position as chief judges was transferred to the praetors in 366 BC. After this time, the consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate.
For the most part, power was divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the consuls were in the pomerium (the city of Rome), they were at the head of government, and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the tribunes of the plebeians, were subordinate to them, but retained independence of office. The internal machinery of the Republic was under the consuls ' superintendence. In order to allow the consuls greater authority in executing laws, the consuls had the right of summons and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgment. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates.
As part of their executive functions, the consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the assemblies. Sometimes, in great emergencies, they might even act on their own authority and responsibility. The consuls also served as the chief diplomat of the Roman state. Before any foreign ambassadors reached the Senate, they met with the consuls. The consul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and they alone carried on the negotiations between the Senate and foreign states.
The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. Each consul served as president of the Senate for a month. They could also summon any of the three Roman assemblies (Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the praetor urbanus.
Each consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve lictors, who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguards. Each lictor held a fasces, a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The rods symbolized the power of scourging, and the axe the power of capital punishment. When inside the pomerium, the lictors removed the axes from the fasces to show that a citizen could not be executed without a trial. Upon entering the Comitia Centuriata, the lictors would lower the fasces to show that the powers of the consuls derive from the people (populus romanus).
Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far more extensive in their role as commanders - in - chief of all Roman legions. It was in this function that the consuls were vested with full imperium. When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls conducted the levy in the Campus Martius. Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provided by Rome 's allies.
Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally.
Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestor who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men strong and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the Republic, Rome 's enemies were located in central Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome 's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became lengthier. Rome was a warlike society, and very seldom did not wage war. So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome 's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to be granted a triumph.
The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as Scipio Africanus was accused by Cato in 205 BC).
Abuse of power by consuls was prevented with each consul given the power to veto his colleague. Therefore, except in the provinces as commanders - in - chief where each consul 's power was supreme, the consuls could only act not against each other 's determined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague, which, if successful, would see the sentence overturned. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually perform the office 's duties every month and could act without direct interference. In the next month, the consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the consular term.
Another point which acted as a check against consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office.
There were also three other restrictions on consular power. Their term in office was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between consulships.
After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Senate to a province to administer as governor. The provinces to which each consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before the end of his consulship. Transferring his consular imperium to proconsular Imperium, the consul would become a proconsul and governor of one (or several) of Rome 's many provinces. As a proconsul, his imperium was limited to only a specified province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular imperium in any other province was illegal. Also, a proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years.
In times of crisis, when Rome 's territory was in immediate danger, a dictator was appointed by the consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate. While the dictator held office, the imperium of the consuls was subordinate to the dictator.
After Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC with the establishment of the principate, the consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities under the Roman Empire. Though still officially the highest office of the state, with the emperor 's superior imperium they were merely a symbol of Rome 's republican heritage. One of the two consular positions was often occupied by emperors themselves and eventually became reserved solely for the Emperor. However, the imperial consuls still maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate, exercising this right at the pleasure of the Emperor. They partially administered justice in extraordinary cases, and presented games in the Circus Maximus and all public solemnities in honor of the Emperor at their own expense. After the expiration of their offices, the ex-consuls (proconsuls) went on to govern one of the provinces that were administered by the Senate. They usually served terms of three to five years.
Roman dates were customarily kept according to the names of the two consuls who took office that year, much like a regnal year in a monarchy. For instance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus '', since the two colleagues in the consulship were Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus -- although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar ''. The date the consuls took office varied: from 222 BC to 153 BC they took office 15 March, and from 153 BC onwards it was on 1 January. The practice of dating years ab urbe condita (from the supposed foundation date of Rome) was less frequently used.
In Latin, the ablative absolute construction is frequently used to express the date, such as "M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus '', translated literally as "Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pupius Piso being the consuls '', which appears in Caesar 's De Bello Gallico.
The word consul is abbreviated as COS. The disappearance of the N is explained by the fact that in Classical Latin an N before a fricative is pronounced as a nasalization of the previous vowel (meaning consul is pronounced / kõːsul /).
Also, consul is pronounced (ko: sul), as shown in ancient writing, "COSOL '', whereas the classical spelling (consul) seems like an etymological reminder of the nasal consonant. If a senator held the consulship twice then: COS becomes COS II; thrice becomes COS III, etc.
For a complete list of Roman consuls, see:
|
who has played in the most world series | World Series - Wikipedia
The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best - of - seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner 's Trophy. As the series is played in October (and occasionally November), during the fall season in North America, it is sometimes referred to as the Fall Classic.
Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win - loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2016, the World Series has been contested 112 times, with the AL winning 64 and the NL winning 48.
The 2016 World Series took place between the Cleveland Indians and the Chicago Cubs. Seven games were played, with the Cubs victorious after game seven, played in Cleveland. The final score was 8 -- 7; the game went into extra innings after a tied score of 6 -- 6. This was the third World Series won by the Cubs but only their first since 1908, a period of 108 years. With the Cubs ' record - length title drought finally ended, the Indians ' championship dry spell of 68 years and counting -- the Indians last won the Series in 1948 -- is currently the longest - running Series title absence.
In the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia / Kansas City / Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York / San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 19 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.
As of 2017, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1998, 1999, and 2000 -- the longest such drought in Major League Baseball history.
Until the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871 -- 1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern World Series, with the terms arranged through negotiation of the owners of the championship teams beforehand. The number of games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five). Both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.
The series was promoted and referred to as "The Championship of the United States '', "World 's Championship Series '', or "World 's Series '' for short. In his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed.
The 19th - century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th - century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th - century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th - century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. (For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists "Baseball World 's Championships 1884 -- 1928 '' in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists "Baseball World Championships 1903 -- 1942 ''.)
Following the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half - season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893 -- and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969 -- the pennant was awarded to the first - place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894 -- 1897, the league champions played the runners - up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle - Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900.
In 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy (in 1902, the top teams instead opted to compete in a football championship).
After two years of bitter competition and player raiding (in 1902, the AL and NL champions even went so far as to challenge each other to a tournament in football after the end of the baseball season), the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World 's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.
The 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL 's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL 's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants ' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the "inferiority '' of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants ' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already "world champions '' since they were the champions of the "only real major league ''. At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World 's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.
During the winter of 1904 -- 1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the "Brush Rules '', under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from "fixing '' early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now - official and compulsory World 's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.
With the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw 's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A 's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players ' strike.
The list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2 -- 3 -- 2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2 -- 3 -- 2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3 -- 4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions; in 1944, the normal pattern was followed because both teams were based in the same home stadium.
Gambling and game - fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball 's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.
The Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph "Sport '' Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting. 324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series ' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).
During the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the "World 's Serious ''. The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.
The "Black Sox '' were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game 's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.
The events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the "live ball '' era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs had to wait over a century (until the 2016 season) for their next trophy. They did not appear in the Fall Classic from 1945 until 2016, the longest drought of any MLB club.
The New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team 's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954 -- 1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics ' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936 -- 1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.
In an 18 - year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.
In the years 1947, 1949, 1951 -- 1953, and 1955 -- 1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.
In 1958, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long - time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.
The Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.
In 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A 's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972 -- 1974. In 1974, the A 's played the Dodgers in the first all - California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).
The Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A 's again went to three straight world series, from 1988 -- 1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all - California series as the A 's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series ' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (the most - recent all - California series), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).
Prior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the "pennant winner '') based on the best win - loss record at the end of the regular season.
A structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best - of - five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best - of - seven.
The National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best - of - seven, are always played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home - field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.
MLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit 's Tiger Stadium.)
During this seven - year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book - ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.
However, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the "amazing '' eight - year - old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers ' back - to - back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.
Game 6 of the 1975 World Series is regarded by most as one of the greatest World Series games ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail - biting turns of events, and a game - winning walk - off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 -- 6 Red Sox victory.
The National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak - hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular - season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even - numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine - man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds ' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League 's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion 's park but not the NL champion 's. Thus, the DH rule 's use or non-use can affect the performance of the home team.
The 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire - to - wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.
The 1988 World Series is remembered for the iconic home run by the Los Angeles Dodgers ' Kirk Gibson with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning. The Dodgers were huge underdogs against the 104 - win Oakland Athletics, who had swept the Boston Red Sox in the ALCS. Baseball 's top relief pitcher, Dennis Eckersley, closed out all four games in the ALCS, and he appeared ready to do the same in Game 1 against a Dodgers team trailing 4 - 3 in the ninth. After getting the first two outs, Eckersley walked Mike Davis of the Dodgers, who were playing without Gibson, their best position player and the NL MVP. Gibson had injured himself in the NLCS and was expected to miss the entire World Series. Yet, despite not being able to walk without a noticeable limp, Gibson surprised all in attendance at Dodger Stadium (and all watching on TV) by pinch - hitting. After two quick strikes and then working the count full, Gibson hit a home run to right, inspiring iconic pronouncements by two legendary broadcasters calling the game, Vin Scully (on TV) and Jack Buck (on radio). On NBC, as Gibson limped around the bases, Scully famously exclaimed, "the impossible has happened! '' and on radio, Buck equally famously exclaimed, "I do n't believe what I just saw! '' Gibson 's home run set the tone for the series, as the Dodgers went on to beat the A 's 4 games to 1. The severity of Gibson 's injury prevented him from playing in any of the remaining games.
When the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC 's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5: 04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface - wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say "I 'll tell you what, we 're having an earth -- '' before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four - game sweep.
World Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come - from - behind homer, after Joe Carter 's three - run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8 -- 6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth - inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.
In 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best - of - five playoff round (the "division series ''), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second - best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best - of - seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players ' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team can not get home - field advantage.
After the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite World War I, the global influenza pandemic of 1918 -- 1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America 's involvement in World War II, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.
As the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor 's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus the commissioner, responsible for ensuring the integrity and protecting the welfare of the game, was an interested party rather than a neutral arbiter, and baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without an independent commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.
The previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74 -- 40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos / Nationals have never played in a World Series.)
The labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.
The 2001 World Series was the first World Series to end in November, due to the week - long delay in the regular season after the September 11 attacks. Game 4 had begun on Oct. 31 but went into extra innings and ended early on the morning of Nov. 1, the first time the Series had been played in November. Yankee shortstop Derek Jeter won the game with a 12th inning walk - off home run and was dubbed "Mr. November '' by elements of the media -- echoing the media 's designation of Reggie Jackson as "Mr. October '' for his slugging achievements during the 1977 World Series.
With the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.
Prior to 2003, home - field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All - Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home - field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All - Star Game. Originally implemented as a two - year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice was extended.
The American League had won every All - Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home - field advantage from 2002, when it also had home - field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011, 2014, and 2016 World Series have gone the full seven games.
This rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home - field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All - Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees ' shortstop 's final All - Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season.
As Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:
"So now we have a game that 's not real baseball determining which league hosts Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 in the World Series. It 's not a game if pitchers throw one inning. It 's not a game if managers try to get everyone on a bloated roster into the game. It 's not a game if every franchise, no matter how wretched, has to put a player on the team... If the game is going to count, tell the managers to channel their inner Connie Mack and go for it. ''
However, within the last seven seasons, home - field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Since 2014, the home team has not won the deciding game of a World Series.
The San Francisco Giants won the World Series in 2010, 2012, and 2014 while failing to qualify to play in the postseason in the intervening seasons.
The Texas Rangers were twice only one strike away from winning their first World Series title in 2011, but the St. Louis Cardinals scored late twice in Game 6 to force a Game 7.
The Kansas City Royals reached the World Series in 2014, which was their first appearance in the postseason since winning the series in 1985. At the time, it was the longest postseason drought in baseball. They lost in 7 games to the Giants. The following season, the Royals finished with the American League 's best record, and won a second consecutive American League pennant. They defeated the New York Mets in the World Series 4 - 1, capturing their first title in 30 years. The 2015 contest was the first time that two expansion clubs met for the Fall Classic.
In 2016, the Chicago Cubs ended their 108 - year long drought without a World Series title by defeating the Cleveland Indians, rallying from a 3 -- 1 Series deficit in the process. That extended Cleveland 's World Series title drought to 68 years and counting -- the Indians last won the Series in 1948 -- now the longest title drought in the majors.
Beginning in 2017, home field advantage in the World Series will be awarded to the league champion team with the better regular season win - loss record. If both league champions have the same record, the second tie - breaker would be head - to - head record, and if that does not resolve it, the third tie - breaker would be best divisional record.
American League (AL) teams have won 64 of the 112 World Series played (57 %). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 24 % of all series played and 42 % of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series, accounting for 10 % of all series played and 23 % of the 48 National League victories. At least one New York team has been in 54 World Series (48 %) of Series played. When the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.
The number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen "expansion teams '' joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos / Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45 %) in which they have played, which is 9 % of all 112 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.
This information is up to date through the present time:
When two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already - existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams playing in the same area but in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.
The first city to host an entire World Series was Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.
Fourteen "Subway Series '' have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League 's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically "subway series '' since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The Yankees finally beat the Giants the following year, their first in their brand - new Yankee Stadium, and won the two teams ' three subsequent Fall Classic match - ups in 1936, 1937 and 1951. The Yankees faced Brooklyn seven times in October, winning their first five meetings in 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952 and 1953, before losing to the Dodgers in 1955, Brooklyn 's sole World Championship. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees again beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California (although the Yankees subsequently met and beat the now - San Francisco Giants in 1962, and played the now - Los Angeles Dodgers four times, losing to them in a four - game sweep in 1963, beating them back - to - back in 1977 and 1978 and losing to them in 1981). An all - New York Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.
The last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 "Streetcar Series '' between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman 's Park.
The 1989 World Series, sometimes called the "Bay Bridge Series '' or the "BART Series '' (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A 's swept the Giants in four games (the earthquake disruption of the Series almost completely overshadowed the fact that the 1989 Series represented a resumption after many decades of the October rivalry between the Giants and the A 's dating back to the early years of the 20th Century, when the then - New York Giants had defeated the then - Philadelphia Athletics in 1905, and had lost to them in 1911 and again in 1913).
Currently there are four metropolitan areas that have two Major League Baseball teams -- New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Of the four, only Los Angeles has not hosted a cross-town World Series. Such a contest would pit the Dodgers against the Angels.
Two cross-town World Series match - ups were formerly possible but did not occur -- the Boston Red Sox vs. the Boston Braves, and the Philadelphia Phillies vs. the Philadelphia Athletics. (The Braves moved to Milwaukee in 1953, and the Athletics moved to Kansas City in 1955.)
Below is a chronological list of World Series played between teams from the same metropolitan area, with the winning teams listed in boldface.
The historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics - Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants ' series against the then - Anaheim Angels in 2002.
Other than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I - 70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.
Going into the 2017 season, there has never been an in - state World Series between the teams in Ohio (Cleveland Indians and Cincinnati Reds), Florida (Tampa Bay Rays and Miami Marlins), Texas (Texas Rangers and Houston Astros -- who now both play in the American League since the Astros changed leagues in 2013, making any future joint World Series appearance an impossibility unless one of the teams switches leagues), or Pennsylvania (the Philadelphia Phillies and the Pittsburgh Pirates have been traditional National League rivals going back to the late 19th Century). Neither the Phillies nor the Pirates ever faced the Athletics in October during the latter team 's tenure in Philadelphia, through 1954. The Boston Red Sox never similarly faced the Braves while the latter team played in Boston through 1952. There also was never an all - Canada World Series between the Toronto Blue Jays and the former Montreal Expos, who never won a National League pennant when they played in that Canadian city from 1969 through 2004. The Expos became the Washington Nationals in 2005 -- raising the possibility of a potential future "I - 95 World Series '' between the National League team and the AL 's Baltimore Orioles, who play just 50 miles to the north of Washington. Finally, the Los Angeles and / or Anaheim Angels have never faced off in October against either the Dodgers or against the San Diego Padres for bragging rights in Southern California, although all three of those teams have appeared in the World Series at various times.
At the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the "original sixteen ''.
When the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City; Philadelphia; Schenectady / Albany, New York; Washington, D.C. and surrounding suburbs / environs. In 1948, games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By 1949, World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By 1950, World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. 1951 marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, 1955 marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color.
^ *: Not currently broadcasting Major League Baseball.
^ * *: Per the current broadcast agreement, the World Series will be televised by Fox through 2021.
^ * * *: Gillette, which sponsored World Series telecasts exclusively from roughly 1947 to 1965 (prior to 1966, the Series announcers were chosen by the Gillette Company along with the Commissioner of Baseball and NBC), paid for airtime on DuMont 's owned - and - operated Pittsburgh affiliate, WDTV (now KDKA - TV) to air the World Series. In the meantime, Gillette also bought airtime on ABC, CBS, and NBC. More to the point, in some cities, the World Series was broadcast on three different stations at once.
^ * * * *: NBC was originally scheduled to televise the entire 1995 World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 Series (which had been slated for ABC, who last televised a World Series in 1989), coverage ended up being split between the two networks. Game 5 is, to date, the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would 've televised it). This was the only World Series to be produced under the "Baseball Network '' umbrella (a revenue sharing joint venture between Major League Baseball, ABC, and NBC). In July 1995, both networks announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six - year - long venture. NBC would next cover the 1997 (NBC 's first entirely since 1988) and 1999 World Series over the course of a five - year - long contract, in which Fox would cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996, 1998, and 2000).
Despite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major - league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as "world champions of baseball ''.
The United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.
By the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America 's high - salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba 's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half - century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time "post '' them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player 's request.
Several tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball and sanctioned by the sport 's world governing body, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The WBSC has since added the Premier12, a tournament also involving national teams; the first event was held in 2015, and is planned to be held every four years (in the middle of the World Baseball Classic cycle). The World Baseball Classic is held in March and the Premier12 is held in November, allowing both events to feature top - level players from all nations. The predecessor to the WBSC as the sport 's international governing body, the International Baseball Federation, also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. However, because the World Cup was held during the Northern Hemisphere summer, during the playing season of almost all top - level leagues, its teams did not feature the best talent from each nation. As a result, baseball fans paid little or no attention to the World Cup and generally disregarded its results. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.
Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston
Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all - Chicago World Series to date)
Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920
Washington 's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)
The Chicago Cubs celebrate winning the 2016 World Series, which ended the club 's 108 - year championship drought.
|
how long has grays anatomy been on tv | Grey 's Anatomy - wikipedia
Grey 's Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement on March 27, 2005. The series focuses on the fictional lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they evolve into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is a play on Gray 's Anatomy, a human anatomy textbook by Henry Gray.
The show 's premise originated with creator Shonda Rhimes, who serves as an executive producer, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although it is set in Seattle at the fictional Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital (formerly Seattle Grace) it is primarily filmed in Los Angeles, California. The show was originally titled Complications, a reference to the complicated medical procedures and personal lives of the characters.
The series was designed to be racially diverse, utilizing a color - blind casting technique. It revolves around the title character, Dr. Meredith Grey, played by Ellen Pompeo. The original cast consisted of nine star - billed actors: Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, Justin Chambers, T.R. Knight, Chandra Wilson, James Pickens Jr., Isaiah Washington and Patrick Dempsey. The cast has undergone major changes through the show 's run, with many members leaving and being replaced by others. In its twelfth season, the show had a large ensemble of sixteen actors, including four from the original cast (Meredith Grey, Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey, and Richard Weber).
On February 10, 2017, ABC renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a fourteenth season, which will premiere in the fall of 2017. The series ' success catapulted such long - running cast members as Pompeo, Dempsey and Oh to worldwide recognition; they were among the top five highest earning television actors in 2013.
Grey 's Anatomy, even in its thirteenth season, is ABC 's highest - rated drama; although its ratings have fallen over the course of its run (it was once among the overall top 10 shows in the United States), it is still one of the highest rated shows among the 18 -- 49 demographic, and the No. 3 drama on all of broadcast television.
Grey 's Anatomy has been well received by critics throughout much of its run, and has been included in various critics 's year - end top ten lists. Since its inception, the show has been described by the media outlets as a television "phenomenon '' or a "juggernaut '', owing to its longevity and dominant ratings. It is considered to have had a significant impact on popular culture and has received numerous awards, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama. It has received multiple Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including two for Outstanding Drama Series.
The series was the highest revenue earning show on television, in terms of advertising, in the 2007 - 08 season; in 2017, it was ranked tenth on the list. It is the longest running scripted primetime show currently airing on ABC, the second - longest scripted primetime ABC show ever, and the second - longest primetime medical drama ever.
The series follows Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), the daughter of an esteemed general surgeon named Ellis Grey, following her acceptance into the residency program at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. During her time as a resident, Grey works alongside fellow doctors Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), and George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), who each struggle to balance their personal lives with the hectic work and training schedules assigned to them. They are overseen during their internship by Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), a senior resident who works beneath Grey 's love - interest Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), the head of neurosurgery; Yang 's fiancee Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington), the head of cardio; and Ellis Grey 's ex-lover Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), the Chief of Surgery and attending general surgeon. The residents are later joined by Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) and April Kepner (Sarah Drew), former Mercy - West residents who join Seattle Grace following an administrative merger in the sixth season. Throughout the first six seasons Burke, O'Malley and Stevens all depart the series. In addition to Webber, Burke, and Shepherd, the surgical wing is primarily supervised by Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), as head of OB / GYN, neonatal, and fetal surgery; Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), a resident who later becomes head of orthopedic surgery, who left Seattle at the end of the twelfth season; Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), as head of plastics; Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), as head of trauma; Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), as head of pediatric surgery, and later head of fetal surgery; Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), as head of cardio; Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), as head of cardio; and Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone), Derek 's sister who is hired to replace him as head of neuro.
Later additions to the residency program include Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Meredith 's half - sister. Lexie Grey is killed alongside Mark Sloan in the season eight finale; Leah Murphy (Tessa Ferrer) who departs near the end of the tenth season, but returns during the thirteenth; Shane Ross (Gaius Charles), who departs alongside Yang in the tenth - season finale; Stephanie Edwards (Jerrika Hinton), who resigns during season thirteen; Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington), a doctor who begins a romantic relationship with Karev; Andrew Deluca (Giacomo Gianniotti), the love - interest of Meredith 's half sister Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary), who also serves as head of cardio; and Benjamin Warren (Jason George), an anesthesiologist - turned - resident, who has to balance his wife Miranda Bailey 's new role as Chief of Surgery with his own desire to succeed. Season twelve sees the arrival of attending cardio surgeon Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson). In season thirteen, the hospital sees a shakeup when attending sports medicine / orthopedic surgeon Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) is hired as an educational consultant wanting to revamp the residency program. She is fired following the explosion at the hospital.
Shonda Rhimes wanted to make a show that she would enjoy watching, and thought it would be interesting to create a show about "smart women competing against one another ''. When asked how she decided to develop a medical drama, Rhimes responded:
The series was pitched to ABC Entertainment, who gave the green light, and the show was picked up as a mid-season replacement for Boston Legal in the 2005 television season. Francie Calfo, executive vice president of development at ABC Entertainment, commented that ABC was looking for a medical show that was unlike the others airing at the time. She pointed out that "(m) edical shows are hard, and it was hard trying to figure out where ours could be different. But where everybody else is speeding up their medical shows, (Rhimes) found a way to slow it down, so you get to know the characters. There 's definitely a strong female appeal to it. ''
Rhimes initially conceived Grey 's Anatomy as a statement against racism. She endeavored to create a show that featured a racially diverse cast that allowed viewers to relate to characters regardless of race. While creating characters, as well as writing the first script, the series ' writers had no character descriptions in mind, and hoped to cast the best actor available for each part. Rhimes has explained that if the network did not allow her to create characters this way, she would have been hesitant about moving forward with the series. Female roles in particular were developed as multi-faceted characters. Rhimes offered her insight on this, "I wanted to create a world in which you felt as if you were watching very real women. Most of the women I saw on TV did n't seem like people I actually knew. They felt like ideas of what women are. They never got to be nasty or competitive or hungry or angry. They were often just the loving wife or the nice friend. But who gets to be the bitch? Who gets to be the three - dimensional woman? ''
Before the series debuted on March 27, 2005, there were a few early releases to close friends and family of the producers and actors. The show was scheduled to run in the Boston Legal time slot for four weeks. However, high ratings and viewership led to it holding onto the slot for the remainder of the season. ABC Entertainment President, Steve McPherson, commented on the scheduling change: "Ultimately we decided that, without having adequate lead time or marketing dollars to devote to moving either show so late in the season, we 'd continue to let (Grey 's Anatomy) build on its tremendous momentum through May. '' The show 's title, Grey 's Anatomy, was devised as a play on words: a reference to both Henry Gray 's medical textbook, Gray 's Anatomy, and the title character Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Prior to broadcast, it was announced that the show 's title would change from Grey 's Anatomy to Complications, although ultimately this did not come to pass.
Grey 's Anatomy is produced by ShondaLand, in association with The Mark Gordon Company, and ABC Studios (formerly Touchstone Television). Rhimes, Betsy Beers, Krista Vernoff, Mark Gordon, Rob Corn, and Mark Wilding have all served as executive producers throughout the course of the series. In subsequent seasons, Steve Mulholland, Kent Hodder, Nancy Bordson, James D. Parriott, and Peter Horton have also been executive producers, with Allan Heinberg joining the show in 2006 in this role. As of season eight, the current executive producers are Rhimes, Beers, Gordon, Vernoff, Corn, Wilding, and Heinberg.
Rhimes is the series head writer, or its ' most prolific writer. She often promotes the show by answering fan questions on her Twitter account. Other members of the writing staff are Vernoff, Wilding, Peter Nowalk, Stacy McKee, William Harper, Zoanne Clack, Tony Phelan, Joan Rater, and Debora Cahn. From the second through seventh seasons, the writers maintained a blog entitled Grey Matter, where the writer of an episode discussed the motives behind the writing. Directors vary by episode, with Rob Corn directing most frequently, followed by Tom Verica. Horton, Edward Ornelas, and Jessica Yu have also directed a substantial number of episodes. Cast members Chandra Wilson and Kevin McKidd have both directed multiple episodes.
Grey 's Anatomy has been edited by Susan Vaill since the show 's inception, and David Greenspan was named an editor in 2006. Casting directors Linda Lowy and John Brace have been a part of the production team since 2005. Production design is led by Donald Lee Harris, assisted by art director Brian Harms, and costume design is led by Mimi Melgaard. Working alongside Melgaard, Thomas Houchins supervises costumes, Ellen Vieira is the makeup artist, and Jerilynn Stevens serves as a hair stylist. The Director of Photography is Herbert Davis. The music coordinator is Danny Lux. Karen Lisa Pike, M.D. is the on - set medical consultant, alongside Linda Klein, a RN. The production staff is part of a Grey 's Anatomy softball team that competes against other television shows, such as CSI: Crime Scene Investigation.
Grey 's Anatomy used a color - blind casting technique, resulting in a racially diverse ensemble. Each role was cast without the character 's races being pre-determined, keeping Rhimes ' vision of diversity. The production staff began casting with the program 's title character, Meredith Grey, which Rhimes stated was a difficult role to cast. "I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile, '' said Rhimes, "and after a while, they were like, ' We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile. '' The next to be cast, Sandra Oh (Dr. Cristina Yang), was initially invited to audition for the character of Bailey, but pressed to read for the role of Cristina instead. Many actors read for the role of Dr. Derek Shepherd, but when Patrick Dempsey read for the part, "he was just perfect '', according to Rhimes.
The only character developed with a racial description in mind was Dr. Miranda Bailey, who is portrayed by Chandra Wilson. Her character was written as a tiny blonde with curly hair, but when Wilson began speaking, Rhimes reported: "(Wilson) is exactly who Miranda is. '' James Pickens Jr. was selected to appear as Dr. Richard Webber in the series ' pilot and first season. Katherine Heigl wanted to portray Dr. Izzie Stevens as a brunette, but was requested to retain her natural blonde for the part. Isaiah Washington, who portrayed Dr. Preston Burke, initially read for the role of Shepherd, but was cast as Burke, because the original actor to play Burke had to withdraw. T.R. Knight signed on for the pilot as Dr. George O'Malley, expecting that the role might be short - lived, because he liked that the character was multi-faceted. Rounding out the season one cast was Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev.
The second season marked the introduction of Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) and Dr. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez). They were initially cast as recurring characters, but both were given star billing at the opening of the third season. Ramirez was cast after ABC executives offered her a role in the network show of her choice, Dane had previously auditioned unsuccessfully for a role in the pilot episode. Dr. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) also joined the show in season two, after making a guest appearance in season one. In October 2006, Washington allegedly insulted Knight with a homophobic slur, during an on - set altercation with Dempsey, and ABC terminated Washington 's contract at the end of the third season. Washington also made a guest appearance in season 10. At the conclusion of the third season, Walsh also departed the show to pursue the Grey 's Anatomy spin - off, Private Practice, but continues to make guest appearances.
Chyler Leigh joined the cast as a main character in the fourth season as Dr. Lexie Grey, Lexie had appeared as a guest star in the final two episodes of the third season. On the selection of Leigh for the role of Lexie, Rhimes said: "Chyler stood out... It felt like she could be Meredith 's sister, but she had a depth that was very interesting. '' Dr. Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), who first appeared on Grey 's Anatomy in the second season, became a series regular in the fourth season. Shortly after the announcement that Smith would be a regular member of the cast, Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Ausiello, reported that her character, Hahn, would depart from Grey 's Anatomy on November 6, 2008. E! Online 's Kristin Dos Santos asserted that Smith 's dismissal from the show had been forced by the ABC network, as part of an attempt to "de-gay '' Grey 's Anatomy, but Rhimes countered these claims, saying that "we did not find that the magic and chemistry with Brooke 's character would sustain in the long run ''.
Season five introduced actor Kevin McKidd (Dr. Owen Hunt), who was signed as a series regular after originally being cast for a specific story arc. In addition, Jessica Capshaw (Dr. Arizona Robbins) was originally introduced for a three episode arc, but received a contract extension until the end of the season and then became a series regular in the sixth season. Knight departed the show at the conclusion of season five, citing an unhappiness with the development and lack of screen time for his character. Directly following Knight 's departure, it was reported by Entertainment Weekly that Heigl had not returned to the set as scheduled after her maternity leave, and it was later confirmed that Heigl would not return to the show at all.
Kim Raver, who was cast as recurring character Dr. Teddy Altman in the sixth season, was given star billing later in the season. Sarah Drew (Dr. April Kepner) and Jesse Williams (Dr. Jackson Avery), who both made their series debuts as recurring characters in the sixth season, received star billing in the seventh.
The six original actors ' contracts expired after season eight, but in May 2012, Pompeo, Oh, Dempsey, Chambers, Wilson, and Pickens renewed their contracts with the show for another two years. At the conclusion of the eighth season, Leigh 's character departed from the show at Leigh 's request, and with Rhimes ' agreement. Raver 's character was also written out of the show during the season eight finale, and Rhimes stated that Raver was offered a contract renewal, but declined. In July 2012, Dane confirmed that he was departing the show to pursue other projects; he made his final appearances in the first two episodes of the ninth season. With the start of season 10, Camilla Luddington, Jerrika Hinton, Gaius Charles & Tessa Ferrer were introduced to the show as series regulars. They were first introduced to the show in season 9 as new interns. On August 13, 2013, Oh announced that the show 's tenth season would be her final season. In March 2014 it was announced that Isaiah Washington, who portrayed Preston Burke in the first three seasons of the show, would make a guest appearance to coincide with the departure of series regular Sandra Oh, his former on - screen love interest. As of March 25, 2014, both Charles and Ferrer 's contracts were not renewed for season 11. On May 2, 2014 it was announced that, in addition to Pompeo and Dempsey, all original remaining cast members -- aside from Sandra Oh -- signed two year deals, extending their contracts through seasons 11 and 12. Despite joining the series in its second season, Sara Ramirez is on the same negotiation schedule as the first - season cast and has also inked a new two - year deal.
Rhimes considered setting the medical drama in her hometown, Chicago, but eventually decided to go with Seattle, to distinguish Grey 's Anatomy from the Chicago -- based ER.
Fisher Plaza, which is the headquarters building of the former Fisher Communications (since merged into Sinclair Broadcasting Group) and SBG 's ABC affiliated KOMO radio and television stations in Seattle, is used for some exterior shots of Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital. In particular, air ambulances land on the KOMO - TV newscopter 's helipad. This suggests the hospital is close to the Space Needle (which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza), the Seattle Monorail, and other local landmarks. However, the hospital used for most other exterior and a few interior shots is not in Seattle; these scenes are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills, California. The exterior of Meredith Grey 's house, also known as the Intern House, is real. In the show, the address of Grey 's home is 613 Harper Lane, but in real life there is no such place. The actual home is located at 303 W. Comstock St., Seattle, Washington. Most scenes are taped at Prospect Studios in Los Feliz, just east of Hollywood, where the Grey 's Anatomy set occupies six sound stages. Some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle. Several props used are working medical equipment, including the MRI machine. When asked about operating room scenes, Sarah Drew offered this:
We work with Bovine organs, which is cow 's organs. The smell is repulsive and makes us all gag. And we use an actual soldering tool to solder the organs. It smells like burning flesh. There 's also a lot of silicone and blood matter, red jello mixed with blood and chicken fat. It 's pretty gross.
Costumes are used to differentiate between attending surgeons, who wear navy blue scrubs, and residents, who wear light blue scrubs. The series is filmed with a single - camera setup, as are many dramas. Grey 's Anatomy is often filmed using the "walk and talk '' filming technique, popularized on television by series such as St. Elsewhere, ER, and The West Wing.
Grey 's Anatomy follows the lives of surgical interns and residents at the fictional Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital (formerly Seattle Grace Hospital, Season 1 -- 6, Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, Season 6 -- 9, and then Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital, Season 9 -- present), as they gradually evolve into seasoned doctors, with the help of their competent mentors. Every installment, typically, commences with a voice - over narrative from Meredith Grey or a season regular, foreshadowing the theme of the episode. Each season tends to represent the physicians ' academic year, with each completed year qualifying the residents at a level higher in the surgical field. The season will always end with a finale, typically involving a tragic event such as a death or character departure. Most installments revolve around the doctors ' everyday lives as surgeons, but the show puts an emphasis on their personal, rather than professional, lives. The series sets aside medical ethic concerns to focus on character development and relationships. Although the physicians treat the illnesses of their patients, often through complex surgeries, their primary motivation is customarily praise and competition.
The residents initially arrive at the hospital each morning and argue over who will care for a certain patient that arrives each day. A hospital superior is in charge of assigning cases, often translating to tense feelings between the residents and their superiors. Episodes migrate back and forth from the doctors interacting with their patients, and with their co-workers. Once assigned a case, each doctor diagnoses the patient, with the help of his or her attending physician, which usually leads to surgery. The surgeons tend to form personal connections with their patients, with a patient often conveying a message to his or her doctor, which unintentionally relates to the doctor 's private life. The show displays the growth of relationships between the doctors, either friendly or sexual, often stemming to a clash between their personal and professional lives. Emotional scenes are often accompanied by an indie rock background song, something that has become a hallmark of the series. At the conclusion of each episode, one of the characters delivers another voice - over, typically contrasting or following up on their initial one.
* ^ 1 Katherine Heigl is credited as a main character from 1x01 to 6x18. From 6x19 she is not credited as a main character and does not appear. * ^ 2 In Season 9, Eric Dane only appears in 9x01 and 9x02. From 9x03 he is not credited as a main character and does not appear. * ^ 3 Brooke Smith is credited as a main character from 4x05 to 5x07. From 5x08 she is not credited as a main character and does not appear. * ^ 4 In season 6, Kim Raver is credited as a main character from 6x19 until the end of the season.
The five characters who are first introduced in the series premiere, as surgical interns, are Grey, Karev, O'Malley, Stevens, and Yang. They are initially mentored by Bailey, a senior resident who becomes the hospital 's Chief Resident, and later an attending general surgeon, in season six. The surgical program is initially headed by the Chief of Surgery, Richard Webber, who has a pre-existing personal relationship with Meredith, having had an affair with her mother when Meredith was a child. In Webber 's employ are attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd, dubbed ' McDreamy ' by the residents, and attending cardiothoracic surgeon Preston Burke. Shepherd is introduced as Meredith 's love interest, while Burke begins a relationship with Yang.
Introduced in the show 's second season are obstetrician - gynecologist and neonatal surgeon, Addison Montgomery, plastic surgeon Mark Sloan (nicknamed ' McSteamy ' by the interns), from New York, and orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres. Montgomery is Shepherd 's wife who arrives in Seattle seeking reconciliation with him, Sloan is Shepherd 's former best friend, who aided the breakdown of his marriage by having an affair with Montgomery, while Torres is introduced as a love - interest, and eventual wife for O'Malley. The penultimate episode of season three introduces Lexie Grey, Meredith 's half - sister who unexpectedly decides to pursue her internship at Seattle Grace Hospital after her mother 's sudden death, and begins an on - again, off - again relationship with Sloan. Burke and Yang, having been engaged, endeavor to plan their wedding, while Montgomery departs the show at the conclusion of the third season, relocating to California, seeking a new life. The season three finale shows Burke 's exit from the show, after leaving Yang at the altar on their wedding day.
Grey, Yang, Karev, and Stevens are all promoted to residents, in the season four premiere, while O'Malley is forced to repeat his internship year, following his failing of the intern exam. Subsequently, Torres and O'Malley divorce one another, due to him having a sexual affair with Stevens, initially concealing it from Torres. Early in the fourth season, cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn becomes Torres ' love interest. During the fifth season, Hahn departs from the series, and O'Malley retakes his intern exam, passing, joining his fellow physicians as a resident. Two new characters are introduced, former United States Army trauma surgeon Dr. Owen Hunt, and pediatric surgeon Dr. Arizona Robbins. Hunt becomes a love - interest for Yang, while Robbins becomes a love - interest for Torres. When Stevens is diagnosed with stage four metastatic melanoma, she and Karev get married at the conclusion of the fifth season. In addition, Meredith and Shepherd marry, with their vows written on a post-it note.
O'Malley dies in the premiere of the sixth season, due to injuries sustained from being hit by a bus, and Stevens later departs Seattle after being diagnosed with cancer and following a lack of communication between her then husband Karev following the Seattle Grace merger with Mercy West. Several new characters are introduced as Seattle Grace Hospital merges with Mercy West. Residents April Kepner and Jackson Avery both transfer to Seattle Grace Hospital from Mercy West, and the latter entertains a brief relationship with Lexie Grey, until she reunites with Mark Sloan. Subsequently, Teddy Altman is introduced as the new Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery. In the season six finale, a deceased patient 's grieving husband embarks on a shooting spree at the hospital, injuring Karev, Shepherd, and Hunt, and killing residents Charles Percy and Reed Adamson. In the shooting 's emotional reverberations, Hunt and Yang abruptly marry, not wanting to risk separation. Torres and Robbins eventually wed, officiated by Bailey. In season eight, Webber steps down and allocates his job to Hunt. As the final year of residency for Meredith, Yang, Karev, Avery, and Kepner is coming to a close, the doctors are all planning to relocate to different hospitals to pursue their specialty careers. However, all plans are put on hold when several doctors from Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital are engaged in a plane crash, which kills Lexie and endangers Meredith, Shepherd, Yang, Robbins, and Sloan. At the conclusion of the eighth season, Altman is courteously fired by Hunt as she struggles to decide whether or not to take the job as Chief at the United States Army Medical Command (MEDCOM). In the season nine premiere, Sloan dies due to sustained injuries from the plane crash following a brief relapse of temporary health (the surge) and the remaining characters work through their post traumatic stress and Arizona Robbins ' loss of limb by way of suing Seattle Grace Mercy West as the hospital was responsible for putting the surgeons on the plane. The season continues with the struggle of the lawsuit and the animosity that it creates within the hospital, Yang and Hunt eventually divorce in order to help the lawsuit. The doctors who were on the plane won the lawsuit, but the pay out bankrupts the hospital. They all club together and buy Seattle Grace Mercy West, with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation, and they become the Board of Directors, once being called the "Grey - Sloan 7 ''. One of the changes they implement is renaming the hospital to Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. Robbins cheats on Torres with a visiting facial reconstruction surgeon. Grey 's Anatomy then concluded its 10th season on ABC and saw the departure of one of its major players, Cristina Yang, played by Sandra Oh. Towards the end of the eleventh season, Derek Shepherd witnesses a car accident and pulls over to help the injured, but his car is hit by a truck with him inside as he attempts to leave the scene. He later dies at another hospital following the doctors ' mishandling of his injuries. The season 12 finale saw the departure of one of the show 's longest running characters, Callie Torres, played by Sara Ramirez.
With the drama 's setting being a hospital, numerous medical personnel appear regularly on the show, as well as several other recurring characters. Joe (Steven W. Bailey), is first shown as the owner of the Emerald City Bar and Grill, across the street from the hospital, which is a common relaxation area for the physicians. Also introduced in the pilot, is the legendary former surgeon, Dr. Ellis Grey (Kate Burton), Meredith 's Alzheimer 's - stricken mother, who appeared on the show until her death in season three. In the first season, Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback), a nurse who appeared on the show occasionally until getting laid off in the merger with Mercy West, engages in sexual activity with O'Malley, giving him syphilis. Serving as an assistant and secretary to the Chief of Surgery, former nurse Patricia (Robin Pearson Rose), has appeared on the show since its debut. Tyler Christian (Moe Irvin), a hospital nurse, makes occasional appearances throughout the series. Within the second season, Bailey becomes pregnant by her husband, Tucker Jones (Cress Williams), who makes frequent appearances on Grey 's Anatomy, until their divorce in season five. While Bailey takes a sabbatical, due to her pregnancy, the cheerful Dr. Sydney Heron (Kali Rocha), fills her position as the resident supervising Grey, Yang, Karev, O'Malley, and Stevens, and makes occasional appearances until the fifth season.
Thatcher and Susan Grey (Jeff Perry and Mare Winningham), Meredith 's estranged father and step - mother, are introduced in season two, with Susan making appearances until her death in season three, and Thatcher continuing to appear on the series. Adele Webber (Loretta Devine), is introduced as Richard 's wife, who eventually acquires Alzheimer 's, in the seventh season, and continued to make appearances until her death in season nine. Introduced as Preston 's mother, Jane Burke (Diahann Carroll) makes occasional appearances until the fourth season. Denny Duquette (Jeffrey Dean Morgan), a patient suffering from congestive heart failure, originates as one of Burke 's patients, who goes on to propose to Stevens, after weeks of bonding between the two. Facing death, Stevens cuts Duquette 's left ventricular assist device (LVAD), to elevate his position on the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) transplant list. This ultimately ends in his death, marking his initial departure from the show, and placing Stevens on disciplinary probation. Initially conceived as a veterinarian hired for Shepherd 's dog, Doc, Dr. Finn Dandridge (Chris O'Donnell) soon becomes a love interest for Meredith, while Shepherd is with Montgomery. Dandridge is included in a multi-episode story arc, consisting of nine episodes, ending when Meredith reunites with Shepherd.
In season three, George 's father, Harold O'Malley (George Dzundza), is diagnosed with cancer and dies, with his wife Louise (Debra Monk) and George 's brothers Jerry (Greg Pitts) and Ronny (Tim Griffin) by his side. Louise goes on to appear occasionally, and was last seen in season eight. A ferryboat accident brings along Rebecca Pope (Elizabeth Reaser), who is initially introduced as a pregnant Jane Doe victim, suffering from amnesia. Pope eventually embarks on a relationship with Karev, until she is diagnosed with a personality disorder in season four, and makes her final departure. Amidst the crisis of the ferryboat crash, Meredith falls into the water at the disaster site. Although rescued, she goes into cardiac arrest, waking up in what appears to be limbo. Within the limbo, Meredith is entertained by deceased acquaintances Duquette and Dylan Young (Kyle Chandler), who was killed during a bomb crisis in the second season, until eventually being resuscitated. Seeking a cure to her depression, Meredith undergoes therapy sessions with the hospital psychiatrist, Dr. Katharine Wyatt (Amy Madigan), who in addition, serves as a psychiatrist to Hunt.
The season four premiere introduces several new interns, to be trained under Meredith, Yang, Karev, Stevens, and eventually O'Malley. Among them are Dr. Steve Mostow (Mark Saul) who continues to make appearances, and Dr. Sadie Harris (Melissa George) who formed a friendship with Meredith while the two were in college. Harris is fired in the fifth season, due to not actually having a medical degree, and departs the show immediately after. Meredith and Shepherd 's relationship reaches a toll, and the two separate, leading Shepherd to entertaining a relationship with Rose (Lauren Stamile), a nurse. Rose appears frequently until season five, when Derek and Meredith decide to rekindle their flame. Throughout the fifth season, Stevens experiences full - out hallucinations of Duquette, signaling that she is ill, and once she is lucid, he departs, marking his final appearance. Following the announcement of her relationship with Robbins, Callie 's father Carlos Torres (Hector Elizondo) initially contests his daughter 's concurrence in homosexuality, but eventually accepts it, and he reappears several times throughout the series.
The hospital 's merging with Mercy West introduces new residents: Dr. Reed Adamson (Nora Zehetner) and Dr. Charles Percy (Robert Baker), but the two are both murdered in the season six finale. Also introduced in the sixth season is Dr. Ben Warren (Jason George), an anesthesiologist and eventual husband to Dr. Miranda Bailey, as well as Sloan Riley (Leven Rambin), Dr. Mark Sloan 's estranged daughter who seeks kinship with him. Dr. Lucy Fields (Rachael Taylor), an obstetrician - gynecologist, is introduced in the seventh season, and serves as a love interest for Dr. Alex Karev, until eventually relocating to pursue a career in Africa. Robbins receives a grant to aid children in Malawi, which leads to a falling out between her and Torres. While in Malawi, Robbins is replaced by Dr. Robert Stark (Peter MacNicol), a pediatric surgeon with an interest in Dr. April Kepner, who appears occasionally until season eight. Following the breakdown of Dr. Torres ' relationship with Dr. Robbins, Dr. Sloan and Dr. Torres unite, and she becomes pregnant. Torres ' relationship with Robbins is subsequently mended, and the couple endeavors to raise their new daughter, Sofia Robbin Sloan Torres, with the help of Dr. Sloan. Shepherd and Meredith also become new parents, with their adoption of Zola, a baby girl from Malawi. Conceived as a patient with a tumor condition who later develops diabetes, Henry Burton (Scott Foley) befriends Dr. Altman and eventually joins her in marriage only to get treated using her medical insurance, until he dies while undergoing heart surgery.
In the season nine premiere, interns Dr. Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington), Dr. Heather Brooks (Tina Majorino), Dr. Shane Ross (Gaius Charles), Dr. Stephanie Edwards (Jerrika Hinton), and Dr. Leah Murphy (Tessa Ferrer) are introduced. Steven Culp and William Daniels play Dr. Parker and Dr. Craig Thomas, respectively. Dr. Parker is Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Dr. Craig Thomas (William Daniels) is an attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Mayo Clinic, where Cristina worked temporarily. Dr. Alana Cahill (Constance Zimmer) introduced in the ninth season is appointed to cut costs at the hospital and she eventually decides the best course of action would be to seek out a new buyer until the four crash survivors and Torres on the behalf of Sloan to pool their money together in a bid to purchase the hospital themselves. Kepner starts dating a paramedic named Matthew (Justin Bruening) and they form a deep relationship over the course of the ninth ad tenth seasons and she eventually agreed to marry before reconciling with Avery in the middle of her wedding to Mathew. Lauren Boswell (Hilarie Burton) is introduced as a craniofacial surgeon consulting on a case at Grey Sloan Memorial who showed romantic interested in Arizona and eventually ended up having a one - night stand with her.
Dr. Heather Brooks dies in the premier of season ten. She goes to search for Dr. Webber and finds him lying in the basement of the hospital. Trying to save Dr. Webber, she accidentally steps into a puddle and electrocutes herself while hitting her head as she falls. Bailey moves a cancer patient in Webber 's room to force some perspective and make him take the treatment. Also introduced in the tenth season was Dr. Karev 's estranged father Jimmy Evans (James Remar) who tries to form a relationship with his son but fails repeatedly and ultimately dies in a botched surgery. The conclusion of season 10 has Cristina leaving Grey Sloan for Dr. Burke 's job overseas while Dr. Ross makes a last - minute decision to follow her in order to study under her. Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) unknowingly drops a bombshell that she is the adopted love child of Dr. Webber and the late Dr. Grey, which makes for yet another half sister of Dr. Meredith Grey. Also, Dr. Yang leaves her seat on the board to Dr. Karev while Dr. Webber all but promises the seat to Dr. Bailey. Introduced in season eleven is Dr. Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who is Chief of Fetal Surgery at Grey Sloan Memorial. Dr. Herman mentors Arizona Robbins in a fetal surgery fellowship, and plays in a twelve episode arc before departing after episode fourteen.
Season 11 begins with new surgical residents coming to the hospital. Meredith is struggling with the idea that Maggie is actually her half sister because of her mother 's romance with Dr. Weber. Callie and Arizona 's relationship falls through after realising they both want different things at the time. April and Jackson learn heartbreaking news that their baby has a lethal birth defect, where April decides that she will carry the baby till full term no matter the consequences. They end up having a boy, Samuel, who dies shortly after birth.
Grey 's Anatomy has been well received among critics. The show holds an average of 71 % positive score on Rotten Tomatoes and 7.7 / 10 score at IMDB site. The A.V. Club gave an insight on both the overwhelming success and lows in the quality of the hit medical drama saying, "The quality arc for the show is all over the place, starting with a steady build in the first season, then skyrocketing into phenomenon in season two, then leveling off and dipping in season three, before having some seriously bumpy moments in seasons four (interrupted by the writers ' strike) and five. The climb begins again in season six '' Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly in a review wrote, "I believe the show 's best season to date is season 2. Let me make it clear that I 'm not saying seasons 3 through 9 were bad. In my opinion, there have only been a few lulls in the show 's history, and most of them did n't last a full season. '' adding, "I still enjoy the show, and I 'll honestly never stop watching. By any standards, Grey 's Anatomy has been successful television, ranking highly in the ratings for nine seasons and entering the cultural lexicon via phrases as cloying yet catchy as "McDreamy. '', the show has had its periods of being intensely irritating, and it has had its periods when it seems as if Shonda Rhimes has taken leave of her faculties, but it 's also got an amazingly high batting average, particularly with every solid season that passes along in this second act of its run. '' The site lauded the show saying, "On average, it 's been very good TV, filled with interesting, driven characters who run the gamut of professions within the show 's hospital setting. It 's been, by turns, a good soap, a good romantic comedy, a good medical drama, and a good interpersonal show about an unexpected workplace family. ''
The first season received positive reviews which steadily built up, with Gary Levin of USA Today calling Grey 's Anatomy one of the top shows on television. New York Daily News named Grey 's Anatomy a "winner '', whereas Newsday expressed a positive opinion by stating "You simply ca n't stop watching. '' The Washington Post 's Tom Shales was critical of season one, finding it reminiscent of ER and commenting that: "The show is much more a matter of commercial calculation than an honest attempt to try something fresh and different. '' Shortly after its initial airing, the Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan called Grey 's Anatomy the new Friends; a concluded National Broadcasting Company (NBC) sitcom following the lives of a group of young adults, that all of its ten - year run in the top - five for viewer ratings. The second season received critical acclaim, top critics like Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the show a "phenomenon '' not just TV adding the show was, "one of the best TV shows around '', Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly later during the tenth season called the second "the show 's best season to date '' however, Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures opined that Grey 's Anatomy is a mere combination of Scrubs, ER, Sex and the City, and The Love Boat. It further garnered positive reviews, Christopher Monfette of IGN Entertainment added: "The second season of this medical drama expertly wove its signature elements of complex relationships, whimsical banter and challenging life - lessons; all to a montage - fetish, indie - rock soundtrack. '' Todd Gilchrist also from IGN called the season "terrific '' adding, "Indeed, one of the best currently on television. While it remains to be seen what the creators do with it, now that it 's become an outright event program, the season demonstrates that Rhimes and co. know what to do with the opportunities presented them. whether you 're male or female, this is the kind of entertainment that small - screen devotees and folks fed up with television need to see. ''
The title character of Grey 's Anatomy, Meredith, has received both overwhelmingly positive and weary feedback by critics along the course of the show, with the development of the character garnering praise from majority critics. Earlier reactions for Meredith were mixed; in a 2006 review, Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times dubbed to her as "the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy ''. A reviewer for BuddyTV praised the distinct uniqueness in the character calling Meredith an "unconventional heroine '' adding that the character was, "Neither black nor white but always... wait for it... many shades of grey. The reviewer and to add that even in her lighter moments, she has still been "dark and twisty. '' The sentiment was shared by Glenn Diaz who remarked, "You got ta love Mer when she 's gloomy. '' When Pompeo did not receive a nomination 61st Primetime Emmy Awards, for her work as Meredith, Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo, "has worked very hard (...) to make Meredith Grey an interesting character '', and should have received a nomination. IGN 's Monfette, less impressed by the character, criticized her storyline as "some bizarrely under - developed sub-plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do. '' Robert Rorke of the New York Post was critical of Meredith 's relationship with Derek Shepherd, writing: "She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas, but lately, she 's been a little dopey, what with the endless ' McDreamy ' soliloquies. '' The development of the character has received praise from critics. Reviewing the first part of the eighth season, TV Fanatic wrote: "this season belongs to Meredith Grey. She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding. This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman. Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season. '' Rick Porter reviewing the episode How to Save a Life from the eleventh season for Zap2it wrote, "Without Meredith, and without one of Pompeo 's strongest performances in her long time on the show, "How to Save a Life '' would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode, the likes of which the show has done several times before. He added. "How to Save a Life '' may not be the ideal Emmy - submission episode for Ellen Pompeo, considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it. But it 's among the best work she 's ever done on the show. '' Janalen Samson of BuddyTV lauded the Meredith 's development throughout the series saying, "When one considers how this character has grown over eleven seasons, it really is amazing. Kudos to Ellen Pompeo for her fine work. She 's actually done the impossible, because I actually care what happens to Meredith Grey. '' Reviewing the season 12 premiere Sledgehammer critics including Alex Hawkins of the Western Gazette again highlighted Pompeo 's due for an Emmy Award.
The majority of the supporting cast of Grey 's Anatomy have been well received as well, with the New York Post 's Rorke deeming Stevens to be "the heart and soul '' of Grey 's Anatomy, whereas Eyder Peralta of the Houston Chronicle was critical of her character development, stating: "(She 's) the reason I do n't watch Grey 's Anatomy anymore. '' Kelli Catana of The Huffington Post named Yang "the best damn character '' and deemed "the Meredith / Yang relationship the most true friendship on network television. '' Television Without Pity writer Lauren Shotwell claimed Yang is "the only one of these five (residents) that regularly acts like an actual doctor ''. Analyzing Alex Karev Rachel Simon called him ' Underrated ', she pointed out that Alex 's personal growth never seems to get acknowledged as "Alex has evolved, slowly and realistically, into a genuinely good person whose faults do n't miraculously disappear, but take a backseat to much better qualities. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today said Dempsey has a "seemingly effortless way of humanizing Derek 's ' dreamy ' appeal with ego and vanity ''. and his friendship with Mark Sloan has been well received Victor Balta said "they 've demonstrated an easy chemistry that makes for some of the great comic relief around Seattle Grace Hospital. '' While Addison Montgomery was deemed "sassy and bright and interesting. '' TV Guide said of Walsh 's stint on Grey 's Anatomy: "She (Walsh) adds spice to an already hot show. '' ortho surgeon Callie Torres after receiving mixed views earlier was praised for her bisexual storyline and critics further added that the character was anchored by stellar performance by Sara Ramirez... Lexie Grey initially being criticized became a critics a favorite in the series Keen of The Trades wrote, "Chyler Leigh, does a fantastic job of making the progression feel seamless. Lexie steals the show as one of the best characters on the series. ''
With the departure of several cast members throughout the seasons, many new characters were added to the drama 's ensemble. McKidd and Capshaw were referred to as "fresh additions '' to the series, by Monfette of IGN. In addition, Matt Roush of TV Guide commented: "Hunt / McKidd is the most encouraging thing to happen to Grey 's Anatomy in quite a while. '' Matt Mitovich of TV Guide noted that Robbins "quickly established herself as a fan favorite '', describing her as: "a breath of fresh air in the often angsty halls of Seattle Grace. On April Kepner and Jackson Avery Courtney Morrison of TVFanatic wrote "April has grown since her character was introduced. She 's no longer much less annoying than she used to be, and she 's honest. A girl with principles is a girl you want to do well. '' and described her and Avery as "a couple for whom viewers can root ''. Speaking of the new cast members, in addition to the remaining original, Robert Bianco from USA Today called them the show 's "best ensemble in years ''.
Regarding season three, Bill Carter of The New York Times called Grey 's Anatomy "television 's hottest show '', adding: "(No show) is expected to challenge Grey 's Anatomy for prime - time pre-eminence. '' Contrasting with Carter 's view, Monfette of IGN said that it speedily found itself "mired in the annoying and absurd '', adding: "This third season may very well represent a case of over-writing a concept that has, perhaps tragically, run bone - dry on narrative fuel. '' At the conclusion of season three, Entertainment Weekly 's Gregory Kirschling said "the show lacked a defining happy, warm - gooseflesh moment '', adding that the season "did n't leave you dying for the (next) season premiere ''. Speaking of the fourth season, Laura Burrows of IGN said the series became "a little more than mediocre, but less than fantastic '', adding: "This season proved that even strong chemistry and good acting can not save a show that suffers from the inevitable recycled plot. ''
In contrast to the moderately negative feedback the third and fourth seasons received, Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger said of the fifth season: "Overall, it feels more like the good old days than Grey 's Anatomy has in a long time. '' Misha Davenport from the Chicago Sun - Times said season five "hits on all the things the show does so well '', adding: "There is romance, heartbreak, humor and a few moments that will move fans to tears. '' Brian Lowry of Variety, less impressed, opinionated that the season five displayed the show running out of storylines. Speaking of the sixth season, Bianco of USA Today wrote: "Grey 's has always loved grand gestures. You like them or you do n't; the only real question is whether the show pulls them off or it does n't. This year, it did. ''
The series has a score of 66 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on five reviews for season seven. In response to the season, Bianco from USA Today commented: "Happily, it now seems to have landed on solid ground. '' Also of the seventh season, Entertainment Weekly 's Jennifer Armstrong said: "It 's in the shooting 's emotional reverberations that the show is regenerating after the past few hit - and - miss seasons, '' whereas Verne Gay of Newsday commented: "Unfortunately, they 've settled on far - too - easy and facile answers for the most part. '' HitFix gave a positive review saying that, "season 7 overall has been one of the show 's strongest ever. '' and added, "There was a time when Grey 's Anatomy was this show where I suffered through a lot of stuff that made me cringe to get to those genius melodrama moments it could do so well. Over the last couple of years, it 's evolved into a show that 's much more consistent in tone, where it may not move me as often as it did in the early years but also very rarely makes me question my reasons for watching. '' Speaking of season eight, Entertainment Weekly 's Mandi Bierly called it a "so - so season '', and Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "emotional ''. Also acknowledging the fan base Verne Gay of Newsday wrote "Grey 's has had a good season and has an intensely loyal fan base to prove it. '' regarding the 8th season.
The ninth season received more positive reviews, Rob Salem of Toronto Star called it "a solid return to form. '' Brad Williams writing for What Culture praised the show 's development over the season saying, "Grey 's Anatomy has developed into a fine example of how a TV show can mature beyond its initial purpose. '' calling it "something almost anyone can watch and enjoy. '' Praising the friendship between Cristina and Meredith of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "There 's still one good reason to keep watching: Where else can you find such deep friendships between female co-workers ''. The tenth season was also marked with praise, Annie Barrett for Entertainment Weekly wrote "There 's true sorrow here along with the passion, which keeps their dynamic so intriguing to me. '' Caroline Siede from The A.V. Club wrote in her review for the 10th season "At its best, Grey 's Anatomy is about everyday bravery, sacrifice, and courage. At its worst, it 's a melodramatic, moralizing soap opera. Both sides are on display as the show heads confidently into its 10th season. '' Many sources, including Rachel Simon of Bustle and Nicole Pomarico of Wetpaint, claimed that Sandra Oh 's performance during her final season on Grey 's Anatomy is worthy of an Emmy nomination.
Bryce Olin of Netflix ranked Grey 's 9th among the 50 Best TV Shows on Netflix stating, "It 's a tough call, but based on Grey 's casting choices and revolutionary portrayals of female doctors in the series, I 'm willing to argue that Grey 's Anatomy is the best medical drama of all time. Obviously, Shonda Rhimes did n't reinvent the wheel with the series, but there 's no denying its popularity. '' adding, "I understand its significance in the pop culture sphere. '' He also stated that the show could go higher in the ranks with the upcoming season stating, "Apparently, Grey 's Anatomy fans are passionate about their show, although it seems like they 've been closeted for the last few years. I 'd love to move Grey 's Anatomy even higher on the ranking, but I 'll have wait until the 11th season comes to Netflix. ''
Critics included Grey 's Anatomy in top ten lists for five of its twelve seasons; these are listed below in order of rank.
Grey 's Anatomy has been considered an impact on culture by Entertainment Weekly 's executive editor, Lori Majewski, with her writing: "Grey 's Anatomy is n't just a show, it 's a phenomenon. When (the) final shows air, every place in New York City is empty. You could get a table at the best restaurants. '' The Daily Beast 's Jace Lacob also considered the show an impact, comparing its success to that of Friends, and calling it a "cultural phenomenon ''. Steve Sternberg, a media analyst with Magna Global USA explained that the show appeals to a broad audience, writing: "Roughly 80 percent of households during prime time only have one TV set on. People are looking for shows they can watch with other household members. '' Grey 's Anatomy introduced a "mc - labeling '' surge, ever since it dubbed Dempsey 's character "McDreamy ''. Canadian newspaper the National Post considers this trend a "phenomenon ''.
Analyzing the show 's impact on culture, Dessylyn Arnold of Yahoo! Voices noted that the "mc - labeling '' trend has been parodied on other shows including ER and Degrassi: The Next Generation. Mark Lawson of The Guardian has credited Grey 's Anatomy with popularizing the "songtage '', or musical montage segments. Parodying this, MADtv created a spoof on the show in 2006, making fun of the series ' emotional scenes including those accompanied by a musical montage. The show 's premise inspired the creation of A Corazón Abierto, a Colombian adaptation of Grey 's Anatomy, which in turn spawned a Mexican version of the same name. A study conducted by the University of Western Sydney revealed that 94 % of 400 polled medical students are regular viewers of Grey 's Anatomy. An additional study conducted by Brian Quick of the University of Illinois indicated that the show 's portrayal of doctors being "smart, good looking, capable, and interesting '', leads viewers to associating real - world doctors to be that way.
Grey 's has also been credited to have changed the perception on how good and bad television can be defined, The A.V. Club write, "Since The Sopranos burst onto the scene, we 've too often classified a show as "good '' based on how closely it adhered to the dark, violent, male - centric template set out by that particular show. It 's time for that to end. At its best, Grey 's has been among the very best shows on TV, and at its worst, it 's been at least fascinating to watch. To write it off is to unnecessarily narrow the definition of what good TV can be, to limit what the medium is capable of. TV is at its best when it emotionally connects, and even when it seems to be otherwise merrily hurtling off a cliff, Grey 's Anatomy is nothing but emotional connection, which is more than other, more consistently better shows can say. ''
In 2011, a woman residing in Sheboygan, Wisconsin became unresponsive due to an asthma attack. Unable to wait for an ambulance, her daughter and a friend performed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on her, which they learned from Grey 's Anatomy. Despite this, Resident Karen Zink, M.D., deemed the show 's portrayal of interns inaccurate, adding: "None of (the characters) have bags under their eyes. They all leave the hospital dressed cute, with their hair done and makeup on. That is so far away from the reality of interns. You are just dragging your butt, trying to stay alive. You do n't have time to do your hair. You do n't have time to put on makeup. Every surgical intern has bags under their eyes. '' The series placed at No. 66 on Entertainment Weekly 's "New TV Classics '' list, and was declared the third highest rated show for the first ten years of the Internet Movie Database (2002 -- 2012).
In 2017 an Israeli women saved her husband by performing cardiac massage she learned from Gray 's Anatomy, The women performed cardiac massage for 20 minutes before medical personal arrived and transferred the husband to Shaare Zedek Medical Center.
Grey 's Anatomy has received high viewership and ratings since its debut. The first four seasons of the program each ranked in the top ten among all viewers, reaching its peak Nielsen ratings in the second season, attracting an average of 19.44 million viewers per episode, and ranking at fifth place overall. Following the show 's time - slot being relocated, overall rankings steadily declined, dropping below the top ten in its fifth season. Grey 's Anatomy made its greatest fall from its sixth to seventh season, slipping from seventeenth place to thirty - first. The series is on a steady decline in terms of overall viewership and rankings, yet Grey 's Anatomy still holds value in charts when numbers are pulled from the digital video recorder (DVR). It was the most recorded show between 2007 and 2011, based on cumulative totals, and has been for several years in a row.
The most - watched episode of the series is "It 's the End of the World '', with 37.88 million viewers, aided by a lead - in from Super Bowl XL. Grey 's Anatomy was the most expensive program on television in the 2007 - 08 season measured by advertising revenue, with earnings of US $400,000 per thirty seconds. The show was named the fourth (behind Desperate Housewives, Two and a Half Men, and American Idol), and the fifth - highest (behind Glee, Two and a Half Men, The X Factor (U.S.) and American Idol) revenue earning show, with the earnings of US $2.67 million and US $2.75 million per half hour in 2011 and 2012 respectively. While Grey 's Anatomy is no longer ranked in the top numbers for overall ratings, the show 's ranking in the key 18 -- 49 demographic has remained high. As of season eight, the series is the highest - rated drama on television in the target demographic. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Grey 's Anatomy was "most popular in a swath of the middle of the country, particularly in areas with a lower percentage of college graduates ''.
Below is a table of Grey 's Anatomy 's seasonal rankings in the U.S. television market, based on average total viewers per episode. Each U.S. network television season starts in September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.
Grey 's Anatomy has won a number of awards. As of July 2012, the show has been nominated for twenty - five Primetime Emmy Awards, having been nominated for at least one every year, except in 2010. At the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2005, Oh was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, which she went on to be nominated for every year until 2009, and Horton was nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series. The following year, at the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series, which they were nominated for again in 2007. Also in 2006, Wilson was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, which she went on to be nominated for every year until 2009, and Kyle Chandler was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. The 58th Ceremony also honored Rhimes and Vernoff, who were both nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. Rhimes, whose career kicked off in 1995, has since produced yet another ABC series, Scandal, which began on air in 2012 and is continuing into the third season. Beginning in 2005, Rhimes has been continually nominated for numerous awards, including three Emmy Awards: first in 2006 for a dramatic series and a separate nomination for writing a dramatic series, followed by a third nomination in 2007 for a dramatic series.
In 2007, at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards, Heigl won the award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, while Knight was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. Numerous guest actresses have been nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, including Burton in 2006 and 2007, Christina Ricci in 2006, Reaser in 2007, Diahann Carroll in 2008, and Sharon Lawrence in 2009, but the only actress to have won the award is Devine in 2011, who was nominated again in 2012. The show has also been nominated for thirteen Creative Arts Emmy Awards, having won three of them: Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series, Outstanding Makeup for a Single - Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic), and Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie or a Special.
The show has received ten Golden Globe Award nominations since its premiere. At the 63rd Golden Globe Awards, in 2006, the series was nominated for Best Drama Series, Dempsey was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series, which he was nominated for again in 2007, and Oh won the award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film. The following year, at the 64th Golden Globe Awards, in 2007, Pompeo was nominated for Best Actress in a Drama Series, and the show won the award for Best Drama Series. At the 65th Golden Globe Awards, in 2008, Heigl was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film, while the series in whole was nominated for Best Drama Series.
The series has won People 's Choice Awards for Best Drama Four Times in 2007, 2013, 2015 and 2016 and has been nominated for several other People 's Choice Awards, with nominations received by Oh as well as multiple wins from Dempsey, Pompeo winning in recent years 2013 and 2015, Heigl, Wilson, Demi Lovato, for guest starring, and the drama in whole for Favorite TV Drama. In 2007, Rhimes and the female cast were the recipient of the Women in Film Lucy Award, in recognition of the excellence and innovation in the show as a creative work that has enhanced the perception of women through the medium of television. The series has been honored with numerous NAACP Image Award nominations, many having been won, including five awards for Outstanding Drama Series. Grey 's Anatomy has also received several Screen Actors Guild Awards, with nominations received by Dempsey, as well as wins from Oh, Wilson, and the main cast for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.
Grey 's Anatomy 's first season commenced airing as a mid-season replacement to Boston Legal on March 27, 2005 and concluded on May 22, 2005. The nine - episode season aired on Sundays in the 10: 00pm EST time slot, following Desperate Housewives. The show was renewed by ABC for a second season, that aired in the same time slot as season one. Premiering on September 25, 2005 and concluding on May 15, 2006, the season consisted of twenty - seven episodes. The first five episodes of the second season were originally scheduled to air during the first, but the network decided to close the first season of Grey 's Anatomy on the same night as Desperate Housewives ' finale. During the second season, Grey 's Anatomy produced two specials recapping the events of recent episodes, narrated by Bailey, entitled "Straight to the Heart '' and "Under Pressure ''. The show was renewed for a third season, which was relocated to the coveted Thursday 9: 00pm EST time slot -- a slot that the series has held onto since then. Commencing on September 21, 2006 and ending on May 17, 2007, season three consisted of twenty - five episodes. Two more specials were produced during the show 's third season, entitled "Complications of the Heart '' and "Every Moment Counts '', which were narrated by Bailey and Morgan, respectively.
ABC renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a fourth season, which aired from September 27, 2007 to May 22, 2008, and ultimately consisted of seventeen episodes. The fourth season had a reduced number of episodes, due to the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike, which caused production to cease from February to April, leaving the show with no writing staff during that time. At the beginning of the fourth season, the show aired its final special entitled "Come Rain or Shine '', created to transition viewers from Grey 's Anatomy to Private Practice, which was narrated by the editors of People magazine. The show received a renewal for a fifth season, which premiered on September 25, 2008 and concluded on May 14, 2009; consisting of twenty - four episodes. The series was renewed for a sixth season consisting of twenty - four episodes, which commenced on September 24, 2009 and ended on May 20, 2010. During its sixth season, Grey 's Anatomy aired a series of webisodes entitled Seattle Grace: On Call at ABC.com. ABC renewed the show for a seventh season, which premiered on September 23, 2010 and concluded on May 19, 2011; consisting of twenty - two episodes. Following up with Seattle Grace: On Call, Seattle Grace: Message of Hope aired during the beginning of the seventh season. Also during the seventh season, the series produced a musical episode entitled "Song Beneath the Song '', featuring music that became famous through their use in Grey 's Anatomy. The show received a twenty - four episode eighth season renewal, which commenced on September 22, 2011 with a two - hour episode, and ended on May 17, 2012. Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a ninth season, which premiered on September 27, 2012 and ended on May 16, 2013. Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a tenth season on May 10, 2013 and premiered on September 27, 2013 with a two - hour episode, and ended on May 15, 2014.
On May 8, 2014, ABC renewed the series for an eleventh season that aired from September 2014 to May 2015). In addition, the show was relocated to the Thursday 8: 00pm EST time slot. After four seasons outside the top 25 rated shows, Grey 's Anatomy was the number 15 show in the 2013 -- 2014 season, the show 's tenth. The show also re-entered the top five shows in the 18 -- 49 viewer demographic.
On May 7, 2015, ABC renewed the series for a twelfth season that premiered on September 24, 2015 and concluded on May 19, 2016.
On March 3, 2016, ABC renewed Grey 's for a thirteenth season which will air from 2016 to 2017.
On February 21, 2007, The Wall Street Journal reported that ABC was pursuing a spin - off medical drama television series for Grey 's Anatomy featuring Walsh 's character, Montgomery. Subsequent reports confirmed the decision, stating that an expanded two - hour broadcast of Grey 's Anatomy would serve as a backdoor pilot for the proposed spin - off. The cast of Grey 's Anatomy was reportedly unhappy about the decision, as all hoped the spin - off would have been given to them. Pompeo commented that she felt, as the star, she should have been consulted, and Heigl disclosed that she had hoped for a spin - off for Stevens. The backdoor pilot that aired on May 3, 2007 sees Montgomery take a leave of absence from Seattle Grace Hospital, to visit her best friend from Los Angeles, Naomi Bennett (Merrin Dungey, later Audra McDonald), a reproductive endocrinology and infertility specialist. While in Los Angeles, she meets Bennett 's colleagues at the Oceanside Wellness Center. The two - hour broadcast entitled "The Other Side of This Life '' served as the twenty - second and twenty - third episodes of the third season, and was directed by Michael Grossman, according to Variety. The cast included Amy Brenneman, Paul Adelstein, Tim Daly, Taye Diggs, Chris Lowell, and Merrin Dungey.
KaDee Strickland 's character, Charlotte King, who would be introduced in the spin - off 's first - season premiere, did not appear in the backdoor pilot. Her addition to the main cast was announced on July 11, 2007, prior to the commencement of the first season. She did not have to audition for the role, but was cast after a meeting with Rhimes. Also not present in the backdoor pilot was McDonald, due to her character, Naomi Bennett, being portrayed by a different actress, Merrin Dungey. However, on June 29, 2007, ABC announced that Dungey would be replaced, with no reason given for the change. The drama was titled Private Practice, and its premiere episode followed the second part of the season debut of Dancing with the Stars, and provided a lead - in to fellow freshman series Dirty Sexy Money. Pushing Daisies, a third new series for the evening, rounded out the lineup as a lead - in to Private Practice. The series ended its run in January 2013 after six seasons.
Grey 's Anatomy had five crossover storylines with Private Practice.
There have also been several instances where Addison or Amelia travel to Seattle without there being a storyline involving both shows.
On May 16, 2017, Channing Dungey announced at the ABC Upfronts that the network ordered another Grey 's Anatomy spin - off, this one focusing on firefighters in Seattle. The series is set to premiere mid-season in 2018. Stacy McKee, long - term Grey 's writer and executive producer, will serve as the spin - off 's showrunner. The new show will most likely be introduced during an episode of Grey 's Anatomy next season.
Grey 's Anatomy episodes appear regularly on ABC in the United States. All episodes are approximately forty - three minutes, and are broadcast in both high - definition and standard. The series ' episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store in standard and high - definition qualities, and Amazon Video. ABC Video on demand also releases recent episodes of the show for temporary viewing. Recent episodes are also available at ABC 's official Grey 's Anatomy website, and on Hulu and Xfinity. In 2009, ABC signed a deal allowing Grey 's Anatomy episodes to be streamed on Netflix. Grey 's Anatomy is syndicated on Lifetime, with one hour blocks weekdays at 1: 00 pm, 2: 00 pm, and 3: 00 pm EST.
Since its debut, Buena Vista Home Entertainment has released the first eight seasons on DVD to regions 1, 2, and 4. The first season 's DVD, released on February 14, 2006, features an alternate title sequence, bloopers, behind - the - scenes footage, audio commentaries, and an extended edition of the pilot episode. Season two 's DVD, released on September 12, 2006, which includes extended episodes, an interview with Wilson, deleted scenes, a set tour, a "Q&A '' with the cast, and a segment on the creating of special effects. The DVD for the third season was released on September 11, 2007, with bonus features including extended episodes, an interview with star Dempsey, audio commentaries, and bloopers.
The fourth season 's DVD released on September 9, 2008, features an interview with Heigl and Chambers, extended episodes, bloopers, and deleted scenes. Season five 's DVD was released on September 15, 2009, and includes unaired scenes, bloopers, and extended episodes. The DVD for season six, released on September 14, 2010, features deleted scenes, an extended finale, and bloopers. The seventh season 's DVD, released on September 13, 2011, includes an extended edition of and a behind - the - scenes featurette on the musical episode, bloopers, as well as deleted scenes. In addition, the eighth season 's DVD was released on September 4, 2012 with several bonus features and deleted scenes.
The ninth season 's DVD released on August 27, 2013 with several bonus features and deleted scenes. The tenth season 's DVD was released on September 2, 2014 with new several bonus features and deleted scenes. The season was officially released on DVD as a six - disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy: The Complete Tenth Season -- Live For The Moments on September 2, 2014. In view of the departure of the character of Cristina Yang in the season finale, the DVD set featured an extended episode Do You Know? and a special feature from Sandra Oh titled "An Immeasurable Gift ''. The eleventh released on DVD as a six - disc box set on August 18, 2015 with interviews with new series regular Caterina Scorsone and a special feature for Dempsey 's departure How To Say Goodbye Dr. Derek Shepherd. The twelfth released on DVD as a six - disc box set on August 30, 2016.
The American Broadcasting Company has partnered with CafePress and Barco Uniforms to provide the series ' branded merchandise through an online store. The products available include shirts, sweatshirts, kitchen - ware, home - ware, and bags, with the Grey 's Anatomy logo on it. Also available are custom unisex scrubs and lab coats in a variety of colors and sizes, designed by Barco. The merchandise released by the company is available for purchase at the Grey 's Anatomy official website, and US $1 from every purchase is donated to Barco 's Nightingales Foundation.
Five volumes of the Grey 's Anatomy Original Soundtrack have been released as of 2011. For the first two seasons, the show 's main title theme was an excerpt from "Cosy in the Rocket '', by British duo Psapp; it is featured on the first soundtrack album released via ABC 's corporate cousin, Hollywood Records, on September 27, 2005. The second soundtrack, featuring songs from the series ' second season, was released on September 12, 2006, followed by a third soundtrack with music from the third season. Following the seventh season musical episode "Song Beneath the Song '', "Grey 's Anatomy: The Music Event '' soundtrack was released, with volume four of the soundtrack released subsequently.
In January 2009, Ubisoft announced that it had signed a licensing agreement with ABC Studios to develop a video game based on Grey 's Anatomy. Designed for the Wii, Nintendo DS, and PC, Grey 's Anatomy: The Video Game was released on March 10, 2009. The game lets the player assume the role of one of the main characters, making decisions for the character 's personal and professional life, and competing in a number of minigames. It has been criticized by reviewers because of the simplicity of the mini-games and voice actors who do not play the same characters on the series, with Jason Ocampo of IGN giving it a 6.0 / 10 overall rating. The Wii release received mixed reviews, and the Windows release received generally unfavorable reviews.
ABC and Nielsen partnered in 2011 to create a Grey 's Anatomy application for Apple 's iPad. The application was designed to allow viewers to participate in polls and learn trivial facts as they watch a live episode. It uses Nielsen 's Media - Sync software to listen for the episode and to post features as the episode progresses.
The creators of the show set up a real online wedding registry to mark the wedding of Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd. Instead of buying gifts fans were encouraged to donate money to the American Academy of Neurology Foundation.
An adaptation named as Doktorlar ("Doctors '') was aired on December 28, 2006, in a Turkish Network, Show TV, and it lasted four seasons.
In 2010, A Corazón Abierto, an adaptation of the series, was made by the Colombian network RCN TV.
|
who won the ohio state michigan game in 2011 | Michigan -- Ohio State football rivalry - Wikipedia
The Michigan -- Ohio State football rivalry, referred to as The Game by some followers, is an American college football rivalry game played annually between the University of Michigan Wolverines and the Ohio State University Buckeyes. It gathered particular national interest as most of the games from the 1970s through the mid-2000s determined the Big Ten Conference title and the resulting Rose Bowl Game match ups, and many influenced the outcome of the national college football championship. The game was ranked by ESPN in 2000 as the greatest North American sports rivalry.
The two Midwest state schools first met in 1897, and the rivalry has been played annually since 1918. The game has been played at the end of the regular season since 1935 (with exceptions in 1942, 1986, and 1998). Since 1918, the game 's site has alternated between Columbus, Ohio, and Ann Arbor, Michigan (Michigan hosts it in odd years and Ohio State in even years), and has been played in Ohio Stadium since 1922 and Michigan Stadium since 1927. Through 2010, Ohio State and Michigan have decided the Big Ten Conference championship between themselves on 22 different occasions, and have affected the determination of the conference title an additional 27 times.
For many years, the game aired on ABC, usually in the 12 p.m. time slot. Beginning with the 2017 season, the game aired on Fox as a result of that network acquiring the Big Ten 's tier 1 rights in the most recent broadcasting contract.
When the University of Michigan and Ohio State met for the first time in 1897, the Toledo War was within the memories of some still living, and the short - lived border war may have fueled the rivalry between the two opposing teams. The inaugural game, held at Ann Arbor, resulted in a lopsided victory for Michigan, with the Wolverines posting a 34 -- 0 win over Ohio State 's Buckeyes. The teams did not meet in 1898 or 1899, but played again in 1900.
The first game foretold a long Michigan winning streak, with Michigan winning or tying every game from 1897 to 1912 and thereby compiling a 12 -- 0 -- 2 record before the contest was postponed for several years. The Ohio State Alma Mater "Carmen Ohio '' was written on the train ride home to Columbus following the 1902 contest, which saw Ohio State lose to Michigan 86 -- 0. The lyrics and melody (Spanish Chant) have remained largely unchanged since its conception.
Ohio State became a member of the Big Ten Conference in 1912. In 1917, Michigan rejoined the conference after a ten - year absence. In 1918, the teams played their first conference matchup, with Michigan prevailing 14 -- 0 and lodging its eleventh shutout over the Buckeyes. The rivalry has been renewed annually every year since then. In 1919, the Buckeyes (led by legendary halfback Chic Harley) won their first game in the series, beating the Wolverines 13 -- 3. The Buckeyes won the following two contests as well, to bring the series record to 13 -- 3 -- 2.
Harley 's prowess spurred the university to campaign to build a stadium for Ohio State football. The stadium was completed in 1922, and the first of many historic games in Ohio Stadium took place on October 21, 1922, the day the stadium was dedicated in Columbus. In front of a record 71,000 fans, the Wolverines posted another shutout of the home team Buckeyes, 19 -- 0. According to lore, there was a wager on the outcome of this game, and yellow flowers on a blue background still exist today in the upper part of the stadium 's rotunda. Michigan won the next five games before OSU picked up the final two victories of the decade. At the end of the 1920s, the series stood at 19 -- 5 -- 2 in favor of Michigan.
Michigan won three of four contests between 1930 and 1933, claiming the national championship twice. In 1934, Francis Schmidt came on as the head coach for Ohio State. The team had lost nine of the previous 12 Michigan - OSU contests, and when a reporter asked Schmidt if Ohio State could beat Michigan that year, he replied, "Of course we can win, Michigan puts their pants on one leg at a time just like we do ''. The Buckeyes thereupon ran off four straight shutout victories against Michigan, outscoring the Wolverines 114 -- 0 from 1934 to 1937. Schmidt 's quote spawned an OSU tradition -- since 1934, every Ohio State player receives a gold pants pendant after a victory against Michigan.
Michigan won the three games from 1938 to 1940. The 1940 game, won by Michigan, 40 -- 0, was the benchmark performance of what some consider to be the greatest Michigan team in history, and was the final collegiate game of the tailback tandem of Tom Harmon and Paul Kromer.
In 1941, Michigan and Ohio State met for the first time with each team ranked in the AP Poll, which had started in 1936. The 14th - ranked Buckeyes played the 5th - ranked Wolverines to a 20 -- 20 tie in Ann Arbor.
In 1945, Michigan quarterback Howard Yerges led Michigan to a 7 -- 3 victory over Ohio State. Yerges played for Ohio State in 1943 as a freshman (freshmen were eligible to play during wartime) and then transferred to Michigan in 1944, making him one of three players to play on both sides in the rivalry. Five more times during the 1940s, the teams were both ranked for their annual matchup. Michigan won five of the next seven games before playing to their second tie of the decade in 1949. The series record stood at 30 -- 12 -- 4 at the mid-century mark.
One of the more famous games in the rivalry is the 1950 contest, colloquially known as the Snow Bowl. Eighth - ranked Ohio State, coached by Wes Fesler, was scheduled to host the game on November 25 in Columbus amidst one of the worst blizzards on Ohio record. The Buckeyes, who led the Big Ten, were granted the option to cancel the game against Michigan, which would have, by default, given the Buckeyes the Big Ten title outright. Ohio State refused, and the game was set to be played. Amid howling snow and wind, in a famous example of a "field position '' game, the teams exchanged 45 punts, often on first down, in hopes that the other team would fumble the ball near or into their own end zone. Ohio State 's Vic Janowicz, who would claim the Heisman Trophy that year, punted 21 times for 685 yards and also kicked a field goal in the first quarter for the Buckeyes ' only points. Michigan capitalized on two blocked punts, booting one out of the back of the end zone for a safety and recovering another one in the end zone for a touchdown just before halftime. Despite failing to gain a single first down or complete a single forward pass, Michigan gained a 9 -- 3 victory, securing the Big Ten title and a Rose Bowl berth. Heavy criticism of Fesler 's play calling led to his resignation and the hiring of Woody Hayes as his successor.
Between 1951 and 1968 under Hayes, the Buckeyes won 12 of 18 contests, including a 1957 victory in Michigan Stadium, the first game in the series attended by over 100,000 fans. In 1958, Ohio State had a 20 -- 14 lead towards the end of the game. On the final play, Michigan fullback Gene Sisinyak ran the ball from the one - yard line for what might have been a game - winning touchdown, but Ohio State defensive tackle Dick Schafrath hit Sisinyak, forcing a fumble. In the 1968 game, Ohio State won 50 -- 14, outscoring its foe 29 -- 0 in the second half and attempting an unsuccessful two - point conversion attempt on its final touchdown. In the post-game interview Hayes was asked why he went for two points with an already insurmountable 50 -- 14 lead and he replied, "because I could n't go for three ''. The victory gave top - ranked Ohio State the Big Ten title for the first time in seven years en route to an AP national championship. The Buckeyes had also narrowed the series margin to 37 -- 24 -- 4.
Wolverines coach Bump Elliott resigned after the 1968 loss and Michigan hired Miami (Ohio) head coach Bo Schembechler, who had previously been an assistant at Ohio State under Hayes, to revitalize its football program. On November 22, 1969, Hayes led his top - ranked Buckeyes into Michigan Stadium to face Schembechler 's Wolverines in the first matchup between two coaches who would come to define the rivalry between the two programs. The Buckeyes brought a 22 - game winning streak into Ann Arbor, but behind an inspiring 60 - yard punt return by Barry Pierson that set up a Wolverine touchdown in the second quarter, and a defense that intercepted Ohio State six times (three by Pierson), the Wolverines won a defensive battle (both teams were scoreless in the second half) for a 24 -- 12 upset.
The contest was the first in the famous "Ten - Year War '' between Hayes and Schembechler, which pitted some of OSU 's and UM 's strongest teams against one another. Four times between 1970 and 1975, Ohio State and Michigan were both ranked in the top five of the AP Poll before their matchup. The Wolverines entered every game during those years undefeated and won only once, a 10 -- 7 victory in Ann Arbor on November 20, 1971. The Michigan graduating class of 1975 shared or won the Big Ten championship every season, yet went to the Rose Bowl only once, in 1972. They only lost or tied with Ohio State during the regular season in that period.
In 1973, both teams entered undefeated, with the winner guaranteed a trip to the Rose Bowl. The rivals played to a 10 -- 10 tie in Ann Arbor on November 24, and the athletic directors of the other Big Ten institutions were forced to vote on the Big Ten representative for the bowl game. In a secret ballot, Ohio State won the vote, to the outrage of Michigan athletic officials and fans. Schembechler argued that Michigan was robbed of its on - field achievements, and for months afterward, Ohio State newspapers were flooded with angry Wolverine letters and threats of lawsuits.
Woody coined the phrase "That state up north '' and "That team up north '', so he would not have to say the word "Michigan ''. He was famous for his intense hatred of all things Michigan and according to legend, once refused to get gas in an empty tank, saying: "No, goddammit! We do NOT pull in and fill up. And I 'll tell you exactly why we do n't. It 's because I do n't buy one goddam drop of gas in the state of Michigan! We 'll coast and PUSH this goddam car to the Ohio line before I give this state a nickel of my money! ''
During the "Ten - Year War, '' Ohio State and Michigan shared the Big Ten title six times. Between 1976 and 1978, Michigan won the game each year, and Ohio State failed to score a touchdown in each of those contests. Woody Hayes was fired at the end of the 1978 season after punching a Clemson player during the Gator Bowl, which ended the "War. '' The 1978 game was won by Michigan, 14 -- 3, giving Schembechler a record of 5 -- 4 -- 1 against Hayes. At the end of the Hayes tenure, the series stood at 42 -- 28 -- 5.
Earle Bruce took over for Hayes and led the Buckeyes to a 5 -- 4 record against Schembechler 's Wolverines between 1979 and 1987, perhaps the most balanced stretch of the rivalry, during which neither team won more than two consecutive games. In 1987, Bruce was fired in the week before the Michigan game due to a poor season record, but was allowed to coach anyway, and the inspired Buckeyes (each wearing a sweatband labeled "Earle '') won an upset over the heavily favored Wolverines. After the game, Bo Schembechler told Bruce, "I always mind losing to Ohio State but I did n't mind so much today. '' After 1987, the series stood at 46 -- 33 -- 5 in favor of UM.
The 13 games during John Cooper 's tenure as Buckeye coach were dominated by Michigan, as the Wolverines went 10 -- 2 -- 1 during the stretch. Schembechler coached Michigan through the 1989 season and then turned over the reins to one of his assistants, Gary Moeller, who led the team for five seasons before another longtime Michigan assistant, Lloyd Carr, became the head coach in 1995.
The most notorious matchups of the era took place in 1993, 1995, and 1996, in which Ohio State entered the game each year undefeated. The Buckeyes had a 9 -- 0 -- 1 record heading into the 1993 game and were looking to claim an outright Big Ten title against a Michigan team that had already lost four times. Michigan receiver Mercury Hayes and running backs Jon Ritchie, Che Foster, and Ed Davis each scored a touchdown as the Wolverines shocked the Buckeyes, 28 -- 0. After the game, Cooper said: "This is one of the most embarrassing games I 've ever been involved with. '' "They outplayed us on offense, on defense, and in the kicking game. If you 'd told me we would come up here and get beat 28 -- 0, I 'd have probably stayed home. ''
In 1995, # 2 Ohio State was led by eventual Heisman Trophy winner Eddie George and future National Football League (NFL) stars Orlando Pace, Terry Glenn, Mike Vrabel, Shawn Springs, and Rickey Dudley. Glenn insisted there was n't anything special about the Wolverines: "Michigan 's nothing, '' he said. Perhaps inspired by this remark, the Wolverines manhandled the Buckeyes at the line of scrimmage from the very first play. Michigan senior running back Tim Biakabutuka amassed 313 yards rushing in Michigan 's 31 -- 23 upset.
The Buckeyes had high expectations again entering the 1996 contest. They boasted an unblemished 10 -- 0 record and were ranked # 2 in the nation as they entered the finale with 7 -- 3 Michigan. When Ohio State jumped to a 9 -- 0 halftime lead, the OSU crowd sensed a special finish and perhaps a rise to # 1. The Wolverines ' defense shut the Buckeyes out in the second half while Brian Griese replaced the struggling Scott Dreisbach and led Michigan to 13 unanswered points and another victory over their rivals, 13 -- 9. The game would turn out to be the Buckeyes ' only loss of the season and ended up costing them a chance of the national championship.
In 1997, Ohio State hoped to return the favor: the 10 -- 0 Wolverines sat atop the AP Poll entering their matchup with the 10 -- 1 Buckeyes, who were ranked # 4. Spearheaded by the play of eventual Heisman winner Charles Woodson, who ran a punt back for a touchdown, intercepted a pass in the Ohio State end zone, and caught a 37 - yard pass that set up freshman running back Anthony Thomas ' touchdown run, the Wolverines prevailed, 20 -- 14. The Wolverines then defeated Washington State in the Rose Bowl by a 21 -- 16 score, winning their first national championship since 1948.
Ohio State came back with a win in the 1998 contest, but Michigan went on to win in 1999 and 2000. Senior quarterback Tom Brady hit sophomore receiver Marquise Walker for the game - winning touchdown pass with five minutes to go to for a 24 -- 17 victory in 1999. In the 2000 game, Michigan grabbed a 31 -- 12 lead and held on to win, 38 -- 26. Michigan junior quarterback Drew Henson went 14 for 25 passing for 303 yards and three scores and added a touchdown run. At the end of the 2000 season, Cooper was fired. While he consistently fielded strong teams, his 2 -- 10 -- 1 record against Michigan, including his failure to ever win in Ann Arbor, was, along with disciplinary problems and a losing record in bowl games, a major contributor to his dismissal. Michigan students held a "John Cooper Day '' celebration in Ann Arbor on February 10, 2001 in mock celebration of Cooper 's record in the rivalry.
In 2001, Youngstown State head football coach Jim Tressel took over as Buckeye head coach. Unlike his predecessor John Cooper, Tressel put a special emphasis on the rivalry. In his introductory speech at halftime of a January basketball game, against Michigan, he said "I can assure you that you will be proud of our young people, in the classroom, in the community, and most especially in 310 days in Ann Arbor, Michigan on the football field. '' In his first year, Tressel registered the Buckeyes ' first defeat of the Wolverines in Ann Arbor in 14 years, by a 26 -- 20 score. Led by senior running back Jonathan Wells, the Buckeyes raced to a 23 -- 0 halftime lead. With Wells out, Michigan mounted a second half comeback that fell just short. The next year, Tressel achieved what Cooper could not: Beating Michigan in consecutive years with a 14 -- 9 victory. The game was decided on the last play when defensive back Will Allen intercepted a pass at the two yard line as time expired to clinch the victory. The Buckeyes were led by freshman running back Maurice Clarett, who ran for 119 yards and one touchdown. He also had a key reception to set up Maurice Hall 's game - winning score. The Buckeyes went on to win the national championship that season, as they defeated Miami in the Fiesta Bowl.
In 2003, Michigan struck back and won the 100th meeting between the historical rivals by a score of 35 -- 21 in Ann Arbor. Senior running back Chris Perry, a Heisman finalist, had 154 yards rushing and two touchdowns to lead the Wolverines to the victory. Braylon Edwards contributed seven catches for 130 yards and two big touchdowns. The game 's attendance was 112,118, the largest crowd ever for an NCAA football game at the time. In 2004, the 6 -- 4 Buckeyes defeated the heavily favored 9 -- 1 Wolverines, 37 -- 21, behind the leadership of quarterback Troy Smith and true freshman receiver Ted Ginn, Jr. The Buckeyes added another win in the 2005 game by overcoming a 21 -- 12 deficit with less than eight minutes in the game. In the closing minutes of the game, the Buckeye offense scored two touchdowns to claim a 25 -- 21 victory. Smith threw for 300 yards and completed 73 % of his passes. Ginn had a game high nine catches for 89 yards.
On November 18, 2006, Ohio State and Michigan met for their annual showdown, each carrying an 11 -- 0 record. For the first time in the history of the rivalry, the two rivals faced off while holding the top two spots in the Bowl Championship Series rankings. Ohio State won the game by a score of 42 -- 39 and became the outright Big Ten champion, earning the right to play for a national championship at the BCS National Championship Game in Glendale, Arizona. Michigan struck first with a touchdown run by junior running back Mike Hart, but the Buckeyes then scored 21 unanswered points, and at halftime, they were up 28 -- 14. Thanks to an interception and a fumble recovery by junior defensive tackle Alan Branch, Michigan made it 35 -- 31 Ohio State with 14 minutes to go in the fourth quarter. But after appearing to have forced Ohio State into a fourth - down situation with six minutes to go, junior outside linebacker Shawn Crable was called for roughing the passer, giving the Buckeyes a fresh set of downs. Ohio State quarterback Troy Smith then passed to Brian Robiskie for a touchdown, increasing the Buckeyes ' lead to 42 -- 31 with five minutes remaining in the game. After Ohio State was called for pass interference on a failed fourth - down attempt, giving Michigan an automatic first down, junior quarterback Chad Henne found senior tight end Tyler Ecker for a 16 - yard touchdown with two minutes to go to cut the OSU lead to 42 -- 37. Senior wide receiver Steve Breaston caught the two - point conversion to bring the Wolverines within a field goal. Michigan needed to recover the ensuing onside kick, but they failed to do so. The Buckeyes ran out the clock for the victory, and a trip to the BCS national championship game. Troy Smith completed 71 % of his passes for 316 yards and four touchdowns, essentially clinching the Heisman trophy. Ginn caught eight passes for 104 yards and a touchdown. Ohio State running back Antonio Pittman ran for 139 yards on 18 carries for a 7.7 yards - per - carry average. Michigan running back Mike Hart carried the ball 23 times for 142 yards and three touchdowns against a stout Buckeye defense. Chad Henne had 267 yards, two touchdowns, and no turnovers on a 60 % completion percentage. Neither performance was, however, sufficient to turn the tide in favor of the Wolverines. The game was highly touted by ESPN / ABC (there was a game countdown clock for a week before kickoff) and was viewed by the largest television audience for a regular - season college football game since 1993, averaging 21.8 million viewers. The victory marked the first time in 43 years that the Buckeyes had won three consecutive games in the series. The game gained even more significance when, on the eve of the meeting, Michigan head coach and former Ohio State assistant coach Bo Schembechler died. Schembechler was honored with a video tribute at Ohio Stadium as well as a moment of silence before kickoff. Half an hour after the game ended, the Ohio Lottery PICK 4 evening drawing was 4 -- 2 -- 3 -- 9, matching the final score of the game and paying out up to $5,000 per winner, for a total payout of $2.2 million.
Following the game, there was a chance of a rematch in the 2007 BCS National Championship Game, but Florida was chosen over Michigan to be Ohio State 's opponent.
Lloyd Carr retired as coach at Michigan following the 2007 season and another loss to Ohio State. Tressel had compiled a 6 -- 1 record against Carr 's Michigan teams, leaving Carr with a 6 -- 7 career record against Ohio State. In December 2007, Michigan hired West Virginia head coach Rich Rodriguez to take over the football program. Rodriguez, known for his expertise in the spread offense, represented a significant departure from the Wolverines ' traditional offensive style. Furthermore, both Carr and his predecessor Gary Moeller had been apprenticed by the now - legendary Schembechler, and Rodriguez 's hiring marked the first time in 40 years that a Michigan football team would not be coached by a member of the "Schembechler school. ''
The 2008 game, Rodriguez 's first against the Buckeyes, featured an Ohio State team that needed a win to secure at least a share of the Big Ten championship for the fourth straight year. Michigan by contrast entered the game with a 3 -- 8 record, having already suffered more losses than in any other season in its history. The Buckeyes posted a 42 -- 7 win, and scored their largest margin of victory over Michigan since 1968.
Ohio State won 21 -- 10 in the 2009 game to extend their winning streak against Michigan to six games, their longest in the rivalry 's history, and improve Jim Tressel 's record versus Michigan to 8 -- 1. Ohio State wore throwback uniforms to commemorate their 1954 national championship team. The 2009 meeting also saw Buckeye guard Justin Boren, who had transferred to Ohio State from Michigan in 2008, become the third player in school history to play for both teams (J.T. White and Howard Yerges, Jr. being the others) and only the second to play for both teams in the rivalry game. In 2010, Ohio State again prevailed, 37 -- 7 but had to vacate all wins from the 2010 season.
Rodriguez was fired following Michigan 's 2010 season, ending Michigan 's flirtation with the spread -- and with non - "Michigan Man '' coaches. Rodriguez was succeeded by Brady Hoke, who served as Michigan 's defensive line coach from 1995 to 2002. Hoke held head coaching positions at Ball State from 2003 to 2008 and San Diego State from 2009 to 2010 before returning to Michigan. Meanwhile, in Columbus, the Ohio State football program came under NCAA investigation in early 2011 for an incident in which several prominent players were discovered to have traded memorabilia for tattoos. Evidence surfaced that Tressel had known about the situation but had not reported it to school compliance officials, and that the abuses were more widespread and longstanding than originally reported. On May 30, 2011, Tressel resigned as head coach and former Buckeye player and assistant coach Luke Fickell was appointed interim head coach for the 2011 season. In July 2011, in response to the ongoing NCAA investigation, Ohio State vacated all wins from the 2010 season, including the win over Michigan, leaving Tressel with a final record against Michigan of 8 -- 1, with a win streak of six.
Michigan won the 2011 meeting, 40 -- 34, which was the first between two first - year coaches since the 1929 match - up of Harry Kipke and Sam Willaman. The Wolverines were led by junior quarterback Denard Robinson who accounted for 337 total yards rushing and passing, and five touchdowns.
On November 28, 2011, Urban Meyer, who had served as an assistant at Ohio State from 1986 to 1987, was named the 24th head coach for the Buckeyes, replacing Fickell. In the 2012 matchup, OSU 's junior running back Carlos Hyde ran for 146 yards and the fourth - ranked Buckeyes, trailing at halftime, shut down No. 20 Michigan 's offense in the second half to prevail 26 -- 21 and cap a 12 -- 0 season.
In 2013, Ohio State came to Michigan Stadium with an 11 -- 0 record (7 -- 0 Big Ten) and ranked # 3 in the BCS standings. Michigan was a disappointing 7 -- 4 (3 -- 4 Big Ten). In spite of the seeming mismatch, the game remained close and with 32 seconds remaining Michigan scored to bring the score to 42 -- 41. Michigan attempted a two - point conversion for the lead, but Devin Gardner 's pass was intercepted in the end zone by Tyvis Powell, and Ohio State escaped with the win.
Michigan entered the 2014 contest with a 5 -- 6 record and needed a win against Ohio State to become bowl eligible. Ohio State had a 10 -- 1 record (7 -- 0 in the Big Ten), and was holding onto hope that they would be selected as one of the top four teams in the nation and gain a spot in the first ever College Football Playoff. The game was tied at 21 until the fourth quarter when Ohio State scored three touchdowns (two on offense and one on defense) to go up 42 -- 21. The Game ended 42 -- 28. During the contest, OSU quarterback J.T. Barrett suffered a broken ankle and left the game in favor of third - string sophomore quarterback, Cardale Jones. Ohio State would go on to win the inaugural College Football Playoff and national championship.
Three days after the game, Michigan head coach Brady Hoke was fired and Michigan began searching for Hoke 's successor. On December 30, 2014, Jim Harbaugh, former quarterback for Michigan from 1983 to 1986, was introduced by the University of Michigan as the school 's new head football coach.
The 2015 game in Ann Arbor marked Harbaugh 's first game as a head coach in the rivalry. His Michigan team was 9 -- 2 coming into the game and Ohio State was 10 -- 1. For the first time since 2006, both teams were ranked in the top 10, with Ohio State at # 8 and Michigan at # 10. The first half was close, with Michigan scoring a touchdown shortly before halftime to narrow Ohio State 's lead to 14 -- 10. Ohio State, however, scored touchdowns on each of its first 4 possessions in the second half, while Michigan could only muster a single field goal. The final score was 42 -- 13, in favor of Ohio State.
The 2016 game pitted the third - ranked Wolverines against the second - ranked Buckeyes, only the second time that the matchup featured programs both ranked in the nation 's top three. Michigan led 10 -- 7 at halftime and extended its lead to 17 -- 7 early in the third quarter. An Ohio State touchdown cut the deficit to 17 -- 14 heading to the fourth quarter. The Buckeyes kicked a field goal in the final seconds of regulation to tie the game and force overtime. The game marked the first overtime in the series between the two teams. Ohio State defeated Michigan for the fifth consecutive time, winning 30 -- 27 in two overtimes.
The 2017 game, held in Ann Arbor, drew a crowd of more than 112,000, and featured the ninth - ranked Buckeyes against the unranked Wolverines. Michigan took an early lead and led 14 - 0 at the end of the first quarter but Ohio State tied the game at 14 - 14 before half time. Michigan 's offense was limited to six points in the second half, and Ohio State scored 17, winning the game 31 - 20. The victory was the Buckeyes ' sixth win in six years under head coach Urban Meyer. J.T. Barrett, Ohio State 's starting quarterback, recorded 4 wins in 4 years as a starting quarterback -- the first Ohio State QB to do so. Until this game, Ohio State had never come back and won a game against Michigan once down 14 or more points.
In 2010, the Big Ten Conference announced that the University of Nebraska would be joining the Big Ten the following year, and that the Big Ten would be split into two divisions. When rumors surfaced that Ohio State and Michigan would be placed in different divisions, concerns arose that the teams might no longer play the last game of the regular season to avoid potential back - to - back games if each team won their division and earned the right to play in the Big Ten Championship Game. Fans bombarded the athletic directors of both schools, as well as the Big Ten commissioner with emails, creating pressure to keep The Game as the regular season finale. Ultimately, Michigan was placed in the Legends Division and Ohio State in the Leaders Division. The Michigan -- Ohio State game became a "protected crossover '' game, to be played every year at the end of the regular season.
The game became a division matchup in 2014 under the Big Ten 's geographical realignment. Michigan and Ohio State were both placed in the East Division.
During the mid-2000s, ESPN aired several commercials describing certain situations that would be "normal, if it was n't for sports ''. One commercial featured a man in an Ohio State shirt making out with a woman wearing a Michigan shirt. An ESPNU commercial air portrayed a couple on a blind date that appears to be successful until it becomes clear that she is from Michigan and he is a fan of Ohio State.
In 2006, as part of their "Midwest Midterm Midtacular '', The Daily Show visited Ohio State University and made fun of the rivalry on the final night by having correspondent Rob Riggle report while wearing a Michigan sweatshirt. This brought boos, jeers, and a few laughs from the OSU audience. After the sketch was over, Jon Stewart compared the rivalry to the disputes between Sunni and Shiite Muslims.
The 2007 HBO documentary Michigan vs. Ohio State: The Rivalry focused on the rivalry, chiefly the "Ten - Year War '' through the present.
The book Myth Directions by Robert Asprin, who attended Michigan, features a thinly veiled version of the Ohio State vs. Michigan game, parodying both sides and their fanaticism regarding the event.
The 1942 movie The Male Animal, based on a play of the same name by Ohio State alumni James Thurber and Elliott Nugent, also features a version of the game.
In 2011, 10 - year - old Grant Reed of Columbus was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor. Not liking to use the word "cancer '', Reed (whose parents are both Ohio State alums and himself is an Ohio State fan) decided to call his cancer "Michigan '', since "Ohio State is always going to beat Michigan ''. The move of calling his cancer "Michigan '' got the support of his parents, Ohio State head coach Urban Meyer (who Reed later got to meet), and even some Michigan fans, including Michigan head coach Brady Hoke. After his last chemotherapy treatment in 2013 which placed him in remission, Reed now tells people that he "beat Michigan ''.
Rankings are from the AP Poll.
In Big Ten Conference play, Ohio State leads the series 49 -- 46 -- 4 through the 2017 meeting. Michigan was a charter member of the Big Ten in 1896 before leaving the league after the 1906 football season. Ohio State began league play with the 1913 season, and Michigan returned for the 1917 season. The 1918 matchup between the two schools was the first between them with both as Big Ten members.
|
the primary french outpost in what would become the united states southeast was | Spanish Florida - wikipedia
Royal standard of Castile (1503) Cross of Burgundy (1565) First national flag of Spain (1785)
Spanish Florida refers to the Spanish territory of La Florida, which was the first major European land claim and attempted settlement in North America during the European Age of Discovery. La Florida formed part of the Captaincy General of Cuba, the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and the Spanish Empire during Spanish colonization of the Americas. While it had no clearly defined boundaries, the territory was much larger than the present - day state of Florida, extending over much of what is now the southeastern United States, including all of present - day Florida plus portions of Georgia,. Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, and southeastern Louisiana. Spain 's claim to this vast area was based on several wide - ranging expeditions mounted during the 16th century. However, Spain never exercised real control over La Florida much beyond several settlements and forts which were predominantly located in present - day Florida.
Spanish Florida was established in 1513, when Juan Ponce de León claimed peninsular Florida for Spain during the first official European expedition to North America. This claim was enlarged as several explorers (most notably Pánfilo Narváez and Hernando de Soto) landed near Tampa Bay in the mid-1500s and wandered as far north as the Appalachian Mountains and as far west as Texas in largely unsuccessful searches for gold and other riches. The presidio of St. Augustine was founded on Florida 's Atlantic coast in 1565; a series of missions were established across the Florida panhandle, Georgia, and South Carolina during the 1600s; and Pensacola was founded on the western Florida panhandle in 1698, strengthening Spanish claims to that section of the territory.
Spanish control of the Florida peninsula was made possible by the collapse of native cultures during the 17th century. Several Native American groups (including the Timucua, Calusa, Tequesta, Apalachee. Tocobaga, and the Ais people) had been long - established residents of Florida, and most resisted Spanish incursions onto their land. However, conflict with Spanish expeditions, raids by the English and their native allies, and (especially) diseases brought from Europe resulted in a drastic decline in the population of all the indigenous peoples of Florida, and large swaths of the peninsula were mostly uninhabited by the early 1700s. During the mid-1700s, small bands of Creek and other Native American refugees began moving south into Spanish Florida after having been forced off their lands by English settlements and raids. They were later joined by African - Americans fleeing slavery in nearby colonies. These newcomers - plus perhaps a few surviving descendants of indigenous Florida peoples - eventually coalesced into a new Seminole culture.
The extent of Spanish Florida began to shrink in the 1600s, and the mission system was gradually abandoned due to native depopulation. Between disease, poor management, and ill - timed hurricanes, several Spanish attempts to establish new settlements in La Florida ended in failure. With no gold or silver in the region, Spain regarded Florida (and particularly the heavily fortified town of St. Augustine) primarily as a buffer between its more prosperous colonies to the south and west and several newly established rival European colonies to the north. The establishment of the Province of Carolina by the English in 1639, New Orleans by the French in 1718, and of the Province of Georgia by Great Britain in 1732 limited the boundaries of Florida over Spanish objections. The War of Jenkins ' Ear (1739 - 1748) included a British attack on St. Augustine and a Spanish invasion of Georgia, both of which were repulsed. At the conclusion of the war, the northern boundary of Spanish Florida was set near the current northern border of modern - day Florida.
Great Britain temporarily gained control of Florida beginning in 1763 as a result of the Anglo - Spanish War, but while Britain occupied the territory, it did not develop it further. Sparsely populated British Florida stayed loyal to Crown during the American Revolutionary War, and by the terms of the Treaty of Paris which ended the war, the territory was returned to Spain in 1783. After a brief diplomatic border dispute with the fledgling United States, the countries set a territorial border and allowed Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River by the terms of Pinckney 's Treaty in 1795.
France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803. The U.S. claimed that the transaction included West Florida, while Spain insisted that the area was not part of Louisiana and was still Spanish territory. In 1810, the United States intervened in a local uprising in West Florida, and by 1812, the Mobile District was absorbed into the U.S. territory of Mississippi, reducing the borders of Spanish Florida to that of modern Florida.
In the early 1800s, tensions rose along the unguarded border between Spanish Florida and the state of Georgia as settlers skirmished with Seminoles over land and American slave - hunters raided Black Seminole villages in Florida. These tensions were exacerbated when the Seminoles aided Great Britain against the United States during the War of 1812 and led to American military incursions into northern Florida beginning in late 1814 during what became known as the First Seminole War. As with earlier American incursions into Florida, Spain protested this invasion but could not defend its territory, and instead opened diplomatic negotiations seeking a peaceful transfer of land. By the terms of the Adams - Onis Treaty of 1819, Spanish Florida ceased to exist in 1821, when control of the territory was officially transferred to the United States.
Anonymous Portuguese explorers were likely the first Europeans to map the southeastern portion of the future United States, including Florida. As documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502, Portugal explored and mapped much of the Atlantic seaboard and the eastern Gulf of Mexico during the decade following the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, who never sighted mainland North America in any of his expeditions. The Portuguese kept their discoveries secret, however, and did not attempt to establish settlements or explore very far inland.
In 1512 Juan Ponce de León, governor of Puerto Rico, received royal permission to search for land north of Cuba. On March 3, 1513, his expedition departed from Punta Aguada, Puerto Rico, sailing north in three ships. In late March, he spotted a small island (almost certainly one of the Bahamas) but did not land. On April 2, Ponce de León spotted the east coast of the Florida peninsula and went ashore the next day at an exact location that has been lost to time. Assuming that he had found a large island, he claimed the land for Spain and named it La Florida, because it was the season of Pascua Florida ("Flowery Easter '') and because much of the vegetation was in bloom. After briefly exploring the area around their landing site, the expedition returned to their ships and sailed south to map the coast, encountering the Gulf Stream along the way. The expedition followed Florida 's coastline all the way around the Florida Keys and north to map a portion of the Southwest Florida coast before returning to Puerto Rico.
Popular legend has it that Ponce de León was searching for the Fountain of Youth when he discovered Florida. However, the first mention of Ponce de León searching for water to cure his aging came more than twenty years after his voyage of discovery, and the first that placed the Fountain of Youth in Florida was thirty years after that. It is much more likely that Ponce de León, like other Spanish conquistadors in the Americas, was looking for gold, land to colonize and rule for Spain, and Indians to convert to Christianity or enslave.
Ponce de León probably was not the first Spaniard to reach Florida, although he was the first to do so with permission from the Spanish crown. Evidence suggests that Spanish raiders from the Caribbean had conducted small secret expeditions to Florida to capture Indian slaves. The Native Americans encountered by Ponce de León were hostile at first contact, and he met an Indian in Florida who knew some Spanish words.
Other Spanish voyages to Florida quickly followed Ponce de León 's return. Sometime in the period from 1514 to 1516, Pedro de Salazar enslaved as many as 500 Indians along the Atlantic coast of the present - day southeastern United States. Diego Miruelo visited what was probably Tampa Bay in 1516, Francisco Hernández de Cordova reached southwest Florida in 1517, and Alonso Álvarez de Pineda sailed and mapped all of the Gulf of Mexico coast in 1519.
In 1521, Ponce de León sailed from Cuba with 200 men in two ships to establish a colony on the southwest coast of the Florida peninsula, probably near Charlotte Harbor. However, attacks by the native Calusa drove the colonists away in July 1521. After the skirmish, Ponce de Leon was wounded as he had an arrow sticking out of his thigh. However, that was not the only injury he had during the battle. Ponce de Leon died of his injuries upon the expedition 's return to Havana.
In 1521 Pedro de Quejo and Francisco Gordillo enslaved 60 Indians at Winyah Bay, South Carolina. Quejo, with the backing of Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, returned to the region in 1525, stopping at several locations between Amelia Island and the Chesapeake Bay. In 1526 de Ayllón led an expedition of some 600 people to the South Carolina coast. After scouting possible locations as far south as Ponce de León Inlet in Florida, the settlement of San Miguel de Gualdape was established in the vicinity of Sapelo Sound, Georgia. Disease, hunger, cold and Indian attacks led to San Miguel being abandoned after only two months. About 150 survivors returned to Spanish settlements. Dominican friars Fr. Antonio de Montesinos and Fr. Anthony de Cervantes were among the colonists. Given that at the time priests were obliged to say mass each day, it is historically safe to assert that Catholic Mass was celebrated in what is today the United States for the first time, by these Dominicans, even though the specific date and location remains unclear.
In 1527 Pánfilo de Narváez left Spain with five ships and about 600 people on a mission to explore and to settle the coast of the Gulf of Mexico between the existing Spanish settlements in Mexico and Florida. After storms and delays, the expedition landed near Tampa Bay on April 12, 1528, already short on supplies, with about 400 people. Confused as to the location of Tampa Bay (Milanich notes that a navigation guide used by Spanish pilots at the time placed Tampa Bay some 90 miles too far north), Narváez sent his ships in search of it while most of the expedition marched northward, supposedly to meet the ships at the bay.
Intending to find Tampa Bay, Narváez marched close to the coast, through what turned out to be largely uninhabited territory. The expedition was forced to subsist on the rations they had brought with them, until they reached the Withlacoochee River, where they finally encountered Indians. Seizing hostages, the expedition reached the Indians ' village, where they found corn. Further north they were met by a chief who led them to his village on the far side of the Suwannee River. The chief, Dulchanchellin, tried to enlist the Spanish as allies against his enemies, the Apalachee.
Seizing Indians as guides, the Spaniards traveled northwest towards the Apalachee territory. Milanich suggests that the guides led the Spanish on a circuitous route through the roughest country they could find. In any case, the expedition did not find the larger Apalachee towns. By the time the expedition reached Aute, a town near the Gulf Coast, it had been under attack by Indian archers for many days. Plagued by illness, short rations, and hostile Indians, Narváez decided to sail to Mexico rather than attempt an overland march. Two hundred and forty two men set sail on five crude rafts. All the rafts were wrecked on the Texas coast. After eight years, four survivors, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, reached New Spain (Mexico). A fifth, Juan Ortiz, escaped from captivity with the Indians after 12 years.
Hernando de Soto had been one of Francisco Pizarro 's chief lieutenants in the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, and had returned to Spain a very wealthy man. He was appointed Adelantado of Florida and governor of Cuba, and assembled a large expedition to ' conquer ' Florida. On May 30, 1539, de Soto and his companions landed in Tampa Bay, where they found Juan Ortiz, who had been captured by the local Indians a decade earlier when he was sent ashore from a ship searching for Narváez. Ortiz passed on the Indian reports of riches, including gold, to be found in Apalachee, and de Soto set off with 550 soldiers, 200 horses, and a few priests and friars. De Soto 's expedition lived off the land as it marched. De Soto followed a route further inland than that of Narváez 's expedition, but the Indians remembered the earlier disruptions caused by the Spanish, and were wary when not outright hostile. De Soto seized Indians to serve as guides and porters.
The expedition reached Apalachee in October, and settled into the chief Apalachee town of Anhaica for the winter, where they found large quantities of stored food, but little gold or other riches. In the spring de Soto set out to the northeast, crossing what is now Georgia and South Carolina into North Carolina, then turned westward, crossed the Great Smoky Mountains into Tennessee, then marched south into Georgia. Turning westward again, the expedition crossed Alabama. They lost all of their baggage in a fight with Indians near Choctaw Bluff on the Alabama River, and spent the winter in Mississippi. In May 1541 the expedition crossed the Mississippi River and wandered through present - day Arkansas, Missouri and possibly Kansas before spending the winter in Oklahoma. In 1542 the expedition headed back to the Mississippi River, where de Soto died. Three hundred and ten survivors returned from the expedition in 1543.
Although the Spanish had lost hope of finding gold and other riches in Florida, it was seen as vital to the defense of their colonies and territories in Mexico and the Caribbean. In 1559 Tristán de Luna y Arellano left Mexico with 500 soldiers and 1,000 civilians on a mission to establish colonies at Ochuse (Pensacola Bay) and Santa Elena (Port Royal Sound). The plan was to land everybody at Ochuse, with most of the colonists marching overland to Santa Elena. A tropical storm struck five days after the fleet 's arrival at the Bay of Ochuse, sinking ten of the thirteen ships along with the supplies that had not yet been unloaded. Expeditions into the interior failed to find adequate supplies of food. Most of the colony moved inland to Nanicapana, renamed Santa Cruz, where some food had been found, but it could not support the colony and the Spanish returned to Pensacola Bay. In response to a royal order to immediately occupy Santa Elena, Luna sent three small ships, but they were damaged in a storm and returned to Mexico. Angel de Villafañe replaced the discredited Luna in 1561, with orders to withdraw most of the colonists from Ochuse and occupy Santa Elena. Villafañe led 75 men to Santa Elena, but a tropical storm damaged his ships before they could land, forcing the expedition to return to Mexico.
The establishment of permanent settlements and fortifications in Florida by Spain was in response to the challenge posed by French Florida: French captain Jean Ribault led an expedition to Florida, and established Charlesfort on what is now Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562. However, the French Wars of Religion prevented Ribault from returning to resupply the fort, and the men abandoned it. Two years later, René Goulaine de Laudonnière, Ribault 's lieutenant on the previous voyage, set out to found a haven for Protestant Huguenot colonists in Florida. He founded Fort Caroline at what is now Jacksonville in July 1564. Once again, however, a resupplying mission by Ribault failed to arrive, threatening the colony. Some mutineers fled Fort Caroline to engage in piracy against Spanish colonies, causing alarm among the Spanish government. Laudonnière nearly abandoned the colony in 1565, but Jean Ribault finally arrived with supplies and new settlers in August.
At the same time, in response to French activities, King Philip II of Spain appointed Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Adelantado of Florida, with a commission to drive non-Spanish adventurers from all of the land from Newfoundland to St. Joseph Bay (on the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico). Menéndez de Avilés reached Florida at the same time as Ribault in 1565, and established a base at San Agustín (St. Augustine in English), the oldest continuously inhabited European - established settlement in what is now the continental United States. Menéndez de Avilés quickly set out to attack Fort Caroline, traveling overland from St. Augustine. At the same time, Ribault sailed from Fort Caroline, intending to attack St. Augustine from the sea. The French fleet, however, was pushed out to sea and decimated by a squall. Meanwhile, the Spanish overwhelmed the lightly defended Fort Caroline, sparing only the women and children. Some 25 men were able to escape. When the Spanish returned south and found the French shipwreck survivors, Menéndez de Avilés ordered all of the Huguenots executed. The location became known as Matanzas.
Following the expulsion of the French, the Spanish renamed Fort Caroline Fort San Mateo (Saint Matthew). Two years later, Dominique de Gourgues recaptured the fort from the Spanish and slaughtered all of the Spanish defenders.
In 1549 Father Luis de Cancer and three other Dominicans attempted the first solely missionary expedition in la Florida. Following decades of native contact with Spanish laymen who had ignored a 1537 Papal Bull which condemned slavery in no uncertain terms, the religious order 's effort was abandoned after only 6 weeks with de Cancer 's brutal martyrdom by Tocobaga natives. His death sent shock waves through the Dominican missionary community in New Spain for many years.
In 1566, the Spanish established the colony of Santa Elena on what is now Parris Island, South Carolina. Juan Pardo led two expeditions (1566 - 7 and 1567 - 8) from Santa Elena as far as eastern Tennessee, establishing six temporary forts in interior. The Spanish abandoned Santa Elena and the surrounding area in 1587.
In 1586, English sea captain Francis Drake plundered and burned St. Augustine, including a fortification that was under construction, while returning from raiding Santo Domingo and Cartagena in the Caribbean. His raids exposed Spain 's inability to properly defend her settlements.
The Jesuits had begun establishing missions to the Native Americans in Florida in 1567, but withdrew in 1572 after hostile encounters with the natives. In 1573 Franciscans assumed responsibility for missions to the Native Americans, eventually operating dozens of missions to the Guale, Timucua and Apalachee tribes. The missions were not without conflict, and the Guale first rebelled on October 4, 1597, in what is now coastal Georgia.
The extension of the mission system also provided a military strategic advantage from British troops arriving from the North. During the hundred - plus year span of missionary expansion, disease from the Europeans had a significant impact on the natives, along with the rising power of the French and British. During the Queen Anne 's War, the British dismantled much of the missions. By 1706, the missionaries retracted from their mission outposts and returned to St. Augustine.
Spanish Governor Pedro de lbarra worked at establishing peace with the native cultures to the South of St. Augustine. An account is recorded of his meeting with great Indian caciques (chiefs). Ybarra (Ibarra) in 1605 sent Alvaro Mexia, a cartographer, on a mission further South to meet and develop diplomatic ties with the Ais Indian nation, and to make a map of the region. His mission was successful.
In February 1647, the Apalachee revolted. The revolt changed the relationship between Spanish authorities and the Apalachee. Following the revolt, Apalachee men were forced to work on public projects in St. Augustine or on Spanish - owned ranches. In 1656, the Timucua rebelled, disrupting the Spanish missions in Florida. This also affected the ranches and food supplies for St. Augustine.
Throughout the 17th century, English and Scottish colonists from the Carolina and Virginia colonies gradually pushed the frontier of Spanish territory south. In the early 18th century, French settlements along the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast encroached on the western borders of the Spanish claim.
Starting in 1680, English and Scottish soldiers from Carolina and their Native American allies repeatedly attacked Spanish mission villages and St. Augustine, burning missions and killing and enslaving Indians. In 1702, James Moore led an army of colonists and a Native American force of Yamasee, Tallapoosa, Alabama, and other Creek warriors under the Yamasee chief Arratommakaw. The army attacked and razed the town of St. Augustine, but could not gain control of the fort. Moore in 1704 made a series of raids into the Apalachee Province of Florida, looting and destroying most of the remaining Spanish missions and killing or enslaving most of the Indian population. By 1707 the few surviving Indians had fled to Spanish St. Augustine and Pensacola, or French Mobile. Some of the Native Americans captured by Moore 's army were resettled along the Savannah and the Ocmulgee rivers in Georgia.
In 1696 the Spanish had founded Pensacola near the former site of Ochuse. In 1719, the French captured the Spanish settlement at Pensacola.
During the 18th century, the Native American peoples who would become the Seminoles began their migration to Florida, which had been largely depopulated by Carolinian and Yamasee slave raids. British Carolina 's power was damaged and the colony nearly destroyed during the Yamasee War of 1715 -- 1717, after which the Native American slave trade was radically reformed.
In 1763, Spain traded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years ' War. As Britain had defeated France in the war, it took over all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, except for New Orleans. Finding this new territory too vast to govern as a single unit, Britain divided the southernmost areas into two territories separated by the Apalachicola River: East Florida (the peninsula) and West Florida (the panhandle).
The British soon began aggressive recruiting to attract colonists to the area, offering free land and backing for export - oriented businesses. In 1764, the British moved the northern boundary of West Florida to a line extending from the mouth of the Yazoo River east to the Chattahoochee River (32 ° 22 ′ north latitude), consisting of approximately the lower third of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama, including the valuable Natchez District.
During this time, Creek Indians began to migrate into Florida, leading to the formation of the Seminole tribe. The aboriginal peoples of Florida had been devastated by war and disease, and it is thought most of the survivors accompanied the Spanish settlers when they left for other colonies (mostly French) in 1763. This left wide expanses of territory open to the Lower Creeks, who had been in conflict with the Upper Creeks of Alabama for years. The Seminole originally occupied the wooded areas of northern Florida. Under pressure from colonists and the United States Army in the Seminole Wars, they migrated into central and southern Florida, to the Everglades. Many of their descendants live in this area today as one of the two federally recognized Seminole tribes in the state.
Britain retained control over East Florida during the American Revolutionary War, but the Spanish, by that time allied with the French who were at war with Britain, recaptured most of West Florida. At the end of the war the Peace of Paris (1783) treaties (between the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Spain) ceded all of East and West Florida to Spanish control, though without specifying the boundaries.
Spain gained possession of West Florida and regained East Florida from Britain in the Peace of Paris of 1783, and continued the British practice of governing the Floridas as separate territories: West Florida and East Florida. When Spain acquired West Florida in 1783, the eastern British boundary was the Apalachicola River, but Spain in 1785 moved it eastward to the Suwannee River. The purpose was to transfer San Marcos and the district of Apalachee from East Florida to West Florida.
After American independence, the lack of specified boundaries led to a border dispute with the newly formed United States, known as the West Florida Controversy. The two 1783 treaties that ended the American Revolutionary War had differences in boundaries. The Treaty of Paris between Britain and the United States specified the boundary between West Florida and the newly independent U.S. at 31 °. However, in the companion Peace of Paris between Britain and Spain, West Florida was ceded to Spain without its boundaries being specified. The Spanish government assumed that the boundary was the same as in the 1763 agreement by which they had first given their territory in Florida to Britain, claiming that the northern boundary of West Florida was at the 32 ° 22 ′ boundary established by Britain in 1764 after the Seven Years ' War. The British line at 32 ° 22 ′ was close to Spain 's old claim of 32 ° 30 ′, which can be justified by referring to the principle of actual possession adopted by Spain and England in the 1670 Treaty of Madrid. The now independent United States insisted that the boundary was at 31 °, as specified in its Treaty of Paris with Britain.
After American independence, Spain claimed far more land than the old British West Florida, including the east side of the Mississippi River north to the Ohio and Tennessee rivers. This expanded claim was based on Spain 's successful military operations against the British in the region during the war. Spain occupied or built several forts north of the old British West Florida border, including Fort Confederación, Fort Nogales (at present - day Vicksburg), and Fort San Fernando (at present - day Memphis). Spain tried to settle the dispute quickly, but the U.S. delayed, knowing that time was on its side. By Pinckney 's Treaty of 1795 with the United States, Spain recognized the 31st parallel as the border, ending the first West Florida Controversy. Andrew Ellicott surveyed this parallel in 1797, as the border between the United States and Spanish territories. In 1798, Ellicott reported to the government that four American generals were receiving pensions from Spain, including General James Wilkinson.
Spain, beset with independence movements in its other colonies, could not settle or adequately govern Florida by the turn of the 19th century, its control limited to the immediate vicinity of towns and forts dotted across the north of the territory Tension and hostility between Seminoles and American settlers living in neighboring Georgia and over the Florida border grew steadily. Slaveholders wanted to reclaim fugitive slaves, and slave raiders frequently entered the territory, attacking Seminole villages and attempting to capture Black Seminoles. British agents working in Florida provided arms and other assistance to Native Americans, resulting in raids across the border that sometimes required intervention by American forces. Several local insurrections and filibuster campaigns against Spanish rule flared, some with quiet support from the U.S. government, most notably the Patriot War of East Florida of 1810 -- 1812 led by George Mathews. In 1817, a confused attack by a motley force of American and Scottish adventurers, Latin American revolutionaries, and pirates from Texas on Fernandina, temporarily claimed the whole of Amelia Island for the revolutionary republic of Mexico (not yet independent) for several months before U.S. forces retook the island and held it "in trust '' for Spain until they could "properly police and govern it ''. U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams called on Spain to gain control of Florida, calling the territory "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them. ''
The United States Army led increasingly frequent incursions against the Seminoles in western Florida, most notably during an 1817 -- 1818 semi-authorized campaign led by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War. During the conflict, Jackson occupied Pensacola, leading to protests from Spain until it was returned to Spanish control several weeks later. By 1819, the United States effectively controlled much of the Florida panhandle, and Spain was willing to negotiate a transfer of the entire territory. The Adams - Onís Treaty was signed between the United States and Spain on February 22, 1819, and took effect on July 17, 1821. According to the terms of the treaty, the United States acquired Florida and all Spanish claim to the Oregon Country. In exchange, the U.S. renounced all its claims to Texas and agreed to pay all Spanish debts to American citizens, which totaled about $5 million.
Hundreds of Black Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas in the early 1820s, to avoid US slave raiders.
|
who sings in the movie la vie en rose | La Vie en Rose (film) - Wikipedia
La Vie en Rose (French pronunciation: (la vi ɑ̃ ʁoz); French: La Môme) is a 2007 French biographical musical film about the life of French singer Édith Piaf. The film was co-written and directed by Olivier Dahan, and starred Marion Cotillard as Piaf. The US and UK title La Vie en Rose comes from Piaf 's signature song.
Cotillard won the Academy Award for Best Actress -- marking the first time an Oscar had been given for a French - language role -- the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the César Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her performance. The film also won the Academy Award for Best Makeup, the BAFTA Award for Best Makeup, Costume Design, Film Music, five César Awards and grossed $86.3 million worldwide.
The film is structured as a largely non-linear series of key events from the life of Édith Piaf. The film begins with elements from her childhood, and at the end with the events prior to and surrounding her death, poignantly juxtaposed by a performance of her song, "Non, je ne regrette rien ''.
The film opens with Édith as a small child in 1918, crying after being teased by other children. Her mother stands across the alley singing, busking for change. Édith 's mother writes to her child 's father, the acrobat, who is fighting in the trenches of World War I battlefields, informing him that she is leaving Édith with her mother so she can pursue the life of the artist. Her father returns to Paris and scoops up a sick Édith, then in turn leaves the child with his own mother, who is a madam of a brothel in Normandy. Now living as a child in a brothel, surrounded by the often brutal and demeaning business of prostitution, Édith is taken under the wing of the women there, especially Titine, a young troubled redhead who becomes emotionally attached to the little girl. Titine sings to, plays with, and tenderly cares for Édith through travails including an episode of keratitis - induced blindness.
Years later, Édith 's father returns for her. Despite anguished protests from both Titine and Édith, he takes the child away to join him as he works as a circus acrobat. As Édith is outside cleaning up after dinner one night, she watches a fire eater practicing, and in the flames sees an apparition of St Thérèse, who assures her that she will always be with her -- a belief that she carries with her for the rest of her life.
When Édith is nine years old, her father leaves the circus after an argument with the manager and begins performing on the streets of Paris. During a lackluster performance of her father 's contortionist skills while Édith holds a hat for coins, a passerby asks if Édith is part of the show and, with prompting by her father to "do something '' so the half - interested audience does n't leave, she spontaneously sings "La Marseillaise '' with raw emotion, mesmerizing the street crowd.
Years later, a nightclub owner named Louis Leplée approaches Édith while she sings (and drinks) on the streets of Montmartre for supper money with her friend Mômone. He invites her to his club for an informal audition. Impressed, he hires her, after creating for diminutive Édith (1.47 m in height) a stage surname of Piaf, a colloquialism for sparrow.
Soon, Leplée is shot dead, suspected by the police to be due to Édith 's connections to the mafia through the pimp who has demanded a large portion of her street singing earnings. When Édith next attempts a show at a low grade cabaret, she is jeered and shouted off the stage by a hostile crowd. Things go from bad to worse when Mômone is forcibly taken away to a convent for girls on orders from her mother. Desperate, Édith turns to Raymond Asso, a songwriter and accompanist. Through harsh means, he enlivens her performances by teaching her to gesture with her "great hands '' while singing, and works with her on enunciation and other aspects of stage presence, including how to battle her initial fierce bouts of stage fright that almost prevent her from taking the stage for her first music hall performance.
While performing in New York City, Édith meets Marcel Cerdan, a fellow French national who is a boxer competing for the World Champion title. Though she quickly learns from him that he has a wife, who runs their pig farm while he 's away, Édith tells Mômone that she is falling in love with Marcel. The affair that ensues (it begins shortly after he beats Tony Zale and becomes World Middleweight Champion), while supposedly secret, results in "La Vie En Rose '' being played for Marcel wherever he goes. The morning after Édith has persuaded Marcel to fly from Paris and join her in New York, she wakes up to his kiss. She joyfully hurries to get him coffee and her gift to him of a watch, while she mocks and exasperatedly shouts at her oddly subdued entourage as they listlessly stand around her apartment. They finally break the news to her that Marcel 's plane crashed. Édith hysterically searches for the ghost of Marcel that was lounging on her bed just a few moments before, crying out the name of her lost lover.
The narrative bookends these scenes from Édith 's middle life with repeated vignettes of an aged - looking Édith with frizzy red hair, being nursed and tended to. She spends much of her time sitting in a chair by the lakeside, and when she stands, she has the stooped posture and slowness of a much older person. Another set of fractured memories shows Édith with short curly hair, plastered to her face as though she is feverish, singing on stage and collapsing while she tries to sing, a moment when Édith herself realizes that her body is betraying her, when she is hosting a party at a Parisian bistro, and topples a bottle of champagne because of her developing arthritis, and to the morphine addiction that ultimately plays a large role in her demise, as she injects the drug with a young lover in her bedroom.
After her husband, Jacques Pills, persuades her to enter rehabilitation for her addiction, she travels to California with him, and the audience sees the sober but manic - by - nature Édith being driven around in a convertible, laughing, joking, teasing her compatriots and generally being the life of the party, until she takes the wheel and promptly drives into a Joshua tree. The hilarity is uninterrupted as Édith gets out and pretends to hitchhike -- the whole episode appearing to be a metaphor for her lifelong frantic efforts to be happy and distracted by entertaining others, through all manner of disasters.
Years later, Piaf, now frail and hunched, squabbles with her entourage about whether or not she will be able to perform at the Olympia. No one but Édith thinks that she will be ready to attempt the feat, but she ultimately faces this reality herself. Then, a new songwriter and arranger shows up with a song, "Non, je ne regrette rien '', and Édith exclaims: "You 're marvelous! Exactly what I 've been waiting for. It 's incredible. It 's me! That 's my life, it 's me. '' She announces that she will indeed perform it at the Olympia.
Memories from prior to and during her last performance, when she collapses onstage, are interwoven through the film, foreshadowing the tragic end to a stellar but prematurely ended stage life. The memories appear to almost haunt Piaf. In one series, prior to what turns out to be her last performance, Édith is finally ready to go onstage after a series of delays, when she asks for the cross necklace that she always wears. As her staff rush away to get it, she sits and, in her quiet solitude, experiences more memories of her past, and after Édith puts on the retrieved cross and shuffles out onto the stage, the film presents more flashbacks as she is singing one of her signature songs, "Je ne regrette rien. ''
She relives a sunny day on a beach with her knitting, when an older Édith with an obvious stoop graciously answers the simple and polite questions of an interviewer: what is her favorite color? (blue), her favorite food? (pot roast), and then more poignant questions that she also answers without hesitation, again showing the longings of her life. If you were to give advice to a woman, what would it be? "Love. '' To a young girl? "Love. '' To a child? "Love. ''
As though he is carrying a swaddled infant, Louis easily carries Édith, tiny and wasted away at the age of 47, into her bedroom and tucks her into bed, while the subtitle removes any illusions that this is other than the last day of her life. She is afraid. She says she can not remember things, but has a disjointed series of memories of the kind of small moments that somehow define all our lives more than the "big moments '' do -- scrambled and fragmentary as a dying person might experience -- her mother commenting on her "wild eyes, '' her father giving her a gift of a doll, and thoughts of her own dead child, Marcelle.
The film ends with Édith performing "Non, je ne regrette rien '' at the Olympia.
Cotillard was chosen by director Olivier Dahan to portray the French singer Édith Piaf in the biopic La Vie en Rose before he had even met her, saying that he noticed a similarity between Piaf 's and Cotillard 's eyes. Producer Alain Goldman accepted and defended the choice even though distributors TFM reduced the money they gave to finance the film thinking Cotillard was n't "bankable '' enough an actress.
Four songs were entirely performed by "Parigote '' singer Jil Aigrot: "Mon Homme '' (My Man), "Les Mômes de la Cloche '' (The kids of the bell), "Mon Légionnaire '' (My legionnaire), "Les Hiboux '' (Owls) as well as the third verse and chorus of "L'Accordéoniste '' (The accordionist) and the first chorus of "Padam Padam ''. Only parts of these last two songs were sung because they were sung while Piaf / Cotillard was fatigued and collapsed on stage. Apart from that, "La Marseillaise '' is performed by child singer Cassandre Berger (lip - synched by Pauline Burlet, who plays the young Édith in the film), and Mistinguett 's "Mon Homme '' (My Man) and "Il m'a vue nue '' (He saw me naked) (sung in part by Emmanuelle Seigner) also appear. Recordings of Piaf are also used.
The film premiered at the 57th Berlin International Film Festival.
In theaters, the film grossed US $86,274,793 worldwide -- $10,301,706 in the United States and Canada and $75,973,087 elsewhere in the world. In Francophone countries including France, Algeria, Monaco, Morocco and Tunisia, the film grossed a total of $42,651,334.
The film became the third - highest - grossing French - language film in the United States since 1980 (behind Amélie and Brotherhood of the Wolf).
The film received positive reviews from critics, earning a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 74 %. Cotillard received critical acclaim for her performance, culminating in her Oscar win for Best Actress in a Leading Role. Critic A.O. Scott of The New York Times, while unimpressed with the film itself, said "it is hard not to admire Ms. Cotillard for the discipline and ferocity she brings to the role. '' Carino Chocano of the Los Angeles Times opined that "Marion Cotillard is astonishing as the troubled singer in a technically virtuosic and emotionally resonant performance... '' Richard Nilsen from Arizona Republic was even more enthusiastic, writing "do n't bother voting. Just give the Oscar to Marion Cotillard now. As the chanteuse Édith Piaf in La Vie en rose, her acting is the most astonishing I 've seen in years. ''
Critic Mark Kermode of The Observer was less keen; while he felt there was much to applaud, there was also "plenty to regret ''. Kermode agreed that the source material provided "heady inspiration '', and that Cotillard plays everything with "kamikaze - style intensity '', but thought the film lacking in structure and narrative, creating "an oddly empty experience ''.
Marion Cotillard won seven major Best Actress Awards for her portrayal of Édith Piaf in La Vie en Rose:
Other awards include:
|
state the function of food corporation of india | Food Corporation of India - wikipedia
The Food Corporation of India is an organization created and run by the Government of India.
The Food Corporation of India (FCI) was set up on 14 January 1965 having its first District Office at Thanjavur -- rice bowl of Tamil Nadu -- and headquarters at Chennai (The Headquarters later shifted to Delhi) under the Food Corporations Act 1964 to implement the following objectives of the National Food Policy:
It is one of the largest corporations in India and probably the largest supply chain management in Asia (Second in world). It operates through 5 Zonal offices and 24 Regional offices. Each year, the Food Corporation of India purchases roughly 15 to 20 per cent of India 's wheat output and 12 to 15 per cent of its rice output. The purchases are made from the farmers at the rates declared by the Govt. of India. This rate is called as MSP (Minimum Support Price). There is no limit for procurement in terms of volume, any quantity can be procured by FCI (Food Corporation of India) provided the stock satisfies FAQ (Fair Average Quality) specifications with respect to FCI.
Food Corporation of India operates through its Depot headed by Manager (Depot). Every district has few depots to cater to the requirement of the district 's rural population. The depot reports to District Office, headed by an Assistant General Manager, designated as Area Manager. Assistant General Manager (Quality Control) is also posted who is looking after the QC work. Under Area Manager control, there are Managers to deal with each and every section viz., Depot, Sales, Contracts, Procurement, SL - TL, Movement, Establishment, Quality Control (QC), Operational accounts etc., who consolidate the field level operations and through the area managers ' authorization, they transmit the necessary information and periodical statements to Regional Offices of their respective regions. Under Managers are Assistant Grades Level - 1, Level - 2 and Level - 3 who help managers in day to day operations of the organization.
The district office reports to regional offices which are headed by a General Manager, who is in most of the cases from Indian Revenue Service, Indian Administrative Service / All India Services under deputation. Under his control Deputy General Managers (DGM) who are FCI 's officers co-ordinate with daily operations through the Assistant General Managers who were posted in various sections to oversee the functions of district offices units of their particular section. All these officers appraise the general manager periodically on various issues pertaining to district offices of that particular region.
FCI has been divided into 5 zones viz. North, South, East, West & North - East with a Zonal Office in each zone. Each zone is further divided into regions with a regional office in one region. All the Regional Offices are under the control of Zonal Offices which are headed by an Executive Director, who in most of the cases is from Indian Administrative Service or Indian Revenue Service under deputation. Under his control three or more than three General Managers co-ordinate with all Regional Offices of their particular zone through subordinate officers like Deputy General Managers and Assistant General Managers dealing with their allotted operational sections in their zone.
All the Zonal Offices are under the control of Headquarters, located at New Delhi, which is headed by Chairman and Managing Director, who is an Indian Administrative Service of Secretary rank on Central Deputation. Headquarters instruct, communicate, consolidate and refine the voluminous information required for the streamlined execution of day - to - day operations and coordinates with Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution and Food Secretary and various sister corporations like Central Warehousing Corporation, Indian Railways in formulating food policy or amending the existing policy to suit the emerging challenges in managing Food Security scenario of the nation.
The Food Corporation of India procures rice and wheat from farmers through many routes like paddy purchase centres / mill levy / custom milling and stores them in depots. FCI maintains many types of depots like food storage depots and buffer storage complexes and private equity godowns and also implemented latest storage methods of silo storage facilities which are located at Hapur in Uttar Pradesh and Elavur in Tamil Nadu. The stocks are transported throughout India and issued to the state government nominees at the rates declared by the Government of India for further distribution under the Public Distribution System (PDS) for the consumption of the ration card holders. (FCI itself does not directly distribute any stock under PDS, and its operations end at the exit of the stock from its depots). The difference between the purchase price and sale price, along with internal costs, are reimbursed by the Union Government in the form of food subsidy. At present the annual subsidy is around $10 billion. FCI by itself is not a decision - making authority; it does not decide anything about the MSP, imports or exports. It just implements the decisions made by the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution and Ministry of Agriculture.
Food Corporation of India recently ventured into procurement of pulses in various regions from the crop year 2015 -- 16, and pulses are procured at market rate, which is a sharp deviation from its traditional minimum support price - based procurement system.
In 2014, Government of India set up a high - level committee under the chairmanship of Hon'ble Member of Parliament and former Minister of Food and Consumer Affairs and Public Distribution Shri Shanthakumar to recommend viable solutions regarding restructuring and reorienting the role of Food Corporation of India, and the committee submitted its report to the government, and many of the committee recommendations are under various stages of implementation.
|
where does the h pylori bacteria come from | Helicobacter pylori - wikipedia
Helicobacter pylori, previously known as Campylobacter pylori, is a Gram - negative, microaerophilic bacterium usually found in the stomach. It was identified in 1982 by Australian scientists Barry Marshall and Robin Warren, who found that it was present in a person with chronic gastritis and gastric ulcers, conditions not previously believed to have a microbial cause. It is also linked to the development of duodenal ulcers and stomach cancer. However, over 80 % of individuals infected with the bacterium are asymptomatic, and it may play an important role in the natural stomach ecology.
More than 50 % of the world 's population has H. pylori in their upper gastrointestinal tracts. Infection is more common in developing countries than Western countries. H. pylori 's helical shape (from which the genus name derives) is thought to have evolved to penetrate the mucoid lining of the stomach.
Up to 85 % of people infected with H. pylori never experience symptoms or complications. Acute infection may appear as an acute gastritis with abdominal pain (stomach ache) or nausea. Where this develops into chronic gastritis, the symptoms, if present, are often those of nonulcer dyspepsia: stomach pains, nausea, bloating, belching, and sometimes vomiting or black stool.
Individuals infected with H. pylori have a 10 to 20 % lifetime risk of developing peptic ulcers and a 1 to 2 % risk of acquiring stomach cancer. Inflammation of the pyloric antrum is more likely to lead to duodenal ulcers, while inflammation of the corpus (body of the stomach) is more likely to lead to gastric ulcers and gastric carcinoma. However, H. pylori possibly plays a role only in the first stage that leads to common chronic inflammation, but not in further stages leading to carcinogenesis. A meta - analysis conducted in 2009 concluded the eradication of H. pylori reduces gastric cancer risk in previously infected individuals, suggesting the continued presence of H. pylori constitutes a relative risk factor of 65 % for gastric cancers; in terms of absolute risk, the increase was from 1.1 % to 1.7 %.
H. pylori has been associated with colorectal polyps and colorectal cancer. It may also be associated with eye disease.
Pain typically occurs when the stomach is empty, between meals, and in the early morning hours, but it can also occur at other times. Less common ulcer symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Bleeding can also occur; prolonged bleeding may cause anemia leading to weakness and fatigue. If bleeding is heavy, hematemesis, hematochezia, or melena may occur.
H. pylori is a helix - shaped (classified as a curved rod, not spirochaete) Gram - negative bacterium about 3 μm long with a diameter of about 0.5 μm. H. pylori can be demonstrated in tissue by Gram stain, Giemsa stain, haematoxylin -- eosin stain, Warthin -- Starry silver stain, acridine orange stain, and phase - contrast microscopy. It is capable of forming biofilms and can convert from spiral to a possibly viable but nonculturable coccoid form.
H. pylori has four to six flagella at the same location; all gastric and enterohepatic Helicobacter species are highly motile owing to flagella. The characteristic sheathed flagellar filaments of Helicobacter are composed of two copolymerized flagellins, FlaA and FlaB.
H. pylori is microaerophilic -- that is, it requires oxygen, but at lower concentration than in the atmosphere. It contains a hydrogenase that can produce energy by oxidizing molecular hydrogen (H) made by intestinal bacteria. It produces oxidase, catalase, and urease.
H. pylori possesses five major outer membrane protein families. The largest family includes known and putative adhesins. The other four families are porins, iron transporters, flagellum - associated proteins, and proteins of unknown function. Like other typical Gram - negative bacteria, the outer membrane of H. pylori consists of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The O antigen of LPS may be fucosylated and mimic Lewis blood group antigens found on the gastric epithelium. The outer membrane also contains cholesterol glucosides, which are present in few other bacteria.
H. pylori consists of a large diversity of strains, and hundreds of genomes have been completely sequenced. The genome of the strain "26695 '' consists of about 1.7 million base pairs, with some 1,576 genes. The pan-genome, that is a combined set of 30 sequenced strains, encodes 2,239 protein families (orthologous groups, OGs). Among them, 1248 OGs are conserved in all the 30 strains, and represent the universal core. The remaining 991 OGs correspond to the accessory genome in which 277 OGs are unique (i.e., OGs present in only one strain).
In 2010, Sharma et al. presented a comprehensive analysis of transcription at single - nucleotide resolution by differential RNA - seq that confirmed the known acid induction of major virulence loci, such as the urease (ure) operon or the cag pathogenicity island (see below). More importantly, this study identified a total of 1,907 transcriptional start sites, 337 primary operons, and 126 additional suboperons, and 66 mono cistrons. Until 2010, only about 55 transcriptional start sites (TSSs) were known in this species. Notably, 27 % of the primary TSSs are also antisense TSSs, indicating that -- similar to E. coli -- antisense transcription occurs across the entire H. pylori genome. At least one antisense TSS is associated with about 46 % of all open reading frames, including many housekeeping genes. Most (about 50 %) of the 5 ' UTRs are 20 -- 40 nucleotides (nt) in length and support the AAGGag motif located about 6 nt (median distance) upstream of start codons as the consensus Shine -- Dalgarno sequence in H. pylori.
Study of the H. pylori genome is centered on attempts to understand pathogenesis, the ability of this organism to cause disease. About 29 % of the loci have a colonization defect when mutated. Two of sequenced strains have an around 40 - kb - long Cag pathogenicity island (a common gene sequence believed responsible for pathogenesis) that contains over 40 genes. This pathogenicity island is usually absent from H. pylori strains isolated from humans who are carriers of H. pylori, but remain asymptomatic.
The cagA gene codes for one of the major H. pylori virulence proteins. Bacterial strains with the cagA gene are associated with an ability to cause ulcers. The cagA gene codes for a relatively long (1186 - amino acid) protein. The cag pathogenicity island (PAI) has about 30 genes, part of which code for a complex type IV secretion system. The low GC - content of the cag PAI relative to the rest of the Helicobacter genome suggests the island was acquired by horizontal transfer from another bacterial species.
To avoid the acidic environment of the interior of the stomach (lumen), H. pylori uses its flagella to burrow into the mucus lining of the stomach to reach the epithelial cells underneath, where it is less acidic. H. pylori is able to sense the pH gradient in the mucus and move towards the less acidic region (chemotaxis). This also keeps the bacteria from being swept away into the lumen with the bacteria 's mucus environment, which is constantly moving from its site of creation at the epithelium to its dissolution at the lumen interface.
H. pylori is found in the mucus, on the inner surface of the epithelium, and occasionally inside the epithelial cells themselves. It adheres to the epithelial cells by producing adhesins, which bind to lipids and carbohydrates in the epithelial cell membrane. One such adhesin, BabA, binds to the Lewis b antigen displayed on the surface of stomach epithelial cells. H. pylori adherence via BabA is acid sensitive and can be fully reversed by increased pH. It has been proposed that BabA 's acid responsiveness enables adherence while also allowing an effective escape from unfavorable environment at pH that is harmful to the organism. Another such adhesin, SabA, binds to increased levels of sialyl - Lewis x antigen expressed on gastric mucosa.
In addition to using chemotaxis to avoid areas of low pH, H. pylori also neutralizes the acid in its environment by producing large amounts of urease, which breaks down the urea present in the stomach to carbon dioxide and ammonia. These react with the strong acids in the environment to produce a neutralized area around H. pylori. Urease knockout mutants are incapable of colonization. In fact, urease expression is not only required for establishing initial colonization but also for maintaining chronic infection.
H. pylori harms the stomach and duodenal linings by several mechanisms. The ammonia produced to regulate pH is toxic to epithelial cells, as are biochemicals produced by H. pylori such as proteases, vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) (this damages epithelial cells, disrupts tight junctions and causes apoptosis), and certain phospholipases. Cytotoxin associated gene CagA can also cause inflammation and is potentially a carcinogen.
Colonization of the stomach by H. pylori can result in chronic gastritis, an inflammation of the stomach lining, at the site of infection. Helicobacter cysteine - rich proteins (Hcp), particularly HcpA (hp0211), are known to trigger an immune response, causing inflammation. Chronic gastritis is likely to underlie H. pylori - related diseases.
Ulcers in the stomach and duodenum result when the consequences of inflammation allow stomach acid and the digestive enzyme pepsin to overwhelm the mechanisms that protect the stomach and duodenal mucous membranes. The location of colonization of H. pylori, which affects the location of the ulcer, depends on the acidity of the stomach. In people producing large amounts of acid, H. pylori colonizes near the pyloric antrum (exit to the duodenum) to avoid the acid - secreting parietal cells at the fundus (near the entrance to the stomach). In people producing normal or reduced amounts of acid, H. pylori can also colonize the rest of the stomach.
The inflammatory response caused by bacteria colonizing near the pyloric antrum induces G cells in the antrum to secrete the hormone gastrin, which travels through the bloodstream to parietal cells in the fundus. Gastrin stimulates the parietal cells to secrete more acid into the stomach lumen, and over time increases the number of parietal cells, as well. The increased acid load damages the duodenum, which may eventually result in ulcers forming in the duodenum.
When H. pylori colonizes other areas of the stomach, the inflammatory response can result in atrophy of the stomach lining and eventually ulcers in the stomach. This also may increase the risk of stomach cancer.
The pathogenicity of H. pylori may be increased by genes of the cag pathogenicity island; about 50 -- 70 % of H. pylori strains in Western countries carry it. Western people infected with strains carrying the cag PAI have a stronger inflammatory response in the stomach and are at a greater risk of developing peptic ulcers or stomach cancer than those infected with strains lacking the island. Following attachment of H. pylori to stomach epithelial cells, the type IV secretion system expressed by the cag PAI "injects '' the inflammation - inducing agent, peptidoglycan, from their own cell walls into the epithelial cells. The injected peptidoglycan is recognized by the cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptor (immune sensor) Nod1, which then stimulates expression of cytokines that promote inflammation.
The type - IV secretion apparatus also injects the cag PAI - encoded protein CagA into the stomach 's epithelial cells, where it disrupts the cytoskeleton, adherence to adjacent cells, intracellular signaling, cell polarity, and other cellular activities. Once inside the cell, the CagA protein is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues by a host cell membrane - associated tyrosine kinase (TK). CagA then allosterically activates protein tyrosine phosphatase / protooncogene Shp2. Pathogenic strains of H. pylori have been shown to activate the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a membrane protein with a TK domain. Activation of the EGFR by H. pylori is associated with altered signal transduction and gene expression in host epithelial cells that may contribute to pathogenesis. A C - terminal region of the CagA protein (amino acids 873 -- 1002) has also been suggested to be able to regulate host cell gene transcription, independent of protein tyrosine phosphorylation. A great deal of diversity exists between strains of H. pylori, and the strain that infects a person can predict the outcome.
Two related mechanisms by which H. pylori could promote cancer are under investigation. One mechanism involves the enhanced production of free radicals near H. pylori and an increased rate of host cell mutation. The other proposed mechanism has been called a "perigenetic pathway '', and involves enhancement of the transformed host cell phenotype by means of alterations in cell proteins, such as adhesion proteins. H. pylori has been proposed to induce inflammation and locally high levels of TNF - α and / or interleukin 6 (IL - 6). According to the proposed perigenetic mechanism, inflammation - associated signaling molecules, such as TNF - α, can alter gastric epithelial cell adhesion and lead to the dispersion and migration of mutated epithelial cells without the need for additional mutations in tumor suppressor genes, such as genes that code for cell adhesion proteins.
The strain of H. pylori a person is exposed to may influence the risk of developing gastric cancer. Strains of H. pylori that produce high levels of two proteins, vacuolating toxin A (VacA) and the cytotoxin - associated gene A (CagA), appear to cause greater tissue damage than those that produce lower levels or that lack those genes completely. These proteins are directly toxic to cells lining the stomach and signal strongly to the immune system that an invasion is under way. As a result of the bacterial presence, neutrophils and macrophages set up residence in the tissue to fight the bacteria assault.
The pathogenesis of H. pylori depends on its ability to survive in the harsh gastric environment characterized by acidity, peristalsis, and attack by phagocytes accompanied by release of reactive oxygen species. In particular, H. pylori elicits an oxidative stress response during host colonization. This oxidative stress response induces potentially lethal and mutagenic oxidative DNA adducts in the H. pylori genome.
Vulnerability to oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage occurs commonly in many studied bacterial pathogens, including Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Hemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, S. mutans, and H. pylori. For each of these pathogens, surviving the DNA damage induced by oxidative stress appears supported by transformation - mediated recombinational repair. Thus, transformation and recombinational repair appear to contribute to successful infection.
Transformation (the transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another through the intervening medium) appears to be part of an adaptation for DNA repair. H. pylori is naturally competent for transformation. While many organisms are competent only under certain environmental conditions, such as starvation, H. pylori is competent throughout logarithmic growth. All organisms encode genetic programs for response to stressful conditions including those that cause DNA damage. In H. pylori, homologous recombination is required for repairing DNA double - strand breaks (DSBs). The AddAB helicase - nuclease complex resects DSBs and loads RecA onto single - strand DNA (ssDNA), which then mediates strand exchange, leading to homologous recombination and repair. The requirement of RecA plus AddAB for efficient gastric colonization suggests, in the stomach, H. pylori is either exposed to double - strand DNA damage that must be repaired or requires some other recombination - mediated event. In particular, natural transformation is increased by DNA damage in H. pylori, and a connection exists between the DNA damage response and DNA uptake in H. pylori, suggesting natural competence contributes to persistence of H. pylori in its human host and explains the retention of competence in most clinical isolates.
RuvC protein is essential to the process of recombinational repair, since it resolves intermediates in this process termed Holliday junctions. H. pylori mutants that are defective in RuvC have increased sensitivity to DNA - damaging agents and to oxidative stress, exhibit reduced survival within macrophages, and are unable to establish successful infection in a mouse model. Similarly, RecN protein plays an important role in DSB repair in H. pylori. An H. pylori recN mutant displays an attenuated ability to colonize mouse stomachs, highlighting the importance of recombinational DNA repair in survival of H. pylori within its host.
Colonization with H. pylori is not a disease in and of itself, but a condition associated with a number of disorders of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Testing for H. pylori is not routinely recommended. Testing is recommended if peptic ulcer disease or low - grade gastric MALT lymphoma is present, after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer, for first - degree relatives with gastric cancer, and in certain cases of dyspepsia. Several methods of testing exist, including invasive and noninvasive testing methods.
Noninvasive tests for H. pylori infection may be suitable and include blood antibody tests, stool antigen test s, or the carbon urea breath test (in which the patient drinks C -- or C - labelled urea, which the bacterium metabolizes, producing labelled carbon dioxide that can be detected in the breath). It is not known which non-invasive test is more accurate for diagnosing a H. pylori infection, and the clinical significance of the levels obtained with these tests are not clear. Some drugs can affect H. pylori urease activity and give false negatives with the urea - based tests.
An endoscopic biopsy is an invasive means to test for H. pylori infection. Low - level infections can be missed by biopsy, so multiple samples are recommended. The most accurate method for detecting H. pylori infection is with a histological examination from two sites after endoscopic biopsy, combined with either a rapid urease test or microbial culture.
H. pylori is a major cause of certain diseases of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Rising antibiotic resistance increases the need to search for new therapeutic strategies; this might include prevention in the form of vaccination. Much work has been done on developing viable vaccines aimed at providing an alternative strategy to control H. pylori infection and related diseases, including stomach cancer. Researchers are studying different adjuvants, antigens, and routes of immunization to ascertain the most appropriate system of immune protection; however, most of the research only recently moved from animal to human trials. An economic evaluation of the use of a potential H. pylori vaccine in babies found its introduction could, at least in the Netherlands, prove cost - effective for the prevention of peptic ulcer and stomach cancer. A similar approach has also been studied for the United States.
The presence of bacteria in the stomach may be beneficial, reducing the prevalence of asthma, rhinitis, dermatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and esophageal cancer by influencing systemic immune responses.
Recent evidence suggests that nonpathogenic strains of H. pylori may be beneficial, e.g., by normalizing stomach acid secretion, and may play a role in regulating appetite, since its presence in the stomach results in a persistent but reversible reduction in the level of ghrelin.
Once H. pylori is detected in a person with a peptic ulcer, the normal procedure is to eradicate it and allow the ulcer to heal. The standard first - line therapy is a one - week "triple therapy '' consisting of proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole and the antibiotics clarithromycin and amoxicillin. Variations of the triple therapy have been developed over the years, such as using a different proton pump inhibitor, as with pantoprazole or rabeprazole, or replacing amoxicillin with metronidazole for people who are allergic to penicillin. In areas with higher rates of clarithromycin resistance, other options are recommended. Such a therapy has revolutionized the treatment of peptic ulcers and has made a cure to the disease possible. Previously, the only option was symptom control using antacids, H - antagonists or proton pump inhibitors alone.
An increasing number of infected individuals are found to harbor antibiotic - resistant bacteria. This results in initial treatment failure and requires additional rounds of antibiotic therapy or alternative strategies, such as a quadruple therapy, which adds a bismuth colloid, such as bismuth subsalicylate. For the treatment of clarithromycin - resistant strains of H. pylori, the use of levofloxacin as part of the therapy has been suggested.
Ingesting lactic acid bacteria exerts a suppressive effect on H. pylori infection in both animals and humans, and supplementing with Lactobacillus - and Bifidobacterium - containing yogurt improved the rates of eradication of H. pylori in humans. Symbiotic butyrate - producing bacteria which are normally present in the intestine are sometimes used as probiotics to help suppress H. pylori infections as an adjunct to antibiotic therapy. Butyrate itself is an antimicrobial which destroys the cell envelope of H. pylori by inducing regulatory T cell expression (specifically, FOXP3) and synthesis of an antimicrobial peptide called LL - 37, which arises through its action as a histone deacetylase inhibitor.
The substance sulforaphane, which occurs in broccoli and cauliflower, has been proposed as a treatment. Periodontal therapy or scaling and root planing has also been suggested as an additional treatment.
H. pylori colonizes the stomach and induces chronic gastritis, a long - lasting inflammation of the stomach. The bacterium persists in the stomach for decades in most people. Most individuals infected by H. pylori never experience clinical symptoms, despite having chronic gastritis. About 10 -- 20 % of those colonized by H. pylori ultimately develop gastric and duodenal ulcers. H. pylori infection is also associated with a 1 -- 2 % lifetime risk of stomach cancer and a less than 1 % risk of gastric MALT lymphoma.
In the absence of treatment, H. pylori infection -- once established in its gastric niche -- is widely believed to persist for life. In the elderly, however, infection likely can disappear as the stomach 's mucosa becomes increasingly atrophic and inhospitable to colonization. The proportion of acute infections that persist is not known, but several studies that followed the natural history in populations have reported apparent spontaneous elimination.
Mounting evidence suggests H. pylori has an important role in protection from some diseases. The incidence of acid reflux disease, Barrett 's esophagus, and esophageal cancer have been rising dramatically at the same time as H. pylori 's presence decreases. In 1996, Martin J. Blaser advanced the hypothesis that H. pylori has a beneficial effect by regulating the acidity of the stomach contents. The hypothesis is not universally accepted as several randomized controlled trials failed to demonstrate worsening of acid reflux disease symptoms following eradication of H. pylori. Nevertheless, Blaser has reasserted his view that H. pylori is a member of the normal flora of the stomach. He postulates that the changes in gastric physiology caused by the loss of H. pylori account for the recent increase in incidence of several diseases, including type 2 diabetes, obesity, and asthma. His group has recently shown that H. pylori colonization is associated with a lower incidence of childhood asthma.
At least half the world 's population is infected by the bacterium, making it the most widespread infection in the world. Actual infection rates vary from nation to nation; the developing world has much higher infection rates than the West (Western Europe, North America, Australasia), where rates are estimated to be around 25 %.
The age when someone acquires this bacterium seems to influence the pathologic outcome of the infection. People infected at an early age are likely to develop more intense inflammation that may be followed by atrophic gastritis with a higher subsequent risk of gastric ulcer, gastric cancer, or both. Acquisition at an older age brings different gastric changes more likely to lead to duodenal ulcer. Infections are usually acquired in early childhood in all countries. However, the infection rate of children in developing nations is higher than in industrialized nations, probably due to poor sanitary conditions, perhaps combined with lower antibiotics usage for unrelated pathologies. In developed nations, it is currently uncommon to find infected children, but the percentage of infected people increases with age, with about 50 % infected for those over the age of 60 compared with around 10 % between 18 and 30 years. The higher prevalence among the elderly reflects higher infection rates in the past when the individuals were children rather than more recent infection at a later age of the individual. In the United States, prevalence appears higher in African - American and Hispanic populations, most likely due to socioeconomic factors. The lower rate of infection in the West is largely attributed to higher hygiene standards and widespread use of antibiotics. Despite high rates of infection in certain areas of the world, the overall frequency of H. pylori infection is declining. However, antibiotic resistance is appearing in H. pylori; many metronidazole - and clarithromycin - resistant strains are found in most parts of the world.
H. pylori is contagious, although the exact route of transmission is not known. Person - to - person transmission by either the oral -- oral or fecal -- oral route is most likely. Consistent with these transmission routes, the bacteria have been isolated from feces, saliva, and dental plaque of some infected people. Findings suggest H. pylori is more easily transmitted by gastric mucus than saliva. Transmission occurs mainly within families in developed nations, yet can also be acquired from the community in developing countries. H. pylori may also be transmitted orally by means of fecal matter through the ingestion of waste - tainted water, so a hygienic environment could help decrease the risk of H. pylori infection.
H. pylori migrated out of Africa along with its human host circa 60,000 years ago. Recent research states that genetic diversity in H. pylori, like that of its host, decreases with geographic distance from East Africa. Using the genetic diversity data, researchers have created simulations that indicate the bacteria seem to have spread from East Africa around 58,000 years ago. Their results indicate modern humans were already infected by H. pylori before their migrations out of Africa, and it has remained associated with human hosts since that time.
H. pylori was first discovered in the stomachs of patients with gastritis and ulcers in 1982 by Drs. Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Perth, Western Australia. At the time, the conventional thinking was that no bacterium could live in the acid environment of the human stomach. In recognition of their discovery, Marshall and Warren were awarded the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Before the research of Marshall and Warren, German scientists found spiral - shaped bacteria in the lining of the human stomach in 1875, but they were unable to culture them, and the results were eventually forgotten. The Italian researcher Giulio Bizzozero described similarly shaped bacteria living in the acidic environment of the stomach of dogs in 1893. Professor Walery Jaworski of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków investigated sediments of gastric washings obtained by lavage from humans in 1899. Among some rod - like bacteria, he also found bacteria with a characteristic spiral shape, which he called Vibrio rugula. He was the first to suggest a possible role of this organism in the pathogenesis of gastric diseases. His work was included in the Handbook of Gastric Diseases, but it had little impact, as it was written in Polish. Several small studies conducted in the early 20th century demonstrated the presence of curved rods in the stomachs of many people with peptic ulcers and stomach cancers. Interest in the bacteria waned, however, when an American study published in 1954 failed to observe the bacteria in 1180 stomach biopsies.
Interest in understanding the role of bacteria in stomach diseases was rekindled in the 1970s, with the visualization of bacteria in the stomachs of people with gastric ulcers. The bacteria had also been observed in 1979, by Robin Warren, who researched it further with Barry Marshall from 1981. After unsuccessful attempts at culturing the bacteria from the stomach, they finally succeeded in visualizing colonies in 1982, when they unintentionally left their Petri dishes incubating for five days over the Easter weekend. In their original paper, Warren and Marshall contended that most stomach ulcers and gastritis were caused by bacterial infection and not by stress or spicy food, as had been assumed before.
Some skepticism was expressed initially, but within a few years multiple research groups had verified the association of H. pylori with gastritis and, to a lesser extent, ulcers. To demonstrate H. pylori caused gastritis and was not merely a bystander, Marshall drank a beaker of H. pylori culture. He became ill with nausea and vomiting several days later. An endoscopy 10 days after inoculation revealed signs of gastritis and the presence of H. pylori. These results suggested H. pylori was the causative agent. Marshall and Warren went on to demonstrate antibiotics are effective in the treatment of many cases of gastritis. In 1987, the Sydney gastroenterologist Thomas Borody invented the first triple therapy for the treatment of duodenal ulcers. In 1994, the National Institutes of Health stated most recurrent duodenal and gastric ulcers were caused by H. pylori, and recommended antibiotics be included in the treatment regimen.
The bacterium was initially named Campylobacter pyloridis, then renamed C. pylori in 1987 (pylori being the genitive of pylorus, the circular opening leading from the stomach into the duodenum, from the Ancient Greek word πυλωρός, which means gatekeeper.). When 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and other research showed in 1989 that the bacterium did not belong in the genus Campylobacter, it was placed in its own genus, Helicobacter from the ancient Greek hělix / έλιξ "spiral '' or "coil ''.
In October 1987, a group of experts met in Copenhagen to found the European Helicobacter Study Group (EHSG), an international multidisciplinary research group and the only institution focused on H. pylori. The Group is involved with the Annual International Workshop on Helicobacter and Related Bacteria, the Maastricht Consensus Reports (European Consensus on the management of H. pylori), and other educational and research projects, including two international long - term projects:
Results from in vitro studies suggest that fatty acids, mainly polyunsaturated fatty acids, have a bactericidal effect against H. pylori, but their in vivo effects have not been proven.
|
star wars the force unleashed multiplayer xbox 360 | Star Wars: the Force Unleashed II - Wikipedia
Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II is an action - adventure platform video game developed and published by LucasArts. It is the second installment of The Force Unleashed multimedia project, and the sequel to Star Wars: The Force Unleashed (2008). The game was released in the United States on October 26, 2010, and throughout Europe on October 29 for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Nintendo Wii consoles, as well as the Nintendo DS and iOS portable devices.
Players control a clone of Starkiller, who himself was a secret apprentice to Darth Vader in The Force Unleashed. The clone embarks on a quest to find his identity and find Starkiller 's love interest, Juno Eclipse. Production for The Force Unleashed II transpired over an approximate period of nine months; while it possesses some similarities to the previous game, producers modified several aspects such as the sound effects and gameplay. Sam Witwer again provides the voice and likeness for Starkiller, and several cast members return to voice and provide likeness to their respective roles.
The Force Unleashed II produced varying responses from critics who praised the graphics and sound design, but criticized the repetitive gameplay and underwhelming story. Aggregate scores range from the 40 -- 70 % range at websites GameRankings and Metacritic. During the first few weeks after its release it placed fifth or higher in sales for several regions.
The Force Unleashed II is a third - person action game in which the player 's character 's weapons are the Force and a lightsaber. The game has a combo system for stringing lightsaber attacks and for combining lightsaber attacks with Force powers. Like the original Force Unleashed, experience points earned by killing enemies and finding artifacts can be used to increase Starkiller 's powers and traits.
The Force Unleashed II refines gameplay elements from the first Force Unleashed, and adds more variety with such features as puzzle solving. Combat was modified to include the ability to wield dual lightsabers, which can dismember or decapitate enemies. The game also adds more Force powers, such as "Mind Trick '' and "Force Rage ''.
According to lead producer Vinde Kudirka, the goal of the game across all platforms is to make the player feel like "a super-powerful Jedi ''. Executive producer Julio Torres said that while the story is consistent across platforms, gameplay decreases in style across platforms to reflect each platform 's uniqueness and strengths. The Wii 's control scheme is focused on being able to precisely control Starkiller 's Force powers and saber combos. The Wii exclusive "Force rage '' power puts the game 's protagonist, Starkiller, into a bullet time mode exclusive to that platform; the Wii version also has a Force sight power not included on other platforms. The Wii version also has a multiplayer mode, inspired by The Outfoxies, in which four players can challenge each other in a fighting - style combat game. The Wii game also has an extra story - based level, on Dagobah, that is not present in the HD version of the game, making the plot of the Wii game slightly different from the HD version.
The PC, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 versions feature new Force powers, new skins for Force powers that appear in The Force Unleashed, an improved rendering system providing richer colors, and a new audio system. The gameplay also highlights the potential to "destroy '' the game environment. Neither of the PC, PlayStation 3 or Xbox 360 versions of the game include multiplayer. The Nintendo DS version features the same Force powers as the console versions, but was designed for shorter play sessions due to its mobile nature.
The game takes place approximately six months after the events of the first game, and a year before the first Star Wars. The Force Unleashed II is described as the "dark entry '' in the series, and a more personal story for the game 's protagonist than the first game.
Players control Starkiller 's renegade clone, a failure of Darth Vader 's attempt to create a perfect secret apprentice. After a vision that Darth Vader will kill him due to his inability to kill a test droid, which had taken the form of Juno Eclipse, the original Starkiller 's love interest, the clone escapes from captivity on Kamino. After eliminating his stormtrooper captors, Starkiller embarks on a quest to understand his identity and to find Juno Eclipse. Meanwhile, Darth Vader has hired Boba Fett to track down Juno Eclipse to lure Starkiller out of hiding. Starkiller rescues Jedi Master Rahm Kota, the original Starkiller 's Jedi mentor, from a gladiatorial arena on Cato Neimoidia, and encounters Yoda on Dagobah. After encountering strange visions on Dagobah, Starkiller rushes to Juno 's ship, the Rebel cruiser Salvation, only to arrive just as Boba Fett captures her and takes her to Kamino.
With help from Kota, the Rebels launch an all - out assault on Kamino. Starkiller crashes Salvation into the planet 's shield, allowing Kota to stage a ground assault, while he goes after Juno. In a confrontation with Vader, Juno is thrown out of a window, crashing to the ground. Thinking Juno is dead, an enraged Starkiller attacks Vader, severing his hand and subduing him with Force Lightning. Kota arrives with his men, and tells Starkiller not to kill Vader. He wants to interrogate the Sith Lord for the Empire 's secrets, then put him on trial, and then later execute him. As in the first game, this allows the player to choose either the light path or the dark path:
Following the commercial success of its predecessor, a sequel was formally announced at the Spike Video Game Awards. The game was released for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Nintendo Wii consoles, as well as the Nintendo DS and iOS portable devices. A version was initially developed for the PlayStation Portable, but was cancelled for undisclosed reasons. The Force Unleashed II was released in North America on October 26, 2010, and in Europe on October 29, 2010.
Haden Blackman served as a writer for the sequel. In crafting the dialogue of The Force Unleashed II, Blackman sought influence from Darksiders (2010), as well as other video games such as Uncharted 2: Among Thieves (2009) and Heavy Rain (2010). In the wake the early stages of conceiving The Force Unleashed II, the main protagonist Starkiller was initially intended to be replaced with a new lead character, but such plans never materialized as LucasArts opted to develop more backstory for the character. As the character progression of Starkiller initiates, the story follows a dark nature -- much like its predecessor. Blackman suggested that as opposed to his empathic tendencies in The Force Unleashed, Starkiller becomes conflicted with his loss of an identity, ultimately culminating into what he called a "much more personal story ''; "He 's dealing with a sense of identity and not knowing whether he 's going insane or not, '' he added, "and the possible collapse of the Rebel Alliance, and his being torn between what he wants and what Kota wants. '' Blackman 's main objective was to have the storyline be attractive to a broad audience; while he asserted that fans with a general understanding of the Star Wars franchise would be more enthralled with the storyline, Blackman emphasized the need to appeal to a more mainstream demographic. "With The Force Unleashed II again we 're trying to create a story that if you 've played The Force Unleashed, '' explained the comic book writer, "you 're going to know a bit more going into it, but hopefully the story still stands on its own and you can enjoy it even if you have n't played (the first game), whether or not you 're familiar with all the continuity. ''
Unlike in its predecessor, Blackman achieved more freedom in developing the story for The Force Unleashed II, as it took place in a relatively uneventful time period. Blackman and the writing staff had to receive approval from Star Wars creator George Lucas to portray the game in their vision. "He had some comments on the way we wanted to use Princess Leia in the first one and he wanted to make sure that we were aware that Bail Organa was one of the founders of the Rebel Alliance, but that was it -- those were the only real constraints that we had. '' To avoid any perceived constraints, they would travel to the headquarters of Lucasfilm in San Francisco, California to give an overview of their plans. "With The Force Unleashed II, remarked Blackman, "because we 'd already established this notion of Darth Vader 's secret apprentice, really it was just sitting down with licensing and saying ' this is what we want to do ' and getting a few pieces of feedback from them. ''
The primary cast from the previous game returns to voice their characters again in The Force Unleashed II. Sam Witwer returns to provide both the likeness and voice of Starkiller, the game 's protagonist. He also voices Emperor Palpatine having earned the part during a read - through of the script during development. Witwer petitioned David Collins, voice of PR0XY and audio lead for the game. He told Collins that "if (he was not) going to get Ian McDiarmid to do this (...) I 'll do it. '' Actress and model Nathalie Cox reprises her role as Juno Eclipse, as does Cully Fredrickson as General Rahm Kota. Matt Sloan, who portrays Darth Vader in the webseries Chad Vader: Day Shift Manager and voices Vader in the original The Force Unleashed returns to the role in The Force Unleashed II. Veteran Star Wars: The Clone Wars voice actors Tom Kane and Dee Bradley Baker are also included amongst the cast. Kane voices Jedi Master Yoda, a role he has provided several times within the Star Wars franchise. Baker voices bounty hunter Boba Fett, a clone and adopted son of Jango Fett. Baker provides the voice of all of the clone troopers in the Clone Wars series, of which Boba is one.
The Force Unleashed II derives from LucasArts ' Ronin 2.0 game engine, an update to a similarly named proprietary game engine used by its predecessor. Like The Force Unleashed, the game integrates three third - party technologies: Havok for varying types of body physics such as ragdoll animation, NaturalMotion 's Euphoria for realistic non-player character artificial intelligence, and Digital Molecular Matter for dynamic destructible objects. Blackman felt the second game takes better advantage of the powerful engine than does the first game. LucasArts acknowledged players ' frustration with the first game 's targeting system, and worked to revise it in the sequel; Blackman said fixing the Force grip feature was the developers ' top priority. The game also includes fewer enemy types, instead focusing on making enemies more "' special and unique ' ''; the game was also designed to offer "epic '' boss battles. Other adjustments include allowing players to dismember enemy characters and improving menu speeds.
The game is AMD Eyefinity validated.
The audio engine received a massive overhaul to upgrade the quality of sound effects. Brian Tibbetts was declared the lead sound designer of the sound effects team, resuming his endeavors from The Force Unleashed. David Collins, who formerly served as the lead sound designer, sustained a supervisory position. The sound effects team was divided to address specific details; Tom Bible was in charge of creating sound for weapons and force powers, while Aaron Brown specialized in the spaceships. Although some effects were borrowed from The Force Unleashed, the vast majority of sounds were completely new. Tibbetts thought that collaborating with his peers to be one of the most complex and challenging parts of his job. "I chose to have my office in the main area of game development and always had an open door policy regarding communication with other disciplines. There were many meetings regarding asset changes and in general communication at Lucasarts is good between disciplines. I 've always stressed that we should work together as much as possible and there were many moments of myself and sound designers working directly with designers, artists, and producers at their desks or ours. ''
The nine - month schedule of The Force Unleashed II caused difficulties with Tibbetts, who found it frustrating to keep up with the frenetic schedule. "There are many different ways to integrate our audio assets including scripting or placing sound emitters directly inside environment art and our work was unfortunately blown out many times, '' he stated. As production neared its conclusion, Tibbets created an emailing system with a group of engineers that would notify them after audio reference was edited. According to Tibbetts, "This helped a lot especially as the responsible parties did n't realize or intend to blow us out and were more than happy to help resolve the situation. By the time this tool was built though, we had already had to re-author / integrate excessively though which is always frustrating. ''
Dmitry Andreev devised a framing system that gave the illusion of operating at 60 frames per second (FPS), despite running at 30FPS. To familiarize himself with the process, Andreev observed various 120 Hz television sets that incorporated two frames in producing an intermediate image, resulting in a smoother and clearer picture. The design team utilized a variety of interpolation techniques on multiple parts of an image, such as transparency and reflection. Andreev stated that "as soon as I got back home, I started to play with it and soon after that realised that there are a lot of issues. Mostly the artifacts of a different kind, that appear in more or less complex scenes, as well as performance issues (...). '' In response to the difficulties, he constructed a prototype that performed several enhancement techniques which examined images for vectors that demonstrated how "elements of the image would move from one frame to the next ''. The LucasArts coder realized that such processes could be repackaged for a different use. "We already know how things are moving as we have full control over them. This way we do n't need to do any kind of estimation, '' he professed.
Interpolating the graphics in 30FPS was opted due to the large variety of rendering technologies that were practical to developers, as well as a less stringent time schedule. Although Andreev felt that it was not impossible to produce a video game in 60FPS graphics, he felt that it would require much more rigorous efforts on art, engineering, and design. "It is fair to say that in a lot of cases, '' he explained, "during pre-production, studios try to see what it would take to make a 60FPS game. Then, they get something that does n't look very pretty when running at 60, realising that all the art has to be produced very carefully as well as level and game design. ''
The Force Unleashed II performed under expectations. In the United States, it sold 500,000 copies within its first two weeks, thereby becoming the fifth best - selling video game of October 2010. The Force Unleashed II was the fifth - highest selling game of the week in the United Kingdom, denoting sales of 56,064 copies. In Sweden, The Force Unleashed II was the third best - selling overall game of the week; the PlayStation 3 version of the game topped its respective chart, while the Xbox 360 version trailed behind Fable 3 as the second - best selling Xbox 360 game of the week.
Commentators were divided on The Force Unleashed II. The Wii version of the game was generally considered by reviewers to be the better version of the game, due to the significantly different storyline, extra levels and the addition of a multiplayer mode. This was an unusual occurrence, however most reviewers thought it was simply the most completed version of the game, and that the HD version was rushed, resulting in a less satisfactory product. The Observer columnist Toby Moses avouched that the game failed to live up to the expectations established by its predecessor. Alexander Sliwinski of Joystiq derided it as a "desperate cash grab '', which had no intentions of aspiring to be a "major part of lore or to be nearly as epic '' as The Force Unleashed. "It simply cobbles together glorified fan fiction for what amounts to an unexceptional subplot as it abruptly ends in the second act screaming, ' SEQUEL GOES HERE ', '' remarked Sliwinski. Despite proclaiming that The Force Unleashed II had "dazzling '' gameplay, The Washington Times ' journalist Joseph Szadkowski concluded that it was "one of the most underachieving games of the year ''. In his 6.5 out of 10 rating review, Anthony Gallegos of IGN stated that The Force Unleashed II immediately captivates the audience with its visuals, albeit being plagued with repetitious gameplay, a "shoe - horned in story '', and a nonexistent depth "in the experience ''. "Scenery is, of course, massive and massively impressive, and the possible repetitive nature has been broken up with some freefalling levels and the odd exploratory moment, '' commented Neil Davey of The Guardian, who issued the game a four out of five stars.
Game Informer ' Andrew Reiner said the game 's mechanics are more fluid than the first game 's, and praised the textures and animations as "among this generation 's best ''. GamePro 's Mitch Dyer and Matthew Keast of GamesRadar highlighted the game 's variety of lightsaber crystals and their ability to boost Starkiller 's powers. Keast observed that LucasArts seemed to take player feedback from the first game seriously, and made numerous subtle improvements for the sequel. he also praised "substantial '' improvements to the Force grip power, although Alexander Sliwinski of Eurogamer did not detect any improvements. The Writers Guild of America nominated the game for its Outstanding Achievement in Video Game Writing recognition.
John Teti of Eurogamer said the game overall "feels like it was created out of obligation rather than inspiration '', and points toward Blackman 's departure from LucasArts before the game 's release as a potential sign of trouble. IGN 's Anthony Gallegos criticized the game 's repetitive level design and underdeveloped story. He also felt that because Starkiller begins the game as a powerful character, leveling up does not feel as satisfying as in the first game; while the game does offer increased variety in enemy types that "occasionally present a challenge '', defeating them eventually becomes formulaic. Andrew Reiner of Game Informer criticized the story and the dissatisfying appearances by Boba Fett and Yoda. GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd called the final battle repetitive, and that the game 's end sequence erases the story 's dramatic tension. The Force Unleashed II was later one of GameSpot 's nominees for "Least Improved Sequel of 2010 ''. GamePro ' Mitch Dyer faulted several performance issues and the game 's brief, unfocused story. The downloadable content was poorly received by Luke Plunkett of Kotaku, who criticized the expansion 's murder of Han Solo and Chewbacca.
Nintendo Power praised the Wii version 's multiplayer mode, as did Lucas M. Thomas of IGN. GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd was more critical of the multiplayer, calling it "unspectacular ''. VanOrd did go on to praise the game 's art, combat, and control scheme.
In 2013, Sam Witwer and Haden Blackman stated during an interview in February 2013 that Lucasfilm was considering the development of Star Wars: The Force Unleashed III for the next generation video game consoles PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Wii U. However, after LucasArts was closed by The Walt Disney Company due to the purchase of Lucasfilm, The Force Unleashed III was cancelled among other planned Star Wars video games, like Star Wars 1313. In November 2015, one month before the release of Star Wars: Episode VII - The Force Awakens, Blackman revealed that The Force Unleashed III would have been more open - world and seen Starkiller and Darth Vader team - up to fight a new threat from Emperor Palpatine.
|
is the continental divide man made or natural | Continental Divide of the Americas - wikipedia
The Continental Divide of the Americas (also known as the Great Divide, the Continental Gulf of Division, or merely the Continental Divide) is the principal, and largely mountainous, hydrological divide of the Americas. The Continental Divide extends from the Bering Strait to the Strait of Magellan, and separates the watersheds that drain into the Pacific Ocean from those river systems that drain into the Atlantic Ocean (including those that drain into the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea) and, along the northernmost reaches of the Divide, those river systems that drain into the Arctic Ocean.
Though there are many other hydrological divides in the Americas, the primary Continental Divide (Great Divide) is by far the most prominent of these because it tends to follow a line of high peaks along the main ranges of the Rocky Mountains and Andes, at a generally much higher elevation than the other hydrological divisions.
The Continental Divide of the Americas begins at Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, the westernmost point on the mainland of the Americas. The Divide crosses northern Alaska into the Yukon, then zig - zags south into British Columbia via the Cassiar Mountains and Omineca Mountains and northern Nechako Plateau to Summit Lake, north of the city of Prince George and just south of the community of McLeod Lake. From there the Divide traverses the McGregor Plateau to the spine of the Rockies, following the crest of the Canadian Rockies southeast to the 120th meridian west, from there forming the boundary between southern British Columbia and southern Alberta.
The Divide crosses into the United States in northwestern Montana, at the boundary between Waterton Lakes National Park and Glacier National Park. In Canada, it forms the western boundary of Waterton Lakes National Park, and in the US bisects Glacier National Park. Further south, the Divide forms the backbone of the Rocky Mountain Front (Front Range) in the Bob Marshall Wilderness, heads south towards Helena and Butte, then west past the namesake community of Divide, Montana through the Anaconda - Pintler Wilderness to the Bitterroot Range, where it forms the eastern third of the state boundary between Idaho and Montana. The Divide crosses into Wyoming within Yellowstone National Park and continues southeast into Colorado where it reaches its highest point in North America at the summit of Grays Peak at 4,352 m (14,278 feet). It crosses US Hwy 160 in southern Colorado at Wolf Creek Pass, where a line symbolizes the division. The Divide then proceeds south into western New Mexico, passing along the western boundary of the endorheic Plains of San Agustin. Although the Divide represents the height of land between watersheds, it does not always follow the highest ranges / peaks within each state or province.
In Mexico, it passes through Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, México, the Federal District, Morelos, Puebla, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. In Central America, it continues through southern Guatemala, southwestern Honduras, western Nicaragua, western / southwestern Costa Rica, and southern Panama. The divide reaches its lowest point in Central America at the Isthmus of Rivas at 47 m (154 feet) in Nicaragua.
The Divide continues into South America, where it follows the peaks of the Andes Mountains, traversing western Colombia, central Ecuador, western and southwestern Peru, and eastern Chile (essentially conforming to the Chile - Bolivia and Chile - Argentina boundaries), southward to the southern end of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
In North America, another, mainly non-mountainous divide, the Laurentian Divide (or Northern Divide), further separates the Hudson Bay - Arctic Ocean drainage region from the Atlantic watershed region. Secondary divides separate the watersheds that flow into the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River (ultimately into the Atlantic) from watersheds that flow to the Atlantic via the Missouri - Mississippi complex. Another secondary divide follows the Appalachian chain, which separates those streams and rivers that flow directly into the Atlantic Ocean from those that exit via the Mississippi River.
Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park, Montana, is the point where two of the principal continental divides in North America converge, the primary Continental Divide and the Northern or Laurentian Divide. From this point, waters flow to the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico, and the Arctic Ocean via Hudson Bay. Most geographers, geologists, meteorologists, and oceanographers consider this point the hydrological apex of North America, as Hudson Bay is generally considered part of the Arctic. For example, the International Hydrographic Organization (in its current unapproved working edition only of Limits of Oceans and Seas) defines the Hudson Bay, with its outlet extending from 62.5 to 66.5 degrees north (just a few miles south of the Arctic Circle) as being part of the Arctic Ocean, specifically "Arctic Ocean Subdivision 9.11. ''
This hydrological apex of North America status of Triple Divide Peak is the main reason behind the designation of Waterton - Glacier International Peace Park as the "Crown of the Continent '' of North America. The summit of the peak is the world 's only oceanic triple divide point. Discounting Antarctica and its ice sheets, only one other continent (Asia) borders three oceans, but the inward - draining Endorheic basin area of Central Asia from western China to the Aral and Caspian Seas is so vast that any Arctic and Indian Ocean tributaries are never within proximity of each other. Thus, North America 's status of having a single location draining into three oceans is unique in the world.
Sources differ, however, on whether Hudson Bay, entirely south of the Arctic Circle, is part of the Atlantic or Arctic Ocean. Hudson Bay 's water budget connects to the Atlantic more than to the Arctic Ocean. The channels to the north of Hudson Bay are largely cut off by Baffin Island from the Arctic, so much of the water that enters it mixes with the Atlantic to the east via Hudson Strait rather than north into the Arctic. The result is that most of the ice flowing down the Saskatchewan Glacier eventually ends up as water in the Atlantic Ocean.
If Hudson Bay is considered part of the Atlantic, then the triple point is at an unimportant - looking, permanently snow and ice covered hump on the border between Alberta and British Columbia, on the southern slope of Snow Dome at 3,456 metres (11,300 ft). The exact location of this potential triple point is somewhat indeterminate because the Columbia Icefield and the snow on top of it shifts from year to year. The snow that falls on it (about 10 metres (33 ft) per year) does n't actually flow downhill as water, but creeps downhill in the form of glacial ice.
That ice flows down the Athabasca Glacier to the Arctic Ocean via the Athabasca and Mackenzie Rivers. Ice flowing west goes to the Pacific Ocean via Bryce Creek and the Bush and Columbia Rivers. Ice flowing down the Saskatchewan Glacier goes via the North Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan, and Nelson Rivers into Hudson Bay.
While Triple Divide Peak (or, alternatively, Snow Dome) is the world 's only oceanic triple divide, there are secondary triple divide points wherever any two continental divides meet. North America could be considered to have five major drainage systems: into the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, plus Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Other sources such as the International Hydrographic Organization add a sixth: Canada 's Northwest Passage basin. Using just the five, there are four secondary continental divides and three secondary triple points, the two mentioned previously and a third near Hibbing, Minnesota where the Northern Divide intersects the Saint Lawrence Seaway divide. Since there is no true consensus on what a continental divide is, there is no real agreement on where the secondary triple points are located. However, the main Continental Divide described in this article is a far more distinctive geological feature than the others and its two main triple points are much more prominent.
The Continental Divide Trail (CDT) follows the Divide through the U.S. from the Mexico -- US border to the Canada -- US border. The trail itself is a corridor of pathways - i.e. dedicated footpaths or back roads, either on or near the Continental Divide. A less - developed Canadian extension called the Great Divide Trail continues through five national parks and six provincial parks, ending at Kakwa Lake in east - central British Columbia.
Many endorheic regions in North and South America complicate the simple view of east or west, "ocean - bound '' water flow. Several endorheic basins straddle or adjoin the Continental Divide, notably the Great Divide Basin in Wyoming, the Plains of San Agustin and the Animas Valley in New Mexico, the Guzmán Basin in New Mexico and Chihuahua, Mexico, and both the Bolsón de Mapimí and the Llanos el Salado in Mexico. Such basins can be, and routinely are, assigned to one side of the Divide or the other by their lowest perimeter pass; in other words, an assignment is made by determining how the drainage would occur if the basin were to be progressively filled with water until it overflowed. Large - scale maps, such as those on this page, often show double divide lines when endorheic basins are involved. However, the detailed USGS topographic maps of the United States generally show only the main Divide as determined by the overflow rule. Among other things, this eliminates the need to trace out the boundary for a basin that is very shallow and has a nebulous rim, such as the San Luis Closed Basin in Colorado and the sink of the lost streams of Idaho.
Another rare exception occurs when a stream near a divide splits and flows in both directions, or a lake straddling the divide overflows in both directions. Examples of these are, respectively, North Two Ocean Creek and Isa Lake, both located on the Continental Divide in Wyoming. The Panama Canal has this same feature, but is man - made. Both the Chagres and Gatun rivers flow into Gatun Lake, which empties to both oceans.
Several small lakes along the Divide in the Rocky Mountains between Alberta and British Columbia flow into both provinces and thus into both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. An example is the "Committee Punch Bowl '', a small lake located in the Athabasca Pass named by Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company, while touring his vast Canadian fur - trading empire in 1825. According to historical sources, "The small circular basin of water at the summit, twenty yards in diameter, is dignified with the name of the ' Committee 's Punch Bowl ' in honour of which the Governor treated them (his fur traders) to a bottle of wine as they had ' neither time nor convenience to make a bowl of punch, although a glass of it would have been acceptable. ' '' The reference is to the governing committee of the Hudson 's Bay Company in London, England.
The Alpine Club of Canada 's Abbot Pass Hut sits directly astride the Divide in Abbot Pass on the boundary between Banff National Park and Yoho National Park, and thus rainwater falling on the eastern half of the roof flows via Lake Louise into Hudson Bay, while rain falling on the western half flows via Lake O'Hara into the Pacific Ocean.
|
how did personality researchers use factor analysis in deriving the big five | Big Five personality traits - wikipedia
The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five factor model (FFM), is a taxonomy for personality traits. It is based on common language descriptors. When factor analysis (a statistical technique) is applied to personality survey data, some words used to describe aspects of personality are often applied to the same person. For example, someone described as conscientious is more likely to be described as "always prepared '' rather than "messy ''. This theory is based therefore on the association between words but not on neuropsychological experiments. This theory uses descriptors of common language and therefore suggests five broad dimensions commonly used to describe the human personality and psyche. The five factors have been defined as openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, often represented by the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE. Beneath each proposed global factor, there are a number of correlated and more specific primary factors. For example, extraversion is said to include such related qualities as gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth, activity, and positive emotions.
That these underlying factors can be found is consistent with the lexical hypothesis: personality characteristics that are most important in people 's lives will eventually become a part of their language and, secondly, that more important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word.
The five factors are:
People who do not exhibit a clear predisposition to a single factor in each dimension above are considered adaptable, moderate and reasonable, yet they can also be perceived as unprincipled, inscrutable and calculating.
The Big Five personality traits was the model to comprehend the relationship between personality and academic behaviors. This model was defined by several independent sets of researchers who used factor analysis of verbal descriptors of human behavior. These researchers began by studying relationships between a large number of verbal descriptors related to personality traits. They reduced the lists of these descriptors (arbitrarily) by 5 -- 10 fold and then used factor analysis to group the remaining traits (using data mostly based upon people 's estimations, in self - report questionnaire and peer ratings) in order to find the underlying factors of personality.
The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961, but failed to reach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five - factor model of personality, which Lewis Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization. These five overarching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits.
At least four sets of researchers have worked independently within lexical hypothesis in personality theory for decades on this problem and have identified generally the same five factors: Tupes and Christal were first, followed by Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute, Cattell at the University of Illinois, and Costa and McCrae at the National Institutes of Health. These four sets of researchers used somewhat different methods in finding the five traits, and thus each set of five factors has somewhat different names and definitions. However, all have been found to be highly inter-correlated and factor - analytically aligned. Studies indicate that the Big Five traits are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more numerous facets or primary traits. The FFM - associated test was used by Cambridge Analytica, including the scandalous case associated with interference with president election in the USA
Each of the Big Five personality traits contains two separate, but correlated, aspects reflecting a level of personality below the broad domains but above the many facet scales that are also part of the Big Five. The aspects are labeled as follows: Volatility and Withdrawal for Neuroticism; Enthusiasm and Assertiveness for Extraversion; Intellect and Openness for Openness to Experience; Industriousness and Orderliness for Conscientiousness; and Compassion and Politeness for Agreeableness.
Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things. They tend to be, when compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are also more likely to hold unconventional beliefs.
Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self - discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate, and direct their impulses. High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. The average level of conscientiousness rises among young adults and then declines among older adults.
Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity / situations, and energy creation from external means. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action - oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves.
Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seem quiet, low - key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than extraverts. Introverts need less stimulation than extraverts and more time alone. This does not mean that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in social situations.
Generally, people are a combination of extraversion and introversion, with personality psychologist Eysenck suggesting that these traits are connected somehow to our central nervous system
The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature.
Disagreeable individuals place self - interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others ' well - being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others ' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.
Because agreeableness is a social trait, research has shown that one 's agreeableness positively correlates with the quality of relationships with one 's team members. Agreeableness also positively predicts transformational leadership skills. In a study conducted among 169 participants in leadership positions in a variety of professions, individuals were asked to take a personality test and have two evaluations completed by directly supervised subordinates. Leaders with high levels of agreeableness were more likely to be considered transformational rather than transactional. Although the relationship was not strong, (r = 0.32, β = 0.28, p < 0.01) it was the strongest of the Big Five traits. However, the same study showed no predictive power of leadership effectiveness as evaluated by the leader 's direct supervisor. Agreeableness, however, has been found to be negatively related to transactional leadership in the military. A study of Asian military units showed leaders with a high level of agreeableness to be more likely to receive a low rating for transformational leadership skills. Therefore, with further research, organizations may be able to determine an individual 's potential for performance based on their personality traits.
Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. According to Eysenck 's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli. Neuroticism is a classic temperament trait that has been studied in temperament research for decades, before it was adapted by the FFM. Since main properties of temperament traits are stability in life time and its neurophysiological basis, the FFM researchers used these properties of Neuroticism to support their model. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress, they also tend to be flippant in the way they express emotion. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. For instance, neuroticism is connected to a pessimistic approach toward work, confidence that work impedes personal relationships, and apparent anxiety linked with work. Furthermore, those who score high on neuroticism may display more skin - conductance reactivity than those who score low on neuroticism. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. Lacking contentment in one 's life achievements can correlate with high neuroticism scores and increase one 's likelihood of falling into clinical depression. Moreover, individuals high in neuroticism tend to experience more negative life events, but neuroticism also changes in response to positive and negative life experiences.
At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low - scorers experience a lot of positive feelings.
Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense (i.e., neurosis.) Some psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional instability to differentiate it from the term neurotic in a career test.
In 1884, Sir Francis Galton was the first person who is known to have investigated the hypothesis that it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits by sampling language: the lexical hypothesis. In 1936, Gordon Allport and S. Odbert put Sir Francis Galton 's hypothesis into practice by extracting 4,504 adjectives which they believed were descriptive of observable and relatively permanent traits from the dictionaries at that time. In 1940, Raymond Cattell retained the adjectives, and eliminated synonyms to reduce the total to 171. He constructed a self - report instrument for the clusters of personality traits he found from the adjectives, which he called the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. Based on a subset of only 20 of the 36 dimensions that Cattell had originally discovered, Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal claimed to have found just five broad factors which they labeled: "surgency '', "agreeableness '', "dependability '', "emotional stability '', and "culture ''. Warren Norman subsequently relabeled "dependability '' as "conscientiousness ''.
For the next two decades, the changing zeitgeist made publication of personality research difficult. In his 1968 book Personality and Assessment, Walter Mischel asserted that personality instruments could not predict behavior with a correlation of more than 0.3. Social psychologists like Mischel argued that attitudes and behavior were not stable, but varied with the situation. Predicting behavior from personality instruments was claimed to be impossible. However, it has subsequently been demonstrated empirically that the magnitude of the predictive correlations with real - life criteria can increase significantly under stressful emotional conditions (as opposed to the typical administration of personality measures under neutral emotional conditions), thereby accounting for a significantly greater proportion of the predictive variance.
In addition, emerging methodologies challenged this point of view during the 1980s. Instead of trying to predict single instances of behavior, which was unreliable, researchers found that they could predict patterns of behavior by aggregating large numbers of observations. As a result, correlations between personality and behavior increased substantially, and it was clear that "personality '' did in fact exist. Personality and social psychologists now generally agree that both personal and situational variables are needed to account for human behavior. Trait theories became justified, and there was a resurgence of interest in this area. In the 1980s, Lewis Goldberg started his own lexical project, emphasizing five broad factors once again. He later coined the term "Big Five '' as a label for the factors.
In a 1980 symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers, Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takemoto - Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman, reviewed the available personality instruments of the day. This event was followed by widespread acceptance of the five - factor model among personality researchers during the 1980s. Peter Saville and his team included the five - factor "Pentagon '' model with the original OPQ in 1984. Pentagon was closely followed by the NEO five - factor personality inventory, published by Costa and McCrae in 1985. However, the methodology employed in constructing the NEO instrument has been subjected to critical scrutiny (see section below).
There are debates between researchers of temperament and researchers of personality as to whether or not biologically - based differences define a concept of temperament or a part of personality. The presence of such differences in pre-cultural individuals (such as animals or young infants) suggests that they belong to temperament since personality is a socio - cultural concept. For this reason developmental psychologists generally interpret individual differences in children as an expression of temperament rather than personality. Some researchers argue that temperaments and personality traits are age - specific manifestations of virtually the same latent qualities. Some believe that early childhood temperaments may become adolescent and adult personality traits as individuals ' basic genetic characteristics actively, reactively, and passively interact with their changing environments.
Researchers of adult temperament point out that, similarly to sex, age and mental illness, temperament is based on biochemical systems whereas personality is a product of socialization of an individual possessing these four types of features. Temperament interacts with social - cultural factors, but still can not be controlled or easily changed by these factors. Therefore, it is suggested that temperament should be kept as an independent concept for further studies and not be conflated with personality. Moreover, temperament refers to dynamical features of behaviour (energetic, tempo, sensitivity and emotionality - related), whereas personality is to be considered a psycho - social construct comprising the content characteristics of human behavior (such as values, attitudes, habits, preferences, personal history, self - image). Temperament researchers point out that the lack of attention to extant temperament research by the developers of the Big Five model lead to an overlap between its dimensions and dimensions described in multiple temperament models much earlier. For example, neuroticism reflects the traditional temperament dimension of emotionality, extraversion the temperament dimension of "energy '' or "activity '', and openness to experience the temperament dimension of sensation - seeking.
Genetically informative research, including twin studies, suggest that heritability and environmental factors both influence all five factors to the same degree. Among four recent twin studies, the mean percentage for heritability was calculated for each personality and it was concluded that heritability influenced the five factors broadly. The self - report measures were as follows: openness to experience was estimated to have a 57 % genetic influence, extraversion 54 %, conscientiousness 49 %, neuroticism 48 %, and agreeableness 42 %.
The Big Five personality traits have been assessed in some non-human species but methodology is debatable. In one series of studies, human ratings of chimpanzees using the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire, revealed factors of extraversion, conscientiousness and agreeableness -- as well as an additional factor of dominance -- across hundreds of chimpanzees in zoological parks, a large naturalistic sanctuary, and a research laboratory. Neuroticism and openness factors were found in an original zoo sample, but were not replicated in a new zoo sample or in other settings (perhaps reflecting the design of the CPQ). A study review found that markers for the three dimensions extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness were found most consistently across different species, followed by openness; only chimpanzees showed markers for conscientious behavior.
Research on the Big Five, and personality in general, has focused primarily on individual differences in adulthood, rather than in childhood and adolescence, and often include temperament traits. Recently, there has been growing recognition of the need to study child and adolescent personality trait development in order to understand how traits develop and change throughout the lifespan.
Recent studies have begun to explore the developmental origins and trajectories of the Big Five among children and adolescents, especially those that relate to temperament. Many researchers have sought to distinguish between personality and temperament. Temperament often refers to early behavioral and affective characteristics that are thought to be driven primarily by genes. Models of temperament often include four trait dimensions: surgency / sociability, negative emotionality, persistence / effortful control, and activity level. Some of these differences in temperament are evident at, if not before, birth. For example, both parents and researchers recognize that some newborn infants are peaceful and easily soothed while others are comparatively fussy and hard to calm. Unlike temperament, however, many researchers view the development of personality as gradually occurring throughout childhood. Contrary to some researchers who question whether children have stable personality traits, Big Five or otherwise, most researchers contend that there are significant psychological differences between children that are associated with relatively stable, distinct, and salient behavior patterns.
The structure, manifestations, and development of the Big Five in childhood and adolescence has been studied using a variety of methods, including parent - and teacher - ratings, preadolescent and adolescent self - and peer - ratings, and observations of parent - child interactions. Results from these studies support the relative stability of personality traits across the human lifespan, at least from preschool age through adulthood. More specifically, research suggests that four of the Big Five -- namely Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness - reliably describe personality differences in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. However, some evidence suggests that Openness may not be a fundamental, stable part of childhood personality. Although some researchers have found that Openness in children and adolescents relates to attributes such as creativity, curiosity, imagination, and intellect, many researchers have failed to find distinct individual differences in Openness in childhood and early adolescence. Potentially, Openness may (a) manifest in unique, currently unknown ways in childhood or (b) may only manifest as children develop socially and cognitively. Other studies have found evidence for all of the Big Five traits in childhood and adolescence as well as two other child - specific traits: Irritability and Activity. Despite these specific differences, the majority of findings suggest that personality traits -- particularly Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness - are evident in childhood and adolescence and are associated with distinct social - emotional patterns of behavior that are largely consistent with adult manifestations of those same personality traits. Some researchers have proposed the youth personality trait is best described by six trait dimensions: neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and activity. Despite some preliminary evidence for this "Little Six '' model, research in this area has been delayed by a lack of available measures.
Previous research has found evidence that most adults become more agreeable, conscientious, and less neurotic as they age. This has been referred to as the maturation effect. Many researchers have sought to investigate how trends in adult personality development compare to trends in youth personality development. Two main population - level indices have been important in this area of research: rank - order consistency and mean - level consistency. Rank - order consistency indicates the relative placement of individuals within a group. Mean - level consistency indicates whether groups increase or decrease on certain traits throughout the lifetime.
Findings from these studies indicate that, consistent with adult personality trends, youth personality becomes increasingly more stable in terms of rank - order throughout childhood. Unlike adult personality research, which indicates that people become agreeable, conscientious, and emotionally stable with age, some findings in youth personality research have indicated that mean - levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience decline from late childhood to late adolescence. The disruption hypothesis, which proposes that biological, social, and psychological changes experienced during youth result in temporary dips in maturity, has been proposed to explain these findings.
In Big Five studies, extraversion has been associated with surgency. Children with high Extraversion are energetic, talkative, social, and dominant with children and adults; whereas, children with low Extraversion tend to be quiet, calm, inhibited, and submissive to other children and adults. Individual differences in Extraversion first manifest in infancy as varying levels of positive emotionality. These differences in turn predict social and physical activity during later childhood and may represent, or be associated with, the behavioral activation system. In children, Extraversion / Positive Emotionality includes four sub-traits: three traits that are similar to the previously described traits of temperament -- activity, sociability, shyness, and the trait of dominance.
Many studies of longitudinal data, which correlate people 's test scores over time, and cross-sectional data, which compare personality levels across different age groups, show a high degree of stability in personality traits during adulthood, especially Neuroticism trait that is often regarded as a temperament trait similarly to longitudinal research in temperament for the same traits. It is shown that the personality stabilizes for working - age individuals within about four years after starting working. There is also little evidence that adverse life events can have any significant impact on the personality of individuals. More recent research and meta - analyses of previous studies, however, indicate that change occurs in all five traits at various points in the lifespan. The new research shows evidence for a maturation effect. On average, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness typically increase with time, whereas extraversion, neuroticism, and openness tend to decrease. Research has also demonstrated that changes in Big Five personality traits depend on the individual 's current stage of development. For example, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness demonstrate a negative trend during childhood and early adolescence before trending upwards during late adolescence and into adulthood. In addition to these group effects, there are individual differences: different people demonstrate unique patterns of change at all stages of life.
In addition, some research (Fleeson, 2001) suggests that the Big Five should not be conceived of as dichotomies (such as extraversion vs. introversion) but as continua. Each individual has the capacity to move along each dimension as circumstances (social or temporal) change. He is or she is therefore not simply on one end of each trait dichotomy but is a blend of both, exhibiting some characteristics more often than others:
Research regarding personality with growing age has suggested that as individuals enter their elder years (79 -- 86), those with lower IQ see a raise in extraversion, but a decline in conscientiousness and physical well being.
Research by Cobb - Clark and Schurer indicates that personality traits are generally stable among adult workers. The research done on personality also mirrors previous results on locus of control.
Cross-cultural research has shown some patterns of gender differences on responses to the NEO-PI - R and the Big Five Inventory. For example, women consistently report higher Neuroticism, Agreeableness, warmth (an extraversion facet) and openness to feelings, and men often report higher assertiveness (a facet of extraversion) and openness to ideas as assessed by the NEO-PI - R.
A study of gender differences in 55 nations using the Big Five Inventory found that women tended to be somewhat higher than men in neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The difference in neuroticism was the most prominent and consistent, with significant differences found in 49 of the 55 nations surveyed. Gender differences in personality traits are largest in prosperous, healthy, and more gender - egalitarian cultures. A plausible explanation for this is that acts by women in individualistic, egalitarian countries are more likely to be attributed to their personality, rather than being attributed to ascribed gender roles within collectivist, traditional countries. Differences in the magnitude of sex differences between more or less developed world regions were due to differences between men, not women, in these respective regions. That is, men in highly developed world regions were less neurotic, extraverted, conscientious and agreeable compared to men in less developed world regions. Women, on the other hand tended not to differ in personality traits across regions. The most simple explanation for this gender data is that women remain relatively resource - poor, regardless of the circumstances of males within a first - world country. However, the authors of this study speculated that resource - poor environments (that is, countries with low levels of development) may inhibit the development of gender differences, whereas resource - rich environments facilitate them. This may be because males require more resources than females in order to reach their full developmental potential. The authors also argued that due to different evolutionary pressures, men may have evolved to be more risk taking and socially dominant, whereas women evolved to be more cautious and nurturing. Ancient hunter - gatherer societies may have been more egalitarian than later agriculturally oriented societies. Hence, the development of gender inequalities may have acted to constrain the development of gender differences in personality that originally evolved in hunter - gatherer societies. As modern societies have become more egalitarian, again, it may be that innate sex differences are no longer constrained and hence manifest more fully than in less - developed cultures. Currently, this hypothesis remains untested, as gender differences in modern societies have not been compared with those in hunter - gatherer societies.
Frank Sulloway argues that firstborns are more conscientious, more socially dominant, less agreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns. Large - scale studies using random samples and self - report personality tests, however, have found milder effects than Sulloway claimed, or no significant effects of birth order on personality.
In 2002, the journal of psychology posted a Big Five Personality Trait Difference; Researchers explored relationship between the five factor model and the Universal - Diverse Orientation (UDO) in councillor trainees. (Thompson, R., Brossart, D., and Mivielle, A., 2002) UDO is known as one social attitude that produces a strong awareness and / or acceptance towards the similarities and differences amongst individuals. (Miville, M., Romas, J., Johnson, J., and Lon, R. 2002) The study has shown the councillor trainees that are more open to the idea of creative expression amongst individuals are more likely to work with a diverse group of clients, and feel comfortable in their role. (Thompson, R. et al. 2002)
The Big Five have been pursued in a variety of languages and cultures, such as German, Chinese, Indian, etc. For example, Thompson has claimed to find the Big Five structure across several cultures using an international English language scale. Cheung, van de Vijver, and Leong (2011) suggest, however, that the Openness factor is particularly unsupported in Asian countries and that a different fifth factor is identified.
Recent work has found relationships between Geert Hofstede 's cultural factors, Individualism, Power Distance, Masculinity, and Uncertainty Avoidance, with the average Big Five scores in a country. For instance, the degree to which a country values individualism correlates with its average extraversion, whereas people living in cultures which are accepting of large inequalities in their power structures tend to score somewhat higher on conscientiousness.
Personality differences around the world might even have contributed to the emergence of different political systems. A recent study has found that countries ' average personality trait levels are correlated with their political systems: countries with higher average trait Openness tended to have more democratic institutions, an association that held even after factoring out other relevant influences such as economic development.
Attempts to replicate the Big Five in other countries with local dictionaries have succeeded in some countries but not in others. Apparently, for instance, Hungarians do not appear to have a single agreeableness factor. Other researchers have found evidence for agreeableness but not for other factors. It is important to recognize that individual differences in traits are relevant in a specific cultural context, and that the traits do not have their effects outside of that context
As of 2002, there were over fifty published studies relating the FFM to personality disorders. Since that time, quite a number of additional studies have expanded on this research base and provided further empirical support for understanding the DSM personality disorders in terms of the FFM domains.
In her review of the personality disorder literature published in 2007, Lee Anna Clark asserted that "the five - factor model of personality is widely accepted as representing the higher - order structure of both normal and abnormal personality traits ''. However, other researches disagree that this model is widely accepted (see the section Critique below) and suggest that it simply replicates early temperament research. Noticeably, FFM publications never compare their findings to temperament models even though temperament and mental disorders (especially personality disorders) are thought to be based on the same neurotransmitter imbalances, just to varying degrees.
The five - factor model was claimed to significantly predict all ten personality disorder symptoms and outperform the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) in the prediction of borderline, avoidant, and dependent personality disorder symptoms. However, most predictions related to an increase in Neuroticism and a decrease in Agreeableness, and therefore did not differentiate between the disorders very well.
Converging evidence from several nationally representative studies has established three classes of mental disorders which are especially common in the general population: Depressive disorders (e.g., major depressive disorder (MDD), dysthymic disorder), anxiety disorders (e.g., generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder, agoraphobia, specific phobia, and social phobia), and substance use disorders (SUDs).
These common mental disorders (CMDs) have been empirically linked to the Big Five personality traits, neuroticism in particular. Numerous studies have found that having high scores of neuroticism significantly increases one 's risk for developing a CMD. A large - scale meta - analysis (n > 75,000) examining the relationship between all of the Big Five personality traits and CMDs found that low conscientiousness yielded consistently strong effects for each CMD examined (i.e., MDD, dysthymic disorder, GAD, PTSD, panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobia, and SUD). This finding parallels research on physical health, which has established that conscientiousness is the strongest personality predictor of mortality and is highly negatively correlated with making poor health choices. In regards to the other personality domains, the meta - analysis found that all CMDs examined were defined by high neuroticism, most exhibited low extraversion, only SUD was linked to agreeableness (negatively), and no disorders were associated with Openness. A meta - analysis of 59 longitudinal studies showed that high neuroticism predicted the development of anxiety, depression, substance abuse, psychosis, schizophrenia, and non-specific mental distress, also after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history.
Five major models have been posed to explain the nature of the relationship between personality and mental illness. There is currently no single "best model '', as each of them has received at least some empirical support. It is also important to note that these models are not mutually exclusive -- more than one may be operating for a particular individual and various mental disorders may be explained by different models.
Being highly conscientious may add as much as five years to one 's life. The Big Five personality traits also predict positive health outcomes. In an elderly Japanese sample, conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness were related to lower risk of mortality.
Personality plays an important role that affects academic achievement. A study conducted with 308 undergraduates who completed the Five Factor Inventory Processes and offered their GPA suggested that conscientiousness and agreeableness have a positive relationship with all types of learning styles (synthesis analysis, methodical study, fact retention, and elaborative processing), whereas neuroticism has an inverse relationship with them all. Moreover, extraversion and openness were proportional to elaborative processing. The Big Five personality traits accounted for 14 % of the variance in GPA, suggesting that personality traits make some contributions to academic performance. Furthermore, reflective learning styles (synthesis - analysis and elaborative processing) were able to mediate the relationship between openness and GPA. These results indicate that intellectual curiousness has significant enhancement in academic performance if students can combine their scholarly interest with thoughtful information processing.
A recent study of Israeli high - school students found that those in the gifted program systematically scored higher on openness and lower on neuroticism than those not in the gifted program. While not a measure of the Big Five, gifted students also reported less state anxiety than students not in the gifted program. Specific Big Five personality traits predict learning styles in addition to academic success.
Studies conducted on college students have concluded that hope, which is linked to agreeableness, has a positive effect on psychological well being. Individuals high in neurotic tendencies are less likely to display hopeful tendencies and are negatively associated with well - being. Personality can sometimes be flexible and measuring the big five personality for individuals as they enter certain stages of life may predict their educational identity. Recent studies have suggested the likelihood of an individual 's personality affecting their educational identity.
Learning styles have been described as "enduring ways of thinking and processing information ''.
Although there is no evidence that personality determines thinking styles, they may be intertwined in ways that link thinking styles to the Big Five personality traits. There is no general consensus on the number or specifications of particular learning styles, but there have been many different proposals.
Smeck, Ribicj, and Ramanaih (1997) defined four types of learning styles:
When all four facets are implicated within the classroom, they will each likely improve academic achievement. This model asserts that students develop either agentic / shallow processing or reflective / deep processing. Deep processors are more often than not found to be more conscientious, intellectually open, and extraverted when compared to shallow processors. Deep processing is associated with appropriate study methods (methodical study) and a stronger ability to analyze information (synthesis analysis), whereas shallow processors prefer structured fact retention learning styles and are better suited for elaborative processing. The main functions of these four specific learning styles are as follows:
Openness has been linked to learning styles that often lead to academic success and higher grades like synthesis analysis and methodical study. Because conscientiousness and openness have been shown to predict all four learning styles, it suggests that individuals who possess characteristics like discipline, determination, and curiosity are more likely to engage in all of the above learning styles.
According to the research carried out by Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck & Avdic (2011), conscientiousness and agreeableness are positively related with all four learning styles, whereas neuroticism was negatively related with those four. Furthermore, extraversion and openness were only positively related to elaborative processing, and openness itself correlated with higher academic achievement.
Besides openness, all Big Five personality traits helped predict the educational identity of students. Based on these findings, scientists are beginning to see that there might be a large influence of the Big Five traits on academic motivation that then leads to predicting a student 's academic performance.
Some authors suggested that Big Five personality traits combined with learning styles can help predict some variations in the academic performance and the academic motivation of an individual which can then influence their academic achievements. This may be seen because individual differences in personality represent stable approaches to information processing. For instance, conscientiousness has consistently emerged as a stable predictor of success in exam performance, largely because conscientious students experience fewer study delays. The reason conscientiousness shows a positive association with the four learning styles is because students with high levels of conscientiousness develop focused learning strategies and appear to be more disciplined and achievement - oriented.
The Association for Psychological Science (APS), however, recently commissioned a report whose conclusion indicates that no significant evidence exists to make the conclusion that learning - style assessments should be included in the education system. The APS also suggested in their report that all existing learning styles have not been exhausted and that there could exist learning styles that have the potential to be worthy of being included in educational practices. Thus it is premature, at best, to conclude that the evidence linking the Big Five to "learning styles '', or "learning styles '' to learning itself, is valid.
Within organizational communication, personality is taken into account of how a person carries themselves in the workplace. The five factor personality theory encompasses five different personalities which are as follows: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Openness is being original and having imagination. Conscientiousness is being goal oriented with a willingness to achieve. Extraversion is being sociable and being an emotionally positive person. Agreeableness is being able to adapt and as a leader make necessary accommodations. The last personality trait was neuroticism which is usually when a leader tends to be negative emotionally and having a need for stability.
It is believed that the Big Five traits are predictors of future performance outcomes. Job outcome measures include job and training proficiency and personnel data. However, research demonstrating such prediction has been criticized, in part because of the apparently low correlation coefficients characterizing the relationship between personality and job performance. In a 2007 article co-authored by six current or former editors of psychological journals, Dr. Kevin Murphy, Professor of Psychology at Pennsylvania State University and Editor of the Journal of Applied Psychology (1996 -- 2002), states:
Such criticisms were put forward by Walter Mischel, whose publication caused a two - decades ' long crisis in personality psychometrics. However, later work demonstrated (1) that the correlations obtained by psychometric personality researchers were actually very respectable by comparative standards, and (2) that the economic value of even incremental increases in prediction accuracy was exceptionally large, given the vast difference in performance by those who occupy complex job positions.
There have been studies that link national innovation to openness to experience and conscientiousness. Those who express these traits have showed leadership and beneficial ideas towards the country of origin.
Some businesses, organizations, and interviewers assess individuals based on the Big Five personality traits. Research has suggested that individuals who are considered leaders typically exhibit lower amounts of neurotic traits, maintain higher levels of openness (envisioning success), balanced levels of conscientiousness (well - organized), and balanced levels of extraversion (outgoing, but not excessive). Further studies have linked professional burnout to neuroticism, and extraversion to enduring positive work experience. When it comes to making money, research has suggested that those who are high in agreeableness (especially men) are not as successful in accumulating income.
Some research suggests that vocational outcomes are correlated to Big Five personality traits. Conscientiousness predicts job performance in general. In addition, research has demonstrated that Agreeableness is negatively related to salary. Those high in Agreeableness make less, on average, than those low in the same trait. Neuroticism is also negatively related to salary while Conscientiousness and Extraversion are positive predictors of salary. Occupational self - efficacy has also been shown to be positively correlated with conscientiousness and negatively correlated with neuroticism. Significant predictors of career - advancement goals are: extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness.
Research designed to investigate the individual effects of Big Five personality traits on work performance via worker completed surveys and supervisor ratings of work performance has implicated individual traits in several different work roles performances. A "work role '' is defined as the responsibilities an individual has while they are working. Nine work roles have been identified, which can be classified in three broader categories: proficiency (the ability of a worker to effectively perform their work duties), adaptivity (a workers ability to change working strategies in response to changing work environments), and proactivity (extent to which a worker will spontaneously put forth effort to change the work environment). These three categories of behavior can then be directed towards three different levels: either the individual, team, or organizational level leading to the nine different work role performance possibilities.
Two theories have been integrated in an attempt to account for these differences in work role performance. Trait activation theory posits that within a person trait levels predict future behavior, that trait levels differ between people, and that work - related cues activate traits which leads to work relevant behaviors. Role theory suggests that role senders provide cues to elicit desired behaviors. In this context, role senders (i.e.: supervisors, managers, et cetera) provide workers with cues for expected behaviors, which in turn activates personality traits and work relevant behaviors. In essence, expectations of the role sender lead to different behavioral outcomes depending on the trait levels of individual workers and because people differ in trait levels, responses to these cues will not be universal.
The Big Five model of personality was used for attempts to predict satisfaction in romantic relationships, relationship quality in dating, engaged, and married couples.
Dating couples
Engaged couples
Married couples
These reports are, however, rare and not conclusive.
The predictive effects of the Big Five personality traits relate mostly to social functioning and rules - driven behavior and are not very specific for prediction of particular aspects of behavior. For example, it was noted that high neuroticism precedes the development of all common mental disorders., and this trait does not even always attributed to personality by temperament researchers. Further evidence is required to fully uncover the nature and differences between personality traits, temperament and life outcomes. Social and contextual parameters also play a role in outcomes and the interaction between the two is not yet fully understood.
Several measures of the Big Five exist:
The most frequently used measures of the Big Five comprise either items that are self - descriptive sentences or, in the case of lexical measures, items that are single adjectives. Due to the length of sentence - based and some lexical measures, short forms have been developed and validated for use in applied research settings where questionnaire space and respondent time are limited, such as the 40 - item balanced International English Big - Five Mini-Markers or a very brief (10 item) measure of the Big Five domains. Research has suggested that some methodologies in administering personality tests are inadequate in length and provide insufficient detail to truly evaluate personality. Usually, longer, more detailed questions will give a more accurate portrayal of personality. The five factor structure has been replicated in peer reports. However, many of the substantive findings rely on self - reports.
Much of the evidence on the measures of the Big 5 relies on self - report questionnaires, which makes self - report bias and falsification of responses difficult to deal with and account for. It has been argued that the Big Five tests do not create an accurate personality profile because the responses given on these tests are not true in all cases. For example, questionnaires are answered by potential employees who might choose answers that paint them in the best light.
Research suggests that a relative - scored Big Five measure in which respondents had to make repeated choices between equally desirable personality descriptors may be a potential alternative to traditional Big Five measures in accurately assessing personality traits, especially when lying or biased responding is present. When compared with a traditional Big Five measure for its ability to predict GPA and creative achievement under both normal and "fake good '' - bias response conditions, the relative - scored measure significantly and consistently predicted these outcomes under both conditions; however, the Likert questionnaire lost its predictive ability in the faking condition. Thus, the relative - scored measure proved to be less affected by biased responding than the Likert measure of the Big Five.
Andrew H. Schwartz analyzed 700 million words, phrases, and topic instances collected from the Facebook messages of 75,000 volunteers, who also took standard personality tests, and found striking variations in language with personality, gender, and age.
The proposed Big Five model has been subjected to considerable critical scrutiny and defense for the model.
Subsequent critical replies by Jack Block at the University of California Berkeley followed. It has been argued that there are limitations to the scope of the Big Five model as an explanatory or predictive theory. It has also been argued that measures of the Big Five account for only 56 % of the normal personality trait sphere alone (not even considering the abnormal personality trait sphere). Also, the static Big Five is not theory - driven, it is merely a statistically - driven investigation of certain descriptors that tend to cluster together often based on less than optimal factor analytic procedures. Measures of the Big Five constructs appear to show some consistency in interviews, self - descriptions and observations, and this static five - factor structure seems to be found across a wide range of participants of different ages and cultures. However, while genotypic temperament trait dimensions might appear across different cultures, the phenotypic expression of personality traits differs profoundly across different cultures as a function of the different socio - cultural conditioning and experiential learning that takes place within different cultural settings.
Moreover, the fact that the Big Five model was based on lexical hypothesis, (i.e. on the verbal descriptors of individual differences) indicated strong methodological flaws in this model, especially related to its main factors, Extraversion and Neuroticism. First, there is a natural pro-social bias of language in people 's verbal evaluations. After all, language is an invention of group dynamics that was developed to facilitate socialization, the exchange of information and to synchronize group activity. This social function of language therefore creates a sociability bias in verbal descriptors of human behaviour: there are more words related to social than physical or even mental aspects of behavior. The sheer number of such descriptors will cause them to group into a largest factor in any language, and such grouping has nothing to do with the way that core systems of individual differences are set up. Second, there is also a negativity bias in emotionality (i.e. most emotions have negative affectivity), and there are more words in language to describe negative rather than positive emotions. Such asymmetry in emotional valence creates another bias in language. Experiments using the lexical hypothesis approach indeed demonstrated that the use of lexical material skews the resulting dimensionality according to a sociability bias of language and a negativity bias of emotionality, grouping all evaluations around these two dimensions. This means that the two largest dimensions in the Big Five model might be just an artifact of the lexical approach that this model employed.
One common criticism is that the Big Five does not explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented from the model precisely because they feel it neglects other domains of personality, such as religiosity, manipulativeness / machiavellianism, honesty, sexiness / seductiveness, thriftiness, conservativeness, masculinity / femininity, snobbishness / egotism, sense of humour, and risk - taking / thrill - seeking. Dan P. McAdams has called the Big Five a "psychology of the stranger '', because they refer to traits that are relatively easy to observe in a stranger; other aspects of personality that are more privately held or more context - dependent are excluded from the Big Five.
In many studies, the five factors are not fully orthogonal to one another; that is, the five factors are not independent. Orthogonality is viewed as desirable by some researchers because it minimizes redundancy between the dimensions. This is particularly important when the goal of a study is to provide a comprehensive description of personality with as few variables as possible.
Factor analysis, the statistical method used to identify the dimensional structure of observed variables, lacks a universally recognized basis for choosing among solutions with different numbers of factors. A five factor solution depends on some degree of interpretation by the analyst. A larger number of factors may underlie these five factors. This has led to disputes about the "true '' number of factors. Big Five proponents have responded that although other solutions may be viable in a single dataset, only the five factor structure consistently replicates across different studies.
Moreover, the factor analysis that this model is based on is a linear method incapable of capturing nonlinear, feedback and contingent relationships between core systems of individual differences.
A frequent criticism is that the Big Five is not based on any underlying theory; it is merely an empirical finding that certain descriptors cluster together under factor analysis. Although this does not mean that these five factors do not exist, the underlying causes behind them are unknown.
Jack Block 's final published work before his death in January 2010 drew together his lifetime perspective on the five - factor model.
He summarized his critique of the model in terms of:
He went on to suggest that repeatedly observed higher order factors hierarchically above the proclaimed Big Five personality traits may promise deeper biological understanding of the origins and implications of these superfactors.
It has been noted that even though early lexical studies in the English language indicated five large groups of personality traits, more recent, and more comprehensive, cross-language studies have provided evidence for six large groups rather than five. These six groups forms the basis of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Based on these findings it has been suggested that the Big Five system should be replaced by HEXACO, or revised to better align with lexical evidence.
|
which was a cause of world war 2 in europe yahoo | Thirty Years ' War - Wikipedia
Peace of Westphalia
Saxony (until 1635)
Ivan Sirko
The Thirty Years ' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts, as well as the deadliest European religious war in history. It took place in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648 and resulted in eight million casualties.
Initially a war between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers. These states employed relatively large mercenary armies, and the war became less about religion and more of a continuation of the France -- Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence.
The war was preceded by the election of the new Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, who tried to impose religious uniformity on his domains, forcing Roman Catholicism on its peoples. The northern Protestant states, angered by the violation of their rights to choose that had been granted in the Peace of Augsburg, banded together to form the Protestant Union. Ferdinand II was a devout Roman Catholic and relatively intolerant when compared to his predecessor, Rudolf II, who ruled from the largely Protestant city of Prague. Ferdinand 's policies were considered strongly pro-Catholic.
These events caused widespread fears throughout northern and central Europe, and triggered the Protestant Bohemians living in the then relatively loose dominion of Habsburg Austria to revolt against their nominal ruler, Ferdinand II. After the so - called Prague Defenestration deposed the emperor 's representatives in Prague, the Protestant estates and Catholic Habsburgs started gathering allies for war. They ousted the Habsburgs and elected the Calvinist Frederick V, Elector of the Rhenish Palatinate as the new king of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Frederick took the offer without the support of the Protestant Union. The southern states, mainly Roman Catholic, were angered by this. Led by Bavaria, these states formed the Catholic League to expel Frederick in support of the Emperor. The Empire soon crushed this perceived rebellion in the Battle of White Mountain, executing leading Czech aristocrats shortly after. The Protestant world condemned the Emperor 's action.
After the atrocities committed in Bohemia, Saxony finally gave its support to the union and decided to fight back. Sweden, at the time a rising military power, soon intervened in 1630 under its king Gustavus Adolphus, transforming what had been simply the Emperor 's attempt to curb the Protestant states into a full - scale war in Europe. Spain, wishing to finally crush the Dutch rebels in the Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, intervened under the pretext of helping its dynastic Habsburg ally, Austria. No longer able to tolerate the encirclement of two major Habsburg powers on its borders, Catholic France entered the coalition on the side of the Protestants in order to counter the Habsburgs.
The Thirty Years ' War devastated entire regions, with famine and disease resulting in high mortality in the populations of the German and Italian states, the Crown of Bohemia, and the Southern Netherlands. Both mercenaries and soldiers in fighting armies traditionally looted or extorted tribute to get operating funds, which imposed severe hardships on the inhabitants of occupied territories. The war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers.
The Dutch Republic enjoyed contrasting fortune; it ended its revolt against Spain in 1648 and subsequently enjoyed a time of great prosperity and development, known as the Dutch Golden Age, during which it became one of the world 's foremost economic and naval powers. The Thirty Years ' War ended with the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, part of the wider Peace of Westphalia. The war altered the previous political order of European powers. The rise of Bourbon France, the curtailing of Habsburg ambition, and the ascendancy of Sweden as a great power created a new balance of power on the continent, with France emerging from the war strengthened and increasingly dominant in the latter part of the 17th century.
The Peace of Augsburg (1555), signed by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, confirmed the result of the Diet of Speyer (1526), ending the war between German Lutherans and Catholics, and establishing that:
Although the Peace of Augsburg created a temporary end to hostilities, it did not resolve the underlying religious conflict, which was made yet more complex by the spread of Calvinism throughout Germany in the years that followed. This added a third major faith to the region, but its position was not recognized in any way by the Augsburg terms, to which only Catholicism and Lutheranism were parties.
The rulers of the nations neighboring the Holy Roman Empire also contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years ' War:
The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states. The position of the Holy Roman Emperor was mainly titular, but the emperors, from the House of Habsburg, also directly ruled a large portion of imperial territory (lands of the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bohemia), as well as the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian domain was thus a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. Another branch of the House of Habsburg ruled over Spain and its empire, which included the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas. In addition to Habsburg lands, the Holy Roman Empire contained several regional powers, such as the Duchy of Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate, Landgraviate of Hesse, the Archbishopric of Trier, and the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free cities, abbeys, prince - bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimes extended to no more than a single village) rounded out the empire. Apart from Austria and perhaps Bavaria, none of those entities was capable of national - level politics; alliances between family - related states were common, due partly to the frequent practice of partible inheritance, i.e. splitting a lord 's inheritance among his various sons.
Religious tensions remained strong throughout the second half of the 16th century. The Peace of Augsburg began to unravel: some converted bishops refused to give up their bishoprics, and certain Habsburg and other Catholic rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain sought to restore the power of Catholicism in the region. This was evident from the Cologne War (1583 -- 88), a conflict initiated when the prince - archbishop of the city, Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, converted to Calvinism. As he was an imperial elector, this could have produced a Protestant majority in the College that elected the Holy Roman Emperor, a position that Catholics had always held.
In the Cologne War, Spanish troops expelled the former prince - archbishop and replaced him with Ernst of Bavaria, a Roman Catholic. After this success, the Catholics regained peace, and the principle of cuius regio, eius religio began to be exerted more strictly in Bavaria, Würzburg, and other states. This forced Lutheran residents to choose between conversion or exile. Lutherans also witnessed the defection of the lords of the Palatinate (1560), Nassau (1578), Hesse - Kassel (1603), and Brandenburg (1613) to the new Calvinist faith. Thus, at the beginning of the 17th century, the Rhine lands and those south to the Danube were largely Catholic, while Lutherans predominated in the north, and Calvinists dominated in certain other areas, such as west - central Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. Minorities of each creed existed almost everywhere, however. In some lordships and cities, the numbers of Calvinists, Catholics, and Lutherans were approximately equal.
Much to the consternation of their Spanish ruling cousins, the Habsburg emperors who followed Charles V (especially Ferdinand I and Maximilian II, but also Rudolf II, and his successor Matthias) were content to allow the princes of the empire to choose their own religious policies. These rulers avoided religious wars within the empire by allowing the different Christian faiths to spread without coercion. This angered those who sought religious uniformity. Meanwhile, Sweden and Denmark - Norway, both Lutheran kingdoms, sought to assist the Protestant cause in the Empire, and wanted to gain political and economic influence there, as well.
Religious tensions broke into violence in the German free city of Donauwörth in 1606. There, the Lutheran majority barred the Catholic residents of the Swabian town from holding an annual Markus procession, which provoked a riot. This prompted foreign intervention by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria on behalf of the Catholics. After the violence ceased, Calvinists in Germany (who remained a minority) felt the most threatened. They banded together and formed the League of Evangelical Union in 1608, under the leadership of the Elector Palatine Frederick IV, whose son, Frederick V, married Elizabeth Stuart, the Scottish - born daughter of King James VI of Scotland and I of England and Ireland. The establishment of the league prompted the Catholics into banding together to form the Catholic League in 1609, under the leadership of Duke Maximilian.
Tensions escalated further in 1609, with the War of the Jülich Succession, which began when John William, Duke of Jülich - Cleves - Berg, the ruler of the strategically important United Duchies of Jülich - Cleves - Berg, died childless. Two rival claimants vied for the duchy. The first was Duchess Anna of Prussia, daughter of Duke John William 's eldest sister, Marie Eleonore of Cleves. Anna was married to John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg. The second was Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg, who was the son of Duke John William 's second - eldest sister, Anna of Cleves. Duchess Anna of Prussia claimed Jülich - Cleves - Berg as the heir to the senior line, while Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg, claimed Jülich - Cleves - Berg as Duke John William 's eldest male heir. Both claimants were Protestants. In 1610, to prevent war between the rival claimants, the forces of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor occupied Jülich - Cleves - Berg until the Aulic Council (Reichshofrat) resolved the dispute. However, several Protestant princes feared that the emperor, a devout Catholic, intended to keep Jülich - Cleves - Berg for himself to prevent the United Duchies falling into Protestant hands. Representatives of Henry IV of France and the Dutch Republic gathered forces to invade Jülich - Cleves - Berg, but these plans were cut short by the assassination of Henry IV by the Catholic fanatic François Ravaillac. Hoping to gain an advantage in the dispute, Wolfgang William converted to Catholicism; John Sigismund, though, converted to Calvinism (although Anna of Prussia stayed Lutheran). The dispute was settled in 1614 with the Treaty of Xanten, by which the United Duchies were dismantled: Jülich and Berg were awarded to Wolfgang William, while John Sigismund gained Cleves, Mark, and Ravensberg.
The background of the Dutch Revolt also has close relations to the events leading to the Thirty Years ' War. It was widely known that the Twelve Years ' Truce was set to expire in 1621, and throughout Europe it was recognized that at that time, Spain would attempt to reconquer the Dutch Republic. Forces under Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases, the Genoese commander of the Spanish army, would be able to pass through friendly territories to reach the Dutch Republic. The only hostile state that stood in his way was the Electorate of the Palatinate. Spinola 's preferred route would take him through the Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Milan, the Val Telline, around hostile Switzerland bypassing it along the north shore of Lake Constance, then through Alsace, the Archbishopric of Strasbourg, the Electorate of the Palatinate, and then finally through the Archbishopric of Trier, Jülich and Berg, and on to the Dutch Republic. The Palatinate thus assumed a strategic importance in European affairs out of all proportion to its size. This explains why the Protestant James VI and I arranged for the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth Stuart to Frederick V, Elector Palatine in 1612, in spite of the social convention that a princess would only marry another royal.
By 1617, it was apparent that Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia, would die without an heir, with his lands going to his nearest male relative, his cousin Archduke Ferdinand II of Austria, heir - apparent and Crown Prince of Bohemia. With the Oñate treaty, Philip III of Spain agreed to this succession.
Ferdinand, educated by the Jesuits, was a staunch Catholic who wanted to impose religious uniformity on his lands. This made him highly unpopular in Protestant (primarily Hussite) Bohemia. The Bohemian nobility rejected Ferdinand, who had been elected Bohemian Crown Prince in 1617. Ferdinand 's representatives were thrown out of a window in Prague and seriously injured, triggering the Thirty Years ' War in 1618. This so - called Defenestration of Prague provoked open revolt in Bohemia, which had powerful foreign allies. Ferdinand was upset by the calculated insult, but his intolerant policies in his own lands had left him in a weak position. The Habsburg cause in the next few years would seem to suffer unrecoverable reverses. The Protestant cause seemed to wax toward a quick overall victory.
The war can be divided into four major phases: The Bohemian Revolt, the Danish intervention, the Swedish intervention, and the French intervention.
Without heirs, Emperor Matthias sought to assure an orderly transition during his lifetime by having his dynastic heir (the fiercely Catholic Ferdinand of Styria, later Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor) elected to the separate royal thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. Some of the Protestant leaders of Bohemia feared they would be losing the religious rights granted to them by Emperor Rudolf II in his Letter of Majesty (1609). They preferred the Protestant Frederick V, elector of the Palatinate (successor of Frederick IV, the creator of the Protestant Union). However, other Protestants supported the stance taken by the Catholics, and in 1617, Ferdinand was duly elected by the Bohemian Estates to become the crown prince, and automatically upon the death of Matthias, the next king of Bohemia.
The king - elect then sent two Catholic councillors (Vilem Slavata of Chlum and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice) as his representatives to Prague Castle in Prague in May 1618. Ferdinand had wanted them to administer the government in his absence. On 23 May 1618, an assembly of Protestants seized them and threw them (and also secretary Philip Fabricius) out of the palace window, which was some 21 m (69 ft) off the ground. Although injured, they survived. This event, known as the (Second) Defenestration of Prague, started the Bohemian Revolt. Soon afterward, the Bohemian conflict spread through all of the Bohemian Crown, including Bohemia, Silesia, Upper and Lower Lusatia, and Moravia. Moravia was already embroiled in a conflict between Catholics and Protestants. The religious conflict eventually spread across the whole continent of Europe, involving France, Sweden, and a number of other countries.
The death of Emperor Matthias emboldened the rebellious Protestant leaders, who had been on the verge of a settlement. The weaknesses of both Ferdinand (now officially on the throne after the death of Emperor Matthias) and of the Bohemians themselves led to the spread of the war to western Germany. Ferdinand was compelled to call on his nephew, King Philip IV of Spain, for assistance.
The Bohemians, desperate for allies against the emperor, applied to be admitted into the Protestant Union, which was led by their original candidate for the Bohemian throne, the Calvinist Frederick V, Elector Palatine. The Bohemians hinted Frederick would become King of Bohemia if he allowed them to join the Union and come under its protection. However, similar offers were made by other members of the Bohemian Estates to the Duke of Savoy, the Elector of Saxony, and the Prince of Transylvania. The Austrians, who seemed to have intercepted every letter leaving Prague, made these duplicities public. This unraveled much of the support for the Bohemians, particularly in the court of Saxony. In spite of these issues surrounding their support, the rebellion initially favoured the Bohemians. They were joined in the revolt by much of Upper Austria, whose nobility was then chiefly Lutheran and Calvinist. Lower Austria revolted soon after, and in 1619, Count Thurn led an army to the walls of Vienna itself. Moreover, within the British Isles, Frederick V 's cause became seen as that of Elizabeth Stuart, described by her supporters as "The Jewell of Europe '', leading to a stream of tens of thousands of volunteers to her cause throughout the course of the Thirty Years ' War. In the opening phase, an Anglo - Dutch regiment under Horace Vere headed to the Palatinate, a Scots - Dutch regiment under Colonel John Seton moved into Bohemia, and that was joined by a mixed "Regiment of Brittanes '' (Scots and English) led by the Scottish Catholic Sir Andrew Gray. Seton 's regiment was the last of the Protestant allies to leave the Bohemian theatre after tenaciously holding the town of Třeboň until 1622, and only departing once the rights of the citizens had been secured.
In the east, the Protestant Hungarian Prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen, led a spirited campaign into Hungary with the support of the Ottoman Sultan, Osman II. Fearful of the Catholic policies of Ferdinand II, Gabriel Bethlen requested a protectorate by Osman II, so "the Ottoman Empire became the one and only ally of great - power status which the rebellious Bohemian states could muster after they had shaken off Habsburg rule and had elected Frederick V as a Protestant king ''. Ambassadors were exchanged, with Heinrich Bitter visiting Constantinople in January 1620, and Mehmed Aga visiting Prague in July 1620. The Ottomans offered a force of 60,000 cavalry to Frederick and plans were made for an invasion of Poland with 400,000 troops, in exchange for the payment of an annual tribute to the sultan. These negotiations triggered the Polish -- Ottoman War of 1620 -- 21. The Ottomans defeated the Poles, who were supporting the Habsburgs in the Thirty Years ' War, at the Battle of Cecora in September -- October 1620, but were not able to further intervene efficiently before the Bohemian defeat at the Battle of the White Mountain in November 1620. Later, Poles defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Chocim and the war ended with a status quo.
The emperor, who had been preoccupied with the Uskok War, hurried to muster an army to stop the Bohemians and their allies from overwhelming his country. Count Bucquoy, the commander of the Imperial army, defeated the forces of the Protestant Union led by Count Mansfeld at the Battle of Sablat, on 10 June 1619. This cut off Count Thurn 's communications with Prague, and he was forced to abandon his siege of Vienna. The Battle of Sablat also cost the Protestants an important ally -- Savoy, long an opponent of Habsburg expansion. Savoy had already sent considerable sums of money to the Protestants and even troops to garrison fortresses in the Rhineland. The capture of Mansfeld 's field chancery revealed the Savoyards ' involvement, and they were forced to bow out of the war.
The Spanish sent an army from Brussels under Ambrogio Spinola to support the Emperor. In addition, the Spanish ambassador to Vienna, Don Íñigo Vélez de Oñate, persuaded Protestant Saxony to intervene against Bohemia in exchange for control over Lusatia. The Saxons invaded, and the Spanish army in the west prevented the Protestant Union 's forces from assisting. Oñate conspired to transfer the electoral title from the Palatinate to the Duke of Bavaria in exchange for his support and that of the Catholic League.
The Catholic League 's army (which included René Descartes in its ranks as an observer) pacified Upper Austria, while Imperial forces under Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, pacified Lower Austria. The two armies united and moved north into Bohemia. Ferdinand II decisively defeated Frederick V at the Battle of White Mountain, near Prague, on 8 November 1620. In addition to becoming Catholic, Bohemia remained in Habsburg hands for nearly 300 years.
This defeat led to the dissolution of the League of Evangelical Union and the loss of Frederick V 's holdings despite the tenacious defence of Trebon, Bohemia (under Colonel Seton) until 1622 and Frankenthal (under Colonel Vere) the following year. Frederick was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire, and his territories, the Rhenish Palatinate, were given to Catholic nobles. His title of elector of the Palatinate was given to his distant cousin, Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Frederick, now landless, made himself a prominent exile abroad and tried to curry support for his cause in Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark - Norway.
This was a serious blow to Protestant ambitions in the region. As the rebellion collapsed, the widespread confiscation of property and suppression of the Bohemian nobility ensured the country would return to the Catholic side after more than two centuries of Hussite and other religious dissent. The Spanish, seeking to outflank the Dutch in preparation for renewal of the Eighty Years ' War, took Frederick 's lands, the Electorate of the Palatinate. The first phase of the war in eastern Germany ended 31 December 1621, when the prince of Transylvania and the emperor signed the Peace of Nikolsburg, which gave Transylvania a number of territories in Royal Hungary.
Some historians regard the period from 1621 to 1625 as a distinct portion of the Thirty Years ' War, calling it the "Palatinate phase ''. With the catastrophic defeat of the Protestant army at White Mountain and the departure of the prince of Transylvania, greater Bohemia was pacified. However, the war in the Palatinate continued: Famous mercenary leaders -- such as, particularly, Count Ernst von Mansfeld -- helped Frederick V to defend his countries, the Upper and the Rhine Palatinate. This phase of the war consisted of much smaller battles, mostly sieges conducted by the Imperial and the Spanish armies. Mannheim and Heidelberg fell in 1622, and Frankenthal was finally transferred two years later, thus leaving the Palatinate in the hands of the Spaniards.
The remnants of the Protestant armies, led by Mansfeld and Duke Christian of Brunswick, withdrew into Dutch service. Although their arrival in the Netherlands did help to lift the siege of Bergen - op - Zoom (October 1622), the Dutch could not provide permanent shelter for them. They were paid off and sent to occupy neighboring East Frisia. Mansfeld remained in the Dutch Republic, but Christian wandered off to "assist '' his kin in the Lower Saxon Circle, attracting the attentions of Count Tilly. With the news that Mansfeld would not be supporting him, Christian 's army began a steady retreat toward the safety of the Dutch border. On 6 August 1623, ten miles short of the border, Tilly 's more disciplined army caught up with them. In the ensuing Battle of Stadtlohn, Christian was decisively defeated, losing over four - fifths of his army, which had been some 15,000 strong. After this catastrophe, Frederick V, already in exile in The Hague and under growing pressure from his father - in - law, James I, to end his involvement in the war, was forced to abandon any hope of launching further campaigns. The Protestant rebellion had been crushed.
Following the Wars of Religion of 1562 -- 1598, the Protestant Huguenots of France (mainly located in the southwestern provinces) had enjoyed two decades of internal peace under Henry IV, who was originally a Huguenot before converting to Catholicism, and had protected Protestants through the Edict of Nantes. His successor, Louis XIII, under the regency of his Italian Catholic mother, Marie de ' Medici, was much less tolerant. The Huguenots responded to increasing persecution by arming themselves, forming independent political and military structures, establishing diplomatic contacts with foreign powers, and finally, openly revolting against the central power. The revolt became an international conflict with the involvement of England in the Anglo - French War (1627 -- 29). The House of Stuart in England had been involved in attempts to secure peace in Europe (through the Spanish Match), and had intervened in the war against both Spain and France. However, defeat by the French (which indirectly led to the assassination of the English leader the Duke of Buckingham), lack of funds for war, and internal conflict between Charles I and his Parliament led to a redirection of English involvement in European affairs -- much to the dismay of Protestant forces on the continent. This had the continued reliance on the Anglo - Dutch brigade as the main agency of English military participation against the Habsburgs, though regiments also fought for Sweden thereafter. France remained the largest Catholic kingdom unaligned with the Habsburg powers, and would later actively wage war against Spain. The French Crown 's response to the Huguenot rebellion was not so much a representation of the typical religious polarization of the Thirty Years ' War, but rather of an attempt at achieving national hegemony by an absolutist monarchy.
Peace following the Imperial victory at Stadtlohn (1623) proved short - lived, with conflict resuming at the initiation of Denmark - Norway. Danish involvement, referred to as the Low Saxon War or Kejserkrigen ("the Emperor 's War ''), began when Christian IV of Denmark, a Lutheran who also ruled as Duke of Holstein, a duchy within the Holy Roman Empire, helped the Lutheran rulers of neighbouring Lower Saxony by leading an army against the Imperial forces in 1625. Denmark - Norway had feared that the recent Catholic successes threatened its sovereignty as a Protestant nation. Christian IV had also profited greatly from his policies in northern Germany. For instance, in 1621, Hamburg had been forced to accept Danish sovereignty.
Denmark - Norway 's King Christian IV had obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe. Denmark - Norway was funded by tolls on the Oresund and also by extensive war reparations from Sweden. Denmark - Norway 's cause was aided by France, which together with Charles I, had agreed to help subsidize the war, not the least because Christian was a blood uncle to both the Stuart king and his sister Elizabeth of Bohemia through their mother, Anne of Denmark. Some 13,700 Scottish soldiers were sent as allies to help Christian IV under the command of General Robert Maxwell, 1st Earl of Nithsdale. Moreover, some 6,000 English troops under Charles Morgan also eventually arrived to bolster the defence of Denmark - Norway, though it took longer for these to arrive than Christian hoped, not the least due to the ongoing British campaigns against France and Spain. Thus, Christian, as war - leader of the Lower Saxon Circle, entered the war with an army of only 20,000 mercenaries, some of his allies from England and Scotland and a national army 15,000 strong, leading them as Duke of Holstein rather than as King of Denmark - Norway.
To fight Christian, Ferdinand II employed the military help of Albrecht von Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman who had made himself rich from the confiscated estates of his Protestant countrymen. Wallenstein pledged his army, which numbered between 30,000 and 100,000 soldiers, to Ferdinand II in return for the right to plunder the captured territories. Christian, who knew nothing of Wallenstein 's forces when he invaded, was forced to retire before the combined forces of Wallenstein and Tilly. Christian 's mishaps continued when all of the allies he thought he had were forced aside: France was in the midst of a civil war, Sweden was at war with the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, and neither Brandenburg nor Saxony was interested in changes to the tenuous peace in eastern Germany. Moreover, neither of the substantial British contingents arrived in time to prevent Wallenstein defeating Mansfeld 's army at the Battle of Dessau Bridge (1626) or Tilly 's victory at the Battle of Lutter (1626). Mansfeld died some months later of illness, apparently tuberculosis, in Dalmatia.
Wallenstein 's army marched north, occupying Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and Jutland itself, but proved unable to take the Dano - Norwegian capital Copenhagen on the island of Zealand. Wallenstein lacked a fleet, and neither the Hanseatic ports nor the Poles would allow the building of an imperial fleet on the Baltic coast. He then laid siege to Stralsund, the only belligerent Baltic port with sufficient facilities to build a large fleet; it soon became clear, however, that the cost of continuing the war would far outweigh any gains from conquering the rest of Denmark. Wallenstein feared losing his northern German gains to a Danish - Swedish alliance, while Christian IV had suffered another defeat in the Battle of Wolgast (1628); both were ready to negotiate.
Negotiations concluded with the Treaty of Lübeck in 1629, which stated that Christian IV could retain control over Denmark - Norway (including the duchies of Sleswick and Holstein) if he would abandon his support for the Protestant German states. Thus, in the following two years, the Catholic powers subjugated more land. At this point, the Catholic League persuaded Ferdinand II to take back the Lutheran holdings that were, according to the Peace of Augsburg, rightfully the possession of the Catholic Church. Enumerated in the Edict of Restitution (1629), these possessions included two archbishoprics, 16 bishoprics, and hundreds of monasteries. In the same year, Gabriel Bethlen, the Calvinist prince of Transylvania, died. Only the port of Stralsund continued to hold out against Wallenstein and the emperor, having been bolstered by Scottish ' volunteers ' who arrived from the Swedish army to support their countrymen already there in the service of Denmark - Norway. These men were led by Colonel Alexander Leslie, who became governor of the city. As Colonel Robert Monro recorded:
Sir Alexander Leslie being made Governour, he resolved for the credit of his Country - men, to make an out - fall upon the Enemy, and desirous to conferre the credit on his own Nation alone, being his first Essay in that Citie.
Leslie held Stralsund until 1630, using the port as a base to capture the surrounding towns and ports to provide a secure beach - head for a full - scale Swedish landing under Gustavus Adolphus.
Some in the court of Ferdinand II did not trust Wallenstein, believing he sought to join forces with the German princes and thus gain influence over the Emperor. Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein in 1630. He later recalled him, after the Swedes, led by King Gustavus Adolphus, had successfully invaded the Holy Roman Empire and turned the tables on the Catholics.
Like Christian IV before him, Gustavus Adolphus came to aid the German Lutherans, to forestall Catholic suzerainty in his back yard, and to obtain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea. He was also concerned about the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire, and like Christian IV before him, was heavily subsidized by Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of Louis XIII of France, and by the Dutch. From 1630 to 1634, Swedish - led armies drove the Catholic forces back, regaining much of the lost Protestant territory. During his campaign, he managed to conquer half of the imperial kingdoms, making Sweden the continental leader of Protestantism until the Swedish Empire ended in 1721.
Swedish forces entered the Holy Roman Empire via the Duchy of Pomerania, which served as the Swedish bridgehead since the Treaty of Stettin (1630). After dismissing Wallenstein in 1630, Ferdinand II became dependent on the Catholic League. Gustavus Adolphus allied with France in the Treaty of Bärwalde (January 1631). France and Bavaria signed the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1631), but this was rendered irrelevant by Swedish attacks against Bavaria. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus 's forces defeated the Catholic League led by Tilly. A year later, they met again in another Protestant victory, this time accompanied by the death of Tilly. The upper hand had now switched from the league to the union, led by Sweden. In 1630, Sweden had paid at least 2,368,022 daler for its army of 42,000 men. In 1632, it contributed only one - fifth of that (476,439 daler) towards the cost of an army more than three times as large (149,000 men). This was possible due to subsidies from France, and the recruitment of prisoners (most of them taken at the Battle of Breitenfeld) into the Swedish army.
Before that time, Sweden waged war with the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth and could not support the Protestant states properly. For that reason, the King Gustav II enlisted support of the Russian Tsar Michael I, who also fought the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth in hopes of regaining Smolensk. While a separate conflict, the Smolensk War became an integral part of Thirty Years ' confrontation.
The majority of mercenaries recruited by Gustavus Adolphus were German, but Scottish soldiers were also very numerous. These were composed of some 12,000 Scots already in service before the Swedes entered the war under the command of General Sir James Spens and colonels such as Sir Alexander Leslie, Sir Patrick Ruthven, and Sir John Hepburn. These were joined by a further 8,000 men under the command of James Marquis Hamilton. The total number of Scots in Swedish service by the end of the war is estimated at some 30,000 men, no less than 15 of whom served with the rank of major - general or above.
With Tilly dead, Ferdinand II returned to the aid of Wallenstein and his large army. Wallenstein marched up to the south, threatening Gustavus Adolphus 's supply chain. Gustavus Adolphus knew that Wallenstein was waiting for the attack and was prepared but found no other option. Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus clashed in the Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes prevailed, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed.
Ferdinand II 's suspicion of Wallenstein resumed in 1633, when Wallenstein attempted to arbitrate the differences between the Catholic and Protestant sides. Ferdinand II may have feared that Wallenstein would switch sides, and arranged for his arrest after removing him from command. One of Wallenstein 's soldiers, Captain Devereux, killed him when he attempted to contact the Swedes in the town hall of Eger (Cheb) on 25 February 1634. The same year, the Protestant forces, lacking Gustav 's leadership, were smashed at the First Battle of Nördlingen by the Spanish - Imperial forces commanded by Cardinal - Infante Ferdinand.
By the spring of 1635, all Swedish resistance in the south of Germany had ended. After that, the Imperial and Protestant German sides met for negotiations, producing the Peace of Prague (1635), which entailed a delay in the enforcement of the Edict of Restitution for 40 years and allowed Protestant rulers to retain secularized bishoprics held by them in 1627. This protected the Lutheran rulers of northeastern Germany, but not those of the south and west (whose lands had been occupied by the imperial or league armies prior to 1627).
The treaty also provided for the union of the army of the emperor and the armies of the German states into a single army of the Holy Roman Empire (although John George I of Saxony and Maximillian I of Bavaria kept, as a practical matter, independent command of their forces, now nominally components of the "imperial '' army). Finally, German princes were forbidden from establishing alliances amongst themselves or with foreign powers, and amnesty was granted to any ruler who had taken up arms against the emperor after the arrival of the Swedes in 1630.
This treaty failed to satisfy France, however, because of the renewed strength it granted the Habsburgs. France then entered the conflict, beginning the final period of the Thirty Years ' War. Sweden did not take part in the Peace of Prague and it continued the war together with France. Initially after the Peace of Prague, the Swedish armies were pushed back by the reinforced Imperial army north into Germany.
France, although Roman Catholic, was a rival of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of King Louis XIII of France, considered the Habsburgs too powerful, since they held a number of territories on France 's eastern border, including portions of the Netherlands. Richelieu had already begun intervening indirectly in the war in January 1631, when the French diplomat Hercule de Charnacé signed the Treaty of Bärwalde with Gustavus Adolphus, by which France agreed to support the Swedes with 1,000,000 livres each year in return for a Swedish promise to maintain an army in Germany against the Habsburgs. The treaty also stipulated that Sweden would not conclude a peace with the Holy Roman Emperor without first receiving France 's approval.
After the Swedish rout at Nördlingen in September 1634 and the Peace of Prague in 1635, in which the Protestant German princes sued for peace with the German emperor, Sweden 's ability to continue the war alone appeared doubtful, and Richelieu made the decision to enter into direct war against the Habsburgs. France declared war on Spain in May 1635 and the Holy Roman Empire in August 1636, opening offensives against the Habsburgs in Germany and the Low Countries. France aligned her strategy with the allied Swedes in Wismar (1636) and Hamburg (1638).
After the Peace of Prague, the Swedes reorganised the Royal Army under Johan Banér and created a new one, the Army of the Weser under the command of Alexander Leslie. The two army groups moved south from spring 1636, re-establishing alliances on the way including a revitalised one with Wilhelm of Hesse - Kassel. The two Swedish armies combined and confronted the Imperials at the Battle of Wittstock. Despite the odds being stacked against them, the Swedish army won. This success largely reversed many of the effects of their defeat at Nördlingen, albeit not without creating some tensions between Banér and Leslie.
Emperor Ferdinand II died in 1637 and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III, who was strongly inclined toward ending the war through negotiations. His army did, however, win an important success at the Battle of Vlotho in 1638 against a combined Swedish - English - Palatine force. This victory effectively ended the involvement of the Palatinate in the war.
French military efforts met with disaster, and the Spanish counter-attacked, invading French territory. The Imperial general Johann von Werth and Spanish commander Cardinal - Infante Ferdinand of Spain ravaged the French provinces of Champagne, Burgundy, and Picardy, and even threatened Paris in 1636. Then, the tide began to turn for the French. The Spanish army was repulsed by Bernhard of Saxe - Weimar. Bernhard 's victory in the Battle of Breisach pushed the Habsburg armies back from the borders of France. Then, for a time, widespread fighting ensued until 1640, with neither side gaining an advantage.
In 1640 the war reached a climax and the tide turned clearly toward the French and against Spain, starting with the siege and capture of the fort at Arras. The French conquered Arras from the Spanish following a siege that lasted from 16 June to 9 August 1640. When Arras fell, the way was opened to the French to take all of Flanders. The ensuing French campaign against the Spanish forces in Flanders culminated with a decisive French victory at the battle of Rocroi in May 1643. News of these French victories provided strong encouragement to separatist movements in the Spanish province of Catalonia and in Portugal. The Catalan revolt had sprung up spontaneously in May 1640. Since that time, it had been the conscious goal of Cardinal Richelieu to promote a "war by diversion '' against the Spanish. Richelieu wanted to create difficulties for the Spanish at home that might encourage them to withdraw from the war. To fight this war by diversion, Cardinal Richelieu had been supplying aid to the Catalans.
In December 1640, the Portuguese rose up against Spanish rule and once again Richelieu supplied aid to the insurgents. The war by diversion had its intended effect. Philip IV of Spain was reluctantly forced to divert his attention from the war in northern Europe to deal with his problems at home. Indeed, even at this time, some of Philip 's advisers, including the Count of Oñate, were recommending that Philip withdraw from overseas commitments. With Trier, Alsace, and Lorraine all in French hands and the Dutch in charge of Limburg, the Channel and the North Sea, the "Spanish Road '' connecting Habsburg Spain with the Habsburg possessions in the Netherlands and Austria was severed. Philip IV could no longer physically send reinforcements to the Low Countries. On 4 December 1642, Cardinal Richelieu died. However, his policy of war by diversion continued to pay dividends to France. Spain was unable to resist the continuing drumbeat of French victories -- Gravelines was lost to the French in 1644, followed by Hulst in 1645 and Dunkirk in 1646. The Thirty Years ' War would continue until 1648 and the conflict between France and Spain until 1659, but in the end, a new order on the continent was established. This new order was embodied in the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, which finally ended the war between France and Spain.
Meanwhile, an important act in the war was played out by the Swedes. After the battle of Wittstock, the Swedish army regained the initiative in the German campaign. In the Second Battle of Breitenfeld in 1642, outside Leipzig, the Swedish Field Marshal Lennart Torstenson defeated an army of the Holy Roman Empire led by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria and his deputy, Prince - General Ottavio Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi. The imperial army suffered 20,000 casualties. In addition, the Swedish army took 5,000 prisoners and seized 46 guns, at a cost to themselves of 4,000 killed or wounded. The battle enabled Sweden to occupy Saxony and impressed on Ferdinand III the need to include Sweden, and not only France, in any peace negotiations.
Louis XIII died in 1643, leaving his five - year - old son Louis XIV on the throne. Mere days later, French General Louis II de Bourbon, 4th Prince de Condé, Duc d'Enghien, The Great Condé, defeated the Spanish army at the Battle of Rocroi in 1643. The same year, however, the French were defeated by the Imperial and Catholic League forces at the battle of Tuttlingen. The chief minister of Louis XIII, Cardinal Mazarin, facing the domestic crisis of the Fronde in 1645, began working to end the war.
In 1643, Denmark - Norway made preparations to again intervene in the war, but on the imperial side (against Sweden). The Swedish marshal Lennart Torstenson expelled Danish prince Frederick from Bremen - Verden, gaining a stronghold south of Denmark - Norway and hindering Danish participation as mediators in the peace talks in Westphalia. Torstensson went on to occupy Jutland, and after the Royal Swedish Navy under Carl Gustaf Wrangel inflicted a decisive defeat on the Danish Navy in the battle of Fehmern Belt in an action of 13 October 1644, forcing them to sue for peace. With Denmark - Norway out of the war, Torstenson then pursued the Imperial army under Gallas from Jutland in Denmark south to Bohemia. At the Battle of Jankau near Prague, the Swedish army defeated the Imperial army under Gallas and could occupy Bohemian lands and threaten Prague, as well as Vienna.
In 1645, a French army under Turenne was almost destroyed by the Bavarians at the Battle of Herbsthausen. However, reinforced by Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, it defeated its opponent in the Second Battle of Nördlingen. The last Catholic commander of note, Baron Franz von Mercy, died in the battle. However, the French army 's effort on the Rhine had little result, in contrast to its string of victories in Flanders and Artois. The same year, the Swedes entered Austria and besieged Vienna, but they could not take the city and had to retreat. The siege of Brünn in Bohemia proved as fruitless, as the Swedish army met with fierce resistance from the Habsburg forces. After five months, the Swedish army, severely worn out, had to withdraw.
On 14 March 1647, Bavaria, Cologne, France, and Sweden signed the Truce of Ulm. In 1648, the Swedes (commanded by Marshal Carl Gustaf Wrangel) and the French (led by Turenne) defeated the Imperial army at the Battle of Zusmarshausen, and Condé defeated the Spanish at Lens. However, an Imperial army led by Octavio Piccolomini managed to check the Franco - Swedish army in Bavaria, though their position remained fragile. The Battle of Prague in 1648 became the last action of the Thirty Years ' War. The general Hans Christoff von Königsmarck, commanding Sweden 's flying column, entered the city and captured Prague Castle (where the event that triggered the war -- the Defenestration of Prague -- took place, 30 years before). There, they captured many valuable treasures, including the Codex Gigas, which is still today preserved in Stockholm. However, they failed to conquer the right - bank part of Prague and the old city, which resisted until the end of the war. These results left only the Imperial territories of Austria safely in Habsburg hands.
Over a four - year period, the warring parties (the Holy Roman Empire, France, and Sweden) were actively negotiating at Osnabrück and Münster in Westphalia. The end of the war was not brought about by one treaty, but instead by a group of treaties such as the Treaty of Hamburg. On 15 May 1648, the Peace of Münster was signed, ending the Thirty Years ' War. Over five months later, on 24 October, the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück were signed.
The war ranks with the worst famines and plagues as the greatest medical catastrophe in modern European history. Lacking good census information, historians have extrapolated the experience of well - studied regions. John Theibault agrees with the conclusions in Günther Franz 's Der Dreissigjährige Krieg und das Deutsche Volk (1940), that population losses were great but varied regionally (ranging as high as 50 %) and says his estimates are the best available. The war killed soldiers and civilians directly, caused famines, destroyed livelihoods, disrupted commerce, postponed marriages and childbirth, and forced large numbers of people to relocate. The reduction of population in the German states was typically 25 % to 40 %. Some regions were affected much more than others. For example, Württemberg lost three - quarters of its population during the war. In the territory of Brandenburg, the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas, an estimated two - thirds of the population died. The male population of the German states was reduced by almost half. The population of the Czech lands declined by a third due to war, disease, famine, and the expulsion of Protestant Czechs. Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenary soldiers. Villages were especially easy prey to the marauding armies. Those that survived, like the small village of Drais near Mainz, would take almost a hundred years to recover. The Swedish armies alone may have destroyed up to 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages, and 1,500 towns in Germany, one - third of all German towns.
The war caused serious dislocations to both the economies and populations of central Europe, but may have done no more than seriously exacerbate changes that had begun earlier. Also, some historians contend that the human cost of the war may actually have improved the living standards of the survivors. According to Ulrich Pfister, Germany was one of the richest countries in Europe per capita in 1500, but ranked far lower in 1600. Then, it recovered during the 1600 -- 1660 period, in part thanks to the demographic shock of the Thirty Years ' War.
Pestilence of several kinds raged among combatants and civilians in Germany and surrounding lands from 1618 to 1648. Many features of the war spread disease. These included troop movements, the influx of soldiers from foreign countries, and the shifting locations of battle fronts. In addition, the displacement of civilian populations and the overcrowding of refugees into cities led to both disease and famine. Information about numerous epidemics is generally found in local chronicles, such as parish registers and tax records, that are often incomplete and may be exaggerated. The chronicles do show that epidemic disease was not a condition exclusive to war time, but was present in many parts of Germany for several decades prior to 1618.
When the Imperial and Danish armies clashed in Saxony and Thuringia during 1625 and 1626, disease and infection in local communities increased. Local chronicles repeatedly referred to "head disease '', "Hungarian disease '', and a "spotted '' disease identified as typhus. After the Mantuan War, between France and the Habsburgs in Italy, the northern half of the Italian peninsula was in the throes of a bubonic plague epidemic (Italian Plague of 1629 -- 1631). During the unsuccessful siege of Nuremberg, in 1632, civilians and soldiers in both the Imperial and Swedish armies succumbed to typhus and scurvy. Two years later, as the Imperial army pursued the defeated Swedes into southwest Germany, deaths from epidemics were high along the Rhine River. Bubonic plague continued to be a factor in the war. Beginning in 1634, Dresden, Munich, and smaller German communities such as Oberammergau recorded large numbers of plague casualties. In the last decades of the war, both typhus and dysentery had become endemic in Germany.
Among the other great social traumas abetted by the war was a major outbreak of witchcraft persecutions. This violent wave of witch - hunting first erupted in the territories of Franconia during the time of the Danish intervention. The hardship and turmoil the conflict had produced among the general population enabled the hysteria to spread quickly to other parts of Germany. Residents of areas that had been devastated not only by the conflict itself, but also by the numerous crop failures, famines, and epidemics that accompanied it, were quick to attribute these calamities to supernatural causes. In this tumultuous and highly volatile environment, allegations of witchcraft against neighbors and fellow citizens flourished. The sheer volume of trials and executions during this time would mark the period as the peak of the European witch - hunting phenomenon.
The persecutions began in the Bishopric of Würzburg, then under the leadership of Prince - Bishop Philipp Adolf von Ehrenberg. An ardent devotee of the Counter-Reformation, Ehrenberg was eager to consolidate Catholic political authority in the territories he administered. Beginning in 1626, Ehrenberg staged numerous mass trials for witchcraft in which all levels of society (including the nobility and the clergy) found themselves targeted in a relentless series of purges. By 1630, 219 men, women, and children had been burned at the stake in the city of Würzburg itself, while an estimated 900 people are believed to have been put to death in the rural areas of the province.
Concurrent with the events in Würzburg, Prince - Bishop Johann von Dornheim would embark upon a similar series of large - scale witch trials in the nearby territory of Bamberg. A specially designed Malefizhaus (witch house) was erected containing a torture chamber, whose walls were adorned with Bible verses, in which to interrogate the accused. The Bamberg witch trials would drag on for five years and claimed between 300 and 600 lives, among them Dorothea Flock and the city 's long - time Bürgermeister (mayor) Johannes Junius. Meanwhile, 274 suspected witches were put to the torch in the Bishopric of Eichstätt in 1629, while another 50 perished in the adjacent Duchy of Palatinate - Neuburg that same year.
Elsewhere, the persecutions arrived in the wake of the early Imperial military successes. The witch hunts expanded into Baden following its reconquest by Tilly, while the Imperial victory in the Palatinate opened the way for their eventual spread to the Rhineland. The Rhenish electorates of Mainz and Trier both witnessed mass burnings of suspected witches during this time. In Cologne, the territory 's Prince - Archbishop, Ferdinand of Bavaria, presided over a particularly infamous series of witchcraft trials that included the controversial prosecution of Katharina Henot, who was burned at the stake in 1627. During this time, the witch hunts also continued their unchecked growth, as new and increased incidents of alleged witchcraft began surfacing in the territories of Westphalia.
The witch hunts reached their peak around the time of the Edict of Restitution in 1629, and much of the remaining institutional and popular enthusiasm for them faded in the aftermath of Sweden 's entry into the war the following year. However, in Würzburg, the persecutions continued until the death of Ehrenberg in July, 1631. The excesses of this period inspired the Jesuit scholar and poet Friedrich Spee (himself a former "witch confessor '') to author his scathing legal and moral condemnation of the witch trials, the Cautio Criminalis. This influential work later was credited with bringing an end to the practice of witch - burning in some areas of Germany and its gradual abolition throughout Europe.
The Thirty Years ' War rearranged the European power structure. During the last decade of the conflict Spain showed clear signs of weakening. While Spain was fighting in France, Portugal -- which had been under personal union with Spain for 60 years -- acclaimed John IV of Braganza as king in 1640, and the House of Braganza became the new dynasty of Portugal. Spain was forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic in 1648, ending the Eighty Years ' War. Bourbon France challenged Habsburg Spain 's supremacy in the Franco - Spanish War (1635 -- 59), gaining definitive ascendancy in the War of Devolution (1667 -- 68) and the Franco - Dutch War (1672 -- 78), under the leadership of Louis XIV.
The war resulted in increased autonomy for the constituent states of the Holy Roman Empire, limiting the power of the emperor and decentralizing authority in German - speaking central Europe. For Austria and Bavaria, the result of the war was ambiguous. Bavaria was defeated, devastated, and occupied, but it gained some territory as a result of the treaty in 1648. Austria had utterly failed in reasserting its authority in the empire, but it had successfully suppressed Protestantism in its own dominions. Compared to large parts of Germany, most of its territory was not significantly devastated, and its army was stronger after the war than it was before, unlike that of most other states of the empire. This, along with the shrewd diplomacy of Ferdinand III, allowed it to play an important role in the following decades and to regain some authority among the other German states to face the growing threats of the Ottoman Empire and France.
From 1643 -- 1645, during the last years of the war, Sweden and Denmark - Norway fought the Torstenson War. The result of that conflict and the conclusion of the Thirty Years ' War helped establish postwar Sweden as a major force in Europe.
The arrangements agreed upon in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 were instrumental in laying the legal foundations of the modern sovereign nation - state. Aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal (as well as for the newer ones created afterwards), the Peace of Westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. Previously, many people had borne overlapping, sometimes conflicting political and religious allegiances. Henceforth, the inhabitants of a given state were understood to be subject first and foremost to the laws and edicts of their respective state authority, not to the claims of any other entity, be it religious or secular. This in turn made it easier to levy national armies of significant size, loyal to their state and its leader, so as to reduce the need to employ mercenaries, whose drawbacks had been exposed a century earlier in The Prince. Among the drawbacks were the depravations (such as the Schwedentrunk) and destruction caused by mercenary soldiers, which defied description and resulted in revulsion and hatred of the sponsor of the mercenaries; there would be no other figure such as Albrecht von Wallenstein, and the age of Landsknecht mercenaries would end.
The war also had more subtle consequences. It was the last major religious war in mainland Europe, ending the large - scale religious bloodshed accompanying the Reformation, which had begun over a century before. Other religious conflicts occurred in the years to come, but no great wars.
The war also had consequences abroad, as the European powers extended their rivalry via naval power to overseas colonies. In 1630, a Dutch fleet of 70 ships took the rich sugar - exporting areas of Pernambuco (Brazil) from the Portuguese, though the Dutch would lose them by 1654. Fighting also took place in Africa and Asia.
Ceylon was a case in point. The Portuguese conquered the Jaffna kingdom in the north of the island and kingdom of Kotte in the south. In the process, they caused widespread destruction, including that of the Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee in 1624 and Ketheeswaram temple, accompanied by an extensive campaign of destruction of 500 Hindu shrines, the Saraswathi Mahal Library, many Buddhist temples and libraries, and forced conversion of Hindus and Buddhists to Roman Catholicism. Phillip II and III of Portugal used forts built from the destroyed temples, including Fort Fredrick in Trincomalee, and others in southern Ceylon such as Colombo and Galle Fort, to fight sea battles with the Dutch, Danish, French, and English. This was the beginning of the island 's loss of sovereignty. Later the Dutch and English succeeded the Portuguese as colonial rulers of the island.
War Scene, by Sebastian Vrancx
Battle of Sablat, 10 June 1619
Bautzen circa 1620, by Matthäus Merian
Execution of 27 Bohemian rebel leaders, Prague, 21 June 1621
Battle of Wimpfen, 6 May 1622
Battle of Fleurus of 29 August 1622
Battle of Stadtlohn, 6 August 1623
Siege of Stralsund, May to 4 August 1628
A cavalry battle, between 1626 and 1628
Sack of Magdeburg, 1631. Of the 30,000 citizens, only 5,000 survived.
Battle of Frankfurt an der Oder, April 1631
The capture of Rheinfelden by the troops of the Duke of Feria, 1633
Battle of Rocroi, 1643
Unsuccessful Swedish siege of Brno, 1645
or critical
|
when did toronto last win the stanley cup | 1967 Stanley Cup finals - wikipedia
The 1967 Stanley Cup Finals was a best - of - seven series played between the Montreal Canadiens and the Toronto Maple Leafs. The Maple Leafs ended up winning the series, four games to two. In doing this, they won their thirteenth Stanley Cup. To date, this is Toronto 's most recent Stanley Cup championship, most recent appearance in the championship final, and is tied for the longest - active championship drought in the NHL with the St. Louis Blues (who have never won since joining the NHL in 1967) at 49 seasons. The 1967 Stanley Cup Final was also the last Stanley Cup Final in the Original Six Era.
This was the last Stanley Cup before the 1967 expansion which meant only there were only two rounds and three series in total were played in the playoffs. Montreal defeated New York to advance to the finals and Toronto defeated Chicago.
The average age of the Leafs ' players was 31, the oldest lineup to win the Cup. Johnny Bower was 42 and Allan Stanley was 41. Dave Keon won the Conn Smythe Trophy.
Montreal won the opener 6 -- 2 Toronto. For the second game, Terry Sawchuk was replaced with Bower and provided the Leafs with a shutout win, 3 -- 0. Bower was in net for game three and won 3 -- 2 on Bob Pulford 's overtime goal. This game has been described as "one of the most exciting games ever played ''.
Bower was injured before game four and Sawchuk had to replace him. Al Smith was called up from the minors to serve as back - up for the fourth and fifth games. The Canadiens defeated the Leafs 6 -- 2 again, this time in Toronto to even the series. Sawchuk would play well in the next two games, backstopping the Leafs to the Cup.
In the sixth game Bower returned to the line - up as back up. Jim Pappin scored his seventh goal of the playoffs and Sawchuk stopped 41 shots helping Toronto win the Cup. Pappin had four goals and four assists in the final series. Captain George Armstrong scored the 3 - 1 empty - net insurance goal to put game six out of reach.
George Armstrong, Bob Baun, Johnny Bower, Larry Hillman, Tim Horton, Red Kelly, Dave Keon, Frank Mahovlich, Bob Pulford, Eddie Shack, Allan Stanley (11 players), Stafford Smythe, Harold Ballard, John Bassette, Punch Imlach, King Clancy, Bob Haggart, Tom Nayler (7 non-players), Bob Davidson, Karl Elieff (were part of all 4 cups, but were not included on the cup each season.)
|
what power does the royal family have in england | Monarchy of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952.
The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is commander - in - chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch 's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.
The British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo - Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD. In 1066, the last crowned Anglo - Saxon monarch, Harold Godwinson, was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans ' victorious leader, William the Conqueror, and his descendants.
From the 1080s, the lordships of South Wales were held by a succession of Norman families inter-married with older Welsh houses loyal to the English throne, with many lordships also held by the English King in his own right. The process was completed in the 13th century when the north of Wales, as a principality, became a client state of the English kingdom, while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch 's political powers.
From 1603, when the Scottish monarch James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world 's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.
In the early 1920s, five - sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self - governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states.
The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution; however, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm.
In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch (otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or "His / Her Majesty '', abbreviated H.M.) is the Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. "God Save the Queen '' (or "God Save the King '') is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins and banknotes.
The Monarch takes little direct part in Government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch, either by statute or by convention, to Ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the Monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the Monarch, such as the Queen 's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:
The Sovereign 's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified part '' rather than the "efficient part '' of government.
Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after "kissing hands '' that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.
In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been three hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson 's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II. The third occurred shortly thereafter, in June 2017, when the Conservative Party lost its majority in a snap election, though the party remained in power as a minority government.
In 1950 the King 's Private Secretary Sir Alan "Tommy '' Lascelles, writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but a Prime Minister 's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch 's authority to dissolve Parliament; the Act specifically retained the monarch 's power of prorogation however, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar.
Some of the government 's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister 's advice -- the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot 's words: "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy... three rights -- the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn. ''
Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch can not impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown can not invent new prerogative powers '', and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation.
The Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty can not alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is commander - in - chief of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.
It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch 's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government 's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence, or if two - thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election.
Before a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, the royal assent (the monarch 's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1707 assent has always been granted.
The monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament, and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.
The Sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice ''; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch 's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign "can do no wrong ''; the monarch can not be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the "prerogative of mercy '', which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.
The monarch is the "fount of honour '', the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.
Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo - Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title "King of the English ''. His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy, was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo - Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.
William was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry 's death in 1135, one of William I 's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda 's son Henry would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.
The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire. Upon Henry 's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. He was killed besieging a castle, and John succeeded him.
John 's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter '') to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons ' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine - year - old son Henry III. Later in Henry 's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons ' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.
The next monarch, Edward Longshanks, was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility. In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial "ordainers ''; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed by his wife Isabella. His 14 - year - old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years ' War between England and France.
His campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward 's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10 - year - old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.
Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V 's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years ' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.
The unpopularity of Henry VI 's counsellors and his belligerent consort, Margaret of Anjou, as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV, led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.
Now King Henry VII, he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).
Wales -- which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion -- was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Henry VIII 's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half - sister Mary I to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane 's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler, pursued disastrous wars in France, and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process. Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half - sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.
In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.
Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I, instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan 's son Malcolm. The following year, after killing Macbeth 's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.
With a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm 's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David I. David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest - reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.
Alexander III 's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander 's three - year - old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.
Robert 's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five - year - old son, David II. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol 's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.
David II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III 's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father 's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy - king: James IV.
In 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six - day - old daughter, Mary I. Once again, a regency was established.
Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley 's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley 's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English queen Elizabeth I.
Elizabeth I 's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great - grandson of Henry VIII 's older sister and hence Elizabeth 's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "Union of the Crowns ''. Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch -- James I became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain '' in 1604 -- they remained two separate kingdoms. James I 's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland (the "Bishops ' Wars '') and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1642, the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.
The Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I 's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon resigned. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain.
Charles II 's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the "Petitioners '', who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the "Abhorrers '', who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James 's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II 's daughter Mary and her husband William III of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II 's Catholic son) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.
James 's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary 's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne 's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites, might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William 's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, next in line to the throne after his sister - in - law Anne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to Anne.
After Anne 's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia 's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.
In 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia 's son, George I, Elector of Hanover, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George 's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain 's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800.
From 1811 to 1820, George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV 's reign, the Reform Act 1832, which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.
The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV 's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world 's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria 's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.
Victoria 's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed "Saxe - Coburg and Gotha '' to "Windsor '' in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V 's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.
During the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown Colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self - government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to "a treaty among the Commonwealth countries ''.
The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as "British '' for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.
George V 's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI. George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale - boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India.
At first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as "Head of the Commonwealth '' in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms.
In 1155 the only English pope, Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all - island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo - Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo - Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait 's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo - Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord. English lords came close to colonising the entire island, but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic - Irish and Anglo - Irish lords by 1400. Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised, and did not recognise England 's kings except perhaps nominally. Some, such as Manus O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, were kings themselves.
By 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope 's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland. However much of the island was beyond English control, resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603, at the conclusion of the Nine Years ' War (Ireland). Nevertheless, Ireland retained its own parliament, becoming an independent state in 1642 - 1649 (Confederate Ireland), and again in 1688 - 91. Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692, and successive British states from 1707, to retain the country.
In 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or "Ireland '') in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch 's style for the next twenty years became "of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India ''.
In the 1990s, republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales). However, polls from 2002 to 2007 showed that around 70 -- 80 % of the British public supported the continuation of the monarchy.
The sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown 's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church 's General Assembly, but otherwise plays no part in its governance, and exerts no powers over it. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.
The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630 -- 1714), a granddaughter of James I.
Upon the death of a sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase "The king is dead, long live the king! ''), and the accession of the new sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James 's Palace. Upon their accession, a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths: the Accession Declaration as first required by the Bill of Rights, and an oath that they will "maintain and preserve '' the Church of Scotland settlement as required by the Act of Union. The monarch is usually crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.
After an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.
Succession was largely governed by male - preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender - preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic -- a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701. However, since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains. The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms.
Only individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed "naturally dead '' for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual 's legitimate descendants.
The Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen 's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.
During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch 's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: the Duke of Edinburgh, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry and the Duke of York.
Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services Grant - in - aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant - in - Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10 - year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants - in - Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15 % of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.
The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £ 7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and can not be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants - in - Aid. For example, the Crown Estate produced £ 200 million in the financial year 2007 -- 8, whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £ 40 million during the same period.
Like the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £ 383 million in 2011, are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch 's eldest son. The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust, as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.
The sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value - added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £ 334 million a year.
Estimates of the Queen 's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US $450 million in 2010, but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £ 100 million were "grossly overstated ''. Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £ 2 million (the equivalent of about £ 26 million today).
The Sovereign 's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The Sovereign 's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.
Historically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James 's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch 's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James 's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James 's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council. It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.
Other residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and can not be sold by the monarch. Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen.
The present Sovereign 's full style and title is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith ''. The title "Head of the Commonwealth '' is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title "Defender of the Faith '' to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.
The Sovereign is known as "His Majesty '' or "Her Majesty ''. The form "Britannic Majesty '' appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name -- King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.
If only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as "Victoria I '', and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen 's use of "Elizabeth II '', on the grounds that there had never been an "Elizabeth I '' in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen 's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that "neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors ''. Future monarchs will apply this policy.
Traditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch 's signature is "Elizabeth R ''. From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), from their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as "Victoria RI '' from 1877.
The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are "Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory - counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland) ''. The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is "Dieu et mon droit '' (French: "God and my Right ''). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; "Honi soit qui mal y pense ''. (Old French: "Shame be to him who thinks evil of it ''). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are "In Defens '' (an abbreviated form of the Scots "In My Defens God Me Defend '') and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; "Nemo me impune lacessit ''. (Latin: "No - one provokes me with impunity ''); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.
The monarch 's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms in banner form. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half - mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.
When the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle.
|
who sings i saw mommy kissing santa clause | I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus - wikipedia
"I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus '' is a Christmas song with music and lyrics by British songwriter Tommie Connor.
The original recording by Jimmy Boyd, recorded on July 15, 1952 when he was 13 years old, reached No. 1 on the Billboard pop singles chart in December 1952, and on the Cash Box chart at the beginning of the following year. It later reached Number 3 in the UK Charts when issued there in November 1953. The song was commissioned by Saks Fifth Avenue to promote the store 's Christmas card for the year, which featured an original sketch by artist Perry Barlow, who drew for The New Yorker for many decades.
The song describes a scene where a child walks downstairs from his bedroom on Christmas Eve to see the mother kissing "Santa Claus '' under the mistletoe.
Boyd 's record was condemned by the Roman Catholic Church in Boston when it was released on the grounds that it mixed kissing with Christmas. Boyd was photographed meeting with the Archdiocese to explain the song. After the meeting, the ban was lifted.
A less successful version of the song was released in 1952 by Spike Jones (with vocal by George Rock in the little boy voice used in Spike 's hit "All I Want For Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth ''). Jones also recorded a parody for his personal pleasure titled "I Saw Mommy Screwing Santa Claus. ''
Popular versions of the song were released by the Ronettes, Molly Bee, Bobby Sherman, Andy Williams, The Beverley Sisters, The Four Seasons, and The Jackson 5. Reba McEntire, Homer and Jethro, Amy Winehouse, John Mellencamp, Mitch Miller, John Prine, Sammi Sanchez, Tiny Tim, The Cheetah Girls, Bif Naked, Jessica Simpson, Teresa Brewer, Rica Fukami, Secret Chiefs 3 and Dionne Bromfield have also covered it. The Dollyrots recorded a variation (titled "I Saw Mommy Biting Santa Claus '') with humorous lyrics. RuPaul and Kip Addotta both recorded versions with changed lyrics titled "I Saw Daddy Kissing Santa Claus. ''
John Mellencamp also filmed a music video to promote his recording for the 1987 Special Olympics charity album, A Very Special Christmas.
A made - for - television movie based on the song was released in 2001.
|
the molecule that acts as the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain is | Electron transport chain - wikipedia
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration.
Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the use of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane.
In chloroplasts, light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP to NADPH with transfer of H ions across chloroplast membranes. In mitochondria, it is the conversion of oxygen to water, NADH to NAD and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient.
Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen, generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress.
The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free '') to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.
The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions. If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP, which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate - level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.
Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping '' protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.
A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free - radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.
Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.
Four membrane - bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid - soluble electron carriers and water - soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:
In Complex I (NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH - CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6. 5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid - soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.
The pathway of electrons is as follows:
NADH is oxidized to NAD, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH in one two - electron step. FMNH is then oxidized in two one - electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH to an Fe - S cluster, from the Fe - S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free - radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.
In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate - CoQ reductase; EC 1.3. 5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) iron - sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3 - phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.
In Complex III (cytochrome bc complex or CoQH - cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10. 2.2), the Q - cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption / release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH at the Q site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water - soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Q site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2H + 2e -) oxidations at the Q site to form one quinone (2H + 2e -) at the Q site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).
When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.
In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9. 3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide.
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the F F ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain. The F component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits. The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the F turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required. After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix. This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F component of the complex. Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin -- present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue -- provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production. Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2, 4 - dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.
In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH) to a terminal electron acceptor (O) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.
In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is
NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.
In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:
Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.
Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.
A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.
In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.
Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock - eater ''). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.
The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.
Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase, H dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.
Quinones are mobile, lipid - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.
A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).
Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc is similar to mitochondrial bc (Complex III).
Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.
Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.
Some cytochromes are water - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.
Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid - state environment.
Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher - energy molecule.
When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.
In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.
Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine - N - oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.
Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.
Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.
In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD / NADH redox pair and the O / H O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O is the electron acceptor.
Not every donor - acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen - evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard '' conditions.
Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.
In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low - energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high - energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid - soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water - soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light - dependent reaction.
Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.
|
who was the india's president when the first nuclear tests were conducted | Pokhran - II - Wikipedia
The Pokhran - II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army 's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code - named Smiling Buddha, was conducted in May 1974.
Pokhran - II consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs. The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name Operation Shakti, with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated, and the Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee shortly convened a press conference to declare India a full - fledged nuclear state. The tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major states, including Japan and the United States.
Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called Operation Shakti -- 98, and the five nuclear bombs were designated Shakti - I through to Shakti - V. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as Pokhran II, and the 1974 explosion as Pokhran - I.
Efforts towards building the nuclear bomb, infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since World War II. Origins of India 's nuclear program dates back to 1944 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha began persuading the Indian Congress towards the harnessing of nuclear energy -- a year later he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the BARC and plans were developed to produce plutonium and other bomb components. In 1962, India and China engaged in the disputed northern front, and was further intimidated with Chinese nuclear test in 1964. Direction towards militarisation of the nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and little interest of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965.
After Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India 's decision toward building nuclear weapons in 1967 and conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974.
Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group severely affected the India 's nuclear program. The world 's major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan, which was technologically racing to meet with India 's challenge. The nuclear program struggled for years to gain credibility and its progress crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependent on imported technology and technical assistance. At IAEA, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared that India 's nuclear program was not militarising despite authorising preliminary work on the hydrogen bomb design.
As an aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 's government, the nuclear program was left with a vacuum of political leadership and even basic management. Work on the hydrogen bomb design continued under M. Srinivasan, a mechanical engineer, but progress was slow.
The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister Morarji Desai who was renowned for his peace advocacy. In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred physicist Ramanna to Indian MoD, and his government was not entirely without progress in nuclear program and had the program continue to grow at a desirable rate.
Disturbing news came from Pakistan when the world discovered the Pakistan 's clandestine atomic bomb program. Contrary to India 's nuclear program, Pakistan 's atomic bomb program was akin to United States 's Manhattan Project, it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program. The Pakistani atomic bomb program was well funded and organised by then; India realised that Pakistan was likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.
In 1980, the general elections marked the return of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear program began to gain momentum under Ramanna in 1981. Requests for additional nuclear tests were continued to be denied by the government when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saw Pakistan began exercising the brinkmanship, though the nuclear program continued to advance. Initiation towards hydrogen bomb began as well as the launch of the missile programme began under Late president Dr. Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer.
In 1989, the general elections witnessed the Janata Dal party led by V.P. Singh, forming the government. Prime Minister V.P. Singh down played the relations with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto whose Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the general elections in 1988. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan began to severely worsen when India began charging Pakistan of supporting the militancy in Jammu and Kashmir. During this time, the missile program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles.
Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism. The Indian public had been supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995. Plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs of preparations for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. President Bill Clinton and his administration exerted enormous pressure on Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to stop the preparations. Responding to India, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto issued harsh and severe statements against India on Pakistan 's news channels; thus putting stress on the relations between two countries.
Diplomatic tension escalated between two countries when Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto raised the Kashmir issue at the United Nations in 1995. In a speech delivered by then - Speaker National Assembly Yousaf Raza Gillani, stressed the "Kashmir issue '' as continue to endanger the peace and security in the region. The Indian delegation headed by Atal Bihari Vajpayee at the United Nations, reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan -- the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area. ''
The BJP, came to power in 1998 general elections with an exclusive public mandate. BJP 's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.
In Pakistan, the similar conservative force, the PML (N), was also in power with an exclusive mandate led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif who defeated the leftist PPP led by Benazir Bhutto in general elections held in 1997. During the BJP campaign, Atal Bihari Vajpayee indulged in grandstanding -- such as when he declared on 25 February that his government would "take back that part of Kashmir that is under Pakistan 's control. '' Before this declaration, the BJP platform had clear intention to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons '' and "India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved. '' By 18 March 1998, Vajpayee had publicly begun his lobbying for nuclear explosion and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty. ''
Consultation began between Prime Minister Vajpayee, Dr. Abdul Kalam, R. Chidambaram and officials of the Indian DAE on nuclear options. Chidambaram briefed Prime Minister Vajpayee extensively on the nuclear program; Abdul Kalam presented the status of the missile program. On 28 March 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.
It was time of tense atmosphere when Pakistan, at a Conference on Disarmament, offered a peace rhetoric agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields. '' Pakistan 's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee 's position to order the tests.
Unlike Pakistan 's weapon -- testing laboratories, there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at Pokhran. Contrary to high - altitude granite mountains in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the Rajasthan Desert do n't provide much cover from probing satellites. The Indian intelligence had been aware of United States spy satellites and the American CIA had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995; therefore, the tests required complete secrecy in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries. The 58th Engineer Regiment of Indian Army 's Corps of Engineers was commissioned to prepare the test sites without being probed by the United States spy satellites. The 58th Engineer 's commander Colonel Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy. ''
Extensive planning was done by a very small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the Indian government did n't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr. Abdul Kalam, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the Director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the chief coordinators of this test planning. The scientists and engineers of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and obtaining test data. A very small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process, all scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned to avoid satellite detection. Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.
Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug - out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation. Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three. They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniform, to prevent detection in satellite images.
The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:
Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the advanced detonators, the implosion and high - voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for weaponising, systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials. The bombs were transported in four Indian Army trucks under the command of Colonel Umang Kapur; all devices from BARC were relocated at 3 am on 1 May 1998. From the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, the bombs were flown in an Indian Air Force 's AN - 32 plane to the Jaisalmer army base. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as ' Prayer Hall '.
The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices Shakti IV and V. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named ' White House ', which was over 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named ' Taj Mahal ', and the first sub-kiloton device in ' Kumbhkaran '. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the ' Kumbhkaran ' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8: 30 pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the ' White House ' shaft by 4 am, and the fission device being placed in the ' Taj Mahal ' shaft was sealed at 7: 30 am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L - shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.
The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak - proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3: 45 pm the three devices were detonated.
Five nuclear devices were Made during Operation Shakti. All devices were weapon - grade plutonium and they were:
An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) is suspected to have been present but not detonated.
At 3: 43 pm IST; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the Shakti I, II and III) were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors. On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m. IST 6: 51 UTC, two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station. On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.
Following the Pokhran - II tests, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club. Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister 's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:
News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large - scale approval by society in India. The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold decision; editorials were full of praise for the country 's leadership and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country 's armed forces. The Indian opposition, led by Congress Party criticised the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests. The Congress Party spokesman, Salman Khursheed, accused the BJP of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country 's national security.
By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44 bn in loans in 1998, from IMF and the World Bank. The industrial sectors of the Indian economy such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions. The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions. In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.
The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that sanctions would follow. The American intelligence community was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade '' in detecting the preparations for the test.
In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.
From 1998 -- 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming party of the CTBT and NPT. In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the rollback of India 's nuclear program. India took a firm stand against the CTBT and refusing to be signatory party of it despite under pressure by the US President Bill Clinton, and noted the treaty as it was not consistent with India 's national security interest.
Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India 's actions and its High Commissioner. Sanctions were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.
Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid to India and government - to - government credit lines. However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.
On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India, '' and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia. ''. The next day the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued the statement clearly stating that "it is shocked and strongly condemned '' the Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons ''. China further rejected India 's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as "totally unreasonable ''. In a meeting with Masayoshi Takemura of Democratic Party of Japan, Foreign Minister of the People 's Republic of China Qian Qichen was quoted as saying that India 's nuclear tests were a "serious matter, '' particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat ''. On 24 November 1998, the Chinese Embassy, New Delhi issued a formal statement:
(sic)... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India 's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India 's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.
The most vehement and strong reaction to India 's nuclear explosion was from a neighbouring country, Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a severe statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to India. The day after the first tests, Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields '', he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent. ''
On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk (sic) and was acting in a totally unrestrained way. '' Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was much more subdued, maintaining ambiguity about whether a test would be conducted in response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security '', he said. Sharif sought to mobilise the entire Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticised India for nuclear proliferation.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had been under intense pressure regarding the nuclear tests by President Bill Clinton and Opposition leader Benazir Bhutto at home. Initially surprising the world, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testing program and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) carried out nuclear testings under the codename Chagai - I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai - II on 30 May 1998. These six underground nuclear tests at the Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted fifteen days after India 's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai - I).
Pakistan 's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States. American President Bill Clinton was quoted as saying "Two wrongs do n't make a right '', criticising Pakistan 's tests as reactionary to India 's Pokhran - II. The United States and Japan reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan. According to the Pakistan 's science community, the Indian nuclear tests gave an opportunity to Pakistan to conduct nuclear tests after 14 years of conducting only cold tests (See: Kirana - I).
Pakistan 's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan 's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.
The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the test and that of Pakistan 's. China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia.
Overall, the effect of international sanctions on Indian economy was minimal; the technological progress was marginal. Most nations did not call for embargoes against India as the exports and imports together constituted only 4.0 % of its GDP, with United States trade accounting for only 10.0 % of this total. Far more significant were the restrictions on lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies. Most of the sanctions were lifted within five years.
The Indian government has officially declared the 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.
It was officially signed by then - Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.
Coordinates: 27 ° 04 ′ 44 '' N 71 ° 43 ′ 20 '' E / 27.07884 ° N 71.722113 ° E / 27.07884; 71.722113
|
formula for calculating angle between hour and minute hand | Clock angle problem - wikipedia
Clock angle problems are a type of mathematical problem which involve finding the angles between the hands of an analog clock.
Clock angle problems relate two different measurements: angles and time. The angle is typically measured in degrees from the mark of number 12 clockwise. The time is usually based on 12 - hour clock.
A method to solve such problems is to consider the rate of change of the angle in degrees per minute. The hour hand of a normal 12 - hour analogue clock turns 360 ° in 12 hours (720 minutes) or 0.5 ° per minute. The minute hand rotates through 360 ° in 60 minutes or 6 ° per minute.
where:
where:
The time is 5: 24. The angle in degrees of the hour hand is:
The angle in degrees of the minute hand is:
The angle between the hands can be found using the following formula:
where
If the angle is greater than 180 degrees then subtract it from 360 degrees.
The time is 2: 20.
The time is 10: 16.
The hour and minute hands are superimposed only when their angle is the same.
H is an integer in the range 0 -- 11. This gives times of: 0: 00, 1: 05. 45, 2: 10. 90, 3: 16. 36, 4: 21. 81, 5: 27. 27. 6: 32. 72, 7: 38. 18, 8: 43. 63, 9: 49. 09, 10: 54. 54, and 12: 00. (0. 45 minutes are exactly 27. 27 seconds.)
|
when does bc go to daylight savings time | Daylight saving Time in Canada - wikipedia
Daylight saving time (DST) is observed in all ten Canadian provinces and three territories. However, there are exceptions within several provinces and the territory of Nunavut, including most of Saskatchewan, which observes Central Standard Time year - round even though the province is in the Mountain Zone, effectively putting it on DST year - round. Under the Canadian Constitution, laws related to timekeeping are a purely provincial or territorial matter.
In regions where daylight saving time is used, it commences on the second Sunday of March, and standard time restarts on the first Sunday in November.
Five Canadian cities, by local ordinance, used Daylight Saving Time before 1918: Brandon, Manitoba and Winnipeg, Manitoba (already in 1916) as well as Halifax, Nova Scotia, Hamilton, Ontario, and Montreal, Quebec. St. John 's, Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador), which did not become part of Canada until 1949, also used DST before 1918.
In practice, since the late 1960s DST across Canada has been closely or completely synchronized with its observance in the United States to promote consistent economic and social interaction. When the United States extended DST in 1987 to the first Sunday in April, all DST - observing Canadian provinces followed suit to mimic the change.
The latest United States change (Energy Policy Act of 2005), adding parts of March and November starting in 2007, was adopted by the various provinces and territories on the following dates:
Most of British Columbia (BC) is on Pacific Time and observes DST. However, there are two main exceptions:
While the rest of Nunavut observes DST, Southampton Island including Coral Harbour remain on Eastern Standard Time throughout the year. The Kitikmeot Region including Cambridge Bay observes DST but is on Mountain Time.
Most of Ontario uses DST. Pickle Lake, Atikokan and New Osnaburgh, three communities located within the Central Time Zone in northwestern Ontario, observe Eastern Standard Time all year long.
Most of Quebec observes DST. However, the eastern reaches of Quebec 's North Shore, east of 63 ° west longitude, are in the Atlantic Time Zone, but do not observe DST (see exception, below). The effect is that in summer their clocks match those of the rest of the province, while in November, their clocks are rejoined by their Atlantic Standard Time neighbours. Although places east of 63 ° west are officially on Atlantic Time, local custom is to use Eastern Time as far east as the Natashquan River. Those communities observe DST, including all of Anticosti Island, which is bisected by the 63rd meridian.
The Magdalen Islands observe Atlantic Time including DST.
Although the entire province is geographically within the MST (UTC - 7) zone, the province is officially part of the Central time zone (UTC - 6). As a result, while most of Saskatchewan does not change clocks spring and fall, it technically observes DST year round. This means that clocks in most of the province match clocks in Winnipeg during the winter and Calgary and Edmonton during the summer. This time zone designation was implemented in 1966, when the Saskatchewan Time Act was passed in order to standardize time province - wide.
The charter of the city of Lloydminster, which is bisected by the Saskatchewan -- Alberta boundary, gives it a special exemption. Lloydminster and the immediately surrounding region in Saskatchewan observe Mountain Time year - round, with officially sanctioned seasonal daylight saving time (which in the summer, puts it in sync with the rest of Saskatchewan). This is to keep clocks on the Saskatchewan side in sync with those on the Alberta side; Alberta mandates the use of daylight saving time province - wide. Along the Manitoba border, the small, remote Saskatchewan towns of Denare Beach and Creighton unofficially observe Central Daylight Time during the summer, thereby keeping the same time as larger neighbouring Manitoba communities.
|
what is the s i unit of current | Ampere - wikipedia
The ampere (/ ˈæmpɪər, æmˈpɪər /; symbol: A), often shortened to "amp '', is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). It is named after André - Marie Ampère (1775 -- 1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics.
The International System of Units defines the ampere in terms of other base units by measuring the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The earlier CGS measurement system had two different definitions of current, one essentially the same as the SI 's and the other using electric charge as the base unit, with the unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second. In SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second.
SI defines ampere as follows:
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 6993200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10 newtons per metre of length.
Ampère 's force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere.
The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, "is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere ''. Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second:
In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = It.
Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the charging current is 1.2 A '') and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the battery charge is 7004300000000000000 ♠ 30 000 C ''). The relation of the ampere (C / s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt (J / s) to the joule.
The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre -- gram -- second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized.
The "international ampere '' was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit 6997111800000000000 ♠ 0.001 118 grams of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is 6999999850000000000 ♠ 0.999 85 A.
Since power is defined as the product of current and voltage, the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship I = P / V, and thus 1 ampere equals 1 W / V.
The standard ampere is most accurately realized using a Kibble balance, but is in practice maintained via Ohm 's law from the units of electromotive force and resistance, the volt and the ohm, since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the Josephson junction and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.
At present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10, and involve realizations of the watt, the ohm and the volt.
Rather than a definition in terms of the force between two current - carrying wires, it has been proposed that the ampere should be defined in terms of the rate of flow of elementary charges. Since a coulomb is approximately equal to 7018624150930000000 ♠ 6.241 5093 × 10 elementary charges (such as those carried by protons, or the negative of those carried by electrons), one ampere is approximately equivalent to 7018624150930000000 ♠ 6.241 5093 × 10 elementary charges moving past a boundary in one second. (7018624150930000000 ♠ 6.241 5093 × 10 is the reciprocal of the value of the elementary charge in coulombs.) The proposed change would define 1 A as being the current in the direction of flow of a particular number of elementary charges per second. In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) agreed to study the proposed change. The new definition was discussed at the 25th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted.
The current drawn by typical constant - voltage energy distribution systems is usually dictated by the power (watt) consumed by the system and the operating voltage. For this reason the examples given below are grouped by voltage level.
A typical motor vehicle has a 12 V battery. The various accessories that are powered by the battery might include:
Most Canada, Mexico and United States domestic power suppliers run at 120 V.
Household circuit breakers typically provide a maximum of 15 A or 20 A of current to a given set of outlets.
Most European domestic power supplies run at 230 V, and most Commonwealth domestic power supplies run at 240 V. For the same amount of power (in watts), the current drawn by a particular European or Commonwealth appliance (in Europe or a Commonwealth country) will be less than for an equivalent North American appliance. Typical circuit breakers will provide 16 A.
The current drawn by a number of typical appliances are:
|
who sailed around the cape of good hope to india | Cape of Good Hope - Wikipedia
The Cape of Good Hope (Afrikaans: Kaap die Goeie Hoop (ˌkɑːp di ˌχujə ˈɦʊəp), Dutch: Kaap de Goede Hoop (ˌkaːb də ˌɣudə ˈɦoːp) (listen), Portuguese: Cabo da Boa Esperança (ˈkabu dɐ ˈboɐ ʃpɨˈɾɐ̃sɐ)) is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa.
A common misconception is that the Cape of Good Hope is the southern tip of Africa. This misconception was based on the misbelief that the Cape was the dividing point between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Contemporary scientific knowledge instead states the southernmost point of Africa is Cape Agulhas about 150 kilometres (90 mi) to the east - southeast. The currents of the two oceans meet at the point where the warm - water Agulhas current meets the cold water Benguela current and turns back on itself. That oceanic meeting point fluctuates between Cape Agulhas and Cape Point (about 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) east of the Cape of Good Hope).
When following the western side of the African coastline from the equator, however, the Cape of Good Hope marks the point where a ship begins to travel more eastward than southward. Thus, the first modern rounding of the cape in 1488 by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was a milestone in the attempts by the Portuguese to establish direct trade relations with the Far East (although Herodotus mentioned a claim that the Phoenicians had done so far earlier). Dias called the cape Cabo das Tormentas ("Cape of Storms ''; Dutch: Stormkaap), which was the original name of the "Cape of Good Hope ''.
As one of the great capes of the South Atlantic Ocean, the Cape of Good Hope has long been of special significance to sailors, many of whom refer to it simply as "the Cape ''. It is a waypoint on the Cape Route and the clipper route followed by clipper ships to the Far East and Australia, and still followed by several offshore yacht races.
The term Cape of Good Hope is also used in three other ways:
Eudoxus of Cyzicus (/ ˈjuːdəksəs /; Greek: Εὔδοξος, Eúdoxos; fl. c. 130 BC) was a Greek navigator for Ptolemy VIII, king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, who found the wreck of a ship in the Indian Ocean that appeared to have come from Gades (today 's Cádiz in Spain), rounding the Cape.
When Eudoxus was returning from his second voyage to India the wind forced him south of the Gulf of Aden and down the coast of Africa for some distance. Somewhere along the coast of East Africa, he found the remains of the ship. Due to its appearance and the story told by the natives, Eudoxus concluded that the ship was from Gades and had sailed anti-clockwise around Africa, passing the Cape and entering the Indian Ocean. This inspired him to repeat the voyage and attempt a circumnavigation of the continent. Organising the expedition on his own account he set sail from Gades and began to work down the African coast. The difficulties were too great, however, and he was obliged to return to Europe.
After this failure he again set out to circumnavigate Africa. His eventual fate is unknown. Although some, such as Pliny, claimed that Eudoxus did achieve his goal, the most probable conclusion is that he perished on the journey.
In the 1450 Fra Mauro map, the Indian Ocean is depicted as connected to the Atlantic. Fra Mauro puts the following inscription by the southern tip of Africa, which he names the "Cape of Diab '', describing the exploration by a ship from the East around 1420:
"Around 1420 a ship, or junk, from India crossed the Sea of India towards the Island of Men and the Island of Women, off Cape Diab, between the Green Islands and the shadows. It sailed for 40 days in a south - westerly direction without ever finding anything other than wind and water. According to these people themselves, the ship went some 2,000 miles ahead until - once favourable conditions came to an end - it turned round and sailed back to Cape Diab in 70 days ''.
"The ships called junks (lit. "Zonchi '') that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. They can navigate without a compass, because they have an astrologer, who stands on the side and, with an astrolabe in hand, gives orders to the navigator ". (Text from the Fra Mauro map, 09 - P25.)
Fra Mauro explained that he obtained the information from "a trustworthy source '', who traveled with the expedition, possibly the Venetian explorer Niccolò da Conti who happened to be in Calicut, India at the time the expedition left:
"What is more, I have spoken with a person worthy of trust, who says that he sailed in an Indian ship caught in the fury of a tempest for 40 days out in the Sea of India, beyond the Cape of Soffala and the Green Islands towards west - southwest; and according to the astrologers who act as their guides, they had advanced almost 2,000 miles. Thus one can believe and confirm what is said by both these and those, and that they had therefore sailed 4,000 miles ''.
Fra Mauro also comments that the account of the expedition, together with the relation by Strabo of the travels of Eudoxus of Cyzicus from Arabia to Gibraltar through the southern Ocean in Antiquity, led him to believe that the Indian Ocean was not a closed sea and that Africa could be circumnavigated by her southern end (Text from Fra Mauro map, 11, G2). This knowledge, together with the map depiction of the African continent, probably encouraged the Portuguese to intensify their effort to round the tip of Africa.
In the Early Modern Era, the first European to reach the cape was the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, who named it the "Cape of Storms '' (Cabo das Tormentas). It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as "Cape of Good Hope '' (Cabo da Boa Esperança) because of the great optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India and the East.
The land around the cape was home to the Khoikhoi people when the Dutch first settled there in 1652. The Khoikhoi had arrived in these parts about fifteen hundred years before. They were called Hottentots by the Dutch, a term that has now come to be regarded as pejorative.
Dutch colonial administrator Jan van Riebeeck established a resupply camp for the Dutch East India Company some 50 km north of the cape in Table Bay on 6 April 1652 and this eventually developed into Cape Town. Supplies of fresh food were vital on the long journey around Africa and Cape Town became known as "The Tavern of the Seas ''.
On 31 December 1687 a community of Huguenots -- who are Protestants -- arrived at the Cape of Good Hope from the Netherlands. They had escaped to the Netherlands from France in order to flee religious persecution there; examples of these are Pierre Joubert who came from La Motte - d'Aigues for religious reasons. The Dutch East India Company needed skilled farmers at the Cape of Good Hope and the Dutch Government saw opportunities for the Huguenots at the Cape and sent them over. The colony gradually grew over the next 150 years or so until it stretched for hundreds of kilometres to the north and north - east.
When the Dutch Republic, during the Napoleonic Wars, was occupied by the French in 1795, henceforth becoming their vassal and enemy of the British, the United Kingdom invaded and occupied the Cape Colony that same year; relinquished control of the territory in 1803; only to return and reoccupy the Cape on 19 January 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. The territory was ceded to the British in the Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1814 and was thereafter administered as the Cape Colony. It remained a British colony until being incorporated into the independent Union of South Africa in 1910 (now known as the Republic of South Africa).
The Portuguese government erected two navigational beacons, Dias Cross and Gama Cross, to commemorate Vasco da Gama and Bartolomeu Dias as explorers who as mentioned were the first explorers to reach the cape. When lined up, the crosses point to Whittle Rock (34 ° 21 ′ 24.63 '' S 18 ° 28 ′ 26.36 '' E / 34.3568417 ° S 18.4739889 ° E / - 34.3568417; 18.4739889), a large, permanently submerged shipping hazard in False Bay. Two other beacons in Simon 's Town provide the intersection.
The Cape of Good Hope is at the southern tip of the Cape Peninsula, about 2.3 kilometres (1.4 mi) west and a little south of Cape Point on the south - east corner. Cape Town is about 50 kilometres to the north of the Cape, in Table Bay at the north end of the peninsula. The peninsula forms the western boundary of False Bay. Geologically, the rocks found at the two capes, and indeed over much of the peninsula, are part of the Cape Supergroup, and are formed of the same type of sandstones as Table Mountain itself. Both the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Point offer spectacular scenery; the whole of the southernmost portion of the Cape Peninsula is a wild, rugged, scenic and generally unspoiled national park.
The term the Cape has also been used in a wider sense, to indicate the area of the European colony centred on Cape Town, and the later South African province. Since 1994, it has been broken up into three smaller provinces: the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and Northern Cape; parts of the province were also absorbed into the North West.
With its diverse habitat, ranging from rocky mountain tops to beaches and open sea, the Cape of Good Hope is home to at least 250 species of birds including one of the two mainland colonies of African penguins.
"Bush birds '' tend to be rather scarce because of the coarse, scrubby nature of fynbos vegetation. When flowering, however, proteas and ericas attract sunbirds, sugarbirds, and other species in search of nectar. For most of the year, there are more small birds in coastal thicket than in fynbos.
The Cape of Good Hope section of Table Mountain National Park is home to several species of antelope. Bontebok and eland are easily seen, and red hartebeest can be seen in the grazing lawns in Smitswinkel Flats. Grey rhebok are less commonly seen and are scarce, but may be observed along the beach hills at Olifantsbos. Most visitors are unlikely to ever see either Cape grysbok or klipspringer.
The Cape of Good Hope section is home to four Cape mountain zebra. They might be seen by the attentive or lucky visitor, usually in Smitswinkel Flats.
There are a wealth of small animals such as lizards, snakes, tortoises and insects. Small mammals include rock hyrax, four - striped grass mouse, water mongoose, Cape clawless otter and fallow deer.
The area offers excellent vantage points for whale watching. The southern right whale is the species most likely to be seen in False Bay between June and November. Other species are the humpback whale and Bryde 's whale. Seals, dusky dolphins and killer whales have also been seen.
The strategic position of the Cape of Good Hope between two major ocean currents, ensures a rich diversity of marine life. There is a difference between the sea life west of Cape Point and that to the east due to the markedly differing sea temperatures.
The South African Marine Living Resources Act is strictly enforced throughout the Table Mountain National Park, and especially in marine protected areas. Disturbance or removal of any marine organisms is strictly prohibited between Schusters Bay and Hoek van Bobbejaan, but is allowed in other areas during season and with relevant permits.
Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) are the mammals most intimately associated with the Cape of Good Hope. Baboons inside the Cape of Good Hope section of the park are a major tourist attraction. There are 11 troops consisting of about 375 individuals throughout the entire Cape Peninsula. Six of these 11 troops either live entirely within the Cape of Good Hope section of the park, or use the section as part of their range. The Cape Point, Kanonkop, Klein Olifantsbos, and Buffels Bay troops live entirely inside the Cape of Good Hope section of the Park. The Groot Olifantsbos and Plateau Road troops range into the park.
Chacma baboons are widely distributed across southern Africa and are classified as '' least concern '' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, the South African Parks Department states in its publication Mountains in the Sea that the baboon population on the Cape is "critically endangered. '' This is due to habitat loss, genetic isolation, and conflicts with humans. Cape baboons have been eliminated from the majority of their range across the Cape Peninsula, and the Cape of Good Hope section of Table Mountain National Park provides a sanctuary for the troops that live within its boundaries. It provides relative safety from nearby towns, where people have killed many baboons after the baboons raid their houses looking for food. Baboons are also frequently injured or killed outside of the park by cars and by electrocution on power lines. Inside the park, some management policies such as allowing barbecues and picnics in the baboon home ranges cause detriment to the troops, as they become embroiled in conflicts with guests to the park.
The Cape of Good Hope is an integral part of the Cape Floristic Kingdom, the smallest but richest of the world 's six floral kingdoms. This comprises a treasure trove of 1100 species of indigenous plants, of which a number are endemic (occur naturally nowhere else on earth). The main type of fynbos ("fine bush '') vegetation at the Cape of Good Hope is Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos, an endangered vegetation type that is endemic to the Cape Peninsula. Coastal Hangklip Sand Fynbos grows on low - lying alkaline sands and, right by the sea, small patches of Cape Flats Dune Strandveld can be found.
Characteristic fynbos plants include proteas, ericas (heath), and restios (reeds). Some of the most striking and well - known members belong to the Proteacae family, of which up to 24 species occur. These include king protea, sugarbush, tree pincushion and golden cone bush (Leucadendron laureolum).
Many popular horticultural plants like pelargoniums, freesias, daisies, lilies and irises also have their origins in fynbos.
Coordinates: 34 ° 21 ′ 24.63 '' S 18 ° 28 ′ 26.36 '' E / 34.3568417 ° S 18.4739889 ° E / - 34.3568417; 18.4739889 (Cape of Good Hope)
|
who is only player with 10 000 test runs to average under 50 | Sanath Jayasuriya - wikipedia
Deshabandu Sanath Teran Jayasuriya (Sinhalese: සනත් ටෙරාන් ජයසූරිය; born 30 June 1969) is a former Sri Lankan cricketer and a former captain of the Sri Lankan national team. Considered one of the greatest One Day International (ODI) players of all time, Jayasuriya is well known for his powerful striking and match winning all - round performances in ODI cricket. Jayasuriya is credited for having revolutionized one - day international cricket with his explosive batting with Romesh Kaluwitharana in 1996, which initiated the hard - hitting modern day batting strategy of all nations.
Jayasuriya was an all - rounder, who had an international cricket career that spread over two decades, He is the only player to score over 12,000 runs and capture more than 300 wickets in One Day International cricket, and hence regarded as one of the best all rounders in the history of limited - overs cricket. He was named the Most Valuable Player of 1996 Cricket World Cup and Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack broke an age old tradition by naming him one of Five Cricketers ' of the Year 1997 despite not playing the previous season in England. Jayasuriya was also the captain of the Sri Lankan cricket team from 1999 to 2003.
He retired from Test cricket in December 2007 and from limited overs cricket in June 2011. On 28 January 2013, Sri Lanka Cricket appointed him as the chairman of cricket selection committee. Sri Lanka won the ICC World Twenty20 for the first time in 2014, during his tenure as the chief selector.
Jayasuriya ran for public office at the 2010 Sri Lankan general elections and was elected to the parliament from his native Matara District. He topped the UPFA parliamentary election list for Matara district by obtaining 74,352 preferential votes. He served as the deputy minister of Postal services in the former UPFA government led by Mahinda Rajapaksa, and later as the Deputy Minister of Local Government & Rural Development under president Maithripala Sirisena. Jayasuriya did not contest for the 2015 Sri Lankan general election, though he won most votes from Matara district under UPFA in the 2010 Sri Lankan general election.
Sanath Jayasuriya was born in the Southern Sri Lankan city of Matara, to the family of Dunstan and Breeda Jayasuriya. He has an elder brother, Chandana Jayasuriya. He was educated at St. Servatius ' College, Matara, where his cricketing talents were nourished by his school principal, G.L. Galappathy, and cricket coach, Lionel Wagasinghe. He excelled in cricket while at St. Servatius College, Matara and captained the college cricket team at the annual St. Thomas ' -- St. Servatius Cricket Encounter in 1988. Jayasuriya was picked as the ' Observer Schoolboy Cricketer of the Year ' in the Outstation Segment in 1988. He also received the awards for the ' Best Batsman ' and ' Best All - rounder ' in the Outstation Segment at the Observer School Cricket Awards ceremony in the same year. Jayasuriya represented Sri Lanka in the inaugural ICC Under - 19 Cricket World Cup which was held in Australia in 1988 and was subsequently selected for a tour in Pakistan a few months later with the Sri Lanka ' B ' team, where he made two unbeaten double centuries. Shortly afterwards he was drafted into the national side for the tour to Australia in 1989 -- 90. He made his One Day International debut against Australia at Melbourne on Boxing Day of 1989 and his Test debut against New Zealand at Hamilton in February 1991.
Along with his opening partner Romesh Kaluwitharana, Jayasuriya revolutionized One Day International batting with his aggressive tactics during the 1996 Cricket World Cup, a strategy they first tried on the preceding tour of Australia. The tactic used was to take advantage of the early fielding restrictions by smashing the opening bowlers to all parts of the cricket ground, particularly by lofting their deliveries over the mandatory infielders, rather than the established tactic of building up momentum gradually. This was a novel but potentially match - winning tactic at that time, and Sri Lanka, who had previously never made it out of the preliminary rounds, went on to win the World Cup without a single defeat. Their new gameplan is now the standard opening batting strategy in limited overs cricket for the modern era. Glenn McGrath cited Jayasuriya in his XI of toughest batsmen, noting "it is always a massive compliment to someone to say they changed the game, and his storming innings in the 1996 World Cup changed everyone 's thinking about how to start innings. ''
Jayasuriya is known for both cuts and pulls along with his trademark shot, a lofted cut over point. He was one of the key players in Sri Lanka 's victory in the 1996 Cricket World Cup, where he was adjudged Man of the Tournament in recognition of his all - round contributions. His philosophy towards batting is summarized by an all - aggression approach and over the years he has dominated almost every one day bowling combination that he has faced at one stage or another. This is because of his ability to make huge match - winning contributions at rapid pace once he gets in, he holds the record for the second highest number of one day centuries and has scored the second most 150 + scores (4 scores) (Sachin Tendulkar has the most 150 + scores at 5). His devastating performances have ensured that Sri Lanka have won almost 80 % of the matches that he scored over 50 runs in limited overs cricket. When asked in an interview who are the most challenging bowlers he had faced in the game, he named in the order Wasim Akram, Shane Warne, Glenn McGrath, Courtney Walsh, Curtly Ambrose.
Jayasuriya was a left arm orthodox spin bowler known for quickly getting through his overs. Although a spinner, he was used to bowl faster balls and yorkers with quick arm action which gained him success as a bowler. He took 440 wickets altogether in international cricket with six 5 wicket hauls. His best bowling performance in an innings in international cricket is 6 for 29, which he took against England in an ODI in 1993. It was the best bowling performance by a Sri Lankan in ODIs, until Muttiah Muralitharan broke the record in 2000. Jayasuriya 's best match figures in test cricket came in 2001 / 2002 season when he took 9 for 74 against Zimbabwe.
One of Jayasuriya 's memorable bowling performances came in the semi final of 1996 Cricket World Cup, where he took 3 wickets for just 12 runs in seven overs. It was Jayasuriya who took the vital wicket of Sachin Tendulkar and broke his crucial partnership with Sanjay Manjrekar, which was taking the game away from Sri Lankans at one stage. Jayasuriya was the most successful bowler for Sri Lanka during the knockout stage of 1996 cricket World Cup where he took 6 wickets in three games. As an all - rounder he took 27 wickets in Cricket world cups altogether including 10 wickets he took in 2003 edition.
Sanath Jayasuriya held the record for the highest Test score made by a Sri Lankan, 340 against India in 1997. This effort was part of a second - wicket partnership with Roshan Mahanama that set the then all - time record for any partnership in Test history, with 576 runs. Both records were surpassed in July 2006 when fellow Sri Lankan Mahela Jayawardene scored 374 as part of a 624 - run partnership with Kumar Sangakkara against South Africa. On 20 September 2005, during the Second Test of the home series against Bangladesh, Jayasuriya became the first Sri Lankan to play 100 Tests, and the 33rd Test cricketer to achieve this feat.
Jayasuriya announced his intention to retire from Test cricket following the Pakistan tour of Sri Lanka in April 2006. He reversed his decision soon after, however, joining the Sri Lankan cricket team in England in May 2006. Missing the first two Tests, Jayasuriya returned in the Third Test at Trent Bridge.
After scoring 78 runs on day three of the first Test against England in Kandy in 2007, he announced he was to retire from Test cricket at the end of the match. In that inning he hit six fours in one over against James Anderson.
Jayasuriya held the records for the fastest fifty (against Pakistan 17 balls), fastest 100 for Sri Lanka (against Pakistan 48 balls) and fastest 150 (against England in 95 balls) in ODI cricket. His fastest 50 stayed 19 years, where his half - century is regarded as the best because he achieved this feat in an era where no any fielding restrictions and power plays are available. It took 19 years to surpass the fastest 50 with all limited over new restrictions and other fielding restrictions. However, he subsequently lost fastest fifty to AB de Villiers. Jayasuriya and Sachin Tendulkar are the only players in history to have 4 ODI scores over 150, where Jayasuriya is the only player of the history to have scored two consecutive 150 + scores.
Jayasuriya 's highest ODI score is 189 runs, scored against India in Sharjah in 2000. It remains the highest ODI score by a Sri Lankan, and at the time of the innings it was the third - highest in ODI history. Currently the score is 11th highest ODI score of all time and highest by a Sri Lankan.
Jayasuriya was the previous record - holder for the fastest century (off 48 balls), before losing that to Shahid Afridi 's 37 ball century. This is cited as the first ever fastest century scored in less than 50 balls in world cricket. The record was then broken by Corey Anderson of New Zealand (36 balls), which is currently held by AB de Villiers of South Africa with 31 ball century. He has also held the world record for most ODI sixes (270 in 441 ODIs), which was surpassed by Shahid Afridi during the 2010 Asia Cup match against Bangladesh. He became the fourth batsman to score more than 10,000 runs and the second batsman to score more than 12,000, and 13,000 runs in the history of ODIs. He also has 28 centuries, the fourth highest in ODIs. He held the record of scoring most runs in an ODI over (30; he has achieved this twice), and first batsman to score over 30 in an over. This record is now held by South Africa 's Herschelle Gibbs (36 runs in an over).
During the one - day Natwest series in May 2006 in England, he scored two centuries, including scoring 152 off 99 balls in the final match. In that innings, he and Upul Tharanga (109) put on 286 runs for the first wicket, a new record. Jayasuriya 's batting display earned him the Man of the Series award as Sri Lanka whitewashed England for the first time in their home soil by winning the series 5 -- 0.
Following the Natwest Trophy, Sri Lanka travelled to the Netherlands for a two - match one - day series. In the first game, Jayasuriya scored 157 off 104 balls as Sri Lanka posted 443 / 9, beating the 438 / 9 South Africa scored against Australia in March 2006. Sri Lanka won the match by 195 runs. On a personal note the innings was his 4th score of over 150 in ODI cricket and he is currently the only player to do so other than Sachin Tendulkar who has achieved it five times. It was also his second successive score of 150 plus, another first in ODI cricket.
He also scored 2 centuries and 2 half - centuries in the 2007 Cricket World Cup held in the West Indies.In 2008, his one - day career was all but over when he was omitted for the ODIs in the West Indies. However, a stirring performance in the IPL -- finishing the third - highest run - getter with 514 runs -- prompted his country 's sports minister to intervene in his selection for the Asia Cup. He ultimately shaped Sri Lanka 's title victory with a blistering hundred under pressure. His international career has been revived at the age of 41, after being recalled to the One - day and Twenty - 20 squads for Sri Lanka 's 2011 tour of England and Scotland.
During 2008 Asia Cup, Jayasuriya scored a century against Bangladesh on his 39th birthday. With this century, he became the third cricketer out of four overall, to score an ODI century on a birthday. The two others before Jayasuriya to score the century were two Indians Vinod Kambli and Sachin Tendulkar. The last one to score a century on his birthday is blackcap Ross Taylor.
During the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, Jayasuriya appeared to break his tradition of using Kookaburra bats by wielding a normal Reebok sponsored bat. He achieved two half centuries in the group stages against New Zealand and Kenya in this tournament. He also shares a dubious record with James Anderson for having the most expensive figures in a Twenty20 international, having been hit for 64 runs in the maximum of 4 overs. After the Twenty20 World Cup, Jayasuriya played in Sri Lanka 's 3 -- 2 One Day International series defeat against England, achieving limited success and then in the 2 -- 0 Test series defeat in Australia. In December 2007, Jayasuriya confirmed that he has signed for Warwickshire for the Twenty20 Cup.
In April 2008, he joined the Mumbai Indians to play in the Indian Premier League T20. After scoring a devastating 114 not out off just 48 balls for the Mumbai Indians against Chennai, Jayasuriya regained his position in the one - day side after he had been dropped for the West Indies tour. He then followed up his century with a 17 - ball 48 not out to surpass the Kolkata Knight Riders ' score of 67 in just the 6th over, resulting in the biggest victory in Twenty20 history in terms of balls remaining. In 2010 has signed with Worcestershire for their Twenty20 campaign. At the age of 42, Jayasuriya played for the Ruhuna Rhinos in the qualifying round of the 2011 Champions League. In February 2012 Jayasuria played for the Khulna Royal Bengals in the inaugural Bangladesh Premier League, later that year he played for Kandurata Warriors in the inaugural Sri Lanka Premier League.
Jayasuriya was chosen as the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World in 1996 and was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1997. He served as the captain of the Sri Lankan cricket team in 38 test matches and 117 one day internationals from 1999 to 2003. Jayasuriya led Sri Lanka to the knock - out stage of the 2003 cricket world cup, but stepped down from the captaincy after the loss to Australia in the semi final. He was also a very useful all - rounder with a good batting average in both Test cricket and One Day Internationals, and had an excellent batting strike rate in One Day Internationals.
As a left - arm orthodox spin bowler, he had a reasonable bowling average and an economy rate. He regularly helped to decrease the workloads of contemporary Sri Lankan strike bowlers Muttiah Muralitharan and Chaminda Vaas. At the end of his career Jayasuriya took more than 400 wickets in international cricket with over 300 wickets in One Day Internationals. Jayasuriya was also a skillful infielder, with a report prepared by Cricinfo in late 2005 showing that since the 1999 Cricket World Cup, he had effected the seventh highest number of run - outs in ODI cricket of any fieldsman, with the eleventh highest success rate.
Jayasuriya was appointed as the chairman of selectors of national cricket team on 28 January 2013 by sports minister Mahindananda Aluthgamage. The selection panel included Jayasuriya, Pramodya Wickramasinghe, Eric Upashantha, Chaminda Mendis and Hemantha Wickramaratne. But on 30 January 2013, Wickramaratne has been replaced by Hashan Tillakaratne. Under his selection, Sri Lanka won 2014 ICC World Twenty20, 2014 Asia Cup and Sri Lanka 's first ever full series win in England in all three formats of the game Tests, ODIs and T20s. His tenure was ended in 2015, after many failures apart from those wins, such as whitewash against India and 2015 World Cup failure.
After Jayasuriya 's quit, Aravinda de Silva has appointed as the Chairman of selectors. On 11 April 2016, Jayasuriya was appointed back again to the post of chairman of selectors. This time, under his selection, many players got test, ODI and T20I caps and the team shuffled so many times due to many injuries to major players. During this period, Sri Lanka lost world No. 1 rankings in T20Is, lost many bilateral tours to New Zealand, England, India, Pakistan, South Africa. Despite them, Sri Lanka lost their first bilateral ODI series to Zimbabwe at home, Bangladesh drawn all formats in Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka quit very early from both 2016 World Twenty20, and 2017 ICC Champions Trophy.
Through all those defeats and failures, Sri Lanka had a silver line, where they first marked a whitewash against Australia in Warne - Murali Trophy, and Zimbabwe Tri-series. Many questioned about the rapid changes occurred in the squads and the continuous failures of the team. With that, on 29 August 2017, Jayasuriya with his panel Ranjith Madurasinghe, Romesh Kaluwitharana, Asanka Gurusinha and Eric Upashantha resigned from the selection committee after heavy loss to India in both tests and ODIs.
In October 2018, Jayasuriya was charged by the International Cricket Council with two counts of breaching its anti-corruption code. The accusations relate to articles 2.4. 6 and 2.4. 7 of the ICC 's code of conduct. These relate to "failure or refusal to co-operate '' with an ongoing ICC investigation into alleged match - fixing and "concealing, tampering with or destroying any documentation or other information that may be relevant ''. The investigation were reported to relate to Jayasuriya 's time as Sri Lanka 's chairman of selectors, between April 2016 to August 2017, and the fourth ODI between Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe in July 2017.
Jayasuriya 's first marriage is with Air Lanka ground hostess Sumudu Karunanayake in 1998 which lasted less than a year. Then early in the year 2000, he got married to Sandra De Silva, a former flight attendant of Sri Lankan air lines. Sanath and Sandra have 3 children Savindi Jayasuriya, Yalindi Jayasuriya and Ranuk Jayasuriya. Sanath divorced from Sandra in 2012.
He is also the first cricketer to be appointed as a UN Goodwill Ambassador (by UNAIDS, Geneva) for his commitment to prevention of HIV / AIDS among young people in Sri Lanka. He entered politics in February 2010 as a candidate for Matara District. His party is the United People 's Freedom Alliance (UPFA) of president Mahinda Rajapaksa. Jayasuriya continued to play cricket after he has secured the most number of preferential votes from the Matara District by obtaining 74,352 votes.
In October 2013, he was appointed as deputy minister of Postal services in the UPFA government.
He resigned from Chief Selector post with his members on 3 April 2015.
On 10 June 2015, Jayasuriya with three other UPFA Parliamentarians took oaths from President Maithripala Sirisena as new deputy ministers. Jayasuriya was appointed as Deputy Minister of Local Government and Rural Development. He was in office until the Parliament dissolved on 26 June 2015. in the 2015 election Jayasuriya did not run for office but join the campaign of the United National Party that won the election. He was later appointed the chairman of selectors of Sri Lanka cricket.
In January 2018, reports confirmed that Jayasuriya was known to suffer with a serious knee injury. According to news, he was unable to walk without the help of clutches. He flew Melbourne for the surgery and was expected to remain under observation for about a month.
As of 7 December 2007: Until his retirement.
As of 28 June 2011: Until his retirement.
Jayasuriya has scored 14 Test and 28 ODI centuries.
Although Jayasuriya made his Test debut in 1991, it was not until 1996 that he scored his first century, when he had become a regular player in the Sri Lankan side. His career high of 340 against India in August 1997 was the highest score by a Sri Lankan cricketer until 2006, and is also part of the highest team total (952 / 6) made in Test cricket. He has also scored two double centuries; 213 against England and 253 against Pakistan. His 157 against Zimbabwe in 2004 is the second fastest century by a Sri Lankan player. Jayasuriya, having scored centuries against every Test playing nation except New Zealand and West Indies, retired from Test cricket in 2007 with 14 to his name.
Jayasuriya made his ODI debut in 1989, and started playing as an opening batsman in 1993. He went on to score his first century in 1994 against New Zealand. From then on, Jayasuriya has scored the highest number of ODI centuries for Sri Lanka with 28 to his name. He currently holds the fourth place for most centuries in a career, behind Indian cricketers Sachin Tendulkar (with 49 ODI centuries), Virat Kohli (35 ODI centuries) and Ricky Ponting (30 centuries). His second century, 134 against Pakistan in 1996, was scored at a strike rate of 206.15 and was the fastest century in ODI cricket at the time. This record was later broken by Pakistani cricketer Shahid Afridi. The 189 he made against India in 2000 is the sixth highest ODI score in a single innings. Making his second highest ODI score of 157 against the Netherlands in 2006, Jayasuriya paved the way for Sri Lanka to set the world record for the highest ODI team total of 443 / 9. With his 107 against India on 28 January 2009, Jayasuriya -- 39 years and 212 days old at the time -- became the oldest player to score a century, which was surpassed by UAE batsman Khurram Khan and also became the second player to score more than 13,000 runs in a career. Sanath Jayasuriya also holds the record of fourth fastest 150 in one day internationals. he made 152 vs England at Leeds on 1 July 2006, off just 99 balls which was the fastest at that time, and now after AB de Villiers 63 ball 150, Shane Watson 93 ball 150, and Luke Ronchi 95 ball 150.
Bold ones are World Records.
Jayasuriya has influenced for many international awards in his 20 years of cricketing career. He is second only to Sachin Tendulkar by the number of Man of the match awards for ODIs, where Tendulkar has 62 Man of the Match awards, and Jayasuriya has 47 of them. He also has 11 ODI Man of the Series awards. Besides ODI awards, he has 4 Test Man of the Match awards and single Test Man of the Series awards. He has 5 T20I Man of the Match awards as well.
Sanath Jayasuriya endorses the following products:
In May 2012, Jayasuriya signed a contract to participate as a contestant on 5th season of the Indian celebrity dance show, Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa
|
who is peter in what we do in the shadows | What We Do in the Shadows - Wikipedia
What We Do in the Shadows is a 2014 New Zealand mockumentary horror comedy film about a group of vampires who live together in Wellington, that is written, directed by, and starring Jemaine Clement and Taika Waititi. It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2014. The film was theatrically released on 18 August 2014 by Madman Entertainment. The film earned $6.9 million on a $1.6 million budget.
A documentary crew (who are wearing crucifixes) follows four vampire roommates -- Viago, Vladislav, Deacon, and Petyr -- who share a flat in the Wellington suburb of Te Aro. Although Viago, Vladislav, and Deacon are all several centuries old, they have retained normal human appearances, but the 8,000 - year - old Petyr resembles Count Orlok and acts more savagely than the younger vampires. Each night, Viago, Vladislav, and Deacon prowl the streets of Wellington searching for people to kill, but they must stay in the flat during the day to avoid sunlight -- which is lethal to vampires -- and as such have not adapted to 21st - century life. Deacon has a human servant (familiar), Jackie, who runs errands for the vampires, but she is frustrated that Deacon will not turn her into a vampire as he has promised. Jackie leads her ex-boyfriend Nick to the vampire 's flat so they can drink his blood; he escapes before they can kill him, but as he leaves the flat, Petyr attacks him and later turns Nick into a vampire.
Two months later the vampires accept Nick into their group and also bond with his human friend Stu, a computer analyst who shows them how to use modern technology such as YouTube (to watch sunrises) and cameras (so they can see themselves). Viago in particular is able to find Katherine, his love from many years past, now an old woman in a rest home in Wellington. Despite being able to get his new friends into more popular bars and clubs, Nick struggles to adapt to life as a vampire and carelessly reveals his secret to strangers he meets. One of these strangers, a vampire hunter, breaks into the flat during the day and kills Petyr by exposing him to sunlight. The vampires are furious when they discover Nick has indirectly caused Petyr 's death, and banish him, using the infamous Procession of Shame, from the flat.
Some time later, the vampires receive an invitation to a masquerade ball, where they meet other undead and supernatural beings such as zombies and witches, as well as Vladislav 's ex-girlfriend Pauline, whom he nicknamed "The Beast '' due to their hard break - up. Nick, Stu and Jackie also attend. To Deacon 's annoyance, Nick has turned Jackie into a vampire. When Pauline realizes that Stu and the camera - crew are human, the other guests try to kill them and Vladislav fights Pauline 's new boyfriend. Stu saves Vladislav by impaling Pauline 's boyfriend on a stick. The vampires manage to escape the ball with Stu and the film - crew, but encounter a group of werewolves who are about to transform in a forest. Stu and one of the cameramen are caught and attacked by the werewolves. Assuming Stu is dead, the vampires grieve for him.
A while later, Stu (having been turned into a werewolf himself) reappears, and eventually reconciles the werewolves with the vampires, who allow them to stay in their flat with them. Nick also resurfaces and is accepted back into the home. Viago reconnects with Katherine, turning her into a vampire and ensuring they can be together forever.
Scenes during the credits reveal that Vladislav has gotten back together with Pauline and Jackie has made her husband her new familiar. A post-credits scene shows Deacon attempting to hypnotize the audience to forget the events of the film.
The film is based on a 2006 short film of the same name by Waititi and Clement. The new film was shot in Wellington in September 2012, and is Waititi 's first feature since Boy.
Stu Rutherford, an IT technician in real life, was initially told he would only have a bit part in the film so he would act more natural when filming his parts. He did not realize his role was so important until the film 's premiere. Stu had a cameo appearance in the original short film.
Waititi revealed that there was so much footage filmed that three cuts were made: one focused primarily on jokes, one focused on story, and the final cut, a mix of the two.
According to Waititi their favourite vampire films were The Lost Boys, Bram Stoker 's Dracula and Interview with the Vampire. All those movies are heavily quoted or referenced in the film, along with many other horror movie classics.
The score for the film was composed by Plan 9. The film 's opening credits feature the song "You 're Dead '' by Norma Tanega, after Clement and Waititi were introduced to the song by film editor Tom Eagles. The film 's trailer and ending feature the song "Lastochka '' by the Russian rock band Leningrad.
The film was released in a limited release on 13 February 2015 in New York City and Los Angeles, followed by a screening in San Francisco, Irvine, Philadelphia, Boston, Seattle, and Washington, D.C. The film received a regional release in the U.S. in March 2015, by Unison Films, The Orchard, and Paramount Pictures in association with Funny or Die and Paladin Pictures.
What We Do in the Shadows received critical acclaim and has an approval rating of 96 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 163 reviews with an average rating of 7.8 out of 10. It is rated # 68 on the website 's list of Top 100 comedies of all time. The critical consensus states: "Smarter, fresher, and funnier than a modern vampire movie has any right to be, What We Do in the Shadows is bloody good fun. '' The film also has a score of 76 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Fearnet called the film "a great vampire comedy ''. Film School Rejects wrote a predominantly positive review, commenting that some of the film 's broader moments fell flat but compared it favorably to similar mockumentaries such as Best in Show. The film was warmly received by UK newspapers, with The Guardian 's film critic Peter Bradshaw describing it as "the best comedy of the year '', while The Telegraph 's Tim Robey found it "desperately funny ''. Film International, in a positive review, commended the film for noting, with a double of Count Orlok locked in the vampires ' basement, that the true vampire film tradition is repressed by the current craze. Variety was more critical, writing that "Some genre fans who prefer the silly to the satiric may bite, but the anemic pic is n't remotely weird or witty enough for cult immortality. ''
What We Do in the Shadows grossed US $2 million in New Zealand and $3.4 million in the US.
What We Do in the Shadows was released on DVD and Blu - ray on 26 November 2014 by Weltkino Filmverleih.
A sequel to the film, which focused on the werewolves depicted in What We Do in the Shadows, was in development but stopped due to some unresolved production issues. Originally rumoured to be titled What We Do in the Moonlight, the working title was later announced as We 're Wolves.
In September 2016, it was revealed that Waititi and Clement are planning a procedural comedy series based on the cops, Karen and Mike, who had minor roles in the film, titled Wellington Paranormal (previously titled Paranormal Event Response Unit). The series is being funded by NZ On Air by granting Waititi and Clement $1 million to produce six 30 - minute episodes for the series, which will air on New Zealand channel TVNZ 2 in mid-2018.
An American version of the film is being planned, to be developed as a television series. A pilot has been ordered by FX. The pilot will feature Kayvan Novak, Matt Berry, Natasia Demetriou, and Harvey Guillen; and executive produced by Scott Rudin, Paul Simms, Garrett Basch, and Eli Bush. On May 3, 2018, FX picked up the pilot to series with an order of 10 episodes set to premiere in 2019.
|
why does it take millions of years for phosphorus to complete its cycle | Phosphorus cycle - wikipedia
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus - based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions.
On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to plants over thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of P in soils reduces plant growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical cycle. Locally, transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major long - term transfers in the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic time.
Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of P minerals, and use of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as effluent.
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life - sustaining molecules that are very common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere, remaining mostly on land and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers. Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams. Overenrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to massive algae blooms which, when they die and decay, leads to eutrophication of fresh waters only. An example of this is the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area. These freshwater algal blooms should not be confused with those in saltwater environments. Recent research suggests that the predominant pollutant responsible for algal blooms in salt water estuaries and coastal marine habitats is Nitrogen.
Phosphorus occurs most abundantly in nature as part of the orthophosphate ion (PO), consisting of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms. On land most phosphorus is found in rocks and minerals. Phosphorus rich deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano, and over time, geologic processes bring ocean sediments to land. Weathering of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into organic compounds. The plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either incorporated into their tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant decays, and phosphorus is returned to the soil where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds. Runoff may carry a small part of the phosphorus back to the ocean. Generally with time (thousands of years) soils become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression.
The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. The double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the helix. Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone and the enamel of mammalian teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form of Hydroxylapatite. It is also found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in all biological membranes). It also functions as a buffering agent in maintaining acid base homeostasis in the human body.
Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common mineral being apatite. Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments by leaching and erosion, through the action of rain. In soil, phosphate is adsorbed on iron oxides, aluminium hydroxides, clay surfaces, and organic matter particles, and becomes incorporated (immobilized or fixed). Plants and fungi can also be active in making P soluble.
Unlike other cycles, P is not normally found in the air as a gas; it only occurs under highly reducing conditions as the gas phosphine PH.
The availability of phosphorus in an ecosystem is restricted by the rate of release of this element during weathering. The release of phosphorus from apatite dissolution is a key control on ecosystem productivity. The primary mineral with significant phosphorus content, apatite (Ca (PO) OH) undergoes carbonation.
Little of this released phosphorus is taken up by biota (organic form), whereas a larger proportion reacts with other soil minerals. This leads to precipitation into unavailable forms in the later stage of weathering and soil development. Available phosphorus is found in a biogeochemical cycle in the upper soil profile, while phosphorus found at lower depths is primarily involved in geochemical reactions with secondary minerals. Plant growth depends on the rapid root uptake of phosphorus released from dead organic matter in the biochemical cycle. Phosphorus is limited in supply for plant growth. Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.
Low - molecular - weight (LMW) organic acids are found in soils. They originate from the activities of various microorganisms in soils or may be exuded from the roots of living plants. Several of those organic acids are capable of forming stable organo - metal complexes with various metal ions found in soil solutions. As a result, these processes may lead to the release of inorganic phosphorus associated with aluminium, iron, and calcium in soil minerals. The production and release of oxalic acid by mycorrhizal fungi explain their importance in maintaining and supplying phosphorus to plants.
The availability of organic phosphorus to support microbial, plant and animal growth depends on the rate of their degradation to generate free phosphate. There are various enzymes such as phosphatases, nucleases and phytase involved for the degradation. Some of the abiotic pathways in the environment studied are hydrolytic reactions and photolytic reactions. Enzymatic hydrolysis of organic phosphorus is an essential step in the biogeochemical phosphorus cycle, including the phosphorus nutrition of plants and microorganisms and the transfer of organic phosphorus from soil to bodies of water. Many organisms rely on the soil derived phosphorus for their phosphorus nutrition.
Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential for development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and products around the globe. Transporting phosphorus in food from farms to cities has made a major change in the global Phosphorus cycle. However, excessive amounts of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Waters are enriched in phosphorus from farms ' run - off, and from effluent that is inadequately treated before it is discharged to waters. Natural eutrophication is a process by which lakes gradually age and become more productive and may take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication, however, is water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients; this results in excessive growth in the algal population; when this algae dies its putrefaction depletes the water of oxygen. Such eutrophication may also give rise to toxic algal bloom. Both these effects cause animal and plant death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned water. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high - phosphorus soils may be major contributing factors to this fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil Phosphorus release to surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of phosphorus input, soil type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological conditions.
Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects on soil phosphorus status. Also, application of biosolids may increase available phosphorus in soil. In poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodic waterlogging, dereducing conditions can be attained in 7 -- 10 days. This causes a sharp increase in phosphorus concentration in solution and phosphorus can be leached. In addition, reduction of the soil causes a shift in phosphorus from resilient to more labile forms. This could eventually increase the potential for phosphorus loss. This is of particular concern for the environmentally sound management of such areas, where disposal of agricultural wastes has already become a problem. It is suggested that the water regime of soils that are to be used for organic wastes disposal is taken into account in the preparation of waste management regulations.
Human interference in the phosphorus cycle occurs by overuse or careless use of phosphorus fertilizers. This results in increased amounts of phosphorus as pollutants in bodies of water resulting in eutrophication. Eutrophication devastates water ecosystems by inducing anoxic conditions.
|
when did don't stop me now come out | Do n't Stop Me Now - wikipedia
"Do n't Stop Me Now '' is a song by the British rock band Queen, featured on their 1978 album Jazz that was released as a single in 1979. Written by lead singer Freddie Mercury, it was recorded in August 1978 at Super Bear Studios in Berre - les - Alpes (Alpes - Maritimes), France, and is the twelfth track on the album.
Musically the song builds on Mercury 's piano playing, with John Deacon and Roger Taylor providing a bass guitar and drums backing track. The song also provides an example of Queen 's trademark style of multitrack harmony vocals for the chorus lines.
On the studio version, Brian May 's only guitar playing is in his guitar solo, but on live versions performed on the band 's 1979 Jazz and Crazy tours, May would also play rhythm guitar throughout the rest of the song to give more of a feel of rock music. A live version of the song features in the band 's 1979 album Live Killers. The song also appears in the band 's 1981 compilation album Greatest Hits, and in June 2011, as part of Queen 's 40th anniversary celebrations, an old take of the song containing more guitar parts was included on the bonus EP of the re-released and remastered Jazz album.
The electronics company Alba conducted a survey of 2000 UK adults, which asked respondents to name their favourite uplifting song, and ' Do n't Stop Me Now ' was the most popular response.
The single reached number 9 in the UK charts but only number 86 in the US; as the album was a top - 10 hit, the song got some airplay on U.S. album - oriented rock stations despite its low chart ranking as a single. Viewed at the time of release as one of the lesser songs in the Queen canon, it was only performed live during 1979, with the last performance in the Crazy Tour. Despite this the song has grown in stature with time and has been popularised not only by consistent airplay, but by its use in advertisements, television programmes and films, and through cover versions. It has subsequently become one of Queen 's most popular songs. The single also has reached Platinum status in the United Kingdom.
The video for the song was directed by J. Kliebenstein and filmed at the Forest National, Brussels, Belgium on 26 January 1979.
On the Japanese, USA, Canadian and Australian release, "More Of That Jazz '' was the B - side.
Queen
Notable cover versions include:
|
according to the preamble what was the main concern of the knights of labor | Knights of Labor - wikipedia
Knights of Labor (K of L), officially Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, was the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important leader was Terence V. Powderly. The Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of the workingman, rejected socialism and anarchism, demanded the eight - hour day, and promoted the producers ethic of republicanism. In some cases it acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never well organized, and after a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again.
It was founded by Uriah Stephens on December 28, 1869, reached 28,000 members in 1880, then jumped to 100,000 in 1884. By 1886 20 % of all workers were affiliated with the KOL, ballooning to nearly 800,000 members. Its frail organizational structure could not cope as it was battered by charges of failure and violence and calumnies of the association with the Haymarket Square riot. Most members abandoned the movement in 1886 - 87, leaving at most 100,000 in 1890. Many of them chose to join groups that helped to identify their specific need, instead of the KOL that addressed many different types of issues. Furthermore, the Panic of 1893 terminated the Knights of Labor 's importance. Remnants of the Knights of Labor continued in existence until 1949, when the group 's last 50 - member local dropped its affiliation.
In 1869, Uriah Smith Stephens, James L. Wright, and a small group of Philadelphia tailors founded a secret organization known as the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor. The collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873 left a vacuum for workers looking for organization. The Knights became better organized with a national vision when they replaced Stephens with Terence V. Powderly. The body became popular with Pennsylvania coal miners during the economic depression of the mid-1870s, then it grew rapidly. The KOL was a diverse industrial union open to all workers. The leaders felt that it was best to have a versatile population in order to get points of view from all aspects. Its members included low skilled workers, railroad workers, immigrants, and steel workers.
As membership expanded, the Knights began to function more as a labor union and less of a secret organization. Local assemblies began not only to emphasize cooperative enterprises, but to initiate strikes to win concessions from employers. The new leader Powderly, opposed strikes as a "relic of barbarism, '' but the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a great deal of autonomy.
In 1882, the Knights ended their membership rituals and removed the words "Noble Order '' from their name. This was to mollify the concerns of Catholic members and the bishops who wanted to avoid any resemblance to freemasonry. Though initially averse to strikes as a method to advance their goals, the Knights aided various strikes and boycotts. The Wabash Railroad strike in 1885 was also a significant success, as Powderly finally supported what became a successful strike on Jay Gould 's Wabash Line. Gould met with Powderly and agreed to call off his campaign against the Knights of Labor, which had caused the turmoil originally. These positive developments gave momentum and a surge of members, so by 1886, the Knights had over 700,000 members.
The Knights ' primary demand was for an eight - hour day; they also called for legislation to end child and convict labor, as well as a graduated income tax. They were eager supporters of cooperatives. The only woman to hold office in the Knights of Labor, Leonora Barry worked as an investigator and described the horrific conditions in factories, conditions tantamount to the abuse of women and children. These reports made Barry the first person to collect national statistics on the American working woman.
Powderly and the Organization tried to avoid divisive political issues, but in the early 1880s, many Knights had become followers of Henry George 's radical ideology known now as georgism. In 1883, Powderly officially recommended George 's book and announced his support of "single tax '' on land values. During the New York mayoral election of 1886, Powderly was able to successfully push the organization towards the favor of Henry George.
The Knights of Labor was an organization that helped to join together many different types of people from all different walks of life; for example Catholic and Protestant Irish - born workers. The KOL was appealing to them because they worked very closely with the Irish Land League. The Knights of Labor had a mixed history of inclusiveness and exclusiveness, accepting women and blacks (after 1878) and their employers as members, and advocating the admission of blacks into local assemblies, but tolerating the segregation of assemblies in the South. Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor manufacturers were excluded because they were considered unproductive members of society. Asians were also excluded, and in November 1885, a branch of the Knights in Tacoma, Washington worked to expel the city 's Chinese, who amounted to nearly a tenth of the overall city population at the time. The Union Pacific Railroad came into conflict with the Knights. When the Knights in Wyoming refused to work more hours in 1885, the railroad hired Chinese workers. The result was the Rock Springs massacre, that killed scores of Chinese, and drove all the rest out of Wyoming. About 50 African - American sugar - cane laborers organized by the Knights went on strike and were murdered by strikebreaking thugs in the 1887 Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana. The Knights strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of 1885, as did many other labor groups.
The Knights of Labor attracted many Catholics, who were a large part of the membership, perhaps a majority. Powderly was also a Catholic. However, the Knights 's use of secrecy, similar to the Masons, during its early years concerned many bishops of the church. The Knights used secrecy and deception to help prevent employers from firing members. After the Archbishop of Quebec condemned the Knights in 1884, twelve American archbishops voted 10 to 2 against doing likewise in the United States. Furthermore, Cardinals James Gibbons and John Ireland defended the Knights. Gibbons went to the Vatican to talk to the hierarchy.
Though often overlooked, the Knights of Labor contributed to the tradition of labor protest songs in America. The Knights frequently included music in their regular meetings, and encouraged local members to write and perform their work. In Chicago, James and Emily Talmadge, printers and supporters of the Knights of Labor, published the songbook "Labor Songs Dedicated to the Knights of Labor '' (1885). The song "Hold the Fort '' (also "Storm the Fort ''), a Knights of Labor pro-labor revision of the hymn by the same name, became the most popular labor song prior to Ralph Chaplin 's IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) anthem "Solidarity Forever ''. Pete Seeger often performed this song and it appears on a number of his recordings. Songwriter and labor singer Bucky Halker includes the Talmadge version, entitled "Labor 's Battle Song, '' on his CD Do n't Want Your Millions (Revolting Records 2000). Halker also draws heavily on the Knights songs and poems in his book on labor song and poetry, For Democracy, Workers and God: Labor Song - Poems and Labor Protest, 1865 - 1895 (University of Illinois Press, 1991).
|
what was the name given to englands land in america | British Army - wikipedia
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017, the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained regular (full - time) personnel and just over 26,500 trained reserve (part - time) personnel.
The modern British Army traces back to 1707, with an antecedent in the English Army that was created at the Restoration in 1660. The term "British Army '' was adopted in 1707 after the Acts of Union between England and Scotland. Although all members of the British Army are expected to swear (or affirm) allegiance to Elizabeth II as their commander - in - chief, the Bill of Rights of 1689 requires parliamentary consent for the Crown to maintain a peacetime standing army. Therefore, Parliament approves the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years. The Army is administered by the Ministry of Defence and commanded by the Chief of the General Staff.
The British Army has seen action in major wars between the world 's great powers, including the Seven Years ' War, the Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War and the First and Second World Wars. Britain 's victories in these decisive wars allowed it to influence world events and establish itself as one of the world 's leading military and economic powers. Since the end of the Cold War the British Army has deployed to a number of conflict zones, often as part of an expeditionary force, a coalition force or part of a United Nations peacekeeping operation.
Until the English Civil War, England never had a standing army with professional officers and careerist corporals and sergeants. It relied on militia organized by local officials, or private forces mobilized by the nobility, or on hired mercenaries from Europe. From the later middle ages until the English Civil War, when a foreign expeditionary force was needed, such as the one that Henry V of England took to France and that fought at the Battle of Agincourt (1415), the army, a professional one, was raised for the duration of the expedition.
During the English Civil War, the members of the Long Parliament realised that the use of county militia organised into regional associations (such as the Eastern Association), often commanded by local members of parliament (both from the House of Commons and the House of Lords), while more than able to hold their own in the regions which Parliamentarians controlled, were unlikely to win the war. So Parliament initiated two actions. The Self - denying Ordinance, with the notable exception of Oliver Cromwell, forbade members of parliament from serving as officers in the Parliamentary armies. This created a distinction between the civilians in Parliament, who tended to be Presbyterian and conciliatory to the Royalists in nature, and a corps of professional officers, who tended to Independent politics, to whom they reported. The second action was legislation for the creation of a Parliamentary - funded army, commanded by Lord General Thomas Fairfax, which became known as the New Model Army (originally new - modelled Army).
While this proved to be a war winning formulae, the New Model Army being organized and politically active went on to dominate the politics of the Interregnum and by 1660 was widely disliked. The New Model Army was paid off and disbanded at the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660. For many decades the excesses of the New Model Army under the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell was a horror story and the Whig element recoiled from allowing a standing army. The militia acts of 1661 and 1662 prevented local authorities from calling up militia and oppressing their own local opponents. Calling up the militia was possible only if the king and local elites agreed to do so.
Charles II and his Cavalier supporters favoured a new army under royal control; and immediately after the Restoration began working on its establishment. The first English Army regiments, including elements of the disbanded New Model Army, were formed between November 1660 and January 1661 and became a standing military force for Britain (financed by Parliament). The Royal Scots and Irish Armies were financed by the parliaments of Scotland and Ireland. Parliamentary control was established by the Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689, although the monarch continued to influence aspects of army administration until at least the end of the nineteenth century.
After the Restoration Charles II pulled together four regiments of infantry and cavalry, calling them his guards, at a cost of £ 122,000 from his general budget. This became the foundation of the permanent English Army, By 1685 it had grown to 7,500 soldiers in marching regiments, and 1,400 men permanently stationed in garrisons. A rebellion in 1685 allowed James II to raise the forces to 20,000 men. There were 37,000 in 1678, when England played a role in the closing stage of the Franco - Dutch War. After William and Mary 's accession to the throne England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring James II (Mary 's father). In 1689, William III expanded the army to 74,000, and then to 94,000 in 1694. Parliament was very nervous, and reduced the cadre to 7000 in 1697. Scotland and Ireland had theoretically separate military establishments, but they were unofficially merged with the English force.
By the time of the 1707 Acts of Union, many regiments of the English and Scottish armies were combined under one operational command and stationed in the Netherlands for the War of the Spanish Succession. Although all the regiments were now part of the new British military establishment, they remained under the old operational - command structure and retained much of the institutional ethos, customs and traditions of the standing armies created shortly after the restoration of the monarchy 47 years earlier. The order of seniority of the most - senior British Army line regiments is based on that of the English army. Although technically the Scots Royal Regiment of Foot was raised in 1633 and is the oldest Regiment of the Line, Scottish and Irish regiments were only allowed to take a rank in the English army on the date of their arrival in England (or the date when they were first placed on the English establishment). In 1694, a board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of English, Irish and Scots regiments serving in the Netherlands; the regiment which became known as the Scots Greys were designated the 4th Dragoons because there were three English regiments raised prior to 1688, when the Scots Greys were first placed in the English establishment. In 1713, when a new board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of several regiments, the seniority of the Scots Greys was reassessed and based on their June 1685 entry into England. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, and the Scots Greys eventually received the British Army rank of 2nd Dragoons.
After 1700 British continental policy was to contain expansion by competing powers such as France and Spain. Although Spain was the dominant global power during the previous two centuries and the chief threat to England 's early transatlantic ambitions, its influence was now waning. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars.
Although the Royal Navy is widely regarded as vital to the rise of the British Empire, the British Army played an important role in the formation of colonies, protectorates and dominions in the Americas, Africa, Asia, India and Australasia. British soldiers captured strategically - important territories, and the army was involved in wars to secure the empire 's borders and support friendly governments. Among these actions were the Seven Years ' War, the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, the First and Second Opium Wars, the Boxer Rebellion, the New Zealand Wars, the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the first and second Boer Wars, the Fenian raids, the Irish War of Independence, interventions in Afghanistan (intended to maintain a buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire) and the Crimean War (to keep the Russian Empire at a safe distance by aiding Turkey). Like the English Army, the British Army fought the kingdoms of Spain, France (including the Empire of France) and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years ' War and suppressed a Native American uprising in Pontiac 's War. The British Army was defeated in the American Revolutionary War, losing the Thirteen Colonies but retaining The Canadas and The Maritimes as British North America.
The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars, participating in a number of campaigns in Europe (including continuous deployment in the Peninsular War), the Caribbean, North Africa and North America. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world; at its peak in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A coalition of Anglo - Dutch and Prussian armies under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815.
The English were involved politically and militarily in Ireland since receiving the Lordship of Ireland from the pope in 1171. The campaign of English republican Protector Oliver Cromwell involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns (most notably Drogheda and Wexford) which supported the Royalists during the English Civil War. The English Army (and the subsequent British Army) remained in Ireland primarily to suppress Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. In addition to its conflict with Irish nationalists, it was faced with the prospect of battling Anglo - Irish and Ulster Scots in Ireland who were angered by unfavourable taxation of Irish produce imported into Britain. With other Irish groups, they raised a volunteer army and threatened to emulate the American colonists if their conditions were not met. Learning from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution. The British Army fought Irish rebels -- Protestant and Catholic -- primarily in Ulster and Leinster (Wolfe Tone 's United Irishmen) in the 1798 rebellion.
In addition to battling the armies of other European empires (and its former colonies, the United States, in the War of 1812), the British Army fought the Chinese in the first and second Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion, Māori tribes in the first of the New Zealand Wars, Nawab Shiraj - ud - Daula 's forces and British East India Company mutineers in the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the Boers in the first and second Boer Wars, Irish Fenians in Canada during the Fenian raids and Irish separatists in the Anglo - Irish War. The increasing demands of imperial expansion and the inadequacy and inefficiency of the underfunded British Army, Militia, Yeomanry and Volunteer Force after the Napoleonic Wars led to the late - 19th - century Cardwell and Childers Reforms, which gave the army its modern shape and redefined its regimental system. The 1907 Haldane Reforms created the Territorial Force as the army 's volunteer reserve component, merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia and Yeomanry.
Great Britain has been challenged by other powers, primarily the German Empire and the Third Reich during the 20th century. A century earlier it vied with Napoleonic France for global pre-eminence, and Hannoverian Britain 's natural allies were the kingdoms and principalities of northern Germany. By the middle of the 19th century, Britain and France were allies in preventing Russia 's appropriation of the Ottoman Empire (although the fear of French invasion led shortly afterwards to the creation of the Volunteer Force. By the first decade of the 20th century, the United Kingdom was allied with France (by the Entente Cordiale) and Russia (which had a secret agreement with France for mutual support in a war against the Prussian - led German Empire and the Austro - Hungarian Empire).
When the First World War broke out in August 1914 the British Army sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), consisting mainly of regular army troops, to France and Belgium. The fighting bogged down into static trench warfare for the remainder of the war. In 1915 the army created the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force to invade the Ottoman Empire via Gallipoli, an unsuccessful attempt to capture Constantinople and secure a sea route to Russia.
World War I was the most devastating in British military history, with nearly 800,000 men killed and over two million wounded. Early in the war, the BEF was virtually destroyed and was replaced first by volunteers and then a conscript force. Major battles included those at the Somme and Passchendaele. Advances in technology saw the advent of the tank (and the creation of the Royal Tank Regiment) and advances in aircraft design (including the creation of the Royal Flying Corps) which would be decisive in future battles. Trench warfare dominated Western Front strategy for most of the war, and the use of chemical weapons (disabling and poison gases) added to the devastation.
The Second World War broke out in September 1939 with the German Army 's invasion of Poland. British assurances to the Poles led the British Empire to declare war on Germany. As in the First World War, a relatively - small BEF was sent to France and hastily evacuated from Dunkirk as the German forces swept through the Low Countries and across France in May 1940.
After the US entered the war and the British Army recovered from its earlier defeats, it defeated the Germans and Italians at the Second Battle of El Alamein in North Africa in 1942 -- 1943 and helped drive them from Africa. It then fought through Italy and, with the help of American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, Indian and Free French forces, took part in the D - Day invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944; nearly half the Allied soldiers were British. In the Far East, the British Army rallied against the Japanese in the Burma Campaign and regained the British Far Eastern colonial possessions.
After the Second World War the British Army was significantly reduced in size, although National Service continued until 1960. This period saw decolonisation begin with the partition and independence of India and Pakistan, followed by the independence of British colonies in Africa and Asia. Although the British Army was a major participant in Korea in the early 1950s and Suez in 1956, during this period Britain 's role in world events was reduced and the army was downsized. The British Army of the Rhine, consisting of I (BR) Corps, remained in Germany as a bulwark against Soviet invasion. The Cold War continued, with significant technological advances in warfare, and the army saw the introduction of new weapons systems. Despite the decline of the British Empire, the army was engaged in Aden, Indonesia, Cyprus, Kenya and Malaya. In 1982, the British Army and the Royal Marines helped liberate the Falkland Islands during the conflict with Argentina after that country 's invasion of the British territory.
In the three decades following 1969, the army was heavily deployed in Northern Ireland 's Operation Banner to support the Royal Ulster Constabulary (later the Police Service of Northern Ireland) in their conflict with republican paramilitary groups. The locally recruited Ulster Defence Regiment was formed, becoming home - service battalions of the Royal Irish Regiment in 1992 before it was disbanded in 2006. Over 700 soldiers were killed during the Troubles. Following the 1994 -- 1996 IRA ceasefires and since 1997, demilitarisation has been part of the peace process and the military presence has been reduced. On 25 June 2007 the 2nd Battalion of the Princess of Wales 's Royal Regiment left the army complex in Bessbrook, County Armagh, ending the longest operation in British Army history.
The British Army contributed 50,000 troops to the coalition which fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War, and British forces controlled Kuwait after its liberation. Forty - seven British military personnel died during the war.
The army was deployed to Yugoslavia in 1992. Initially part of the United Nations Protection Force, in 1995 its command was transferred to the Implementation Force (IFOR) and then to the Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR); the commitment rose to over 10,000 troops. In 1999, British forces under SFOR command were sent to Kosovo and the contingent increased to 19,000 troops. Between early 1993 and June 2010, 72 British military personnel died during operations in the former Yugoslavian countries of Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia.
Although there have been permanent garrisons in Northern Ireland throughout its history, the British Army was deployed as a peacekeeping force from 1969 to 2007 in Operation Banner. Initially, this was (in the wake of unionist attacks on nationalist communities in Derry and Belfast) to prevent further loyalist attacks on Catholic communities; it developed into support of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and its successor, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) against the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, there was a gradual reduction in the number of soldiers deployed. In 2005, after the PIRA declared a ceasefire, the British Army dismantled posts, withdrew many troops and restored troop levels to those of a peace - time garrison.
Operation Banner ended at midnight on 31 July 2007 after about 38 years of continuous deployment, the longest in British Army history. According to an internal document released in 2007, the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA but made it impossible for them to win by violence. Operation Helvetic replaced Operation Banner in 2007, maintaining fewer service personnel in a more - benign environment. From 1971 to 1997, a total of 763 British military personnel were killed during the Troubles. About 300 deaths during the conflict were attributed to the British Army, including paramilitary troops and civilians.
In November 2001, as part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, the United Kingdom invaded Afghanistan to topple the Taliban in Operation Herrick. The 3rd Division were deployed in Kabul to assist in the liberation of the capital and defeat Taliban forces in the mountains. In 2006 the British Army began concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand Province, with around 9,500 British troops (including marines, airmen and sailors) deployed at its peak -- the second - largest force after that of the US. In December 2012 Prime Minister David Cameron announced that the combat mission would end in 2014, and troop numbers gradually fell as the Afghan National Army took over the brunt of the fighting. Between 2001 and 26 April 2014 a total of 453 British military personnel died in Afghan operations. Operation Herrick ended with the handover of Camp Bastion on 26 October 2014, but the British Army maintains a deployment in Afghanistan as part of Operation Toral.
In 2003 the United Kingdom was a major contributor to the invasion of Iraq, sending a force of over 46,000 military personnel. The British Army controlled southern Iraq, maintained a peace - keeping presence in Basra. All British troops were withdrawn from Iraq by 30 April 2009, after the Iraqi government refused to extend their mandate. One hundred seventy - nine British military personnel died in Iraqi operations. The British Armed Forces returned to Iraq in 2014 as part of Operation Shader to counter the Islamic State (ISIL).
The British Army maintains a standing liability to support the civil authorities in certain circumstances, usually in either niche capabilities (e.g. explosive ordance removal) or in general support of the civil authorities when their capacity is exceeded. In recent years this has been seen as Army personnel supporting the civil authorities in the face of the 2001 United Kingdom foot - and - mouth outbreak, the 2002 Firefighters strike, widespread flooding in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2013 and 2014 and most recently supporting the security services on Operation Temperer following the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing.
The British Army has been a volunteer force since national service ended during the 1960s. Since the creation of the part - time, reserve Territorial Force in 1908 (renamed the Army Reserve in 2014) the full - time British Army has been known as the Regular Army. The size and structure of the army are evolving, and the Ministry of Defence publishes monthly personnel reports. In December 2016 there were 83,360 trained Regulars, 2,850 Gurkhas and 26,300 trained Army Reservists.
Army 2020 followed the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010 (SDSR). According to the Ministry of Defence, Army 2020 will "ensure that the British Army remains the most capable Army in its class '' and enable "it to better meet the security challenges of the 2020s and beyond ''. The SDSR initially outlined a reduction of the regular British Army by 7,000, to a trained strength of 95,000, by 2015. After the publication of "Future Reserves 2020 '', another independent review of army structure, it was announced that the Regular Army would be reduced to a trained strength of 82,000 and the Army Reserve would be increased to a trained strength of about 30,000; this would bring the ratio of regular to part - time personnel in line with the US and Canada and integrate the Army Reserve into the Regular Army.
In addition to the regular and reserve armies, all former Regular Army personnel (known as the Regular Reserve) may be recalled for duty as needed. The Regular Reserve has two categories: A and D. Category A is mandatory, with the length of time in the category dependent on time spent in Regular Army service. Category D is voluntary, and consists of personnel who are no longer required to serve in category A. Regular Reserves in both categories serve under a fixed - term reserve contract and may report for training or service overseas and at home, similar to the Army Reserve. In 2007, there were 121,800 Regular Reserves, of which 33,760 served in categories A and D. Beginning in April 2013, the full Regular Reserve strength was no longer reported -- only those serving in categories A and D (30,000 in 2015).
The table below illustrates British Army personnel figures from 1710 to 2010. The Army Reserve (Territorial Army) was established in 1908.
The British Army 's basic infantry weapon is the L85A2 assault rifle, sometimes equipped with an L17A2 under - barrel grenade launcher or other attachments with the Picatinny rail. The rifle has several variants, including the L86A2, the Light Support Weapon (LSW) and the L22A2 carbine (issued to tank crews). These weapons are usually equipped with iron sights or an optical SUSAT, although optical sights have been purchased to supplement these.
Support fire is provided by the FN Minimi light machine gun and the L7 general - purpose machine gun (GPMG), and indirect fire is provided by L16 81mm mortars. The L129A1 sharpshooter rifle was brought into service during the war in Afghanistan to give the infantry a long - range weapon. Sniper rifles include the L118A1 7.62 mm, L115A3 and the AW50F, all manufactured by Accuracy International. Other weapons, such as the L128A1 (Benelli M4) combat shotgun, may be temporarily used.
The army 's main battle tank is the Challenger 2. It is supported by the Warrior Infantry Fighting Vehicle as the primary armoured personnel carrier and the many variants of the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) and the FV430 series, which had its engines and armour upgraded as the Bulldog. Light armoured units often utilise the Supacat "Jackal '' MWMIK and Coyote for reconnaissance and fire support.
The army has three main artillery systems: the Multi Launch Rocket System (MLRS), the AS - 90 and the L118 light gun. The MLRS, first used in Operation Granby, has a 85 - kilometre (53 mi) range. The AS - 90 is a 155 mm self - propelled armoured gun with a 24 - kilometre (15 mi) range. The L118 light gun is a 105 mm towed gun used in support of 16 Air Assault Brigade, 3 Commando Brigade of the Royal Marines and the Adaptive Force. To identify artillery targets, the army operates weapon locators such as the MAMBA Radar and utilises artillery sound ranging. For air defence it uses the Short - Range Air Defence (SHORAD) Rapier FSC missile system, widely deployed since the Falklands War, and the Very Short - Range Air Defence (VSHORAD) Starstreak HVM (high - velocity missile) launched by a single soldier or from a vehicle - mounted launcher.
Where armour is not required or mobility and speed are favoured the British Army utilises protected patrol vehicles, such as the Panther variant of the Iveco LMV, and variants of the Cougar family (such as the Foxhound, Ridgeback, Husky and Mastiff). For day - to - day utility work the army commonly uses the Land Rover Wolf, which is based on the Land Rover Defender.
Specialist engineering vehicles include bomb - disposal robots and the modern variants of the Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers, including the Titan bridge - layer, Trojan combat - engineer vehicle, Terrier Armoured Digger and Python Minefield Breaching System. Day - to - day utility work uses a series of support vehicles, including six -, nine - and fifteen - tonne trucks (often called "Bedfords '', after a historic utility vehicle), heavy - equipment transporters (HET), close - support tankers, quad bikes and ambulances. Tactical communication uses the Bowman radio system, and operational or strategic communication is controlled by the Royal Corps of Signals.
The Army Air Corps (AAC) provides direct aviation support, with the Royal Air Force providing support helicopters. The primary attack helicopter is the Westland WAH - 64 Apache, a licence - built, modified version of the US AH - 64 Apache which replaced the Westland Lynx AH7 in the anti-tank role. Other helicopters include the Westland Gazelle (a light surveillance aircraft), the Bell 212 (in jungle "hot and high '' environments) and the AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat, a dedicated intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR) helicopter. The Eurocopter AS 365N Dauphin is used for special operations aviation, and the Britten - Norman Islander is a light, fixed - wing aircraft used for airborne reconnaissance and command and control. The army operates two unmanned aerial vehicles (' UAV 's) in a surveillance role: the small Lockheed Martin Desert Hawk III and the larger Thales Watchkeeper WK450.
Challenger II main battle tank
Warrior IFV
AS - 90
Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System (GMLRS)
AgustaWestland Apache
L85A2 assault rifle
British Army structure is broadly similar to that of the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, with a single command (based in Andover, Hampshire) known as "Army Headquarters ''. Under the Army 2020 Command structure, the Chief of the General Staff is in charge of Army Headquarters. There are four lieutenant - general posts in Army headquarters: Deputy Chief of the General Staff, Commander Field Army, Commander Allied Rapid Reaction Corps and Commander Home Command. Army Headquarters is responsible for providing forces at operational readiness for employment by the Permanent Joint Headquarters.
The command structure is hierarchical, with divisions and brigades controlling groups of units. Major units are regiment - or battalion - sized, and minor units are company - sized units (or platoons). All units are Regular (full - time) or Army Reserve (part - time).
Naming conventions of units differ for historical reasons, creating some confusion; the term "battalion '' in the infantry is synonymous with a cavalry, artillery or engineer regiment, and the infantry "company '' is synonymous with an engineer or cavalry squadron and an artillery battery. The table below illustrates the different names for equivalent units.
Adding to the confusion is the tendency of units (again for historical reasons) to misuse titles for larger administrative structures. Although the Royal Artillery consists of 13 Regular regiments (equivalent to infantry battalions), it calls itself the Royal Regiment of Artillery when referring to the units as a whole. The Royal Logistic Corps and Intelligence Corps are not corps - sized, but consist of several battalions or regiments.
The field forces of the British Army after the Army 2020 reforms are organised in garrison as:
For operational tasks the most common unit is the battlegroup, formed around a combat unit and supported by units (or sub-units) from other areas. An example of a battlegroup in the Reactive Force (e.g. the 1st Brigade) would be two companies of armoured infantry (e.g. from the 1st Battalion of the Mercian Regiment), one squadron of heavy armour (e.g. A Squadron of the Royal Tank Regiment), a company of engineers (e.g. B Company of the 22nd Engineer Regiment), a battery of artillery (e.g. D Battery of the 1st Regiment of the Royal Horse Artillery) and smaller attachments from medical, logistic and intelligence units. Typically organised and commanded by a battlegroup headquarters and named after the unit which provided the most combat units, in this example it would be the 1 Mercian Battlegroup). This creates a self - sustaining mixed formation of armour, infantry, artillery, engineers and support units, typically 600 to 1,000 soldiers commanded by a lieutenant colonel.
The table below demonstrates how three or four battlegroups make up a brigade and three or four brigades make up a division. A division is currently the largest unit the British Army is capable of deploying independently, although it could be grouped with three or four other divisions from a multi-national coalition to form a corps.
The British Army contributes two of the three special forces formations to the United Kingdom Special Forces directorate: the Special Air Service and Special Reconnaissance Regiments. The Special Air Service consists of one regular - army and two reserve regiments. The regular regiment, 22 SAS, has its headquarters and depot in Hereford and consists of five squadrons (A, B, D, G and Reserve) and a training wing. 22 SAS is supported by two reserve regiments: 21 SAS and 23 SAS -- collectively, the Special Air Service (Reserve) (SAS (R)) -- under the command of the 1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade.
The Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR), formed in 2005, performs close reconnaissance and special surveillance tasks. The Special Forces Support Group, under the operational control of the Director of Special Forces, provides operational manoeuvring support to the United Kingdom Special Forces.
The British Army historically included many units from what are now separate Commonwealth realms. When the English Empire was established in North America, Bermuda, and the West Indies in the early Seventeenth Century there was no standing English Army, only the Militia, and this was extended to the colonies. Colonial Militias defended colonies single - handedly at first against Indigenous peoples and European competitors. Once the standing English Army, later the British Army, came into existence, the colonial Militias fought side - by - side with it in a number of wars, including the Seven Years War. Some of the colonial Militias rebelled during the American War of Independence. Militia fought alongside the regular British Army (and Native allies) in defending British North America from their former countrymen during the American War of 1812. With the growth of the Empire around the world, Non-European (ie., non-white, except for officers) units were recruited in many colonies and protectorates, but most were deemed auxiliaries and not part of the British Army. The West India Regiments were an exception, as they were fully incorporated into the British Army, but were kept outside of Europe and non-whites were denied commissions. Locally - raised units in strategically - located colonies (including Bermuda, Gibraltar, Malta) and the Channel Islands were generally more fully integrated into the British Army as evident from their appearances in British Army Lists, unlike units such as King 's African Rifles. The larger colonies (Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, et cet.) mostly achieved Commonwealth Dominion status before or after the First World War and were granted granted full legislative independence in 1931. While remaining within the British Empire, this placed their governments on a par with the British Government, and hence their military units comprised separate armies (e.g. the Australian Army), although Canada retained the term Militia for its military forces until the Second World War. From the 1940s, these Dominions and many colonies chose full independence, usually becoming Commonwealth realms (as member states of the Commonwealth are known today).
Units raised in self - governing and Crown colonies that are part of the British Realm remain under UK control. The UK retains responsibility for the defence of the fourteen remaining British Overseas Territories, of which four have locally raised regiments:
Falkland Islands Defence Force on parade in June 2013
Detachment of the Falkland Islands Defence Force in ceremonial dress
John Fitzgerald Kennedy, escorted by a Bermuda Militia Artillery officer, inspects a Bermuda Rifles guard in 1961, four years before the units amalgamated
WO1 Herman Eve, RSM of the Royal Bermuda Regiment in 1992
Royal Bermuda Regiment on parade
Changing of the guard, Royal Gibraltar Regiment (2012)
Royal Gibraltar Regiment in London, April 2012
Although the army primarily recruits within the United Kingdom, it accepts applications from Commonwealth citizens and (occasionally) those from friendly nations who meet certain criteria. In 2016, it was decided to open all roles to women in 2018; women had not been permitted to join the Combat Arms. The British Army is an equal - opportunity employer (with some exceptions due to its medical standards), and does not discriminate based on race, religion or sexual orientation.
The minimum age is 16 (after the end of GCSEs), although soldiers under 18 may not serve in operations. The maximum recruitment age was raised in January 2007 from 26 to 33 years, and the maximum age for Army Reserve soldiers is higher. A soldier would traditionally enlist for a term of 22 years, although recently there has been a shift towards 12 - year terms with a 22 - year option. A soldier is not normally permitted to leave until they have served for at least four years, and must give 12 months ' notice.
All soldiers must take an oath of allegiance upon joining the Army, a process known as attestation. Those who wish to swear by God use the following words:
I, (soldier 's name), swear by Almighty God that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, her heirs and successors and that I will as in duty bound honestly and faithfully defend Her Majesty, her heirs and successors in person, crown and dignity against all enemies and will observe and obey all orders of Her Majesty, her heirs and successors and of the generals and officers set over me.
Others replace the words "swear by Almighty God '' with "solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm ''.
Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (RMAS) is the officer - training school, and Royal School of Artillery (RSA) trains the Royal Artillery. Royal School of Military Engineering (RSME) trains the Corps of Royal Engineers.
The Army Training Regiment, Grantham provides training for Army Reserve recruits, and the Army Training Regiment, Pirbright provides training for the Army Air Corps, the Royal Artillery, the Royal Corps of Signals, the Royal Logistic Corps, the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, the Adjutant General 's Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps and the Intelligence Corps. The Army Training Regiment, Winchester trains the Royal Armoured Corps, the Army Air Corps, the Royal Artillery, the Royal Engineers, the Royal Corps of Signals, the Royal Logistic Corps, the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, the Adjutant General 's Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps and the Intelligence Corps.
There is an Infantry Training Centre at Catterick and an Infantry Battle School in Brecon. Other training centres are the Army Foundation College (Harrogate) and Army Training Units.
The army 's official flag is the 3: 5 ratio Union Jack, although a non-ceremonial flag flies at the Ministry of Defence building in Whitehall and is often used at recruiting and military events and exhibitions. It represents the army on the Cenotaph at Whitehall in London, the UK memorial to its war dead. Each British Army unit has a set of flags, known as the colours -- normally a Regimental Colour and a Queen 's Colour (the Union Jack).
Official Army flag
Non-ceremonial army flag; "Army '', in gold letters, sometimes appears below the badge.
Ensign for general use by the Royal Logistic Corps
Ensign flown by the Royal Logistic Corps from vessels commanded by commissioned officers
Ensign of the Corps of Royal Engineers
Rank in abeyance.
Each regiment and corps has distinctive insignia, such as a cap badge, beret, tactical recognition flash or stable belt. Many units also call soldiers of different ranks by different names; a NATO OR - 1 (private) is called a guardsman in Guards regiments, a gunner in artillery units and a sapper in engineer units. These names do not affect a soldier 's pay or role.
The British Army uniform has sixteen categories, ranging from ceremonial uniforms to combat dress to evening wear. No. 8 Dress, the day - to - day uniform, is known as "Personal Clothing System -- Combat Uniform '' (PCS - CU) and consists of a Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP) windproof smock, a lightweight jacket and trousers with ancillary items such as thermals and waterproofs. The army has introduced tactical recognition flashes (TRFs); worn on the right arm of a combat uniform, the insignia denotes the wearer 's regiment or corps.
Working headdress is typically a beret, whose colour indicates its wearer 's type of regiment. Beret colours are:
In addition to working dress, the army has a number of parade uniforms for ceremonial and non-ceremonial occasions. The most - commonly - seen uniforms are No. 1 Dress (full ceremonial, seen at formal occasions such as at the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace) and No. 2 Dress (Service Dress), a brown uniform worn for non-ceremonial parades.
|
who wrote wake me up when its all over | Wake Me up (Avicii song) - wikipedia
"Wake Me Up '' is a song by Swedish DJ and record producer Avicii, released as the lead single from his debut studio album True, released on CD and cassette by PRMD Music, Lava Records and Sony Music 's Columbia Records on 17 June 2013. "Wake Me Up '' was written by Avicii, Mike Einziger, and Aloe Blacc. American soul singer Aloe Blacc provides uncredited vocals for the track and Mike Einziger of Incubus provides acoustic guitar. Avicii introduced "Wake Me Up! '' for the first time live on stage at the Ultra Music Festival in Miami. The experimental rendering (it was accompanied by a live band with instruments and vocalists, including Blacc, Einziger and Incubus members Ben Kenney on bass and José Pasillas on drums) reportedly confused and angered a section of the electronic dance festival community. Subsequently, Avicii achieved critical and commercial success with the release of the single worldwide.
"Wake Me Up '' peaked at number one in much of Europe and charted well in various countries. The song has been described as a "summer anthem '' by Variance Magazine and, throughout the 2013 festival season, Avicii included it as part of the opening or closing sequence of his sets at EDC Las Vegas, EDC London, Tomorrowland, Creamfields, Electric Zoo and the iTunes Festival. Due to the success of the song, Blacc later released an acoustic version of "Wake Me Up '' in his solo EP Wake Me Up. It was also released as a promotional stand - alone single on Interscope Records, made available online for downloads via iTunes. A separate music video was also made. The Blacc single also charted in its own right in various charts.
In an interview with the Daily Star, Avicii, who had previously labelled "Wake Me Up! '' as "a fun experiment '' during an exclusive chat with MTV UK, said: "I had a demo with Mac Davis singing, the guy who wrote some songs that were covered by Elvis Presley, but I needed another singer to do the parts. At the same time I was tipped off about doing another track with Aloe Blacc, and I started working on that track. When I was with Mike Einziger from Incubus, we came up with the chord progression and the melody for ' Wake Me Up! ' but (with) no real lyrics. None of us (could) sing and we really needed to get that demo down and the only person I knew that lived in LA was Aloe, so I called him and he was free. Lyrics come really easy to him so he wrote them in a couple of hours and we finished the track. ''
Aloe Blacc, who is not credited on the track, explained to The Huffington Post: "I started writing the lyrics at the top of 2013, travelling back from Switzerland. I started in hip hop music back in the 90s and I never expected to be singing and have an actual career as a musician, but I 'm travelling all over the world and I thought ' Life is a dream, wake me up when it 's all over '. I was invited to the studio with Avicii and Mike Einziger from Incubus, and when I got to the studio they had already come up with a chord progression of the song. I came in with the lyrics and I just developed the melody as I heard the chords, and we all thought it was something very strong. We finished the song that night as an acoustic version, then Avicii made the dance mix in a couple of days, and that 's what we released to the world, and that was his release. '' Blacc later released an acoustic version of the song which was included on his solo EP Wake Me Up. It was also released as a promotional stand - alone single by Interscope Records and made available online for download via iTunes. The single also charted in its right in various charts.
"Wake Me Up '' is a folktronica song, blending elements of EDM, soul and country music. Musically, it is written in the key of B minor and runs at 124 beats per minute (BPM). It follows a chord progression of Bm / G / D / A -- Bm / G / D / F#.
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song a positive review, stating:
"As chart - friendly EDM continues to reach the furthest corners of the globe, staying ahead of the pack can prove a tricky task -- especially when more and more acts arrive on the scene turning out mixes with identikit build - ups, tired lyrics and uninspired breakdowns that newcomers to the arena lap up with excitement. Kudos to Avicii then, who has dared to try something a little different for his latest offering. "So wake me up when it 's all over / When I 'm wiser and I 'm older, '' featured artist Aloe Blacc sings over dialled - up, country - flecked guitar strums that sound like Mumford & Sons on speed. The jig - along chorus may conjure up images of Brits - on - tour, but to be honest, what summer anthem does n't? ''.
The single has peaked at number one in 22 countries to date, including Australia, New Zealand, Hungary, Ireland, the United Kingdom and several European countries, in addition to reaching the top 10 in six others. The song is also the most searched on the app Shazam with more than 23 million in February of 2018.
The song debuted at number 42 on 24 June. On the next week, the song skyrocketed to number 2, behind "Blurred Lines ''. The number position became Avicii 's highest charting song, beating "I Could Be the One '' record which peaked at number four earlier in the year. It also beat Blacc 's 2011 hit, "I Need a Dollar '', which peaked at number 11. A week later, the song hit the top position, ending "Blurred Lines '' eight - week reign. On its sixth week at the top, 12 August, the song became the longest - running number one by a Swedish act since Roxette 's 1989 hit "The Look ''.
"Wake Me Up '' spent seven consecutive weeks at number one.
"Wake Me Up! '' has performed well in the North American music markets, having peaked in Canada and the United States at number two and number four, respectively. In the United States, "Wake Me Up! '' was kept off the top three by Katy Perry 's "Roar '', Miley Cyrus 's "Wrecking Ball '', and Lorde 's "Royals ''. It spent 21 weeks in the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100, and 53 weeks overall, making it the first Dance / Electronic song to stay over a year on that chart. It also reached number one position in the 7 September 2013 issue of Billboard 's Dance / Mix Show Airplay Chart. In Canada it was the second best - selling song of 2013 with 519,000 copies sold (523,000 for all versions combined). It is the first dance / electronic song to sell over 4 million copies in the U.S., and as of August 2015 it has sold over 4,060,000 copies.
In July 2013, "Wake Me Up '' entered at the number one on the UK Singles Chart, selling 88,000 copies in its first day and 267,000 in its first week, becoming Britain 's fastest - selling single of 2013. Following three weeks at number one, "Wake Me Up '' spent a further four consecutive weeks at number two, and a total of 11 consecutive weeks in the top ten. The single spent 32 consecutive weeks in the top 40, before exiting. By October 2013, the single had sold over 1 million copies in the UK, becoming the 140th single to do so in UK chart history and the third single of 2013 to do so. "Wake Me Up '' was also the fifth most streamed track of 2013 in the UK. The song also spent nine consecutive weeks at number one on the UK Dance Chart until being replaced by Avicii 's next single "You Make Me ''.
Swiss singer Sebalter performed a version as his cover song choice during the Swiss national final for the Eurovision Song Contest 2014.
Glee 's character Rachel Berry (Lea Michele) sang a slower version in the series season 5 on the episode "The Back - up Plan ''.
Croatian cello duo 2Cellos released a cover version on YouTube on 6 January 2015. As of September 2018, the video has been viewed over 35 million times. It is included on their album Celloverse.
K - pop group Lunafly recorded a version of "Wake Me Up '' in 2013.
"Wake Me Up '' is a playable song in Dance Dance Revolution A.
A lyric video to accompany the release of "Wake Me Up '' was first released on YouTube 28 June 2013, at a total length of four minutes and thirty two seconds, and teaser clips for the official video were also released.
The official video for "Wake Me Up '' was released a month after the lyric video on 29 July 2013. It was directed by celebrity photographer Mark Seliger & co-directed & edited by CB "Barney '' Miller (former guitarist for 1980 's pop band Miller Miller Miller & Sloan). It features two females: the older girl is Russian fashion model Kristina Romanova, and the younger girl is Laneya Grace. It depicts them and how they are different from the people in their dreary village. One morning, Kristina gets up early and rides off on a horse to a nearby city. She notices a woman with the Avicii logo birthmark like the one on her lower arm. They meet others and then jump into a truck and are then shown to be attending an Avicii concert. The next morning, Kristina rides back on the horse to Laneya. The video ends with them walking down the highway and shots from the concert and the staring villagers from the beginning. The video includes product placement from Denim & Supply by Ralph Lauren and Sony Xperia Z smartphone. The video was shot in the Santa Clara River orange groves and in the town of Piru, California, west of Los Angeles, as well as Downtown LA. Avicii concert footage was from Miami. As of October 2018, this video has been viewed on Avicii 's official YouTube channel over 1.7 billion times, making it the 35th most viewed video on the site. Avicii collaborated with the YouTube channel Yo Mama to produce the official music video for the single on his AVICII by AVICII album.It was directed by Zachary James and Alex Negrete
Adapted from CD single and BMI website.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
On 30 September 2013, Blacc released his own acoustic version of the song. The track appeared in the Wake Me Up EP as track number two in the 5 - track EP.
Blacc 's version "Wake Me Up '' was made available through the following formats:
"Wake Me Up (Acoustic) '' by Aloe Blacc was released as a promotional stand - alone single on Interscope Records and made available online for downloads via iTunes.
In October 2013, Blacc released the music video for "Wake Me Up ''. Blacc collaborated with the immigrant rights group National Day Laborer Organizing Network and the ABC * Foundation 's Healing Power of Music Initiative. The director is Alex Rivera. The cast were real life immigrant activists: Hareth Andrade Ayala (a Virginia leader in the immigrant youth movement working to stop her own father 's deportation), Agustin Chiprez Alvarez (a Los Angeles day laborer), and Margarita Reyes (who was deported with her mother as a child despite being born in the US).
The track also appears on Aloe Blacc 's full studio album Lift Your Spirit.
"Wake Me Up '' was covered in the style of country music 2013 by Canadian country singer Tebey featuring Canadian country band Emerson Drive. This version was released to digital retailers via TebeyMusic on 27 November 2013 as the third single from the former 's second studio album, Two (2014) before impacting radio in January 2014. The song was released in the US on 28 January 2014 through The Talent Associates. It has been well received by Canadian country radio, peaking at No. 5 on the Canada Country airplay chart. The song is also included on Tebey 's 2016 EP, Old School.
"Wake Me Up '', as performed by Tebey and Emerson Drive, entered the Canadian Hot 100 at No. 63 for the week ending 1 February 2014. It peaked at No. 56 for the week ending 29 March 2014, which position it held for one chart week.
In the United Kingdom, the original release date was intended to be 8 September 2013. In the absence of the original, a group called "Spark Productions '' took advantage and released a cover version of it; this version reached number 26 on the UK Singles Chart before Avicii conceded to public demand and decided to release it early, with the Official Charts Company announcing on 15 July 2013 that it would be released that week.
A cover of the song in Irish was uploaded onto YouTube on 9 August 2013, by an Irish Language College called ' Coláiste Lurgan '. The video received heavy publicity and popularity within Ireland from many news websites and the public. The video was a viral hit within the country and with Irish abroad, hitting a million views in one week.
British band You Me at Six made a country version for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. James Shotwel commented that their cover "will be pulling at your heart strings all day long. The once fun - loving track has taken a turn for the melancholy, but it plays so well you 'll hardly think twice about the change. ''
In November 2013, British singer - songwriter Pixie Lott covered "Wake Me Up '' live at the Pool Studios in London.
Also in November 2013, Russian folk - metal band Russkaja covered "Wake Me Up '' on their 2013 EP "Barada ''.
In December 2013, The X Factor finalist Daniel Evans released a mellow Rhodes - based version on his YouTube channel. It was also released as part of his 2013 album, Wicked Game.
In January 2014, Scottish ensemble Red Hot Chilli Pipers performed an acoustic rendition with bagpipes on BBC Radio 1.
Irish singer Derek Ryan did a Country and Irish version of the song in his 2014 album The Entertainer -- Live accompanied with a music video of footage from his performances. Swedish band, Dirty Loops, covered the song on their album Loopified.
Christian rock band Skillet began performing a shortened cover of the song at some of their live shows starting in 2015.
The Norwegian acoustic - pop supergroup Stavangerkameratene covered the song as a translated single called "Vekk meg opp '' (Wake Me Up), released 11 March 2016.
Jessica Mauboy covered the song on her 2016 album, The Secret Daughter: Songs from the Original TV Series. It reached number 34 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart.
Performed by Gareth Malone 's All Star Choir, the song was released as the official BBC Children in Need single for 2014.
Choirmaster and broadcaster Gareth Malone has previously had chart success after putting together non-singers and turning them into a cohesive choir. In 2011, he guided the Military Wives -- a group of women with partners serving overseas in the army -- to Christmas number one with the song "Wherever You Are ''. In 2012, in collaboration with Gary Barlow, Malone produced the song "Sing '', as part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations, with the Commonwealth Band being joined by the Military Wives.
Malone was chosen to create the official Children in Need single for 2014, and his efforts were captured in a two - part series, Gareth Malone 's All Star Choir, which aired on 3 November and 10 November. The BBC press release said that Malone would "bring together an array of untrained voices from the world of television sport and theatre '' for the single.
The celebrities that make up the All Star Choir are Margaret Alphonsi, Jo Brand, Radzi Chinyanganya, John Craven, Mel Giedroyc, Nitin Ganatra, Larry Lamb, Alice Levine, Fabrice Muamba, Craig Revel Horwood, Linda Robson and Alison Steadman.
Gareth Malone went on numerous television and radio shows to promote the song, including some presented by celebrities who feature on the record. This included spots on Loose Women, Blue Peter, The One Show and Alice Levine 's afternoon show on Radio 1.
After its release on 9 November, the song was placed at number 1 on the midweek Official Chart Update on Radio 1, ahead of "Thinking Out Loud '' by Ed Sheeran and Cheryl 's "I Do n't Care '', which was number one the previous weekend.
|
where does commercial fishing take place according to the map | Spratly islands dispute - wikipedia
Spratly Islands dispute Dangerous Ground (South China Sea) Great wall of sand History of the Spratly Islands List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands List of airports in the Spratly Islands Vietnamese DK1 rigs Royal Malaysian Navy Offshore Bases Philippines and the Spratly Islands Republic of Morac - Songhrati - Meads Territorial disputes in the South China Sea
Southwest Cay incident (1975) Johnson South Reef skirmish (1988)
The Spratly Islands dispute is an ongoing territorial dispute between China, Taiwan, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam, concerning "ownership '' of the Spratly Islands, a group of islands and associated "maritime features '' (reefs, banks, cays, etc.) located in the South China Sea. The dispute is characterised by diplomatic stalemate and the employment of military pressure techniques (such as military occupation of disputed territory) in the advancement of national territorial claims. All except Brunei occupy some of the maritime features.
There has been a sharp rise in media coverage owing mainly to China 's increasingly vocal objection to the presence of American naval vessels transiting the area in order to assert the right to freedom of navigation within international waters.
Most of the "maritime features '' in this area have at least six names: The "International name '', usually in English; the "Chinese name '', sometimes different for PRC and ROC, (and also in different character - sets); the Vietnamese, Philippine and Malaysian names, and also, there are alternate names, (e.g. Spratly Island is also known as Storm Island), and sometimes names with "colonial '' origins (French, Portuguese, Spanish, British, etc.).
The Spratly Islands are important for economic and strategic reasons. The Spratly area holds potentially significant, but largely unexplored, reserves of oil and natural gas; it is a productive area for world fishing; it is one of the busiest areas of commercial shipping traffic; and surrounding countries would get an extended continental shelf if their claims were recognised. In addition to economic incentives, the Spratlys sit astride major maritime trade routes to Northeast Asia, giving them added significance as positions from which to monitor maritime activity in the South China Sea and to potentially base and project military force from. In 2014, China drew increased international attention due to its dredging activities within the Spratlys, amidst speculation it is planning to further develop its military presence in the area. In 2015 satellite imagery revealed that China was rapidly constructing an airfield on Fiery Cross Reef within the Spratlys whilst continuing its land reclamation activities at other sites. Only China (PRC), Taiwan (ROC), and Vietnam have made claims based on historical sovereignty of the islands. The Philippines, however, claims part of the area as its territory under UNCLOS, an agreement parts of which have been ratified by the countries involved in the Spratly islands dispute.
There are multiple reasons why the neighbouring nations in particular, and the rest of the world in general, would be interested in the Spratly Islands.
In 1968, oil was discovered in the region. The Geology and Mineral Resources Ministry of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) has estimated that the Spratly area holds oil and natural gas reserves of 17.7 billion tons (1.60 × 10 kg), compared to the 13 billion tons (1.17 × 10 kg) held by Kuwait, placing it as, potentially, the fourth largest reserve bed in the world. The United States Energy Information Administration contests this, estimating almost no oil and less than 100 billion cubic feet of natural gas exists in fields near the Spratly Islands. Still, these large potential reserves have assisted in intensifying the territorial claims of the neighbouring countries.
In 1968 and 1970, the Philippines started to take their territorial claims more seriously and stationed troops on three islands which had been claimed by the adventurer Tomas Cloma as part of Freedomland. In 1973, Vietnamese troops were stationed on five islands.
On 11 March 1976, the first major Philippine oil discovery occurred off the coast of Palawan, near the Spratly Islands territory. In 2010, these oil fields supplied 15 % of all petroleum consumed in the Philippines. In 1992, the PRC and Vietnam granted oil exploration contracts to US oil companies that covered overlapping areas in the Spratlys. In May 1992, the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) and Crestone Energy (a US company based in Denver, Colorado) signed a co-operation contract for the joint exploration of the Wan'an Bei - 21 block, a 25,155 square kilometres (9,710 sq mi) section of the southwestern South China Sea that includes Spratly Island areas. Part of the Crestone 's contract covered Vietnam 's blocks 133 and 134, where PetroVietnam, PetroStar Energy (USA) and ConocoPhillips Vietnam Exploration & Production, a unit of ConocoPhillips, agreed to evaluate prospects in April 1992. This led to a confrontation between China and Vietnam, with each demanding that the other cancel its contract.
The region is one of the world 's most productive areas for commercial fishing. In 2010, the Western Central Pacific (excluding the northernmost reaches of the South China Sea closest to the PRC coast) accounted for 14 % of the total world catch at 11.7 million tonnes. This was up from less than 4 million tonnes in 1970. The PRC has predicted that the South China Sea holds combined fishing and oil and gas resources worth one trillion dollars. There have already been numerous clashes between the PRC and the Philippines, PRC and Vietnam, and between other nations over "foreign '' fishing vessels in Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), and the media regularly report the arrest of Chinese fishermen. In 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone encompassing Louisa Reef in the southeastern Spratly Islands.
The region is one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world. During the 1980s, at least 270 ships passed through the Spratly Islands region each day. More than half of the world 's supertanker traffic, by tonnage, passes through the region 's waters every year. Tanker traffic through the South China Sea is over three times greater than through the Suez Canal and five times more than through the Panama Canal; 25 % of the world 's crude oil passes through the South China Sea.
There have been a number of notable clashes in the Spratly Islands, some of which are discussed in the following articles:
Via UNCLOS, the United Nations provided for countries with coastlines to submit claims to the UN 's Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), (for their continental shelf to be extended beyond 200 nautical miles of their shores), by 13 May 2009. A total of 48 nations made full claims, and dozens more made preliminary submissions. Two of the submissions made to the CLCS addressed claims in the South China Sea (SCS) -- one by Vietnam for a claim over the northern portion of the SCS (which included the Paracel Islands), and another jointly by Vietnam and Malaysia for a joint claim over a "defined area '' in the middle of the SCS between the two countries, which included part of the Spratly Islands. Brunei made a preliminary submission notifying of its intention to claim a continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles from its shores.
China (PRC) immediately issued protests over the two submissions and called on the United Nations not to consider them. It also issued a stern warning to countries not to claim the islands which it said were its sovereign territory.
On 23 May 2011, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III warned the visiting Chinese Defense Minister Liang Guanglie of a possible arms race in the region if tensions worsened over disputes in the South China Sea. In March, the Philippines complained that Chinese patrol boats had harassed a Philippine oil exploration vessel in disputed waters near the Spratlys, and subsequently filed a formal protest at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS).
On 22 January 2013, the Philippines instituted arbitral proceedings against the People 's Republic of China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA). On 19 February 2013, China rejected and returned the Philippines ' Notification. The Permanent Court of Arbitration acts as Registry in this arbitration.
Philippine Justice Antonio T. Carpio states that the case is solely a maritime dispute, and not territorial in nature. The Philippines seeks clarification from the tribunal as to whether China 's 9 - dashed line can negate the Philippines ' Exclusive Economic Zone as guaranteed under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), of which China is a signatory. As part of the case, the Philippines also seeks clarification on whether rocks barely (1.8 meter) above water at high tide, (such as Scarborough Shoal), generate a 200 - nautical - mile (370 km; 230 mi) EEZ, or only a 12 - nautical - mile (22 km; 14 mi) territorial sea. Clarification of whether China can appropriate low - tide elevations, such as the Mischief Reef and the Subi Reef within the Philippines ' EEZ, have also been included in the case. "The Philippines is not asking the tribunal to delimit by nautical measurements overlapping EEZs between China and the Philippines. The Philippines is also not asking the tribunal what country has sovereignty over an island, or rock above water at high tide, in the West Philippine Sea. ''
According to a PCA press release on 12 July 2016 "(The) Tribunal concluded that, as between the Philippines and China, there was no legal basis for China to claim historic rights to resources, in excess of the rights provided for by the Convention, within the sea areas falling within the ' nine - dash line ', ''
On 22 July 1992, ASEAN issued a declaration on the South China Sea, emphasising that the dispute should be solved peacefully without resorting to violence.
Following a 1995 dispute between the PRC and the Philippines, an ASEAN - brokered agreement was reached between the PRC and ASEAN member nations whereby one country would inform the other of any military movement within the disputed territory, and that there would be no further construction.
The agreement was promptly violated by PRC and Malaysia: claiming storm damage, seven PLA Navy vessels entered the area to repair "fishing shelters '' in Panganiban Reef (Mischief Reef); Malaysia erected a structure on Investigator Shoal and landed at Rizal Reef (Commodore Reef). In response, the Philippines lodged formal protests, demanded the removal of the structures, increased naval patrols in Kalayaan, and issued invitations to American politicians to inspect the PRC bases by plane.
On 4 November 2002 in Phnom Penh, the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea was signed by the 10 foreign ministers of ASEAN countries and China (PRC). The parties explicitly undertook in this declaration, "to resolve their territorial and jurisdictional disputes by peaceful means, without resorting to the threat or use of force, through friendly consultations and negotiations by sovereign states directly concerned ''. The parties also undertook to exercise self - restraint with activities that would complicate or escalate disputes and affect peace and stability, including refraining from inhabiting the presently uninhabited islands, reefs, shoals, cays, and other features. The parties pledged to carry out confidence building measures, such as: holding dialogues and exchange of views as appropriate between their defence and military officials; ensuring just and humane treatment of all persons who are in danger or distress; notifying on a voluntary basis other parties concerned of any impending joint / combined military exercise; and exchanging, on a voluntary basis, relevant information. The parties may also explore or undertake cooperative activities such as: marine environmental protection; marine scientific research; safety of navigation and communication at sea; search and rescue operations; and combating transnational crime, including but not limited to trafficking in illicit drugs, piracy, armed robbery at sea, and illegal traffic in arms.
The declaration eases tensions, but falls short of a legally binding code of conduct.
In July 2012, China (PRC) announced that it is open to launching discussions on the Code of Conduct in the South China Sea, but called for all parties to exercise self - restraint in keeping with the spirit of previous declarations and United Nation conventions. This announcement has been criticised by many neighbouring states because of the contradictions seen in the Scarborough Shoal at that time where China has established de facto control.
On 2 August 2012, the United States Senate unanimously passed a resolution declaring that China 's July 2012 actions to unilaterally assert control of disputed territories in the South China Sea "are contrary to agreed upon principles with regard to resolving disputes and impede a peaceful resolution. ''
In 2014 Janes reported that during 2013 -- 2014 China had begun a substantial program of dredging and land reclamation at three sites in the Spratlys. Janes concluded that ' The strategic effect of China 's dredging and land reclamation makes it the most significant change to the South China Sea dispute since the 1988 Johnson South Reef Skirmish. If completed as envisioned in the CGI designs, China will have its first airstrip in the Spratly islands -- and a base from which to impose its interpretation of the surrounding features ' sovereignty '.
Janes also noted that in contrast to the previous construction projections of other countries in the Spratlys, ' The main difference between these activities and China 's is that they modified existing land masses, while Beijing is constructing islands out of reefs that for the most part were under water at high tide '.
There is no known official term for the projects; the phrase "great wall of sand '' was first used by Harry Harris, commander of the US Pacific Fleet, in March 2015.
In April 2015 new satellite imagery revealed that China was rapidly constructing an airfield at Fiery Cross Reef, in addition to its ongoing dredging activities in the Spratlys. In September, China had completed a 3125 - metre runway.
Brunei claims the part of the South China Seas nearest to it as part of its continental shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). In 1984, Brunei declared an EEZ encompassing the above - water islets it claims in Louisa Reef. Brunei does not practice military control in the area.
Brunei 's claims to the reef are based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Brunei states that the southern part of the Spratly Islands chain is actually a part of its continental shelf, and therefore a part of its territory and resources.
Malaysia claims a small number of islands in the Spratly Islands and its claims cover only the islands included in its Exclusive economic zone of 200 miles as defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Malaysia has militarily occupied three islands that it considers to be within its continental shelf. Swallow Reef (Layang Layang / Terumbu Layang / Pulau Layang Layang) was under control on 1983 and has been turned into an island through a land reclamation which now also hosts a dive resort. The Malaysian military also occupies Ardasier Reef (Terumbu Ubi), and Mariveles Reef (Terumbu Mantanani).
Malaysia 's claims are based upon the continental shelf principle, and have clearly defined coordinates within the limits of its EEZ defined in 1979. This argument requires that the islands were res nullius and this requirement is said to be satisfied as when Japan renounced their sovereignty over the islands according to the San Francisco Treaty, there was a relinquishment of the right to the islands without any special beneficiary. Therefore, the islands became res nullius and available for annexation.
The People 's Republic of China (PRC) claims all of the Spratly Islands as part of China based on history and not UNCLOS. The People 's Republic of China (PRC) is a party to the UNCLOS, signing the agreement on July 29, 1994.
The Republic of China (ROC), which ruled mainland China before 1949 and has been confined to Taiwan since 1949, also claims all of the Spratly Islands.
China claims to have discovered the islands in the Han dynasty in 2 BC. The islands were claimed to have been marked on maps compiled during the time of Eastern Han dynasty and Eastern Wu (one of the Three Kingdoms). Since the Yuan dynasty in the 12th century, several islands that may be the Spratlys have been labelled as Chinese territory according to the Yuanshi, an official history commissioned by the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming Dynasty in 1369, which has been subject to criticism for its lack of quality and numerous errors. This labeling has also occurred in the Qing dynasty from the 13th to 19th Century; the islands may have appeared on a 1755 map, among others. Archaeological surveys have found the remains of Chinese pottery and coins in the islands, cited as proof for the PRC claim, but they are more likely to have come from shipwrecks of passing Chinese junks.
Chinese fishermen have fished around the islands since 200 BC.
In the 19th century, Europeans found that Chinese fishermen from Hainan annually sojourned on the Spratly islands for part of the year, while in 1877 it was the British who launched the first modern legal claims to the Spratlys.
When the Spratlys and Paracels were being surveyed by Germany in 1883, China issued protests against them. China sent naval forces on inspection tours in 1902 and 1907 and placed flags and markers on the islands. The Qing dynasty 's successor state, the Republic of China, claimed the Spratly and Paracel islands under the jurisdiction of Hainan.
The Spratlys and the Paracels were conquered from France by Japan in 1939. Japan administered the Spratlys via Taiwan 's jurisdiction and the Paracels via Hainan 's jurisdiction. The Paracels and Spratlys were handed over to Republic of China control from Japan after the 1945 surrender of Japan, since the Allied powers assigned the Republic of China to receive Japanese surrenders in that area.
After WW2 ended, the Republic of China was the "most active claimaint ''. The Republic of China then garrisoned Itu Aba (Taiping) island in 1946 and posted Chinese flags and markers on it along with Woody island in the Paracels, France tried, but failed to make them leave Woody island. The aim of the Republic of China was to block the French claims. The Republic of China drew up the map showing the U shaped claim on the entire South China Sea, showing the Spratly and Paracels in Chinese territory, in 1947.
Taiwan 's garrison from 1946 -- 1950 and 1956 - now on Itu Aba represents an "effective occupation '' of the Spratly islands.
Taiwan garrison forces actively fended off Philippine efforts to build on the Spratly before 1971. After the UN vote to recognize the PRC, the ROC government in Taiwan no longer was in position to defend its rights. The Philippines and Vietnam took this opportunity to establish outposts in the Spratlys.
Japanese scholar Taoka Shunji criticised Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe for trying to falsely portray China as a threat to Japan and that it was invading its neighbours like the Philippines, and pointed out that the Spratly islands were not part of the Philippines when the US acquired the Philippines from Spain in the Treaty of Paris in 1898, and the Japanese ruled Taiwan itself had annexed the Spratly islands in 1938 and the US ruled Philippines did not challenge the move and never asserted that it was their territory, he also pointed out that other countries did not need to do full land reclamation since they already control islands and that the reason China engaged in extensive land reclamation is because they needed it to build airfields since China only has control over reefs.
The Philippines ' claims are based on sovereignty over the Spratlys on the issues of Res nullius and geography. The Philippines contend their claim was Res nullius as there was no effective sovereignty over the islands until the 1930s when France and then Japan acquired the islands. When Japan renounced their sovereignty over the islands according to the San Francisco Treaty, there was a relinquishment of the right to the islands without any special beneficiary. Therefore, the islands became Res nullius and available for annexation, according to the claim.
In 1956, a private Filipino citizen, Tomás Cloma, unilaterally declared a state on 53 features in the South China Sea, calling it "Freedomland ''. The Republic of China moved to occupy the main island in response. In December 1974, Cloma was arrested and forced to sign a document to convey to the Philippines whatever rights he might have had in the territory for one peso. Cloma sold his claim to the Philippine government, which annexed (de jure) the islands in 1978, calling them Kalayaan. On 11 June 1978, President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines issued Presidential decree No. 1596, declaring the Spratly Islands (referred to therein as the Kalayaan Island Group) as Philippine territory.
The Philippine claim to Kalayaan on a geographical basis can be summarised using the assertion that Kalayaan is distinct from other island groups in the South China Sea, because of the size of the biggest island in the Kalayaan group. A second argument used by the Philippines regarding their geographical claim over the Spratlys is that all the islands claimed by the Philippines lie within its 200 - mile Exclusive Economic Zone according to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This argument assumes that the islands were res nullius. The Philippines also contend, under maritime law that the People 's Republic of China can not extend its baseline claims to the Spratlys because the PRC is not an archipelagic state.
On the 25 July 1994, Vietnam ratified the UNCLOS. Upon ratification it declared:
The National Assembly reiterates Viet Nam 's sovereignty over the Hoang Sa and Truong Sa archipelagoes and its position to settle those disputes relating to territorial claims as well as other disputes in the Eastern Sea through peaceful negotiations in the spirit of equality, mutual respect and understanding, and with due respect of international law, particularly the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and of the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of the coastal States over their respective continental shelves and exclusive economic zones
Vietnam 's response to China 's claim is that Chinese records on Qianli Changsha and Wanli Shitang are in fact records about non-Chinese territories. For example, Qianli Changsha and Wanli Shitang were referred to in the ancient Chinese texts Ling Wai Dai Da and Zhu Fan Zhi as being in the Sea of Jiaozhi, Jiaozhi being the old name for a Chinese province in modern - day northern Vietnam, or as writings on foreign countries.
Vietnam 's view is that the Chinese records do not constitute the declaration and exercise of sovereignty and that China did not declare sovereignty over the Spratlys until after World War II.
On the other hand, Vietnam claims the Spratlys based on international law on declaring and exercising sovereignty.
Vietnam claims that it has occupied the Spratly and the Paracel islands at least since the 17th century, when they were not under the sovereignty of any state, and that they exercised sovereignty over the two archipelagos continuously and peacefully until they were invaded by Chinese armed forces. In Phủ biên tạp lục (撫 邊 雜 錄, Miscellaneous Records of Pacification in the Border Area) by the scholar Lê Quý Đôn, Hoàng Sa (Paracel Islands), and Trường Sa (Spratly Islands) were defined as belonging to Quảng Ngãi District. In Đại Nam nhất thống toàn đồ (大 南 ー 統 全 圖), an atlas of Vietnam completed in 1838, Trường Sa was shown as Vietnamese territory. Vietnam had conducted many geographical and resource surveys of the islands. The results of these surveys have been recorded in Vietnamese literature and history published since the 17th century. After the treaty signed with the Nguyễn dynasty, France represented Vietnam in international affairs and exercised sovereignty over the islands.
The Cairo Declaration, drafted by the Allies and China towards the end of World War II, listed the territories that the Allies intended to strip from Japan and return to China. Despite China being among the authors of the declaration, this list did not include the Spratlys. Vietnam 's response to China 's claim that the Cairo Declaration somehow recognised the latter 's sovereignty over the Spratlys is that this claim has no basis in fact.
At the San Francisco Conference on the peace treaty with Japan, the Soviet Union proposed that the Paracels and Spratlys be recognised as belonging to China. This proposal was rejected by an overwhelming majority of the delegates. On 7 July 1951, Tran Van Huu, head of the Bảo Đại Government 's (State of Vietnam) delegation to the conference declared that the Paracels and Spratlys were part of Vietnamese territory. This declaration met with no challenge from the 51 representatives at the conference.
The text of the Treaty of San Francisco did not list the Spratlys, or any other island territories, to be returned to China.
The Geneva Accords, which China was a signatory, settled the First Indochina War end. French Indochina was split into three countries: Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Vietnam was to be temporarily divided along the 17th Parallel. Chapter I, Article 4 states:
The provisional military demarcation line between the two final regrouping zones is extended into the territorial waters by a line perpendicular to the general line of the coast. All coastal islands north of this boundary shall be evacuated by the armed forces of the French Union, and all islands south of it shall be evacuated by the forces of the People 's Army of Viet - Nam.
On October 26, 1955, the Republic of Vietnam "South Vietnam '' replaced the State of Vietnam (part of the French Union) and inherit of its rights. The Vietnamese government 's Vietnam United Youth League, which runs the newspaper Thanh Niên News, claims that although, nothing was said explicitly about offshore archipelagos, which was of small interest by that times, it was clearly understood by all the parties that the Republic of Vietnam inherit of all the French Indochina 's Vietnamese territories under the 17th Parallel. As the Paracel and the Spratly archipelagos (which lay below the 17th parallel) were part of the French Indochina since 1933, they were part of "South Vietnam '' territory. The French bestowed its titles, rights, and claims over the two island chains to the Republic of Vietnam.
The Republic of Vietnam (RVN) exercised sovereignty over the islands, by placing border markers on the Spratlys to indicate South Vietnamese sovereignty over the archipelago. Up to the end of the Vietnam War the Republic of Vietnam Navy held military control over the majority of the Spratly Islands until 1975, when North Vietnamese troops attacked South Vietnamese troops and occupied the islands. After the Vietnam War, the unified Vietnam SRV (Socialist Republic of Vietnam) continued to claim the Spratly islands as an indisputably integral part of Vietnam.
China has produced a letter written by North Vietnam 's former Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng in 1958 as proof that it holds sovereignty over the Paracel and Spratly islands. The Vietnamese newspaper Thanh Niên News claims China has intentionally misrepresented the letter, which contains no direct reference to either island chain. In addition, it ignores the spirit and time in which the letter was written. During that time, the two communist neighbors shared extremely close ties and the US navy was patrolling the Taiwan Strait, threatened them both. The letter represented a diplomatic gesture of goodwill that has no legal relevance to the current territorial dispute, stating:
Thưa Đồng chí Tổng lý, Chúng tôi xin trân trọng báo tin để Đồng chí Tổng lý rõ: Chính phủ nước Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa ghi nhận và tán thành bản tuyên bố, ngày 4 tháng 9 năm 1958, của Chính phủ nước Cộng hoà Nhân dân Trung Hoa, quyết định về hải phận của Trung Quốc. Chính phủ nước Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa tôn trọng quyết định ấy và sẽ chỉ thị cho các cơ quan Nhà nước có trách nhiệm triệt để tôn trọng hải phận 12 hải lý của Trung Quốc trong mọi quan hệ với nước Cộng hoà Nhân dân Trung Hoa trên mặt biển. Chúng tôi xin kính gửi Đồng chí Tổng lý lời chào rất trân trọng.
Dear Comrade Prime Minister, We solemnly inform you that the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam acknowledges and supports the declaration dated September 4th, 1958 by the Government of the People 's Republic of China regarding the decision on the breadth of China 's territorial sea. The Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam respects that decision and will direct its state agencies to absolutely respect the 12 - nautical mile breadth of China 's territorial sea in all the relations with People 's Republic of China at sea.
On September 4, 1958, with the seventh fleet of the US Navy patrolling the Taiwan Straight, China announced its decision to extend the breadth of its territorial waters to 12 nautical miles. The United Nations (to which China was not yet a member) had just held its first Conference on the Law of the Sea in Switzerland in 1956, and the resulting treaties, including the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, were signed in 1958. Though the UN conference was considered a success, it left the exact breadth of each nation 's territorial waters somewhat unresolved; the US, for instance, said it should extend just three nautical miles.
On September 14, 1958, North Vietnam 's PM Phạm Văn Đồng wrote his letter to PM Zhou Enlai in response to China 's declaration. The Vietnamese newspaper Thanh Nien News claims that the letter has no legal relevance in China 's sovereignty claims to the Paracel and Spratly archipelagos for the three following reasons:
The islands occupied by Vietnam are organised as a district of Khánh Hòa Province. According to the 2009 census, the Trường Sa District has a population of 195 people. At the 12th National Assembly (2007 -- 2011) Election held early in Trường Sa, the people and soldiers also voted for their local district government for the first time. For the first time, Trường Sa is organised like a normal inland district, with a township (Trường Sa) and two communes (Sinh Tồn and Song Tử Tây). Forty nine people were elected to the communes ' people 's councils. In July 2012 the National Assembly of Vietnam passed a law demarcating Vietnamese sea borders to include the Spratly and Paracel Islands.
Champa historically had a large presence in the South China Sea. The Vietnamese broke Champa 's power in an invasion of Champa in 1471, and then finally conquered the last remnants of the Cham people in a war in 1832. The Vietnamese government fears that using the evidence of Champa 's historical connection to the disputed islands in the South China Sea would expose the human rights violations and killings of ethnic minorities in Vietnam such as in the 2001 and 2004 uprisings, and lead to the issue of Cham autonomy being brought to attention.
Japanese companies applied to the French authority in Cochichina for phosphate - mining licenses in the Spratlys.
Japan established a submarine base on Itu Aba Island.
Vietnam published a white paper outlining its claims to the islands and disputing those of the other claimants.
The Philippines occupied several more islands and constructed an airstrip.
In May, two submissions were made to the UN 's Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS): a joint submission by Malaysia and Vietnam claims jurisdiction over their respective continental shelves out to 200 nautical miles; a submission by Vietnam claims jurisdiction over an extended shelf area. The People 's Republic of China and the Philippines both protested the moves, stating that they violated agreements made with regard to the islands.
In May, PRC patrol boats attacked and cut the cables of Vietnamese oil - exploration ships near the Spratly Islands. The incidents sparked several anti-China protests in Vietnam.
In June, the PLA navy conducted three days of exercises, including live fire drills, in the disputed waters. This was widely seen as a warning to Vietnam, which had also conducted live fire drills near the Spratly Islands. PRC patrol boats fired repeated rounds at a target on an apparently uninhabited island, as twin fighter - jets streaked in tandem overhead. 14 vessels participated in the manoeuvres, staging antisubmarine and beach - landing drills aimed at "defending atolls and protecting sea lanes ''.
In the 19th century, Europeans found that Chinese fishermen from Hainan annually sojourned on the Spratly islands for part of the year, while in 1877 it was the British who launched the first modern legal claims to the Spratlys.
When the Spratlys and Paracels were being surveyed by Germany in 1883, China issued protests against them. China sent naval forces on inspection tours in 1902 and 1907 and placed flags and markers on the islands. The Qing dynasty 's successor state, the Republic of China, claimed the Spratly and Paracel islands under the jurisdiction of Hainan.
The Spratlys and the Paracels were conquered by Japan in 1939. Japan administered the Spratlys via Taiwan 's jurisdiction and the Paracels via Hainan 's jurisdiction.
In 1946, the Americans reminded the Philippines at its independence that the Spratlys was not Philippine territory, both to not anger Chiang Kai - shek in China and because the Spratlys were not part of the Philippines per the 1898 treaty Spain signed with America.
The Paracels and Spratlys were handed over to Republic of China control from Japan after the 1945 surrender of Japan, since the Allied powers assigned the Republic of China to receive Japanese surrenders in that area.
The Republic of China garrisoned Itu Aba (Taiping) island in 1946 and posted Chinese flags and markers on it along with Woody island in the Paracels, France tried, but failed to make them leave Woody island. The aim of the Republic of China was to block the French claims.
In 1947, the Republic of China drew up the map showing the U shaped claim on the entire South China Sea, showing the Spratly and Paracels in Chinese territory. In 1947, the ROC government renamed 159 islands in the area and published the Map of the South China Sea Islands. The ROC was the first government to establish a physical presence in the Spratly Islands. It has occupied Taiping Island, the largest island in the Spratlys, constantly since 1956.
The Republic of China (ROC), which ruled mainland China before 1949, has been confined to Taiwan since 1949. The People 's Liberation Army and the Republic of China Armed Forces are both stationed in several islands, including the largest, Taiping Island -- occupied by ROC.
After pulling out its garrison in 1950 when the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan, when the Filipino Tomas Cloma uprooted an ROC flag on Itu Aba laid claim to the Spratlys and, the Republic of China (now Taiwan) again regarrisoned Itu Aba on 1956.
Taiwan 's garrison from 1946 -- 1950 and 1956 - now on Itu Aba represents an "effective occupation '' of the Spratlys. China established a coastal defence system against Japanese pirates or smugglers.
In 1958, the People 's Republic of China, having taken over mainland China and having left the Republic of China with control over Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and some outlying islands, issued a declaration of a 12 nautical mile limit territorial waters that encompassed the Spratly Islands. North Vietnam 's prime minister, Phạm Văn Đồng, sent a formal note to PRC 's Premier Zhou Enlai to recognise these claims; and stated that the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) respects the decision on the 12 nautical mile limit territorial waters, although South Vietnam continued to claim sovereignty over the islands.
North Vietnam recognised China 's claims on the Paracels and Spratlys during the Vietnam War as it was being supported by China. Only after winning the war and conquering South Vietnam did North Vietnam retract its recognition and admitted it recognised them as part of China to receive aid from China in fighting the Americans.
The Philippines claimed the Spratlys in 1971 under President Marcos, after Taiwanese troops attacked and shot at a Philippine fishing boat on Itu Aba.
Under President Lee Teng - hui, Taiwan stated that "legally, historically, geographically, or in reality '', all of the South China Sea and Spratly islands were Taiwan 's territory and under Taiwanese sovereignty, and denounced actions undertaken there by Malaysia and the Philippines, in a statement on 13 July 1999 released by the foreign ministry of Taiwan. Taiwan and China 's claims "mirror '' each other; during international talks involving the Spratly islands, China and Taiwan have cooperated with each other since both have the same claims.
Taiwan and China are largely strategically aligned on the Spratly islands issue, since they both claim exactly the same area, so Taiwan 's control of Itu Aba (Taiping) island is viewed as an extension of China 's claim. Taiwan and China both claim the entire island chain, while all the other claimaints only claim portions of them. China has proposed co-operation with Taiwan against all the other countries claiming the islands. Taiwanese lawmakers have demanded that Taiwan fortify Itu Aba (Taiping) island with weapons to defend against the Vietnamese, and both China and Taiwanese NGOs have pressured Taiwan to expand Taiwan 's military capabilities on the island, which played a role in Taiwan expanding the island 's runway in 2012. China has urged Taiwan to co-operate and offered Taiwan a share in oil and gas resources while shutting out all the other rival claimaints. Taiwanese lawmakers have complained about repeated Vietnamese aggression and trespassing on Taiwan 's Itu Aba (Taiping), and Taiwan has started viewing Vietnam as an enemy over the Spratly Islands, not China. Taiwan 's state run oil company CPC Corp 's board director Chiu Yi has called Vietnam as the "greatest threat '' to Taiwan. Taiwan 's airstrip on Taiping has irritated Vietnam. China views Taiwan 's expansion of its military and airstrip on Taiping as benefiting China 's position against the other rival claimaints from southeast Asian countries. China 's claims to the Spratlys benefit from legal weight because of Taiwan 's presence on Itu Aba, while America on the other hand has regularly ignored Taiwan 's claims in the South China Sea and does not include Taiwan in any talks on dispute resolution for the area.
Malaysia has militarily occupied three islands that it considers to be within its continental shelf. Swallow Reef (Layang Layang / Terumbu Layang / Pulau Layang Layang) was under control on 1983 and has been turned into an island through a land reclamation which now also hosts a dive resort. The Malaysian military also occupies Ardasier Reef (Terumbu Ubi), and Mariveles Reef (Terumbu Mantanani).
Since 1992, Malaysia and Vietnam have agreed to jointly develop areas around these disputed islands. Malaysia has made it known that its policy is to maintain peace and resolve disputes using diplomacy. It trusts that China is not an aggressive country and believes China only wants its presence to be known. Malaysia has said that it is always monitoring all of the actions made by countries involved in the dispute.
Taiwan performed live fire military exercises on Taiping island in September 2012; reports said that Vietnam was explicitly named by the Taiwanese military as the "imaginary enemy '' in the drill. Vietnam protested against the exercises as violation of its territory and "voiced anger '', demanding that Taiwan stop the drill. Among the inspectors of the live fire drill were Taiwanese national legislators, adding to the tensions.
In 2010, it was reported that the former Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad believed Malaysia could profit from China 's economic growth through co-operation with China, and said that China "was not a threat to anyone and was not worried about aggression from China '', as well accusing the United States of provoking China and trying to turn China 's neighbours against China. Malaysian authorities displayed no concern over China conducting a military exercise at James Shoal in March 2013, with its Defence Minister Hishamuddin Hussein suggested they might work with China and saying that Malaysia had no problem with China patrolling the South China Sea, and telling ASEAN, America, and Japan that "Just because you have enemies, does n't mean your enemies are my enemies ''. However, until present Malaysia still maintained a balance relations with the countries involved in this dispute. But since China has start enroaching its territorial waters, Malaysia has become active in condemning China.
The editorial of the Taiwanese news website "Want China Times '' accused America for being behind the May 2014 flareup in the South China Sea, saying that Vietnam rammed a Chinese vessel on 2 May over an oil rig drilling platform and the Philippines detained 11 Chinese fishermens occurred because of Obama 's visit to the region and that they were incited by America "behind the scenes ''. "Want China Times '' claimed America ordered Vietnam on 7 May to complain about the drilling platform, and noted that a joint military exercise was happening at this time between the Philippines and America, and also noted that the American "New York Times '' newspaper supported Vietnam.
The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) of Nur Misuari declared its support for China against the Philippines in the South China Sea dispute, calling both China and the Moro people as victims of Philippine colonialism, and noting China 's history of friendly relations with the Moros. The MNLF also denounced America 's assistance to the Philippines in their colonisation of the Moro people in addition to denouncing the Philippines claims to the islands disputed with China, and denouncing America for siding with the Philippines in the dispute, noting that in 1988 China "punished '' Vietnam for attempting to set up a military presence on the disputed islands, and noting that the Moros and China maintained peaceul relations, while on the other hand the Moros had to resist other colonial powers, having to fight the Spanish, fight the Americans, and fight the Japanese, in addition to fighting the Philippines.
The New York Times claimed the peace deal between the Philippines and Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) "seeks to bring prosperity to the restive south and weaken the appeal of the extremist groups. '', and linked the winding down of an American military counter-terrorism operation to increased American military co-operation with the Philippines against China. The New York Times hailed Mr Aquino 's "peace agreement '' as an "accomplishment '' as it reported on Aquino raising the "alarm '' on China in the South China Sea. The New York Times editorial board published an article siding with the Philippines against China in the South China Sea dispute and supporting the Philippines actions against China. The New York Times editorial board endorsed aggressive American military action against China in the South China Sea.
Champa historically had a large presence in the South China Sea. The Vietnamese broke Champa 's power in an invasion of Champa in 1471, and then finally conquered the last remnants of the Cham people in an invasion in 1832. A Cham named Katip Suma who received Islamic education in Kelantan declared a Jihad against the Vietnamese, and fighting continued until the Vietnamese crushed the remnants of the resistance in 1835. The Cham organization Front de Libération du Champa was part of the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races, which waged war against the Vietnamese for independence in the Vietnam War along with the Montagnard and Khmer Krom minorities. The last remaining FULRO insurgents surrendered to the United Nations in 1992. Vietnam has settled over a million ethnic Vietnamese on Montagnard lands in the Central Highlands. The Montagnards staged massive protests against the Vietnamese in 2001 and 2004, which led to the Vietnamese to forcefully crush the uprisings.
The Vietnamese government fears that using the evidence of Champa 's historical connection to the disputed islands in South China Sea would expose the human rights violations and killings of ethnic minorities in Vietnam such as in the 2001 and 2004 uprisings, and lead to the issue of Cham autonomy being brought to attention, since the Vietnamese conquered the Hindu and Muslim Cham people in a war in 1832, and the Vietnamese continue to destroy evidence of Cham culture and artifacts left behind, plundering or building on top of Cham temples, building farms over them, banning Cham religious practices, and omitting references to the destroyed Cham capital of Song Luy in the 1832 invasion in history books and tourist guides. The situation of Cham compared to the ethnic Vietnamese is substandard, lacking water and electricity and living in houses made out of mud.
|
when did the movie titanic first come out | Titanic (1997 film) - wikipedia
Titanic is a 1997 American epic romance - disaster film directed, written, co-produced and co-edited by James Cameron. A fictionalized account of the sinking of the RMS Titanic, it stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet as members of different social classes who fall in love aboard the ship during its ill - fated maiden voyage.
Cameron 's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks; he felt a love story interspersed with the human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began in 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the actual Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer - generated imagery, and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Baja Studios, at Playas de Rosarito in Baja California were used to re-create the sinking. The film was partially funded by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox. It was the most expensive film ever made at the time, with a production budget of $200 million.
Upon its release on December 19, 1997, Titanic achieved critical and commercial success. Nominated for 14 Academy Awards, it tied All About Eve (1950) for the most Oscar nominations, and won 11, including the awards for Best Picture and Best Director, tying Ben - Hur (1959) for the most Oscars won by a single film. With an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion - dollar mark. It remained the highest - grossing film of all time until Cameron 's Avatar surpassed it in 2010. A 3D version of Titanic, released on April 4, 2012 to commemorate the centennial of the sinking, earned it an additional $343.6 million worldwide, pushing the film 's worldwide total to $2.18 billion and making it the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide (after Avatar). In 2017, the film was re-released for its 20th anniversary and was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
In 1996, treasure hunter Brock Lovett and his team aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh search the wreck of RMS Titanic for a necklace with a rare diamond, the Heart of the Ocean. They recover a safe containing a drawing of a young woman wearing only the necklace dated April 14, 1912, the day the ship struck the iceberg. Rose Dawson Calvert, the woman in the drawing, is brought aboard Keldysh and tells Lovett of her experiences aboard Titanic.
In 1912 Southampton, 17 - year - old first - class passenger Rose DeWitt Bukater, her fiancé Cal Hockley, and her mother Ruth board the luxurious Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Rose 's marriage will resolve their family 's financial problems and retain their high - class persona. Distraught over the engagement, Rose considers suicide by jumping from the stern; Jack Dawson, a penniless artist, intervenes and discourages her. Discovered with Jack, Rose tells a concerned Cal that she was peering over the edge and Jack saved her from falling. When Cal becomes indifferent, she suggests to him that Jack deserves a reward. He invites Jack to dine with them in first class the following night. Jack and Rose develop a tentative friendship, despite Cal and Ruth being wary of him. Following dinner, Rose secretly joins Jack at a party in third class.
Aware of Cal and Ruth 's disapproval, Rose rebuffs Jack 's advances, but realizes she prefers him over Cal. After rendezvousing on the bow at sunset, Rose takes Jack to her state room; at her request, Jack sketches Rose posing nude wearing Cal 's engagement present, the Heart of the Ocean necklace. They evade Cal 's bodyguard, Mr. Lovejoy, and have sex in an automobile inside the cargo hold. On the forward deck, they witness a collision with an iceberg and overhear the officers and designer discussing its seriousness.
Cal discovers Jack 's sketch of Rose and an insulting note from her in his safe along with the necklace. When Jack and Rose attempt to inform Cal of the collision, Lovejoy slips the necklace into Jack 's pocket and he and Cal accuse him of theft. Jack is arrested, taken to the master - at - arms ' office, and handcuffed to a pipe. Cal puts the necklace in his own coat pocket.
With the ship sinking, Rose flees Cal and her mother, who has boarded a lifeboat, and frees Jack. On the boat deck, Cal and Jack encourage her to board a lifeboat; Cal claims he can get himself and Jack off safely. After Rose boards one, Cal tells Jack the arrangement is only for himself. As her boat lowers, Rose decides that she can not leave Jack and jumps back on board. Cal takes his bodyguard 's pistol and chases Rose and Jack into the flooding first - class dining saloon. After using up his ammunition, Cal realizes he gave his coat and consequently the necklace to Rose. He later boards a collapsible lifeboat by carrying a lost child.
After braving several obstacles, Jack and Rose return to the boat deck. The lifeboats have departed and passengers are falling to their deaths as the stern rises out of the water. The ship breaks in half, lifting the stern into the air. Jack and Rose ride it into the ocean and he helps her onto a wooden panel buoyant enough for only one person. He assures her that she will die an old woman, warm in her bed. Jack dies of hypothermia but Rose is saved.
With Rose hiding from Cal en route, the RMS Carpathia takes the survivors to New York City where Rose gives her name as Rose Dawson. Rose says she later read that Cal committed suicide after losing all his money in the Wall Street Crash of 1929.
Back in the present, Lovett decides to abandon his search after hearing Rose 's story. Alone on the stern of Keldysh, Rose takes out the Heart of the Ocean -- in her possession all along -- and drops it into the sea over the wreck site. While she is seemingly asleep or has died in her bed, photos on her dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by the life she wanted to live with Jack. A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic 's Grand Staircase, applauded by those who died.
Although not intended to be an entirely accurate depiction of events, the film includes portrayals of several historical figures:
Several crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear in the film, including Anatoly Sagalevich, creator and pilot of the MIR self - propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle. Anders Falk, who filmed a documentary about the film 's sets for the Titanic Historical Society, makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda, then President and Vice President of the Society who served as film consultants, were cast as extras in the film.
James Cameron had a fascination with shipwrecks, and, for him, the RMS Titanic was "the Mount Everest of shipwrecks. '' He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition, but said he still had "a mental restlessness '' to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college. So when an IMAX film was made from footage shot of the wreck itself, he decided to seek Hollywood funding to "pay for an expedition and do the same thing. '' It was "not because I particularly wanted to make the movie, '' Cameron said. "I wanted to dive to the shipwreck. ''
Cameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film, met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin, and pitched it as "Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic ''. Cameron stated, "They were like, ' Oooooohkaaaaaay -- a three - hour romantic epic? Sure, that 's just what we want. Is there a little bit of Terminator in that? Any Harrier jets, shoot - outs, or car chases? ' I said, ' No, no, no. It 's not like that. ' '' The studio was dubious about the idea 's commercial prospects, but, hoping for a long - term relationship with Cameron, they gave him a greenlight.
Cameron convinced Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck itself, and organized several dives to the site over a period of two years. "My pitch on that had to be a little more detailed, '' said Cameron. "So I said, ' Look, we 've got to do this whole opening where they 're exploring the Titanic and they find the diamond, so we 're going to have all these shots of the ship. '' Cameron stated, "Now, we can either do them with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that, which will cost X amount of money -- or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck. '' The crew shot at the real wreck in the Atlantic Ocean twelve times in 1995 and actually spent more time with the ship than its passengers. At that depth, with a water pressure of 6,000 pounds per square inch, "one small flaw in the vessel 's superstructure would mean instant death for all on board. '' Not only were the dives high - risk, but adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting the high quality footage that he wanted. During one dive, one of the submersibles collided with Titanic 's hull, damaging both sub and ship and leaving fragments of the submersible 's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. The external bulkhead of Captain Smith 's quarters collapsed, exposing the interior. The area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was also damaged.
Descending to the actual site made both Cameron and crew want "to live up to that level of reality... But there was another level of reaction coming away from the real wreck, which was that it was n't just a story, it was n't just a drama, '' he said. "It was an event that happened to real people who really died. Working around the wreck for so much time, you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it, and the message of it. '' Cameron stated, "You think, ' There probably are n't going to be many filmmakers who go to Titanic. There may never be another one -- maybe a documentarian. '' Due to this, he felt "a great mantle of responsibility to convey the emotional message of it -- to do that part of it right, too ''.
After filming the underwater shots, Cameron began writing the screenplay. He wanted to honor the people who died during the sinking, so he spent six months researching all of the Titanic 's crew and passengers. "I read everything I could. I created an extremely detailed timeline of the ship 's few days and a very detailed timeline of the last night of its life, '' he said. "And I worked within that to write the script, and I got some historical experts to analyze what I 'd written and comment on it, and I adjusted it. '' He paid meticulous attention to detail, even including a scene depicting the Californian 's role in Titanic 's demise, though this was later cut (see below). From the beginning of the shoot, they had "a very clear picture '' of what happened on the ship that night. "I had a library that filled one whole wall of my writing office with Titanic stuff, because I wanted it to be right, especially if we were going to dive to the ship, '' he said. "That set the bar higher in a way -- it elevated the movie in a sense. We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you 'd gone back in a time machine and shot it. ''
Cameron felt the Titanic sinking was "like a great novel that really happened '', but that the event had become a mere morality tale; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history. The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy, while the blossoming romance of Jack and Rose, Cameron believed, would be the most engaging part of the story: when their love is finally destroyed, the audience would mourn the loss. He said: "All my films are love stories, but in Titanic I finally got the balance right. It 's not a disaster film. It 's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history. ''
Cameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant. While Winslet and Stuart stated their belief that, instead of being asleep in her bed, the character dies at the end of the film, Cameron said that he would rather not reveal what he intended with the ending because "(t) he answer has to be something you supply personally; individually. ''
Harland and Wolff, the RMS Titanic 's builders, opened their private archives to the crew, sharing blueprints that were thought lost. For the ship 's interiors, production designer Peter Lamont 's team looked for artifacts from the era. The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch. Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico, and began building a new studio on May 31, 1996. A horizon tank of seventeen million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship, providing 270 degrees of ocean view. The ship was built to full scale, but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank, with the remaining sections filled with digital models. The lifeboats and funnels were shrunken by ten percent. The boat deck and A-deck were working sets, but the rest of the ship was just steel plating. Within was a fifty - foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences. Towering above was a 162 - foot - tall (49 m) tower crane on 600 feet (180 m) of rail track, acting as a combined construction, lighting, and camera platform.
The sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly as originally built, using photographs and plans from the Titanic 's builders. The Grand Staircase, which features prominently in the film, was recreated to a high standard of authenticity, though it was widened 30 % compared to the original and reinforced with steel girders. Craftsmen from Mexico and Britain sculpted the ornate paneling and plaster - work based on Titanic 's ' original designs. The carpeting, upholstery, individual pieces of furniture, light fixtures, chairs, cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece were among the objects recreated according to original designs. Cameron additionally hired two Titanic historians, Don Lynch and Ken Marschall, to authenticate the historical detail in the film.
Principal photography for Titanic began in July 1996 at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, with the filming of the modern day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh. In September 1996, the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios in Rosarito, Mexico, where a full scale RMS Titanic had been constructed. The poop deck was built on a hinge which could rise from zero to 90 degrees in a few seconds, just as the ship 's stern rose during the sinking. For the safety of the stuntmen, many props were made of foam rubber. By November 15, the boarding scenes were being shot. Cameron chose to build his RMS Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data revealed it was a prevailing north - to - south wind which blew the funnel smoke aft. This posed a problem for shooting the ship 's departure from Southampton, as it was docked on its port side. Implementation of written directions, as well as props and costumes, had to be reversed; for example, if someone walked to their right in the script, they had to walk left during shooting. In post-production, the film was flipped to the correct direction.
A full - time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast in the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912. Despite this, several critics picked up on anachronisms in the film, not least involving the two main stars.
Cameron sketched Jack 's nude portrait of Rose for a scene which he feels has the backdrop of repression. "You know what it means for her, the freedom she must be feeling. It 's kind of exhilarating for that reason, '' he said. The nude scene was DiCaprio and Winslet 's first scene together. "It was n't by any kind of design, although I could n't have designed it better. There 's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them, '' Cameron stated. "They had rehearsed together, but they had n't shot anything together. If I 'd had a choice, I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot. '' Cameron said he and his crew "were just trying to find things to shoot '' because the big set "was n't ready for months, so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot. '' After seeing the scene on film, Cameron felt it worked out considerably well.
Other times on the set were not as smooth. The shoot was an arduous experience that "cemented Cameron 's formidable reputation as ' the scariest man in Hollywood '. He became known as an uncompromising, hard - charging perfectionist '' and a "300 - decibel screamer, a modern - day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie - talkie, swooping down into people 's faces on a 162ft crane ''. Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m - gallon water tank the ship was to be sunk in. "There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him. Jim has a temper like you would n't believe, '' she said. "' God damn it! ' he would yell at some poor crew member, ' that 's exactly what I did n't want! ' '' Her co-star, Bill Paxton, was familiar with Cameron 's work ethic from his earlier experience with him. "There were a lot of people on the set. Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds, '' he said. The crew felt Cameron had an evil alter ego and so nicknamed him "Mij '' (Jim spelt backwards). In response to the criticism, Cameron stated, "Film - making is war. A great battle between business and aesthetics. ''
During the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada, an angry crew member put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. It sent more than 50 people to the hospital, including actor Bill Paxton. "There were people just rolling around, completely out of it. Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics, '' said actor Lewis Abernathy. Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold. Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked. "One eye was completely red, like the Terminator eye. A pupil, no iris, beet red. The other eye looked like he 'd been sniffing glue since he was four. '' The person behind the poisoning was never caught.
The filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160. Many cast members came down with colds, flu, or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water, including Winslet. In the end, she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned "a lot of money ''. Several others left the production, and three stuntmen broke their bones, but the Screen Actors Guild decided, following an investigation, that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set. Additionally, DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming. Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets, although he acknowledged:
I 'm demanding, and I 'm demanding on my crew. In terms of being kind of militaresque, I think there 's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe. I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people.
The costs of filming Titanic eventually began to mount and finally reached $200 million, a bit over $1 million per minute of screen time. Fox executives panicked and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three - hour film. They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings, thus less revenue, even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars. Cameron refused, telling Fox, "You want to cut my movie? You 're going to have to fire me! You want to fire me? You 're going to have to kill me! '' The executives did not want to start over, because it would mean the loss of their entire investment, but they also initially rejected Cameron 's offer of forfeiting his share of the profits as an empty gesture, as they predicted profits would be unlikely.
Cameron explained forfeiting his share as complex. "... the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than T2 and True Lies. Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget. Titanic also had a large budget to begin with, but it went up a lot more, '' he said. "As the producer and director, I take responsibility for the studio that 's writing the checks, so I made it less painful for them. I did that on two different occasions. They did n't force me to do it; they were glad that I did. ''
Cameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects with his film, and enlisted Digital Domain to continue the developments in digital technology which the director pioneered while working on The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about the RMS Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing. Cameron encouraged his crew to shoot their 45 - foot - long (14 m) miniature of the ship as if "we 're making a commercial for the White Star Line ''. Afterwards, digital water and smoke were added, as were extras captured on a motion capture stage. Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors, including himself and his children, for the digital extras and stuntmen. There was also a 65 - foot - long (20 m) model of the ship 's stern that could break in two repeatedly, the only miniature to be used in water. For scenes set in the ship 's engines, footage of the SS Jeremiah O'Brien 's engines were composited with miniature support frames, and actors shot against a greenscreen. In order to save money, the first - class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop behind the actors. The miniature of the Lounge would later be crushed to simulate the destruction of the room and a scale model of a First - Class corridor flooded with jets of water while the camera pans out.
An enclosed 5,000,000 - US - gallon (19,000,000 L) tank was used for sinking interiors, in which the entire set could be tilted into the water. In order to sink the Grand Staircase, 90,000 US gallons (340,000 L) of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank. Unexpectedly, the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel - reinforced foundations, although no one was hurt. The 744 - foot - long (227 m) exterior of the RMS Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank, but as the heaviest part of the ship it acted as a shock absorber against the water; to get the set into the water, Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself. After submerging the dining saloon, three days were spent shooting Lovett 's ROV traversing the wreck in the present. The post-sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350,000 - US - gallon (1,300,000 L) tank, where the frozen corpses were created by applying on actors a powder that crystallized when exposed to water, and wax was coated on hair and clothes.
The climactic scene, which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic, involved a tilting full - sized set, 150 extras, and 100 stunt performers. Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the liner 's final plunge as a graceful slide underwater. He "wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was ''. When carrying out the sequence, people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck, plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down. A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt people resulted in some minor injuries, and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts. The risks were eventually minimized "by using computer generated people for the dangerous falls ''.
There was one "crucial historical fact '' Cameron chose to omit from the film -- the SS Californian was close to the Titanic the night she sank but had turned off its radio for the night, did not hear her crew 's SOS calls, and did not respond to their distress flares. "Yes, the (SS) Californian. That was n't a compromise to mainstream filmmaking. That was really more about emphasis, creating an emotional truth to the film, '' stated Cameron. He said there were aspects of retelling the sinking that seemed important in pre - and post-production, but turned out to be less important as the film evolved. "The story of the Californian was in there; we even shot a scene of them switching off their Marconi radio set, '' said Cameron. "But I took it out. It was a clean cut, because it focuses you back onto that world. If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor, as a microcosm, for the end of the world in a sense, then that world must be self - contained. ''
During the first assembly cut, Cameron altered the planned ending, which had given resolution to Brock Lovett 's story. In the original version of the ending, Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat and fear she is going to commit suicide. Rose then reveals that she had the "Heart of the Ocean '' diamond all along but never sold it, in order to live on her own without Cal 's money. She tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean, after allowing him to hold it. After accepting that treasure is worthless, Brock laughs at his stupidity. Rose then goes back to her cabin to sleep, whereupon the film ends in the same way as the final version. In the editing room, Cameron decided that by this point, the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the resolution to his story, so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond. He also did not want to disrupt the audience 's melancholy after the Titanic 's sinking.
The version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy which takes place after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon, but the test audiences disliked it. The scene was written to give the film more suspense, and featured Cal (falsely) offering to give Lovejoy, his valet, the "Heart of the Ocean '' if he can get it from Jack and Rose. Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first - class dining room. Just as they are about to escape him, Lovejoy notices Rose 's hand slap the water as it slips off the table behind which she is hiding. In revenge for framing him for the "theft '' of the necklace, Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a glass window, which explains the gash on Lovejoy 's head that can be seen when he dies in the completed version of the film. In their reactions to the scene, test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one 's life for wealth, and Cameron cut it for this reason, as well as for timing and pacing reasons. Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons.
The soundtrack album for Titanic was composed by James Horner. For the vocals heard throughout the film, subsequently described by Earle Hitchner of The Wall Street Journal as "evocative '', Horner chose Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø, commonly known as "Sissel ''. Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen, and he particularly liked how she sang "Eg veit i himmerik ei borg '' ("I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle ''). He had tried twenty - five or thirty singers before he finally chose Sissel as the voice to create specific moods within the film.
Horner additionally wrote the song "My Heart Will Go On '' in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs with singing in the film. Céline Dion agreed to record a demo with the persuasion of her husband René Angélil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, although worried that he would have been criticized for "going commercial at the end of the movie ''. Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and "saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion ''.
20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures co-financed Titanic, with Paramount handling the North American distribution and Fox handling the international release. They expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2, 1997. The film was to be released on this date "in order to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better ''. In April, Cameron said the film 's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film for summer would not be possible. With production delays, Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19, 1997. "This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster. '' A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 "generated positive reviews '' and "(c) hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the (film) ''. This eventually led to more positive media coverage.
The film premiered on November 1, 1997, at the Tokyo International Film Festival, where reaction was described as "tepid '' by The New York Times. Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14, 1997, where "the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media ''.
Including revenue from the 2012 and 2017 reissues, Titanic earned $659.4 million in North America and $1.528 billion in other countries, for a worldwide total of $2.187 billion. It became the highest - grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998, and remained so for twelve years, until Avatar (2009), also written and directed by Cameron, surpassed it in 2010. On March 1, 1998, it became the first film to earn more than $1 billion worldwide and on the weekend April 13 -- 15, 2012 -- a century after the original vessel 's foundering, Titanic became the second film to cross the $2 billion threshold during its 3D re-release. Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth highest - grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation. The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
Titanic was the first foreign - language film to succeed in India, which has the largest movie - going audience in the world. A 2012 Hindustan Times report attributes this to the film 's similarities and shared themes with most Bollywood films.
The film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday, December 19, 1997. By the end of that same weekend, theaters were beginning to sell out. The film earned $8,658,814 on its opening day and $28,638,131 over the opening weekend from 2,674 theaters, averaging to about $10,710 per venue, and ranking number one at the box office, ahead of the eighteenth James Bond film, Tomorrow Never Dies. By New Year 's Day, Titanic had made over $120 million, had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out. Its highest grossing single day was Saturday, February 14, 1998, on which it earned $13,048,711, more than eight weeks after its North American debut. It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America, a record for any film. The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday, October 1, 1998 with a final domestic gross of $600,788,188. Outside North America, the film made double its North American gross, generating $1,242,413,080 and accumulating a grand total of $1,843,201,268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run.
Before Titanic 's release, various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, especially due to it being the most expensive film ever made at the time. When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997, "it was with massive forebodings '' since the "people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs -- because of this great albatross of a picture on which, finally, two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making ''. Cameron also thought he was "headed for disaster '' at one point during filming. "We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose $100 million. It was a certainty, '' he stated. As the film neared release, "particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance ''. A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that "Cameron 's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project '' and that the film was "a hackneyed, completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances ''.
When the film became a success, with an unprecedented box office performance, it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers ' emotions. The film was playing on 3,200 screens ten weeks after it opened, and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts, jumped 43 % in total sales in its ninth week of release. It earned over $20 million a week for ten weeks, and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than $1 million a week. 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week. Although young women who saw the film several times, and subsequently caused "Leo - Mania '', were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all - time box office record, other reports have attributed the film 's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground - breaking special effects.
The film 's impact on men has also been especially credited. Now considered one of the films that "make men cry '', MSNBC 's Ian Hodder stated that men admire Jack 's sense of adventure, stowing away on a steamship bound for America. "We cheer as he courts a girl who was out of his league. We admire how he suggests nude modeling as an excuse to get naked. So when (the tragic ending happens), an uncontrollable flood of tears sinks our composure, '' he said. Titanic 's ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland, where character Tallahassee (Woody Harrelson), when recalling the death of his young son, states: "I have n't cried like that since Titanic. ''
In 2010, the BBC analyzed the stigma over men crying during Titanic and films in general. "Middle - aged men are not ' supposed ' to cry during movies, '' stated Finlo Rohrer of the website, citing the ending of Titanic as having generated such tears, adding that "men, if they have felt weepy during (this film), have often tried to be surreptitious about it. '' Professor Mary Beth Oliver, of Penn State University, stated, "For many men, there is a great deal of pressure to avoid expression of ' female ' emotions like sadness and fear. From a very young age, males are taught that it is inappropriate to cry, and these lessons are often accompanied by a great deal of ridicule when the lessons are n't followed. '' Rohrer said, "Indeed, some men who might sneer at the idea of crying during Titanic will readily admit to becoming choked up during Saving Private Ryan or Platoon. '' For men in general, "the idea of sacrifice for a ' brother ' is a more suitable source of emotion ''.
Scott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense, given its success, it is considered a film "for 15 - year - old girls '' by its main detractors. He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for 15 - year - old girls fails to consider the film 's accomplishment: "that (this) grandiose, 3 + hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone -- including teenage boys. '' Meslow stated that despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18, matching the ratings for teenage boy - targeted films like Iron Man, it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic. He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it. "It 's this collection of elements -- the history, the romance, the action -- that made (and continues to make) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe, '' he stated. "Titanic has flaws, but for all its legacy, it 's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe. It 's a great movie for 15 - year - old girls, but that does n't mean it 's not a great movie for everyone else too. ''
Quotes in the film aided its popularity. Titanic 's catchphrase "I 'm the king of the world! '' became one of the film industry 's more popular quotations. According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University, who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. "People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh '', he said.
Cameron explained the film 's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing. "When people have an experience that 's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it, '' he said. "They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. That 's how Titanic worked. '' Media Awareness Network stated, "The normal repeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5 %. The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20 %. '' The box office receipts "were even more impressive '' when factoring in "the film 's 3 - hour - and - 14 - minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie 's four showings ''. In response to this, "(m) any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3: 30 am ''.
Titanic held the record for box office gross for twelve years. Cameron 's follow - up film, Avatar, was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross, and did so in 2010. Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given. For one, "Two - thirds of Titanic 's haul was earned overseas, and Avatar (tracked) similarly... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no. 1 in all of them '' and the markets "such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white - hot today '' with "more screens and moviegoers '' than ever before. Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, said that while Avatar may beat Titanic 's revenue record, the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. "Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s. '' In December 2009, Cameron had stated, "I do n't think it 's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch. Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years. Titanic just struck some kind of chord. '' In a January 2010 interview, he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar 's performance was easier to predict. "It 's gon na happen. It 's just a matter of time, '' he said.
Author Alexandra Keller, when analyzing Titanic 's success, stated that scholars could agree that the film 's popularity "appears dependent on contemporary culture, on perceptions of history, on patterns of consumerism and globalization, as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s -- awesome screen spectacle, expansive action, and, more rarely seen, engaging characters and epic drama. ''
Titanic garnered mainly positive reviews from film critics, and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars, who commented on the film 's cultural, historical and political impacts. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88 % based on 178 reviews, with a rating average of 8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A mostly unqualified triumph for Cameron, who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old - fashioned melodrama. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating to reviews, the film has a score of 75 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorably reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 60 films in the history of the service to earn the score.
With regard to the film 's overall design, Roger Ebert stated, "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all, but almost impossible to make well. '' He credited the "technical difficulties '' with being "so daunting that it 's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion '' and "found (himself) convinced by both the story and the sad saga ''. He named it his ninth best film of 1997. On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film received "two thumbs up '' and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship 's sinking; Ebert described the film as "a glorious Hollywood epic '' and "well worth the wait, '' and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio "captivating ''. James Berardinelli stated, "Meticulous in detail, yet vast in scope and intent, Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity. You do n't just watch Titanic, you experience it. '' It was named his second best film of 1997. Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that "the sinking of the great ship is no secret, yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy '' and that "when you consider that (the film) tops a bum - numbing three - hour running time, then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron ''. Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded, "To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short. James Cameron 's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the ' unsinkable ' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood. ''
The romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised. Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said, "You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time, but of its enormous emotive power, big as the engines of the ship itself, determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart, and as lasting as the love story that propels it. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as, "A lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom. Writer - director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking. '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that "Cameron 's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind. '' Richard Corliss of Time magazine, on the other hand, wrote a mostly negative review, criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements.
Some reviewers felt that the story and dialogue were weak, while the visuals were spectacular. Kenneth Turan 's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he stated, "What really brings on the tears is Cameron 's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only is it not, it is not even close. '', and later claimed that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total. Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying, "The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two (lead characters) refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say. '' Also, filmmaker Robert Altman called it "the most dreadful piece of work I 've ever seen in my entire life ''. In his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic, historian Richard Davenport - Hines said, "Cameron 's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English, anathematizing their emotional restraint, good tailoring, punctilious manners and grammatical training, while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered ''.
Titanic suffered backlash in addition to its success. In 2003, the film topped a poll of "Best Film Endings '', and yet it also topped a poll by Film 2003 as "the worst movie of all time ''. The British film magazine Empire reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review, to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition, to accommodate its readers ' tastes, who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film, and the reported activities of its fans, such as those attending multiple screenings. In addition to this, positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet, often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film. Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film. "What really irks me..., '' he said, "are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it. '' Willcock stated, "I obviously do n't have anything against those who dislike Titanic, but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so (and they do exist, trust me) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy. ''
Cameron responded to the backlash, and Kenneth Turan 's review in particular. "Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off, '' he stated. "They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3 - hour and 14 - minute chunk out of their lives, and dragging others with them, so they can share the emotion. '' Cameron emphasized people from all ages (ranging from 8 to 80) and from all backgrounds were "celebrating their own essential humanity '' by seeing it. He described the script as earnest and straightforward, and said it intentionally "incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless -- and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric '' and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes. He did not see it as pandering. "Turan mistakes archetype for cliche, '' he said. "I do n't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience, or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration. ''
Empire eventually reinstated its original five star rating of the film, commenting, "It should be no surprise then that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron 's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet 's favourite film. Ever. '' In 2017, on the 20th anniversary of its release, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Titanic began its awards sweep starting with the Golden Globes, winning four, namely Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Director, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song. Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart were also nominees. It won the ACE "Eddie '' Award, ASC Award, Art Directors Guild Award, Cinema Audio Society Awards, Screen Actors Guild Award (Best Supporting Actress for Gloria Stuart), The Directors Guild of America Award, and Broadcast Film Critics Association Award (Best Director for James Cameron), and The Producer Guild of America Award. It was also nominated for ten BAFTA awards, including Best Film and Best Director; it failed to win any.
The film garnered fourteen Academy Award nominations, tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's All About Eve and won eleven: Best Picture (the second film about the Titanic to win that award, after 1933 's Cavalcade), Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound (Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano), Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, Best Original Song. Kate Winslet, Gloria Stuart and the make - up artists were the three nominees that did not win. James Cameron 's original screenplay and Leonardo DiCaprio were not nominees. It was the second film to receive eleven Academy Awards, after Ben - Hur. The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King would also match this record in 2004.
Titanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as three Grammy Awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television. The film 's soundtrack became the best - selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time, and became a worldwide success, spending sixteen weeks at number - one in the United States, and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone. The soundtrack also became the best - selling album of 1998 in the U.S. "My Heart Will Go On '' won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television. The film also won Best Male Performance for Leonardo DiCaprio and Best Movie at the MTV Movie Awards, Best Film at the People 's Choice Awards, and Favorite Movie at the 1998 Kids ' Choice Awards. It won various awards outside the United States, including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year. Titanic eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty - seven nominations from various award - giving bodies around the world. Additionally, the book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times ' bestseller list for several weeks, "the first time that such a tie - in book had achieved this status ''.
Since its release, Titanic has appeared on the American Film Institute 's award - winning 100 Years... series. So far, it has ranked on the following six lists:
Titanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS and laserdisc on September 1, 1998. The VHS was also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie. A DVD version was released on August 31, 1999 in a widescreen - only (non-anamorphic) single - disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later. This release became the best - selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000, becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies. At the time, fewer than 5 % of all U.S. homes had a DVD player. "When we released the original Titanic DVD, the industry was much smaller, and bonus features were not the standard they are now, '' said Meagan Burrows, Paramount 's president of domestic home entertainment, which made the film 's DVD performance even more impressive.
Titanic was re-released to DVD on October 25, 2005 when a three - disc Special Collector 's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada. This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film, as well as various special features. The two - disc edition was marketed as the Special Edition, and featured the first two discs of the three - disc set, only PAL - enabled. A four - disc edition, marketed as the Deluxe Collector 's Edition, was also released on November 7, 2005. Available only in the United Kingdom, a limited 5 - disc set of the film, under the title Deluxe Limited Edition, was released with only 10,000 copies manufactured. The fifth disc contains Cameron 's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss, which contained two discs, only the first disc was included in the set.
Titanic was released on Blu - ray as a single disc variant and a 2 disc version featuring special features on September 10, 2012. A 4 Disc Blu - ray 3D version was released the same day. A limited Collector 's Edition box set including the Blu - ray 3D, 2D Blu - ray, DVD, a digital copy and a variety of souvenirs was also released exclusively to Amazon.com and other international retailers.
With regard to television broadcasts, the film airs occasionally across the United States on networks such as TNT. To permit the scene where Jack draws the nude portrait of Rose to be shown on network and specialty cable channels, in addition to minor cuts, the sheer, see - through robe worn by Winslet was digitally painted black. Turner Classic Movies also began to show the film, specifically during the days leading up to the 82nd Academy Awards.
A 2012 re-release, also known as Titanic in 3D, was created by re-mastering the original to 4K resolution and post-converting to stereoscopic 3D format. The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and $18 million to produce, including the 4K restoration. The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D and Sony with Slam Content 's Panther Records remastering the soundtrack. Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process. For the 3D release, Cameron opened up the Super 35 film and expanded the image of the film into a new aspect ratio, from 2: 35: 1 to 1: 78: 1, allowing the viewer to see more image on the top and bottom of the screen. The only scene entirely redone for the re-release was Rose 's view of the night sky at sea, on the morning of April 15, 1912. The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night - sky star pattern, including the Milky Way, adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912. The change was prompted by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who had criticized the scene for showing an unrealistic star pattern. He agreed to send film director Cameron a corrected view of the sky, which was the basis of the new scene.
The 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27, 2012, with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance, and entered general release on April 4, 2012, six days shy of the centenary of RMS Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage.
Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue 3.5 stars out of 4, explaining he found it "pretty damn dazzling ''. He said, "The 3D intensifies Titanic. You are there. Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule. '' Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade. He wrote, "For once, the visuals in a 3 - D movie do n't look darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive. '' Richard Corliss of Time who was very critical in 1997 remained in the same mood, "I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water - logged. '' In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the "careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments... (but) in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels. '' Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking "whether the film 's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron 's 3 - D conversion, and the answer to that is: They are n't. '' She further added that the "3 - D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy, not to mention odd moments in framing and composition. ''
The film grossed an estimated $4.7 million on the first day of its re-release in North America (including midnight preview showings) and went on to make $17.3 million over the weekend, finishing in third place. Outside North America it earned $35.2 million finishing second, and improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with $98.9 million. China has proven to be its most successful territory where it earned $11.6 million on its opening day, going on to earn a record - breaking $67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run. The reissue ultimately earned $343.4 million worldwide, with $145 million coming from China and $57.8 million from Canada and United States.
The 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories, which allows the audience to experience the film 's environment using motion, wind, fog, lighting and scent - based special effects.
For the 20th anniversary of the film, Titanic was re-released in cinemas in Dolby Vision (in both 2D and 3D) for one week beginning December 1, 2017.
Titanic Live was a live performance of James Horner 's original score by a 130 - piece orchestra, choir and Celtic musicians, accompanying a showing of the film. In April 2015, Titanic Live premiered at the Royal Albert Hall, London, where the 2012 3D re-release had premiered. The Express said it was "An absolute triumph, Titanic Live brought the film to life in a beautiful new way. ''
|
when did the winnipeg jets come into the nhl | Winnipeg Jets - Wikipedia
The Winnipeg Jets are a professional ice hockey team based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. They are members of the Central Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The team is owned by True North Sports & Entertainment and plays its home games at Bell MTS Place.
The Jets began play as the Atlanta Thrashers in the 1999 -- 2000 NHL season. True North Sports & Entertainment then bought the team in May 2011 and relocated the franchise from Atlanta to Winnipeg prior to the 2011 -- 12 season (the first NHL franchise to relocate since the Hartford Whalers became the Carolina Hurricanes in 1997). The team was renamed the Jets after Winnipeg 's original WHA / NHL team, which relocated after the 1995 -- 96 season to become the Arizona Coyotes.
On December 27, 1971, Winnipeg was granted one of the founding franchises in the World Hockey Association (WHA). By 1979, the vast majority of the WHA 's teams had folded, but the Jets were still going strong and they were absorbed into the NHL along with the Quebec Nordiques, Edmonton Oilers and Hartford Whalers as part of the WHA -- NHL merger. Team owner Barry Shenkarow sold the team to American businessmen Steven Gluckstern and Richard Burke. Burke and Gluckstern originally planned to move the team to Minnesota (which had lost the North Stars to Dallas in 1993), but eventually reached an agreement with Phoenix businessman Jerry Colangelo that would see the team move to Arizona and become the Phoenix Coyotes. The original Winnipeg Jets played their last game on April 28, 1996.
The city of Atlanta was awarded an NHL expansion franchise, named the Atlanta Thrashers, on June 25, 1997. It was the second NHL franchise for Atlanta (their first being the Atlanta Flames, established in 1972, who departed for Calgary in 1980 to become the Calgary Flames). The Thrashers began play in the 1999 -- 2000 season.
In their 12 years, the Thrashers qualified for the Stanley Cup playoffs only once, during the 2006 -- 07 season, and never won a playoff game. Partially due to their lack of playoff success, the team had difficulty drawing fans to attend their games in their final seasons.
Although they moved for financial reasons, the Coyotes have never been profitable in Arizona. Mounting losses eventually compelled the franchise to file for bankruptcy after the 2008 - 09 season. The team was taken over by the league before the next season began. As early as October 2009, there were rumours that True North Sports & Entertainment, the company that owns both Winnipeg 's Bell MTS Place (then known as MTS Centre) and the American Hockey League (AHL) 's Manitoba Moose and is chaired by Mark Chipman, had been invited to bid on the city 's former franchise. TNSE submitted a series of bids for the Coyotes, which were taken seriously enough that the league drew up a tentative schedule with Winnipeg in place of Phoenix. The NHL shelved the bid after securing a large subsidy from the Coyotes ' municipal government. In contrast to aggressive, public bids by Jim Balsillie (who had unsuccessfully attempted to use bankruptcy laws to skirt NHL rules and move the Coyotes to Hamilton), True North 's low - key approach was praised by NHL commissioner Gary Bettman and other owners, raising their profile when the question of the Thrashers ' relocation came up.
On May 20, 2011, the Winnipeg Sun confirmed that an agreement in principle had been reached for True North to purchase the Thrashers, while Winnipeg Mayor Sam Katz announced that he was confident that the Thrashers ' relocation to Winnipeg would soon be officially announced. On May 31, 2011, at a press conference at the MTS Centre, Bettman confirmed that the Atlanta Thrashers had been sold to True North and would relocate to Winnipeg for the 2011 -- 12 season, pending the approval of the sale and relocation by the NHL 's Board of Governors, which came at their June 21, 2011, meeting. The reported purchase price was $170 million, with $60 million going to the NHL as a relocation fee. After the announcement, True North made preparations to move the Moose franchise to St. John 's, Newfoundland and Labrador.
Season ticket sales began June 1, 2011, with Manitoba Moose season ticket holders having priority. The team sought to sell 13,000 season tickets in an effort to prove its viability. Within the first three and a half hours, the new franchise sold 1,870 packages to Moose season ticket holders. Season tickets opened to the general public on June 4 and sold out in 17 minutes. Once the "Drive to 13,000 '' was completed, True North started a season ticket waiting list, which was shut down after 8,000 people signed up in two hours. In July 2011, tickets for October 9 home opener against the Montreal Canadiens were listed for an average price of $1,711 on Stubhub, with an average selling price of $713.
True North said the team 's name would not be announced until after the successful completion of the season ticket drive at the earliest. The team was not to be named the Thrashers, since True North did not acquire the name in the transaction, and the rights to that name and the Thrashers logo were retained by the ownership group in Atlanta.
There was considerable support in Winnipeg to reuse "Winnipeg Jets '', the name of the city 's original WHA and NHL franchise, though rumours spread that True North preferred "Manitoba Moose ''. "Whiteout '' and "Falcons '' were also considered, but the latter was quickly rejected in deference to Atlanta, which has another professional sports team by that name. True North kept their selection secret until the 2011 NHL Entry Draft in St. Paul, Minnesota, on June 24, when Chipman introduced General Manager Kevin Cheveldayoff to "make our first pick, on behalf of the Winnipeg Jets. ''
Before the franchise relocation was officially completed, True North bought out the remaining years of General Manager Rick Dudley 's contract on June 4, 2011. Thrashers President Don Waddell, who had been with the franchise since its inception, had earlier announced he would not be moving with the team. Kevin Cheveldayoff, a former GM of the Chicago Wolves and former assistant GM of the Chicago Blackhawks, was hired to replace Dudley four days later. On June 12, 2011, Cheveldayoff had Thrashers Head Coach Craig Ramsay reinterview for his position, then formally dismissed him as head coach eight days later. Claude Noel, who had been the head coach of the Manitoba Moose, was named head coach four days later; the other finalist for the job had been Chicago Blackhawks Assistant Coach Mike Haviland. Charlie Huddy, Pascal Vincent and Wade Flaherty, formerly of the Dallas Stars and Blackhawks, were named Noel 's assistant coaches.
The Jets made their formal regular season debut on October 9, 2011, when a sellout crowd at the MTS Centre saw the visiting Montreal Canadiens defeat the Jets 5 -- 1, with Nik Antropov scoring the first - ever Jets goal. This debut featured a concert by Bachman -- Turner Overdrive where Randy Bachman sang "We Just Got Back The Jets '' in place of the title refrain of "You Ai n't Seen Nothing Yet ''. Other highlights on the first Jets schedule included a home - and - home set with the Phoenix Coyotes, Winnipeg 's previous NHL franchise (including a December 1 game in Winnipeg, the Coyotes ' first regular season appearance in Winnipeg since vacating the city), as well as a December 17 home game against the Anaheim Ducks, which was former Jet Teemu Selänne 's first playing appearance in Winnipeg since being traded from the Jets in February 1996.
During the summer of 2012, the Jets added Perry Pearn to their coaching staff. They also named former Thrasher Assistant General Manager Larry Simmons as assistant general manager. As the Jets inherited the Thrashers ' position in the Southeast Division since the 2011 -- 12 season, the NHL and National Hockey League Players ' Association (NHLPA) were prompted to consider realignment of teams. Beginning in 2013 -- 14, the Jets moved to the Western Conference and play in the new - look, seven - team Central Division.
The Jets fired Noel and Pearn in January 2014, with the former being replaced by veteran coach Paul Maurice. On April 9, 2015, the Jets clinched their first Stanley Cup playoff appearance since relocating to Winnipeg following a 1 -- 0 shootout loss to the Colorado Avalanche. They clinched the spot after the Calgary Flames defeated the Los Angeles Kings later in the night. Finishing the season in the second wild card spot, they played the top - seeded Anaheim Ducks in the first round. In the first playoff series that involved a team from Winnipeg since the 1996 playoffs, the Ducks swept the Jets in four games.
The season following their first playoff run was a disappointment, as the Jets finished 25th overall, well out of the playoffs. Management was forced to deal with expiring contracts of two star players, electing to sign Dustin Byfuglien to a five - year extension while trading team captain Andrew Ladd to the Chicago Blackhawks at the NHL trade deadline. Despite finishing with the sixth worst record in the league, the Jets managed to win the second overall pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft through the draft lottery, which they used to select Finnish prospect Patrik Laine. Later that summer, the team appointed Blake Wheeler as their new captain.
In the 2017 -- 18 season, the Jets clinched their second playoff spot since relocating from Atlanta. On March 25, 2018, the Jets beat the Nashville Predators 5 -- 4 in a shootout, and clinched a spot in the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs. On April 11, 2018, the Jets won the first playoff game in the history of the Atlanta / Winnipeg franchise when they defeated the Minnesota Wild 3 -- 2. On April 20, 2018, the Jets won their first playoff series in franchise history (and the first series victory in 31 years for the city) with a 5 -- 0 victory over the Minnesota Wild in game 5 of the First Round series, winning the series 4 -- 1. On May 10, 2018, the Jets made further franchise history by advancing to the Western Conference Finals for the first time, defeating the Nashville Predators 4 games to 3; Nashville were the defending holders of the Campbell Bowl Trophy from the previous season and holders of the President 's Trophy for most points in the league during the 2017 - 18 NHL season. This would also mark the first time that either iteration of the Winnipeg Jets had advanced beyond the second round of the playoffs. Facing the Vegas Golden Knights in the Western Conference Finals, the Jets defeated the Golden Knights in the first game of the series 4 -- 2. However, the Jets went on to lose the Western Conference Finals, with the Golden Knights defeating the Jets in the following four games in the series.
No new logo and colours for the Jets accompanied the team 's nickname announcement at the 2011 NHL Entry Draft (draft pick Mark Scheifele was presented with a generic black and silver NHL jersey and cap), but True North confirmed that they were in the process of conceiving a logo and colour scheme for the Jets, with True North 's chairman, Mark Chipman, stating that the previous Jets ' blue and red colours would be incorporated. The Jets unveiled their new logos and colours on July 22, 2011, three days before the team had scheduled to release them (this after team merchandise containers were broken into and a crude picture of a Jets ' T - shirt made the rounds on the internet).
While blue and silver are the main colour palette, the insignias are a dramatic departure from the previous Jets ' logos and pay homage to the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), particularly Winnipeg 's 17 Wing; the primary logo is patterned after the roundels used by the RCAF and includes a silhouette of a McDonnell Douglas CF - 18 Hornet. (Red is a secondary part of the colour scheme due to a maple leaf, the incorporation of which came with the permission of the Toronto Maple Leafs.) Game uniforms for the new Jets were unveiled in September at 17 Wing; the team did not introduce a third jersey for its inaugural season due to a limited timetable. The team has, thus far, opted not to introduce a third jersey.
The logo was designed by Reebok, the NHL and designer Linda Lynch. Reebok 's lead uniform and team identity designers, Dominique Fillion and Linda Lynch, have been associated with the identity design, although True North has not revealed specific design credits.
True North announced they had "recalled '' their former Moose mascot, Mick E. Moose, from the AHL. Mick E. had spent the past 15 seasons with the Manitoba Moose of the International and American hockey leagues, entertaining fans at Moose games and community events. Slight modifications to the costume were made, including a new vintage leather aviator helmet. Since the start of the 2015 -- 16 season, Mick E. Moose has served as mascot for both the Jets and the Manitoba Moose. A fan favourite, he also averages over 100 community appearances per season in Winnipeg and rural Manitoba.
Beginning in 2011, during the singing of "O Canada '', when the line "The True North strong and free '' is sung, fans commonly yell "True North. '' Jennifer Hanson sang the anthems at home games until 1996 and again in 2016 during the Heritage Classic Alumni Game. Since 2011, Stacey Nattrass sings the anthems at home games.
The Winnipeg Whiteout is a hockey tradition that dates back to 1987 when fans of the original Jets franchise were asked to wear white clothing to home playoff games, creating a very intimidating effect and atmosphere. It was created as a response to the "C of Red '' created by fans of the Calgary Flames, whom the Jets were facing in the first round of the 1987 Stanley Cup playoffs. The Jets eliminated the Flames in six games, and fans wore white for every home playoff game thereafter. Fans coined it the "Whiteout. ''
Fans of the former Jets AHL affiliate, the St. John 's IceCaps, also continued this tradition, as did fans of the continuing franchise in Glendale, the Arizona Coyotes. It is referred to as the "Ice Cap 's Whiteout '' and "Coyotes Whiteout, '' respectively by IceCaps and Coyotes fans. The Whiteout was also used, during the Canada vs Russia Gold Medal game, at the 1999 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, hosted by the city of Winnipeg. During the 2009 Calder Cup playoffs between the Manitoba Moose and the Hershey Bears, fans were asked to wear white for Game 6 of the Calder Cup Finals.
The Winnipeg Jets resurrected this tradition when they qualified for the 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs. The tradition was also used in the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs.
For the full season - by - season history, see List of Winnipeg Jets seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, OT = Overtime losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated April 17, 2018
Note: This list does not include captains from the Atlanta Thrashers.
Note: This list does not include head coaches from the Atlanta Thrashers.
The previous Winnipeg Jets organization retired the jersey numbers of two players, while their successors, the Arizona Coyotes, have retired the numbers of players who played for the former Jets as well. These numbers have not been officially retired by the current franchise.
Upon relocation of the team in 2011, Evander Kane sought (and received) permission from Bobby Hull to wear number 9; the number had been retired by the previous Jets franchise. Kane had worn the number 9 during his time with the Thrashers, and the Jets organization encouraged him to keep the number. The Jets traded Kane to the Buffalo Sabres in February 2015.
Number 25, retired by the original Jets in honour of Thomas Steen, was attributed to Paul Stastny, a close friend of Steen 's son, Alex. Stastny has chosen the number partly because of Steen. Zach Redmond wore the number during his time with the team.
Bryan Little switched from number 10, which he wore in Atlanta, to number 18 out of respect for Dale Hawerchuk, who had worn number 10 with the original Jets.
Number 11 has not been issued since the death of Rick Rypien prior to the 2011 - 12 season. The Jets still wear stickers bearing the number on their helmets to this day.
Number 37 was not issued by the Atlanta / Winnipeg franchise between 2003 and 2016 following the death of player Dan Snyder in 2003. Goaltender Connor Hellebuyck has worn the number since 2016, with the blessing of the Snyder family.
The NHL retired Wayne Gretzky 's No. 99 for all its member teams at the 2000 NHL All - Star Game.
In July 15, 2016, the Jets announced the creation of the Winnipeg Jets Hall of Fame, to honour the impact and accomplishments of the team 's hockey legends and celebrate the rich history of professional hockey in the city. The inaugural inductees were the "HOT Line '' consisting of Anders Hedberg, Bobby Hull and Ulf Nilsson, and they were inducted on October 19, 2016. Dale Hawerchuk was honoured on November 14, 2017.
These are the top - ten point, goal, and assist scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.
These records include those accrued during the team 's time as the Atlanta Thrashers.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game
Bell Media holds regional television and radio rights to the Jets, under a 10 - year deal that began in the inaugural season. Winnipeg Jets games not televised nationally by national broadcast partner Rogers Media are broadcast by TSN3, and are available in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories (shared with the Calgary Flames and Edmonton Oilers outside of Manitoba), and parts of Northwestern Ontario (shared with the Toronto Maple Leafs).
Regional Jets games were previously carried by TSN Jets, a part - time multiplex channel of TSN exclusive to the Jets ' market. The channel was a premium add - on priced at $9.95 CDN per month during the NHL season, but was carried as a free preview for the beginning of its inaugural season. Despite the fee, representatives from both MTS and Shaw Cable stated that "thousands '' of their customers had subscribed to the Jets channel. In August 2014, TSN announced that it would split its singular national feed into 4 regional channels on August 25, 2014; on August 18, 2014, TSN officially confirmed the Jets subscription channel had been discontinued, and that the broadcasts would move to TSN3.
Radio broadcasts are carried by local sports talk station CFRW, TSN Radio 1290. Dennis Beyak serves as the primary play - by - play voice of the Jets, calling all games televised on TSN3, joined by colour commentators Ray Ferraro, Jamie McLennan and Dave Poulin on a rotating basis, and rinkside reporter Sara Orlesky. Paul Edmonds, formerly the voice of the Winnipeg Goldeyes American Association team, calls Jets games on radio, joined by former Manitoba Moose broadcaster Brian Munz on colour. Until 2017, colour commentary duties were handled on television by former NHLer and Neepawa, Manitoba native Shane Hnidy; in August 2017, it was announced that he would move to AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain to become colour commentator for the Vegas Golden Knights.
|
is it illegal to shoot a canada goose | Canada goose - wikipedia
Anas canadensis Linnaeus, 1758
The Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is a large wild goose species with a black head and neck, white cheeks, white under its chin, and a brown body. Native to arctic and temperate regions of North America, its migration occasionally reaches northern Europe. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands. Like most geese, the Canada goose is primarily herbivorous and normally migratory; it tends to be found on or close to fresh water.
Extremely successful at living in human - altered areas, Canada geese have proven able to establish breeding colonies in urban and cultivated areas, which provide food and few natural predators, and are well known as a common park species. Their success has led to them often being considered a pest species because of their depredation of crops and their noise, droppings, aggressive territorial behavior, and habit of begging for food (caused by human hand feeding), especially in their introduced range. Canada geese are also among the most commonly hunted waterfowl in North America and northwest Europe.
The Canada goose was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th - century work Systema Naturae. It belongs to the Branta genus of geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey species of the genus Anser.
Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse Brandgás, "burnt (black) goose '' and the specific epithet canadensis is a New Latin word meaning "from Canada ''. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first citation for the ' Canada goose ' dates back to 1772. The Canada goose is also colloquially referred to as the "Canadian goose ''.
The cackling goose was originally considered to be the same species or a subspecies of the Canada goose, but in July 2004, the American Ornithologists ' Union 's Committee on Classification and Nomenclature split them into two species, making the cackling goose into a full species with the scientific name Branta hutchinsii. The British Ornithologists ' Union followed suit in June 2005.
The AOU has divided the many subspecies between the two species. The subspecies of the Canada goose were listed as:
The distinctions between the two geese have led to confusion and debate among ornithologists. This has been aggravated by the overlap between the small types of Canada goose and larger types of cackling goose. The old "lesser Canada geese '' were believed to be a partly hybrid population, with the birds named B. c. taverneri considered a mixture of B. c. minima, B. c. occidentalis, and B. c. parvipes. The holotype specimen of taverneri is a straightforward large pale cackling goose however, and hence the taxon is still valid today and was renamed "Taverner 's cackling goose ''.
In addition, the barnacle goose (B. leucopsis) was determined to be a derivative of the cackling goose lineage, whereas the Hawaiian goose (B. sandvicensis) originated from ancestral Canada geese. Thus, the species ' distinctness is well evidenced, A recent proposed revision by Harold C. Hanson suggests splitting Canada and cackling goose into six species and 200 subspecies. The radical nature of this proposal has provoked surprise in some quarters; Richard Banks of the AOU urges caution before any of Hanson 's proposals are accepted.
The black head and neck with a white "chinstrap '' distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose species, with the exception of the cackling goose and barnacle goose (the latter, however, has a black breast and gray rather than brownish body plumage).
The seven subspecies of this bird vary widely in size and plumage details, but all are recognizable as Canada geese. Some of the smaller races can be hard to distinguish from the cackling goose, which slightly overlap in mass. However, most subspecies of the cackling goose (exclusive of Richardson 's cackling goose, B. h. hutchinsii) are considerably smaller. The smallest cackling goose, B. h. minima, is scarcely larger than a mallard. In addition to the size difference, cackling geese also have a shorter neck and smaller bill, which can be useful when small Canada geese comingle with relatively large cackling geese. Of the "true geese '' (i.e. the genera Anser, Branta or Chen), the Canada goose is on average the largest living species, although some other species that are geese in name, if not of close relation to these genera, are on average heavier such as the spur - winged goose and Cape Barren goose.
Canada geese range from 75 to 110 cm (30 to 43 in) in length and have a 127 -- 185 cm (50 -- 73 in) wingspan. Among standard measurements, the wing chord can range from 39 to 55 cm (15 to 22 in), the tarsus can range from 6.9 to 10.6 cm (2.7 to 4.2 in) and the bill can range from 4.1 to 6.8 cm (1.6 to 2.7 in). The largest subspecies is the B. c. maxima, or the giant Canada goose, and the smallest (with the separation of the cackling goose group) is B. c. parvipes, or the lesser Canada goose. An exceptionally large male of race B. c. maxima, which rarely exceed 8 kg (18 lb), weighed 10.9 kg (24 lb) and had a wingspan of 2.24 m (7.3 ft). This specimen is the largest wild goose ever recorded of any species.
The male Canada goose usually weighs 2.6 -- 6.5 kg (5.7 -- 14.3 lb), averaging amongst all subspecies 3.9 kg (8.6 lb). The female looks virtually identical, but is slightly lighter at 2.4 -- 5.5 kg (5.3 -- 12.1 lb), averaging amongst all subspecies 3.6 kg (7.9 lb), and generally 10 % smaller in linear dimensions than the male counterparts. The female also possesses a different, and less sonorous, honk than the male.
This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a variety of habitats. The Great Lakes region maintains a very large population of Canada geese. Canada geese occur year - round in the southern part of their breeding range, including most of the eastern seaboard and the Pacific coast. Between California and South Carolina in the southern United States and northern Mexico, Canada geese are primarily present as migrants from further north during the winter.
By the early 20th century, overhunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th century and early 20th century had resulted in a serious decline in the numbers of this bird in its native range. The giant Canada goose subspecies was believed to be extinct in the 1950s until, in 1962, a small flock was discovered wintering in Rochester, Minnesota, by Harold Hanson of the Illinois Natural History Survey. In 1964, the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center was built near Jamestown, North Dakota. Its first director, Harvey K. Nelson, talked Forrest Lee into leaving Minnesota to head the center 's Canada goose production and restoration program. Forrest soon had 64 pens with 64 breeding pairs of screened, high - quality birds. The project involved private, state, and federal resources and relied on the expertise and cooperation of many individuals. By the end of 1981, more than 6,000 giant Canada geese had been released at 83 sites in 26 counties in North Dakota. With improved game laws and habitat recreation and preservation programs, their populations have recovered in most of their range, although some local populations, especially of the subspecies B. c. occidentalis, may still be declining.
In recent years, Canada goose populations in some areas have grown substantially, so much so that many consider them pests for their droppings, bacteria in their droppings, noise, and confrontational behavior. This problem is partially due to the removal of natural predators and an abundance of safe, man - made bodies of water near food sources, such as those found on golf courses, in public parks and beaches, and in planned communities. Due in part to the interbreeding of various migratory subspecies with the introduced nonmigratory giant subspecies, Canada geese are frequently a year - around feature of such urban environments.
Contrary to its normal migration routine, large flocks of Canada geese have established permanent residence in Esquimalt, British Columbia and British Columbia 's Lower Mainland, on Chesapeake Bay, in Virginia 's James River regions, and in the Triangle area of North Carolina (Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill), and nearby Hillsborough. Some Canada geese have taken up permanent residence as far south as Florida, in places such as retention ponds in apartment complexes. Large resident populations of Canada geese are also present in much of the San Francisco Bay area in Northern California. In 2015, the Ohio population of Canada geese was reported as roughly 130,000, with the number likely to continue increasing. Many of the geese, previously migratory, reportedly had become native, remaining in the state even in the summer. The increase was attributed to a lack of natural predators, an abundance of water, and plentiful grass in manicured lawns in urban areas. Canada geese were eliminated in Ohio following the American Civil War, but were reintroduced in 1956 with 10 pairs. The population was estimated at 18,000 in 1979. The geese are considered protected, though a hunting season is allowed from September 1 -- 15, with a daily bag limit of five. The Ohio Department of Natural Resources recommends a number of non-lethal scare and hazing tactics for nuisance geese, but if such methods have been used without success, they may issue a permit which can be used from March 11 through August 31 to destroy nests, conduct a goose roundup or shoot geese.
Canada geese have reached Northern Europe naturally, as has been proved by ringing recoveries. The birds include those of the subspecies B. c. parvipes, and possibly others. These geese are also found naturally on the Kamchatka Peninsula in eastern Siberia, and eastern China.
Canada geese have also been introduced in Europe, and had established populations in Great Britain in the middle of the eighteenth century, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Finland. Most European populations are not migratory, but those in more northerly parts of Sweden and Finland migrate to the North Sea and Baltic coasts. Semitame feral birds are common in parks, and have become a pest in some areas. In the early 17th century, explorer Samuel de Champlain sent several pairs of geese to France as a present for King Louis XIII. The geese were first introduced in Britain in the late 17th century as an addition to King James II 's waterfowl collection in St. James 's Park. They were introduced in Germany and Scandinavia during the 20th century, starting in Sweden in 1929. In Britain, they were spread by hunters, but remained uncommon until the mid-20th century. Their population grew from 2200 -- 4000 birds in 1953 to an estimated 82,000 in 1999, as changing agricultural practices and urban growth provided new habitat. European birds are mostly descended from the subspecies B. c. canadensis, likely with some contributions from the subspecies B. c. maxima.
Canada geese were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They have become a problem in some areas by fouling pastures and damaging crops. They were protected under the Wildlife Act 1953 and the population was managed by Fish and Game New Zealand, which culled excessive bird numbers. In 2011, the government removed the protection status, allowing anyone to kill the birds.
Like most geese, the Canada goose is naturally migratory with the wintering range being most of the United States. The calls overhead from large groups of Canada geese flying in V - shaped formation signal the transitions into spring and autumn. In some areas, migration routes have changed due to changes in habitat and food sources. In mild climates from south western British Columbia to California to the Great Lakes, some of the population has become nonmigratory due to adequate winter food supply and a lack of former predators.
Males exhibit agonistic behavior both on and off breeding and nesting grounds. This behavior rarely involves interspecific killing. One documented case involved a male defending his nest from a brant goose that wandered into the area; the following attack lasted for one hour until the death of the brant. The cause of death was suffocation or drowning in mud as a direct result of the Canada goose 's pecking the head of the brant into the mud. Researchers attributed it to high hormone levels and the brant 's inability to leave the nesting area.
Canada geese are primarily herbivores, although they sometimes eat small insects and fish. Their diet includes green vegetation and grains. The Canada goose eats a variety of grasses when on land. It feeds by grasping a blade of grass with the bill, then tearing it with a jerk of the head. The Canada goose also eats beans and grains such as wheat, rice, and corn when they are available. In the water, it feeds from aquatic plants by sliding its bill at the bottom of the body of water. It also feeds on aquatic plants, such as seaweeds. In urban areas, it is also known to pick food out of garbage bins. They are also sometimes hand - fed a variety of grains and other foods by humans in parks.
During the second year of their lives, Canada geese find a mate. They are monogamous, and most couples stay together all of their lives. If one dies, the other may find a new mate. The female lays from two to nine eggs with an average of five, and both parents protect the nest while the eggs incubate, but the female spends more time at the nest than the male.
Its nest is usually located in an elevated area near water such as streams, lakes, ponds, and sometimes on a beaver lodge. Its eggs are laid in a shallow depression lined with plant material and down.
The incubation period, in which the female incubates while the male remains nearby, lasts for 24 -- 28 days after laying. As the annual summer molt also takes place during the breeding season, the adults lose their flight feathers for 20 -- 40 days, regaining flight about the same time as their goslings start to fly.
As soon as the goslings hatch, they are immediately capable of walking, swimming, and finding their own food (a diet similar to the adult geese). Parents are often seen leading their goslings in a line, usually with one adult at the front, and the other at the back. While protecting their goslings, parents often violently chase away nearby creatures, from small blackbirds to lone humans who approach, after warning them by giving off a hissing sound and then attack with bites and slaps of the wings if the threat does not retreat or has seized a gosling. Canada geese are especially protective animals, and will sometimes attack any animal nearing its territory or offspring, including humans. Most of the species that prey on eggs also take a gosling. Although parents are hostile to unfamiliar geese, they may form groups of a number of goslings and a few adults, called crèches.
The offspring enter the fledgling stage any time from 6 to 9 weeks of age. They do not leave their parents until after the spring migration, when they return to their birthplace.
Canada geese are known for their seasonal migrations. Most Canada geese have staging or resting areas where they join up with others. Their autumn migration can be seen from September to the beginning of November. The early migrants have a tendency to spend less time at rest stops and go through the migration much faster. The later birds usually spend more time at rest stops. Some geese return to the same nesting ground year after year and lay eggs with their mate, raising them in the same way each year. This is recorded from the many tagged geese which frequent the East Coast.
Canada geese fly in a distinctive V - shaped flight formation, with an altitude of 1 km (3,000 feet) for migration flight. The maximum flight ceiling of Canada geese is unknown, but they have been reported at 9 km (29,000 feet).
Flying in the V formation has been the subject of study by researchers. The front position is rotated since flying in front consumes the most energy. Canada geese leave the winter grounds more quickly than the summer grounds. Elevated thyroid hormones, such as T and T, have been measured in geese just after a big migration. This is believed because of the long days of flying in migration the thyroid gland sends out more T which help the body cope with the longer journey. The increased T levels are also associated with increased muscle mass (hypertrophy) of the breast muscle, also because of the longer time spent flying. It is believed that the body sends out more T to help the goose 's body with this long task by speeding up the metabolism and lowering the temperature at which the muscles work. Also, other studies show levels of stress hormones such as corticosterone rise dramatically in these birds during and after a migration.
The lifespan in the wild of geese that survive to adulthood ranges from 10 to 24 years. The British longevity record is held by a specimen tagged as a nestling, which was observed alive at the University of York at the age of 31.
Known predators of eggs and goslings include coyotes, Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), northern raccoons (Procyon lotor), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), large gulls (Larus species), common ravens (Corvus corax), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), carrion crows (in Europe, Corvus corone) and both brown (Ursus arctos) and American black bears (Ursus americanus).
Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators. Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes and gray wolves (Canis lupus). Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, include snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and, though rarely on large adult geese, great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), and gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus). Adults are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair. Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles of both species frequently cause geese to fly off en masse from some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior. Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness towards humans, especially where they are fed by them. This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive towards humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent issues to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.
Salinity plays a role in the growth and development of goslings. Moderate to high salinity concentrations without fresh water results in slower development, growth, and saline - induced mortality. Goslings are susceptible to saline - induced mortality before their nasal salt glands become functional, with the majority occurring before the sixth day of life.
Canada geese are susceptible to avian bird flus, such as H5N1. A study carried out using the HPAI virus, a H5N1 virus, found that the geese were susceptible to the virus. This proved useful for monitoring the spread of the virus through the high mortality of infected birds. Prior exposure to other viruses may result in some resistance to H5N1.
In North America, nonmigratory Canada goose populations have been on the rise. The species is frequently found on golf courses, parking lots, and urban parks, which would have previously hosted only migratory geese on rare occasions. Owing to its adaptability to human - altered areas, it has become one of the most common waterfowl species in North America. In many areas, nonmigratory Canada geese are now regarded as pests by humans. They are suspected of being a cause of an increase in high fecal coliforms at beaches. An extended hunting season, deploying noise makers, and hazing by dogs have been used in an attempt to disrupt suspect flocks. A goal of conservationists has been to focus hunting on the nonmigratory populations (which tend to be larger and more of a nuisance) as opposed to migratory flocks showing natural behavior, which may be rarer.
Since 1999, the United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services agency has been engaged in lethal culls of Canada geese primarily in urban or densely populated areas. The agency responds to municipalities or private land owners, such as golf courses, which find the geese obtrusive or object to their waste. Addling goose eggs and destroying nests are promoted as humane population control methods. Flocks of Canada goose can also be captured during moult and this method of culling is used to control invasive populations.
Canada geese are protected from hunting and capture outside of designated hunting seasons in the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and in Canada under the Migratory Birds Convention Act. In both countries, commercial transactions such as buying or trading are mostly prohibited and the possession, hunting, and interfering with the activity of the animals are subject to restrictions. In the UK, as with native bird species, the nests and eggs of Canada geese are fully protected by law, except when their removal has been specifically licensed, and shooting is generally permitted only during the defined open season.
Geese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then bite or attack with their wings.
Canada geese have been implicated in a number of bird strikes by aircraft. Their large size and tendency to fly in flocks may exacerbate their impact. In the United States, the Canada goose is the second-most damaging bird strike to airplanes, with the most damaging being turkey vultures. Canada geese can cause fatal crashes when they strike an aircraft 's engine. In 1995, a U.S. Air Force E-3 Sentry aircraft at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, struck a flock of Canada geese on takeoff, losing power in both port side engines. It crashed 2 mi (3.2 km) from the runway, killing all 24 crew members. The accident sparked efforts to avoid such events, including habitat modification, aversion tactics, herding and relocation, and culling of flocks. In 2009, a collision with a flock of migratory Canada geese resulted in US Airways Flight 1549 suffering a total power loss after takeoff causing the crew of the aircraft to land the plane on the Hudson River with no loss of human life.
As a large, common wild bird, the Canada goose is a common target of hunters, especially in its native range. Drake Larsen, a researcher in sustainable agriculture at Iowa State University, described them to Atlantic magazine as "so yummy... good, lean, rich meat. I find they are similar to a good cut of beef. '' The British Trust for Ornithology, however, has described them as "reputedly amongst the most inedible of birds. '' The US goose harvest for 2013 -- 14 reported over 1.3 million geese taken. Canada geese are rarely farmed, and sale of wild Canada goose meat is rare due to regulation, and slaughterhouses ' lack of experience with wild birds. Geese culled near New York airports have been donated to food banks in Pennsylvania. As of 2011, the sale of wild Canada goose meat was not permitted in the UK; some landowners have lobbied for this ban to be withdrawn to allow them income from sale of game meat.
In 2000, the North American population for the geese was estimated to be between 4 million and 5 million birds. A 20 - year study from 1983 to 2003 in Wichita, Kansas, found the size of the winter Canada goose population within the city limits increase from 1,600 to over 18,000 birds.
|
the rampur distillery & chemical co. ltd share price | Radico Khaitan - wikipedia
Radico Khaitan Ltd. (RKL), formerly Rampur Distillery & Chemical Company Ltd., is an Indian company that manufactures industrial alcohol, Indian Made Foreign Liquor (IMFL), country liquor and fertilizers. It is the fourth largest Indian liquor company,. Radico brands are sold in more than 60 countries, including USA, Canada, South America, Africa, Europe, South East Asia and the Middle East.
Radico Khaitan Ltd. was established as Rampur Distillery & Chemical Company Ltd. in 1943 at Rampur, Uttar Pradesh. The distillery in Rampur initially produced extra neutral alcohol (ENA) and supplied bulk alcohol for several liquor companies such as Shaw Wallace, Mohan Meakin and the United Breweries Group. It had a turnover of ₹ 6.5 million in 1979. It was only in 1999 that the company commenced production of its own brands. Lalit Khaitan 's father, G.N. Khaitan, bought out the loss - making Rampur Distillery from Vishnu Hari Dalmia for ₹ 1.6 million in 1972. According to Lalit Khaitan, his father was a teetotaler throughout his life, and even Khaitan himself had never tasted alcohol until his father bought the distillery. G.N. Khaitan divided the family business (which included construction, real estate, liquor industries and others) among his 4 sons in 1995, and Lalit Khaitan inherited the relatively small liquor division. Prior to that the distillery was run by Lalit 's cousin and others. In 1991, Radico set up a malt spirit plant with an installed capacity of 460 KL per annum; a soya oil / rapeseed extraction plant with an installed capacity of 300 tpd based on soyabean seeds & 350 tpd based on rapeseed oil cake at Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh and a biogas cogeneration and secondary treatment plant. The company also modernized the distillery unit by installing new copper distillation plant and a fully automatic bottling line. It also balanced its Single Superphosphate (SSP) plant by putting equipment like a ball mill and a scrubbing system. The entire modernisation - cum - expansion programme cost the company ₹ 365 million. The company undertook a major expansion of its solvent extraction plant to increase the capacity from 300 tpd to 600 tpd in 1994, and launched Contessa Rum, Contessa Whisky and a few other products in CMI markets in 1995. Contessa Rum is mainly sold to the Canteen Stores Department (CSD). Radico entered into a joint venture with Whyte & Mackay Group plc. in the same year, and launched Scotch whisky brands 15 YO, Findlater and WMSR in India.
While planning to launch a new brand in 1996, Khaitan and his son Abhishek, who had joined the company recently, found that more Scotch was consumed in India than was bottled in Scotland, and there was no Scotch blended whisky brand available in India in the lower price range at that time. The Khaitans intended to launch a brand to target that segment, but had low finances, which was compounded by the entry of MNCs into the Indian liquor industry. The first Radico Khaitan IMFL brand was 8 PM whisky, launched in 1999, and currently Radico 's flagship brand. According to Abhishek Khaitan, the name was chosen as the company felt that "8 was the simplest thing to depict '', and also because "people usually start drinking at 8 pm. '' in India. The TV advert for the whisky was in black - and - white, and depicted opposing soldiers bonding over 8 PM whisky at an international border. Radico announced in May 1999 that it had submitted a proposal to set up a distillery in Kyrgyzstan, which had been and it had been accepted by Kyrgyzstan government.
RKL created an international division, called Radico International, in 2003. Radico International introduced brands such as Beck 's beer and wines from E&J Gallo in the Indian market. On 14 January 2003, RKL president (finance) RK Mehrotra announced that the company was planning to set up a bottling facility in Mauritius for their 8PM brand through a tie - up with a local company. In July 2003, Radico announced the installation of an ENA deluxe plant at its Rampur Distillery at a cost of ₹ 200 million. The company would use some of the ENA for its own IMFL brands, while the rest is sold in India and exported to liquor majors in Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Radico purchased Bacardi 's 51 % stake in Whytehall India for over ₹ 300 million in 2004, gaining control of the Whytehall brand. In a press release on 7 April 2004, Radico announced that it had acquired Anab - e-Shahi, a bottling plant in Andhra Pradesh. This was the company 's first acquisition in South India.
Radico entered the vodka market in November 2005, with the launch of the grain - based Magic Moments vodka. Although Magic Moments was not an instant success like 8 PM, it earns Radico more revenue than 8 PM. In 2005, the company set up a grain - based distillery plant in Uttar Pradesh at a cost of ₹ 850 million.
In May 2006, Radico announced that it had entered into two overseas joint ventures in the United Kingdom and western Africa, becoming the first Indian liquor company to have overseas production lines. The joint ventures are intended to help Radico launch its brands in the UK and African markets. Radico handles sales, marketing and distribution functions, while manufacturing is outsourced to the local partner. The whiskies Radico sells outside India are grain - based, while its whiskies in India are made from molasses. In August 2006, Diageo and Radico Khaitan announced a 50: 50 JV called Diaego Radico Distilleries Pvt Ltd in the Indian spirits market, with the latter handling distribution and manufacturing base and former providing marketing. The move marked Diageo 's return to the IMFL market, which it had previously exited in 2001. Diageo Radico launched Masterstroke Deluxe Whisky in the premium segment in March 2007. However, the joint venture did not launch any new brands following that. Diageo instead developed its own marketing and distribution machinery to strengthen its presence in India. In 2011, Diageo announced its intention to buy half of Radico 's stake in the JV. In October 2007, Radico entered into a tripartite joint venture with NV Distillers and Ridhi Sidhi Pvt Ltd to set up a greenfield distillery in Aurangabad, Maharashtra with a combined investment of ₹ 1.60 billion. Radico would have a 36 % stake in Radico NV Distilleries Maharashtra Ltd, which would manufacture ENA, IMFL and ethanol, and also have a bottling facility. The distillery is Radico 's second, after the Rampur Distillery
Morpheus brandy was launched in May 2009. Its largest markets are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka. The company named the brandy after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, in order to "convey a sense of softness with a European touch ''. Radico launched Carlo Rossi wine in Mumbai in April 2009, through its joint venture with E&J Gallo, which owns the brand. Radico had already been selling other E&J Gallo brands such as André, Wine Cellars, Sonoma County and Turning Leaf in India.
Radico announced on 7 April 2011 that it had entered into an agreement with Japanese firm Suntory Liquors Ltd to market and distribute the latter 's Yamazaki single malt and Hibiki blended whiskies in India. Radico launched After Dark, a 100 % grain - based whisky manufactured at its Rampur distillery, in September 2011.
Radico Khaitan 's PET division, started in 2003, produces a wide range of PET bottles and jars for the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, home & personal care, edible oil and confectionery industries. It utilizes single stage machines of Nissei ASB Machine Co. Ltd., Japan to meet in - house needs, but eventually began supplying PET bottles even to competitors. The PET division operates as an independent profit group. The company has a 750 ml kidney shape PET bottle manufacturing plant in Uttarakhand. The unit started with a production rate of 08.5 million bottles annually in October 2004, and currently produces 600 million PET bottles that cater to Radico 's own captive consumption of 300 million bottles annually, while the sold to outside clients in liquor, pharmaceuticals and FMCG. Companies it supplies include Keo Karpin Hair Oil, BL Agro Hair Oil Ltd., Khandelwal Oils Ltd, Perfetti, Amrut Distilleries, Allied Blenders & Bottlers Ltd, Jagatjit Industries, John Distilleries, Khoday 's, Mohan Meakin and NICOL.
Radico Khaitan manufactures whisky, rum, brandy, vodka and gin.
Rampur Distillery, located in Rampur, Uttar Pradesh, is Radico Khaitan 's first and largest distillery, with a production capacity of 125 million litres per annum. It manufactures high grade ENA from molasses and grain with a production capacity of 75 Million litres of molasses ENA, 30 million litres of grain neutral spirit and 460 thousands litres of malt whisky annually. Rampur Distillery also manufactures country liquor and IMFL, of which some IMFL meets the domestic requirement and the rest is exported.
The unit is self - sufficient in meeting its fuel and power requirements by utilizing its effluent for generating the biogas which, in turn, is utilized for generating the steam and power for its captive requirement. The distillery complies with the zero discharge concept set up by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Primary treatment of the effluent yields biogas, which is used as fuel in a Cogen boiler to generate steam and then power through a backpressure turbine. The backpressure steam is used again in the distillation plant to produce ENA and rectified spirit. The treated effluent is not discharged outside, in keeping with pollution control norms, and is in turn mixed and cured with organic mass like press mud of sugar mills and suitable organic manures to manufacture bio manure or bio compost, a bio fertilizer used in growing crops like sugar cane.
The cogeneration plant of the Rampur Distillery consists of 26 MT capacity of a stand - alone, biogas fired steam boiler, a 2 MW turbine generator, a 30 MT capacity biogas and rice husk based boiler, and 2.5 MW in tandem to make the unit self - reliant in meeting power requirements for normal operation.
Radico Khaitan owns 5 units in India. Their locations are listed below:
Radico Khaitan has affiliations with several bottling units across India. They are listed below, with their locations in brackets.
|
what are the conditions of a restraining order | Restraining order - wikipedia
A restraining order or protective order is an order used by a court to protect a person, business, company, establishment, or entity, and the general public, in a situation involving alleged domestic violence, harassment, stalking, or sexual assault. In the United States, every state has some form of domestic violence restraining order law, and many states also have specific restraining order laws for stalking and sexual assault.
Restraining and personal protection order laws vary from one jurisdiction to another but all establish who can file for an order, what protection or relief a person can get from such an order, and how the order will be enforced. The court will order the adverse party to refrain from certain actions and / or require compliance with certain provisions. Failure to comply is a violation of the order which can result in the arrest and prosecution of the offender. Violations in some jurisdictions may also constitute criminal or civil contempt of court.
All protective order statutes permit the court to instruct an alleged abuser to stay a certain distance away from someone, their home, their workplace or their school ("stay away '' provisions) and to not contact them. Alleged victims generally may also request the court to order that all contact, whether it be by telephone, notes, mail, fax, email or delivery of flowers or gifts, be prohibited ("no contact '' provisions). Courts can also instruct an alleged abuser to not hurt or threaten someone ("cease abuse '' provisions).
Some states also allow the court to order the alleged abuser to pay temporary support or continue to make mortgage payments on a home owned by both people ("support '' provisions), to award sole use of a home or car owned by both people ("exclusive use '' provisions), or to pay for medical costs or property damage caused by the alleged abuser ("restitution '' provisions). Some courts might also be able to instruct the alleged abuser to turn over any firearms and ammunition he or she has ("relinquish firearms '' provisions), attend a batterers ' treatment program, appear for regular drug tests, or start alcohol or drug abuse counselling. Its issuance is sometimes called a "de facto divorce ''.
The standard of proof required to obtain a restraining order can vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but it is generally lower than the standard of beyond a reasonable doubt required in criminal trials. Many US states -- such as Oregon and Pennsylvania along with many others -- use a standard of preponderance of the evidence. Other states use different standards, such as Wisconsin which requires that restraining orders be based on "reasonable grounds ''.
Judges have some incentives to err on the side of granting restraining orders. If a judge should grant a restraining order against someone who might not warrant it, typically the only repercussion is that the defendant might appeal the order. If, on the other hand, the judge denies a restraining order and the plaintiff is killed or injured, sour publicity and an enraged community reaction may harm the jurist 's career.
Colorado 's statute inverts the standard court procedures and due process, providing that after the court issues an ex parte order, the defendant must "appear before the court at a specific time and date and... show cause, if any, why said temporary civil protection order should not be made permanent. '' That is, Colorado courts place the burden of proof on the accused to establish his or her innocence, rather than requiring the accuser to prove his or her case. Hawaii similarly requires the defendant to prove his or her own innocence.
The low burden of proof for restraining orders has led to some high - profile cases involving stalkers of celebrities obtaining restraining orders against their targets. For example, in 2005 a New Mexico judge issued a restraining order against New York City - based TV host David Letterman after a woman made claims of abuse and harassment, including allegations that Letterman had spoken to her via coded messages on his TV show. The judge later admitted that he granted the restraining order not on the merits of the case, but because the petitioner had completely filled out the required paperwork.
Another criticism is that restraining orders are sometimes used in divorce cases for tactical advantage. Joseph E. Cordell, an attorney who specializes in representing men in divorce and custody cases, estimates that about 85 % of restraining orders are filed by women alleging abuse by men, yet over 90 % of restraining orders against men are tactical rather than due to legitimate fears of abuse or injury. Some attorneys offer to have restraining orders dropped in exchange for financial concessions in such proceedings.
There have also been cases of abusers obtaining restraining orders against their victims, forcing them to divest themselves of firearms that could otherwise have been used for self - defense.
Experts disagree on whether restraining orders are effective in preventing further harassment. A 2010 analysis published in the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law reviewed 15 U.S. studies of restraining order effectiveness, and concluded that restraining orders "can serve a useful role in threat management ''. However, a 2002 analysis of 32 U.S. studies found that restraining orders are violated an average of 40 percent of the time and are perceived as being "followed by worse events '' almost 21 percent of the time, and concluded that "evidence of (restraining orders ') relative efficacy is lacking '', and that they may pose some degree of risk. Other studies have found that restraining orders offer little or no deterrent against future interpersonal violence. A large America - wide telephone survey conducted in 1998 found that, of stalking victims who obtained a restraining order, more than 68 percent reported it being violated by their stalker.
Threat management experts are often suspicious of restraining orders, believing they may escalate or enrage stalkers. In his 1997 book The Gift of Fear, American security specialist Gavin de Becker characterized restraining orders as "homework assignments police give to women to prove they 're really committed to getting away from their pursuers '', and said they "clearly serve police and prosecutors '', but "they do not always serve victims ''. The Independent Women 's Forum decries them as "lulling women into a false sense of security '', and in its Family Legal Guide, the American Bar Association warns "a court order might even add to the alleged offender 's rage ''.
Castle Rock v. Gonzales, 545 U.S. 748 (2005), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled, 7 -- 2, that a town and its police department could not be sued under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 for failing to enforce a restraining order, which had led to the murder of a woman 's three children by her estranged husband.
Although the restrained person and the protected person may be of either gender, restraining orders most commonly protect a woman against a male alleged abuser. A California study found that 72 % of restraining orders active in the state at the time protected a woman against a male abuser. The Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence uses female pronouns to refer to petitioners and male pronouns to refer to abusers due to the fact that most petitioners are women and most abusers are men.
In English law, a non-molestation order may be granted under Section 42 of the Family Law Act 1996. Non-molestation orders are a type of injunction used to protect an individual from intimidation or harassment. Breaching a non-molestation order is a criminal offence. Under the Domestic Violence Crime and Victims Act 2004, cohabiting same - sex couples are able to seek a non-molestation order. Non-molestation orders sought for protection from domestic violence qualify for legal aid regardless of the applicant 's income.
Federal law requires that all states give "full faith and credit '' to every portion of a restraining order issued by any state provided that certain minimum due process requirements are met. Thus a state with very lax standards for issuing a restraining order may enter such a protective order, and every state and federal territory would be required to adhere to every provision. Federal law prohibits any person who is subject to a state protective order from possessing a firearm, provided that the protected party is an intimate partner, meaning a spouse or former spouse, or a person with whom the protected party has had a child. Violating a restraining order is a deportable offense.
Some states (e.g. Mississippi) may also call a restraining order a peace bond and are similar to ASBO laws in the UK. Minnesota law provides for an Order for Protection (OFP) and a Harassment Restraining Order (HRO).
Many jurisdictions offer a simplified process for filing a civil complaint for unrepresented litigants. For example, in North Carolina, pro se litigants can file a 50B (also called a DVPO, for Domestic Violence Protective Order) complaint with the Clerk of Court.
In the US, each state has its own restraining order laws, but they tend to be divided into about five main types. Not every state will have every type of restraining order on the books. A domestic violence restraining order generally protects only parties deemed to be in some form of "domestic '' relationship which may, depending on the statute, include a family, household, intimate, or sexual relationship. A sexual assault restraining order specifically protects a victim of sexual assault regardless of what relationship may or may not exist between petitioner and respondent. If her state has no sexual assault restraining order statute, she may still qualify for a domestic violence restraining order if the sexual assault occurred in the context of a domestic relationship or if the statute is written sufficiently broad. In such cases, sexual assault survivors can sometimes qualify for domestic violence restraining orders because any act of sexual intercourse between petitioner and respondent, even during rape, legally establishes the required sexually intimate relationship. Harassment and stalking restraining orders also generally do not require any specific relationship to exist or not exist between the parties, but also may not be available in all states. These types of restraining orders also generally require at least two instances of, respectively, harassment or stalking to qualify. In many cases, one statute may cover more than one type of restraining order. For example, what is called a harassment restraining order in Wisconsin also specifically includes cases of sexual assault and stalking.
Finally, an extreme risk restraining order is a new form of USA restraining order, currently in use in only four states but with 19 other states showing interest in enacting similar laws. Other forms of restraining order will sometimes order firearms restrictions as a part of a larger injunction intended to protect a specific individual. But with an extreme risk restraining order, the sole focus is on the firearms restrictions. It is sought when household members or police believe a particular individual is at risk to use firearms to harm themselves or others. If a court agrees, the person can have their firearms taken away. This type of restraining order is not intended to protect a specific individual but rather the community at large from someone believed to be a danger for gun violence. It has been cited as a possible tool to help prevent mass shootings such as the Orlando nightclub shooting.
Davis, J.A. (2001, August). Stalking Crimes and Victim Protection, CRC Press, 568 pages.
|
when did they introduce driving tests in the uk | United Kingdom driving test - wikipedia
The United Kingdom driving test is a test of competence that UK residents take in order to obtain a full Great Britain or Northern Ireland (car) driving licence or to add additional full entitlements to an existing one. Tests vary depending on the class of vehicle to be driven. In Great Britain it is administered by the Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency (DVSA) and in Northern Ireland by the Driver & Vehicle Agency (DVA).
The minimum age at which one can take a UK driving test is currently 16 for mopeds and 17 for cars (16 for those on the higher / enhanced rate of the mobility component of DLA or PIP). There is no upper age limit. In addition to a driving licence, a CBT certificate may be required before a moped or motorcycle is ridden.
In GB around 1.6 million people sit the practical car test per year, with a pass rate of around 43 %. The theory test has a pass rate of around 51.6 %.
UK driving licences were introduced by the Motor Car Act 1903 but no test was required.
A test for disabled drivers was introduced by the Road Traffic Act 1930.
Legislation for compulsory testing was introduced for all new drivers with the Road Traffic Act 1934. The test was initially voluntary to avoid a rush of candidates until 1 June 1935 when all people who had started to drive on or after 1 April 1934 needed to have passed the test.
Testing was suspended during World War II, and was suspended again during the Suez Crisis in 1956 to allow examiners help to administer petrol rations.
The driving theory test was introduced in July 1996 as a written examination, which was updated to computerised format in 2000.
The hazard perception segment of the theory test, was introduced in November 2002.
In January 2015, new CGI clips replaced the real - life video clips in the Hazard Perception Test.
Currently, there are two tests (for a car licence) that need to be passed in order to obtain a full driving licence. First the theory test and then, within two years of passing this, the practical test.
The theory test is made up of two parts, both of which differ according to the type of vehicle licence the candidate is pursuing:
Both parts must be passed in order to obtain a theory test pass certificate. This enables the candidate to book a practical driving test. Candidates have two years from the date that they passed the first part of their theory test to take their practical test, or they will have to pass both parts of the theory test once again before they can book a practical test.
This part of the theory test is performed on a computer system. The test has 50 multiple choice questions and the candidate must answer at least 43 of them correctly to pass. All questions are randomly selected from a bank of just under one thousand on a selection of topics.
The test lasts for 57 minutes although candidates with certain special needs can apply for more time. All 50 questions must be answered. The test allows 15 minutes practice time at the start of the exam to get used to answering the questions and how to use the system. To answer a question the candidate simply touches their choice of answer from the listed answers on the computer screen. If a mistake is made the candidate can deselect a choice and reselect a different option. The candidate is allowed to go back to a question at any time and can also flag questions they are unsure of in order to find and return to it quickly and easily later. To pass the test, 43 of the 50 questions (86 %) must be answered correctly.
For lorry and bus drivers, 100 questions are asked over a 115 - minute period, and 85 out of 100 must be answered correctly to pass.
Prior to 3 September 2007, the car and motorcycle multiple - choice tests comprised 35 questions, with a pass mark of 30 within a 40 - minute time limit.
Candidates watch fourteen one - minute clips (nineteen clips for lorry and bus candidates) filmed from the perspective of a car driver or motorcyclist and have to indicate, usually by clicking a mouse button or touching the screen, when they observe a developing hazard.
Unless one is converting a foreign licence, it is necessary to have passed both components of the theory test before sitting this exam. Passing the practical test then entitles one to hold a full UK driving licence.
The test candidate must produce their provisional licence for the examiner before the test starts.
The practical car test can be taken in either a manual or an automatic car; if the test is passed in an automatic car, then the full licence granted will be restricted to automatic cars only.
The practical motorcycle test is split into two separate modules - the off - road module and the on - road module. To get a full motorcycle licence, the candidate needs to pass both modules. The target waiting time for a practical driving test is six weeks. However, in practice the waiting time can be considerably longer.
The practical car test is taken on the road, with a professionally trained DVSA examiner directing the candidate around a pre-determined route. The examiner marks the candidate for driving faults, serious faults, and dangerous faults. A candidate will fail the test if he or she accumulates any serious or dangerous faults, or more than fifteen driving faults. If a candidate accumulates several driving faults in the same category, the examiner may consider the fault habitual and mark a serious fault in that category. The test usually lasts 38 to 40 minutes in a standard test, or approximately 70 minutes when the candidate is taking an extended test after having had their licence revoked.
Before getting to the car, the examiner will ask the candidate to read a car 's number plate at a distance. The distance required is 20.5 metres for an old - style plate (A123 ABC) and 20 metres for a new style plate (AB51 ABC). If the candidate needs glasses to do this, then they must be worn during the test. If the candidate fails to read the first number plate correctly, then the examiner asks the candidate to read a second number plate. If the candidate can not correctly read the second number plate, then the examiner must use a tape measure to measure the correct distance between the candidate and a third number plate. If the candidate can not read the third number plate, then the candidate is deemed to have failed and the test will not continue. The DVLA will be informed and the candidate 's provisional licence will be revoked.
The candidate will have to reapply for a provisional driving licence and attend a test centre to have an eyesight check before they are allowed to rebook a test. If successful, the DVSA standard eyesight test must still be completed at the candidate 's next practical driving test.
The "Show me tell me '' changed on 4 December 2017. The examiner will ask you one: ' tell me ' question (where you explain how you 'd carry out a safety task) at the start of your test and before you start driving. The new element is where you show how you 'd carry out a safety task while you 're driving. These are phrased in the form "Show me... '' and "Tell me... ''; as such. The show me questions on the move are: - Demist front or rear windscreen. Wash front or rear windscreen. Switch on your headlights. Sound your horn. Open / Close a window. There are 3 under the bonnet "show me '' tasks. A failure to answer one or both of these questions correctly would result in a driving fault being marked against the candidate. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/car-show-me-tell-me-vehicle-safety-questions
The controlled stop, more commonly referred to as the "emergency stop '', is an exercise which determines the ability of the candidate to stop the vehicle promptly yet under control during a simulated emergency. The simulation is performed by the examiner raising his or her hand and saying, "STOP! ''. A controlled stop exercise will be carried out on every extended test and one third of normal tests. This might be an emergency stop, or the candidate might be asked to make a controlled stop in a specific location. During dangerous weather conditions, such as rain and snow, this test can be left out for safety reasons.
The Driving test changed on December 4, 2017. The manoeuvres have now changed and you will not be asked to do a Turn in the Road or a Reverse to the left, If you are taking driving lessons your Instructor should still teach you these reversing exercises so you are able to carry them out if necessary. You may be asked to: -
Generally, the candidate must demonstrate an ability to drive in various road and traffic conditions and react appropriately in actual risk situations. The conditions typically encountered on test include driving in urban areas as well as higher speed limit roads where possible; this includes dual carriageways but not motorways as motorways in Britain can only be used by full licence holders. The object of the test is to ensure that the candidate is well grounded in the basic principles of safe driving, and is sufficiently practised in them to be able to show, at the time of the test, that they are a competent and considerate driver and are not a source of danger to themselves or to other road users. The drive will include two or three normal stops at (and moving away from) the side of the road on level roads as well as on gradients, in addition to a demonstration of moving away from behind a stationary vehicle. The regulations state that the on - road driving time must be no less than 30 minutes. If at any point during the test, the examiner has to intervene with any controls, this will usually result in failure and could be marked on the test report as a dangerous fault.
This part of the test has now changed (December 2017) and this is now a longer drive approx 20 mins and you may be asked to follow a SAT NAV rather than follow signs.
During the independent driving section, candidates have to drive by:
If the candidate gets lost or goes the wrong way, provided they do it safely the examiner will not mark it as a fault. For example, the Sat Nav says "take the 2nd exit '' (which is ahead) the candidate find themselves in the Left Turn ONLY lane - If they signal and turn left this will not be marked as a fault and the SAT NAV will recalculate or the examiner will give them further directions. A candidate MUST NOT go ahead in the left turn only lane as this could cause danger to other road users and the candidate MUST NOT force other drivers out of the way to change lanes. The ONLY time a candidate can use an incorrect lane is if there is a broken down vehicle / Emergency Vehicles / roadworks OR when instructed to do so by a Police officer or Highways Agencies officer.
If there are poor or obscured traffic signs, the examiner may give the candidate directions until they can see the next traffic sign. Candidates will not need to have a detailed knowledge of the area. If the SAT NAV gives incorrect directions the examiner will assist the candidate with verbal direction. The examiner will bring the SAT NAV and position it in the test vehicle.
If the candidate has special needs, the examiner will be able to make reasonable adjustments. For the independent driving section, this could be asking the candidate which method they prefer - following signs, or a series of directions (a maximum of three)
As of 4 December 2017
The U.K driving test will change, all the relevant changes can be found here driving test or read this article on the new changes being made.
|
all of the following are true about order neuroptera except | Neuroptera - wikipedia
and see text
The insect order Neuroptera, or net - winged insects, includes the lacewings, mantidflies, antlions, and their relatives. The order consists of some 6,000 species. Neuroptera can be grouped together with the Megaloptera and Raphidioptera in the superfamily Neuropterida (once known as Planipennia) the latter including: alderflies, fishflies, dobsonflies, and snakeflies.
Adult Neuropterans have four membranous wings, all about the same size, with many veins. They have chewing mouthparts, and undergo complete metamorphosis.
Neuropterans first appeared during the Permian Period, and continued to diversify through the Mesozoic Era. During this time, several unusually large forms evolved, especially in the extinct family Kalligrammatidae, often referred to as "the butterflies of the Jurassic '' due to their large, patterned wings.
Neuropterans are soft - bodied insects with relatively few specialised features. They have large lateral compound eyes, and may or may not also have ocelli. Their mouthparts have strong mandibles suitable for chewing, and lack the various adaptations found in most other endopterygote insect groups.
They have four wings, which are usually similar in size and shape, and a generalised pattern of veins. Some neuropterans have specialised sense organs in their wings, or have bristles or other structures to link their wings together during flight.
The larvae are specialised predators, with elongated mandibles adapted for piercing and sucking. The larval body form varies between different families, depending on the nature of their prey. In general, however, they have three pairs of thoracic legs, each ending in two claws. The abdomen often has adhesive discs on the last two segments.
The larvae of most families are predators. Many chrysopids eat aphids and other pest insects, and have been used for biological control (either from commercial distributors, but also abundant and widespread in nature). Larvae in various families cover themselves in debris (sometimes including dead prey insects) as camouflage, taken to an extreme in the ant lions, which bury themselves completely out of sight and ambush prey from "pits '' in the soil. Larvae of some Ithonidae are root feeders, and larvae of Sisyridae are aquatic, and feed on freshwater sponges. A few mantispids are parasites of spider egg sacs.
As in other holometabolic orders, the pupal stage generally is enclosed in some form of cocoon composed of silk and soil or other debris. The pupa eventually cuts its way out of the cocoon with its mandibles, and may even move about for a short while before undergoing the moult to the adult form.
Adults of many groups are also predatory, but some do not feed, or consume only nectar.
The use of Neuroptera in biological control of insect pests has been investigated, showing that it is difficult to establish and maintain populations in fields of crops.
Neuroptera have artistic demonstrations since beginning of civilizations, which can be found in numerous art galleries such as Lacewing Design Gallery and Studio of Northampton, Lacewing fine art of Salisbury.
A song on the 1999 album Suburban Light by The Clientele, "Lacewings '', describes watching the insects under the influence of drugs (most likely marijuana).
The New Guinea Highland people claim to be able to maintain a muscular build and great stamina despite their low protein intake as a result of eating Neuroptera among other insects.
The understanding of neuropteran phylogeny has vastly improved since the mid-1990s, not the least courtesy of the ever - growing fossil record. In 1995, for example, it was simply known that the Megaloptera and Raphidioptera were not part of the Neuroptera in the strict sense, and the Mantispoidea and part of the Myrmeleontoidea were the only groups that could be confirmed by cladistic analysis. Though the relationships of some families remain to be fully understood, most major lineages of the Neuropterida can nowadays be robustly placed in an evolutionary context.
The phylogeny of the Neuroptera has been explored using mitochondrial DNA sequences, and while issues remain for the group as a whole (the traditional "Hemerobiiformia '' being agreed (2014) to be paraphyletic), the Myrmeleontiformia is generally agreed to be monophyletic, giving the following cladogram:
Osmylidae (giant lacewings, formerly in "Hemerobiiformia '')
Mantispidae (mantidflies)
Ithonidae (moth lacewings)
Chrysopidae (green lacewings)
Nymphidae (split - footed lacewings)
Myrmeleontidae (antlions)
Ascalaphidae (owlflies)
Basal and unresolved forms
Suborder Hemerobiiformia (core group, paraphyletic?)
Suborder Myrmeleontiformia
|
what is the medial bone of the forearm | Ulna - wikipedia
The ulna is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. It runs parallel to the radius, the other long bone in the forearm, and is the larger and longer of the two.
The bone may break due to excessive weight or impact.
The ulna is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. It is broader close to the elbow, and narrows as it approaches the wrist.
Close to the elbow, the ulna has a bony process, the olecranon process, a hook - like structure that fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus. This prevents hyperextension and forms a hinge joint with the trochlea of the humerus. There is also a radial notch for the head of the radius, and the ulnar tuberosity to which muscles attach.
Close to the wrist, the ulna has a styloid process.
Near the elbow, the ulna has two curved processes, the olecranon and the coronoid process; and two concave, articular cavities, the semilunar and radial notches.
The olecranon is a large, thick, curved eminence, situated at the upper and back part of the ulna. It is bent forward at the summit so as to present a prominent lip which is received into the olecranon fossa of the humerus in extension of the forearm. Its base is contracted where it joins the body and the narrowest part of the upper end of the ulna. Its posterior surface, directed backward, is triangular, smooth, subcutaneous, and covered by a bursa. Its superior surface is of quadrilateral form, marked behind by a rough impression for the insertion of the triceps brachii; and in front, near the margin, by a slight transverse groove for the attachment of part of the posterior ligament of the elbow - joint. Its anterior surface is smooth, concave, and forms the upper part of the semilunar notch. Its borders present continuations of the groove on the margin of the superior surface; they serve for the attachment of ligaments: the back part of the ulnar collateral ligament medially, and the posterior ligament laterally. From the medial border a part of the flexor carpi ulnaris arises; while to the lateral border the Anconæus is attached.
The coronoid process is a triangular eminence projecting forward from the upper and front part of the ulna. Its base is continuous with the body of the bone, and of considerable strength. Its apex is pointed, slightly curved upward, and in flexion of the forearm is received into the coronoid fossa of the humerus. Its upper surface is smooth, concave, and forms the lower part of the semilunar notch. Its antero - inferior surface is concave, and marked by a rough impression for the insertion of the brachialis. At the junction of this surface with the front of the body is a rough eminence, the tuberosity of the ulna, which gives insertion to a part of the brachialis; to the lateral border of this tuberosity the oblique cord is attached. Its lateral surface presents a narrow, oblong, articular depression, the radial notch. Its medial surface, by its prominent, free margin, serves for the attachment of part of the ulnar collateral ligament. At the front part of this surface is a small rounded eminence for the origin of one head of the Flexor digitorum sublimis; behind the eminence is a depression for part of the origin of the flexor digitorum profundus; descending from the eminence is a ridge which gives origin to one head of the pronator teres. Frequently, the flexor pollicis longus arises from the lower part of the coronoid process by a rounded bundle of muscular fibers.
The semilunar notch is a large depression, formed by the olecranon and the coronoid process, and serving as articulation with the trochlea of the humerus. About the middle of either side of this notch is an indentation, which contracts it somewhat, and indicates the junction of the olecranon and the coronoid process. The notch is concave from above downward, and divided into a medial and a lateral portion by a smooth ridge running from the summit of the olecranon to the tip of the coronoid process. The medial portion is the larger, and is slightly concave transversely; the lateral is convex above, slightly concave below.
The radial notch is a narrow, oblong, articular depression on the lateral side of the coronoid process; it receives the circumferential articular surface of the head of the radius. It is concave from before backward, and its prominent extremities serve for the attachment of the annular ligament.
The body of the ulna at its upper part is prismatic in form, and curved so as to be convex behind and lateralward; its central part is straight; its lower part is rounded, smooth, and bent a little lateralward. It tapers gradually from above downward, and has three borders and three surfaces.
The head of ulna presents an articular surface, part of which, of an oval or semilunar form, is directed downward, and articulates with the upper surface of the triangular articular disk which separates it from the wrist - joint; the remaining portion, directed lateralward, is narrow, convex, and received into the ulnar notch of the radius.
Near the wrist, the ulnar, with two eminences; the lateral and larger is a rounded, articular eminence, termed the head of the ulna; the medial, narrower and more projecting, is a non-articular eminence, the styloid process.
The head is separated from the styloid process by a depression for the attachment of the apex of the triangular articular disk, and behind, by a shallow groove for the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris.
Vertical section through the articulations at the wrist, showing the synovial cavities.
Bones of left forearm. Anterior aspect.
Bones of left forearm. Posterior aspect.
Ligaments of wrist. Anterior view
Ligaments of wrist. Posterior view.
The ulna is a long bone. The long, narrow medullary cavity of the ulna is enclosed in a strong wall of cortical tissue which is thickest along the interosseous border and dorsal surface. At the extremities the compact layer thins. The compact layer is continued onto the back of the olecranon as a plate of close spongy bone with lamellæ parallel. From the inner surface of this plate and the compact layer below it trabeculæ arch forward toward the olecranon and coronoid and cross other trabeculæ, passing backward over the medullary cavity from the upper part of the shaft below the coronoid. Below the coronoid process there is a small area of compact bone from which trabeculæ curve upward to end obliquely to the surface of the semilunar notch which is coated with a thin layer of compact bone. The trabeculæ at the lower end have a more longitudinal direction.
The ulna is ossified from three centers: one each for the body, the wrist end, and the elbow end, near the top of the olecranon. Ossification begins near the middle of the body of the ulna, about the eighth week of fetal life, and soon extends through the greater part of the bone.
At birth, the ends are cartilaginous. About the fourth year or so, a center appears in the middle of the head, and soon extends into the ulnar styloid process. About the tenth year, a center appears in the olecranon near its extremity, the chief part of this process being formed by an upward extension of the body. The upper epiphysis joins the body about the sixteenth, the lower about the twentieth year.
The ulna forms part of the wrist joint and elbow joints. Specifically, the ulna joins (articulates) with:
Specific fracture types of the ulna include:
Conservative management is possible for ulnar fractures when they are located in the distal two - thirds, only involve the shaft, with no shortening, less than 10 ° angulation and less than 50 % displacement. In such cases, a cast should be applied that goes above the elbow.
In four - legged animals, the radius is the main load - bearing bone of the lower forelimb, and the ulna is important primarily for muscular attachment. In many mammals, the ulna is partially or wholly fused with the radius, and may therefore not exist as a separate bone. However, even in extreme cases of fusion, such as in horses, the olecranon process is still present, albeit as a projection from the upper radius.
Position of ulna (red). Animation
Bones of the right arm, showing the ulna, radius, wrist and humerus
Cross-section through the middle of the forearm, showing the two bones and the muscles, nerves and blood vessels surrounding them.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
|
fargo season 2 is it a true story | Fargo (TV series) - wikipedia
Fargo is an American black comedy -- crime drama anthology television series created and primarily written by Noah Hawley. The show is inspired by the eponymous 1996 film written and directed by the Coen brothers, who serve as executive producers on the series alongside Hawley. The series premiered on April 15, 2014, on FX, and follows an anthology format, with each season set in a different era, and with a different story and mostly new characters and cast, although there is minor overlap. Each season shares a common chronology with the original film.
The first season, set in 2006 and starring Billy Bob Thornton, Allison Tolman, Colin Hanks, and Martin Freeman, was met with critical acclaim. It won the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Miniseries, Outstanding Directing, and Outstanding Casting, and received 15 additional nominations including Outstanding Writing, another Outstanding Directing nomination, and acting nominations for all four leads. It also won the Golden Globe Awards for Best Miniseries or Television Film and Best Actor -- Miniseries or Television Film for Thornton.
The second season, set in 1979 and starring Kirsten Dunst, Patrick Wilson, Jesse Plemons, Jean Smart, and Ted Danson, was met with even greater acclaim. It received three Golden Globe nominations, along with several Emmy nominations including Outstanding Miniseries, and acting nominations for Dunst, Plemons, Smart, and Bokeem Woodbine.
The third season, set in 2010 and starring Ewan McGregor, Carrie Coon, Mary Elizabeth Winstead, Goran Bogdan, and David Thewlis, premiered on April 19, 2017. It was met with similar reception, and received Emmy nominations including Outstanding Miniseries, and acting nominations for McGregor, Coon, and Thewlis.
The series is currently on an extended hiatus, as Hawley is busy with other projects, and there is a lack of creative ideas for a fourth season. Hawley stated in June 2017, "I always agreed with FX that the only reason to do another Fargo is if the creative is there '', and regarding a timeline for a fourth season, "We 're looking at three years from now ''.
In 2006, Lorne Malvo (Billy Bob Thornton) passes through Bemidji, Minnesota, and influences the community -- including put - upon insurance salesman Lester Nygaard (Martin Freeman) -- with his malice, violence, and deception. Meanwhile, Deputy Molly Solverson (Allison Tolman) and Duluth police officer Gus Grimly (Colin Hanks) team up to solve a series of murders they believe may be linked to Malvo and Nygaard.
In 1979, beautician Peggy Blumquist (Kirsten Dunst) and her husband, butcher Ed Blumquist (Jesse Plemons) of Luverne, Minnesota, cover up her hit - and - run and murder of Rye Gerhardt (Kieran Culkin), son of Floyd Gerhardt (Jean Smart), matriarch of the Gerhardt crime family in Fargo, North Dakota. Meanwhile, State Trooper Lou Solverson (Patrick Wilson) and his father - in - law, Sheriff Hank Larsson (Ted Danson), investigate a triple homicide at a local diner connected to Rye.
In 2010, St. Cloud probation officer Ray Stussy (Ewan McGregor) and his parolee girlfriend Nikki Swango (Mary Elizabeth Winstead) dream of a better, wealthier life. To achieve this, they attempt to steal a valuable vintage stamp from Ray 's more successful older brother, Emmit (also played by McGregor), the self - proclaimed "Parking Lot King of Minnesota ''. However, their plans backfire, and the couple soon has to hide their involvement in two deaths, including the stepfather of former Eden Valley police chief Gloria Burgle (Carrie Coon). Meanwhile, Emmit wishes to pay back a shady company he borrowed money from two years ago, but the mysterious company and its employees, led by V.M. Varga (David Thewlis) and Yuri Gurka (Goran Bogdan), have other plans.
In 2012, it was announced that FX, with the Coen brothers as executive producers, was developing a new television series based on the 1996 Academy Award - winning film Fargo. It was later announced that adaptation would be a 10 - episode limited series. On August 2, 2013, it was announced that Billy Bob Thornton had signed on to star in the series. On September 27, 2013, Martin Freeman also signed on to star. On October 3, 2013, it was announced that Colin Hanks was cast in the role of Duluth police officer Gus Grimly. Production began in fall 2013 with filming taking place in and around Calgary, Alberta.
The series is set in the same fictional universe as the film, in which events took place in 1987 between Minneapolis and Brainerd, Minnesota. The first season features the buried ransom money from the film in a minor subplot. Additionally, a number of references are made connecting the series to the film.
Following the series renewal in July 2014, creator Noah Hawley revealed that the second season would take place in 1979 and focus on Sioux Falls, South Dakota, as referenced by Lou Solverson and others in the first season. The ten episodes are set in Luverne, Minnesota, Fargo, North Dakota, and Sioux Falls. Hawley agreed that this takes place before the events of the film, but he believes all the stories connect: "I like the idea that somewhere out there is a big, leather - bound book that 's the history of true crime in the Midwest, and the movie was Chapter 4, Season 1 was Chapter 9 and this is Chapter 2, '' he said. "You can turn the pages of this book, and you just find this collection of stories... But I like the idea that these things are connected somehow, whether it 's linearly or literally or thematically. That 's what we play around with. '' This book was realized in season 2, episode 9, "The Castle ''. Production on the second season began in Calgary on January 19, 2015, and completed on May 20, 2015. The first teaser for the second season was released on June 17, 2015.
Production on season 3 began in January 2017 in Calgary, Alberta.
As with the original film, each episode begins with the superimposed text:
As with the film, this claim is completely untrue. Showrunner Noah Hawley continued to use the Coens ' device, saying it allowed him to "tell a story in a new way. '' Hawley has played with the realism of the story further; responding to queries about Charlie Gerhardt, a character from season 2, he stated "If he 's out there, I 'd like to get a letter from him someday, telling me how he turned out. ''
At the 2017 ATX Television Festival in Austin, Texas, Hawley further discussed the "true story '' series tag: "So what does that even mean -- the words ' true story '? '' he said. "I really wanted to deconstruct that this year. '' He recalled one of the lines spoken by Sy Feltz, Michael Stuhlbarg 's character: "' The world is wrong -- it looks like my world but everything is different. ' That 's what we 're exploring this year. ''
The first season received acclaim from television critics, and received a Metacritic score of 85 out of 100 based on 40 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim. '' The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 97 % "certified fresh '' critics rating with an average rating of 8.44 out of 10 based on 49 reviews. The website consensus reads: "Based on the film of the same name in atmosphere, style, and location only, Fargo presents more quirky characters and a new storyline that is expertly executed with dark humor and odd twists. '' IGN reviewer Roth Cornet gave the first season a 9.7 out of 10 score, praising the casting, its thematic ties to the movie, and the writing. The A.V. Club named it the sixth best TV series of 2014.
The second season has been met with overwhelming acclaim from television critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, it received an average score of 96 based on 33 reviews, which indicates "universal acclaim ''. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % "certified fresh '' rating with an average rating of 9.19 out of 10 based on 53 reviews, with the site 's consensus, "Season two of Fargo retains all the elements that made the series an award - winning hit, successfully delivering another stellar saga powered by fascinating characters, cheeky cynicism, and just a touch of the absurd. ''
The third season has received acclaim similar to the first two seasons from critics. On Metacritic, it has a score of 89 out of 100 based on 32 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 93 % rating with an average score of 8.56 out of 10 based on 50 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Thanks in part to a memorable dual performance from Ewan McGregor, Fargo mostly maintains the sly wit and off - kilter sensibility it displayed in its first two seasons. ''
Fargo has won 32 of its 133 award nominations. The first season garnered 8 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, with the show itself winning the Outstanding Miniseries and director Colin Bucksey winning the Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Dramatic Special. It received an additional 10 Creative Arts Emmy Award nominations, winning for Outstanding Casting for a Miniseries, Movie, or Special. It has received eight Golden Globe Award nominations, with the show winning for Best Miniseries or Television Film, and Billy Bob Thornton winning for Best Actor in a Miniseries or Television Film. The series has also received one Screen Actors Guild Award nomination to Billy Bob Thornton for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie. Additional accolades include: the American Film Institute Award for Top Ten Television Program in 2014 and 2015, the Artios Award for Excellence in Casting, a Peabody Award, seven Critics ' Choice Television Awards in which the show won twice for Best Miniseries and five times in acting for Billy Bob Thornton, Allison Tolman, Kirsten Dunst, Jesse Plemons and Jean Smart, the Dorian Awards for TV Drama of the Year, the Golden Reel Award for Best Music Score, two Producers Guild of America Award for Outstanding Producer of Long - Form Television and a Writers Guild of America Awards for Long Form -- Adapted.
On April 15, 2014, the series made its debut on FX and FXX in Canada; the remaining episodes were shown on FXX. The next day, it premiered in the UK on Channel 4. On May 1, 2014, it premiered on SBS One in Australia, and on SoHo in New Zealand.
|
is rsi number the same as pps number | Personal Public Service number - wikipedia
The Personal Public Service Number (PPS No) (Irish: Uimhir Phearsanta Seirbhíse Poiblí, or Uimh. PSP) is an identifier issued by the Client Identity Services section of the Department of Social Protection, on behalf of the Minister for Social Protection in Ireland.
The PPSN was known as the Revenue and Social Insurance Number (RSI No) until 1998. RSI Numbers were first issued in April 1979 as a replacement for the separate PAYE Number and Social Welfare Insurance Number which had been used for income tax and social welfare purposes respectively until then. The PAYE Number was issued by the Revenue Commissioners and these numbers were transferred to the RSI No system as a basis for the unified system.
The format of the number is a unique alphanumeric in the general form 8765432AA. The number is assigned at the registration of birth of the child and is issued on a "Public Services Card '' often when a child reaches the legal age of employment, currently 16, otherwise a "Letter of Entitlement '' is issued. The same format was used by the Department of Education and Skills as the "Pupil Number '' since 1994 and this caused some concern and confusion as it was in the same format and used the same check character formula, but more often different from the PPS No. In August 2000 the department instigated a programme to remove the Pupil Number and replace it with the PPS No in future on records. By September 2001, the Pupil Number was fully withdrawn.
The format is seven numeric characters (including leading zeros), a check character and sometimes a second letter, which if it exists, will normally be an A (for individuals) or an H (for non-individuals, e.g., limited companies, trusts, etc.) In some cases, this second letter may be a W, which was used for women - "W '' from "wife '' -- who married and automatically adopted the same number as their husband, though this practice stopped in 1999 chiefly due to equal rights concerns. The present policy is that these W numbers are eliminated when the bearer 's husband dies, or when they become separated or divorced.
The Social Services Card, no longer in use, contained a number called the "Primary Account Number '' (PAN), this is the long main sequence embossed near the centre of the card. This consists of the issuer number of the International Organization for Standardization, the PPS number and a card issue number; any letters are converted to numbers using the standard convention of A = 1, B = 2 and so forth. Basic personal information is encoded on the magnetic stripe on the rear of the card such as date of birth and sex. The Social Services Card was completely withdrawn by January 2014.
Since 2012, a new Public Services (National Identity) Card has been rolled out thus replacing the Social Services Card used to collect social welfare payments. It displays a passport - size photo, your PPS No, your date of birth and a Card Number. The Passport Service of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade has announced that as of 29 March 2016, all first - time passport applicants aged 18 and above who are resident in Ireland will need to have a Public Services Card (PSC) for identification purposes.
Separately, the old paper Free Travel Pass was replaced by the Public Services Card Free Travel (PSCFT) since 9 December 2013, with the paper version being completely phased out by 1 January 2016.
The format of the PPS number was defined as being nine characters in length, consisting of 7 digits in positions 1 to 7, followed by a check character in position 8, with either a space or the letter "W '' in position 9. However, from 1 January 2013 a new range of PPS numbers were introduced by including an additional alphabetic character, other than "W '', in position 9.
The character in position 8 still operates as the check character for all existing and new numbers, but the calculation used to decide this character has been revised to avoid any confusion between an "old '' number and a "new '' number using the same 7 numeric values in the first 7 positions.
The check character is calculated using a weighted addition of all the numbers and modulus calculation (known as Modulus 23). It therefore checks for incorrectly entered digits and for digit transposition (digits in the wrong order will alter the sum due to weightings).
The modulus 23 calculation has been revised to take account of the extra character as follows:
The results are added together, and divided by 23. The remainder (modulus 23) indicate the check character position in the alphabet. In the example above, 121 divided by 23 leaves a remainder of 6, and "F '' is the sixth character in the alphabet. The correct PPS number is therefore 1234567FA. Where the remainder is zero, the check letter is W.
The following are examples of software that provide checksum verification:
PHP: The Pear class Validate_IE contains a checksum algorithm.
Thesaurus Software Thesaurus Payroll Manager payroll software.
Sage QuickPay payroll software.
As the system allows for a maximum of ten million numbers to be issued, and with numbers having been issued to both the Irish and the legal immigrant population, expatriates, and many people who are now deceased, the current system will be in need of expansion in the not distant future.
Since January 2013, the format uses a letter after the current check character. This has the advantage that all current PPS numbers remain valid. The letter after the check character would have a weighting of nine. The letter value would be assigned the same as the check character 's. A = 1, B = 2... W = 0.
Examples of valid new PPSN 1234567TW 1234567FA
The number is currently used for a number of public services including education, health, housing, social welfare and tax however the net is widening raising concern about functionality creep. The number is underpinned in legislation by the Social Welfare (Consolidation) Act, 2005 (Section 262) and a number of amendments, including data protection, have expanded its legal use as well as defining improper usage.
The number has already been issued automatically to everyone born in the Republic of Ireland since January 1971 and those who commenced or were in employment since April 1979 -- the primary trigger today for the numbers ' issue is birth registration. A PPS number can be applied for at a PPS Number allocation centre. Applicants should show the reason for requiring a PPS Number, and provide Photographic ID and proof of address.
|
who plays private pyle in full metal jacket | Vincent D'Onofrio - wikipedia
Vincent Philip D'Onofrio (/ dəˈnɒfrioʊ /; born June 30, 1959) is an American actor, producer, and singer.
He is known for his roles as Private Leonard "Gomer Pyle '' Lawrence in Full Metal Jacket (1987), Wilson Fisk in Daredevil (2015 - present), NYPD Detective Robert Goren in Law & Order: Criminal Intent, Edgar the Bug in Men in Black (1997), and Vic Hoskins in Jurassic World (2015). Among other honors, D'Onofrio is a Saturn Award winner and an Emmy Award nominee.
D'Onofrio was born in the Bensonhurst, Brooklyn. He is of Italian descent, with ancestors from Sicily. His parents, Gennaro and Phyllis D'Onofrio, an interior designer / theater - production assistant, and server, respectively, met while Gennaro was stationed in Hawaii with the U.S. Air Force. In 1956, they had their first child, Antoinette. Their second child, Elizabeth (born 1957), is an actress and drama coach residing in Fort Myers Beach, Florida, and then Vincent was born, the youngest of the three siblings. He was raised in Hawaii and Colorado during his early years.
D'Onofrio's parents divorced when he was young; his mother later married George Meyer. He became step - brother to Meyer 's children from a previous marriage (Guy and Connie). The family moved to the Hialeah, Florida area. D'Onofrio, a shy boy who spent "a lot of time in my room, staying in my head, '' later became interested in magic and sleight of hand, tricks he learned from Cuban entertainers who owned a small magic shop.
In his teens, he worked backstage in set building and sound production at a number of community theaters run by his father. He graduated from Hialeah - Miami Lakes Senior High School.
After graduating from high school, D'Onofrio started to appear in front of the curtain. During an 18 - month stint at the University of Colorado in Boulder, Colorado, he was involved with small, community - theater productions. He later studied method acting at the American Stanislavsky Theater and the Actors Studio, under coaches Sonia Moore and Sharon Chatten, which landed him his first paid role in off - Broadway 's This Property Is Condemned. He went on to appear in a number of their productions, including Of Mice and Men and Sexual Perversity in Chicago. D'Onofrio continued his career by performing in many New York University student productions while also working as a bouncer at the Hard Rock Cafe, a bodyguard for Robert Plant and Yul Brynner and a deliveryman.
In 1984, he made his Broadway debut as Nick Rizzoli in Open Admissions. In 2012, D'Onofrio returned to teach at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute where his daughter is a student.
In 1986, D'Onofrio took on the role often considered the defining moment in his acting career, as Pvt. Leonard Lawrence, an overweight, clumsy Marine recruit in the movie Full Metal Jacket. On a tip from friend Matthew Modine, D'Onofrio was urged to send audition tapes to director Stanley Kubrick, in England. Four tapes later, D'Onofrio landed the role. Originally, the character of Pvt. Lawrence had been written as a "skinny ignorant redneck ''; however, Kubrick believed the role would have more impact if the character were big and clumsy. D'Onofrio gained 70 lb (32 kg) for the role, bringing his weight to 280 lb (130 kg). This remains the record for most weight gained by an actor for a movie. While filming an obstacle course scene for the movie, D'Onofrio injured his left knee, compounded by the excessive weight, which required surgical reconstruction.
After filming of Full Metal Jacket was completed, having lost nearly all the weight gained for the movie in just nine months, D'Onofrio went on to play Dawson, the owner of Dawson 's Garage in Adventures in Babysitting (1987). He appears in only one scene near the end of the film. In 1988, he was cast in another supporting role in the film Mystic Pizza, playing the fiancé of Lili Taylor 's character. In the movie, which was Julia Roberts ' breakout film, he was billed under his full name Vincent Phillip D'Onofrio.
D'Onofrio continued to play a wide variety of minor or supporting roles, including the father of a saint in Nancy Savoca 's Household Saints (1993), director Orson Welles in Tim Burton 's Ed Wood (1994), farmer Edgar and the evil "Bug '' that possesses him from Men in Black (1997), Yippie founder Abbie Hoffman in Steal This Movie! (2000), a man who claims to be from the future in Happy Accidents (2000), and the serial killer Carl Stargher, opposite Jennifer Lopez 's character in The Cell (2000).
In 1992, he appeared in Robert Altman 's The Player, as an aspiring screenwriter. In 1997, he made a move to television and received an Emmy nomination for his appearance as John Lange in the Homicide: Life on the Street episode "Subway. '' In 1999, he turned down a role in The Sopranos. D'Onofrio portrayed leftist radical Abbie Hoffman in Steal This Movie in 2000, also starring Janeane Garofalo as his wife.
In 2001, he took on what became his longest and perhaps best - known role as Det. Robert Goren on the NBC / USA Network television show Law & Order: Criminal Intent. On March 1, 2008, D'Onofrio made a cameo appearance in a presidential election - related sketch in a Saturday Night Live episode as his character Det. Robert Goren. In the sketch, he interrogates Hillary Clinton (played by Amy Poehler). His entrance to and exit from the skit are punctuated by the Law & Order "dun - DUN '' sound.
In 2009, it was announced that D'Onofrio would be leaving Law & Order: Criminal Intent in the spring of 2010, with his last appearance occurring in the two - part, season - 9 premiere. He was replaced by Jeff Goldblum, but after a drop in ratings, D'Onofrio and Kathryn Erbe agreed to return for a 10th (and final) season of the show.
In 2003, it was reported that D'Onofrio and Joe Pantoliano had begun work on a small film titled Little Victories, about a 12 - year - old boy whose perceptions of the world are forever changed when his gangster uncle comes to live with him. According to a television interview with Pantoliano, the film was not completed and went into turnaround due to a failure to raise the funds necessary for production.
In November 2005, D'Onofrio won Best Actor at the Stockholm International Film Festival for his role as Mike Cobb in the independent film Thumbsucker. In 2006, he appeared in The Break - Up, starring Jennifer Aniston and Vince Vaughn, playing Vaughn 's eccentric brother. Vaughn and he had appeared together in two previous films, The Cell (2000), wherein Vaughn played an FBI agent pursuing D'Onofrio's character, and Thumbsucker (2005). He appears in the Oscar - winning short "The New Tenants '' (2009).
Over the next few years, D'Onofrio co-starred in films such as: Staten Island (2009), Brooklyn 's Finest (2010), Kill the Irishman (2011), Crackers (2011), American Falls (2012), Fire with Fire (2012), and Ass Backwards (2013).
In 2011, he began work on the Jennifer Lynch 2012 film Chained (previously titled Rabbit) in which he portrays Bob, a serial killer who kidnaps a young boy, Rabbit, and makes him his protégé. When he becomes older, Rabbit must decide whether to follow in the footsteps of his captor or plan his escape. The film shot in areas in and around Regina and Moose Jaw, both in Saskatchewan.
On May 1, 2012, due to "explicit violence '', the movie was given an NC - 17 rating by the MPAA, despite an appeal by Jennifer Lynch, and the distributor, with scenes cut to maximize theater exposure and distribution. No stranger to the NC - 17 ratings, Lynch, who responded to the ruling a day later also saw cuts made to her movie Boxing Helena.
In July 2012, a press release from Anchor Bay announced that the movie would be released on Blu - ray and DVD on October 2, 2012 and would include the deleted scene, involving a throat being cut, which caused the NC - 17 rating.
On September 14, 2011, it was announced that D'Onofrio would star alongside Ethan Hawke in a new NBC show, Blue Tilt, named after the harmful psychological effects homicide detectives experience after constantly dealing with horrific crimes.
D'Onofrio and Hawke had worked together in the films The Newton Boys, Staten Island, Brooklyn 's Finest and Sinister. The hour - long cop drama, in which D'Onofrio would play Sonny, was to follow the main characters ' attempts to balance their careers with family life. Writer Chris Brancato, fresh from Season 10 of Law and Order: Criminal Intent, was brought on board to pen the episodes. Filming of the pilot episode was set to start in February 2012. On March 27, 2012, a tweet from Kevin Dunigan, the co-creator and developer of the pilot, revealed that NBC had shelved the project because it did not have enough "pop to attract viewers. ''
On April 30, 2012, the short film "Crackers '', starring D'Onofrio as Gus, won a People 's Choice Award at the Fort Myers Beach Film Festival. The festival, which had been dormant for six years, was rekindled and partly organized by Vincent 's sister, actress Elizabeth D'Onofrio.
Fresh from his role in Jennifer Lynch 's Chained, it was announced on August 11, 2012, that D'Onofrio would star in her upcoming film A Fall From Grace. The film tells the story of Detective Michael Tabb, to be played by Tim Roth, as he investigates the murders of young girls burned and washing ashore along the Mississippi River. A further upcoming Lynch project, The Monster Next Door, was set to also star D'Onofrio.
Also in November, filming began on the Vidhu Vinod Chopra movie, Broken Horses, which focused on gang warfare around the border between the United States and Mexico. D'Onofrio starred alongside Chris Marquette and Anton Yelchin.
In 2013, D'Onofrio co-starred in the movie Escape Plan, filmed in New Orleans, also starring Sylvester Stallone, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and 50 Cent. D'Onofrio portrayed Lester Clark, deputy director of the Prisons Bureau.
D'Onofrio co-starred in the film drama The Judge (2014).
His other projects included a role in Supreme Ruler with Marcia Gay Harden and Jeffrey Dean Morgan, Eric Bogosian 's Mall which he co-wrote with his former Law & Order: Criminal Intent co-star, and Pawn Shop Chronicles.
In 2015, D'Onofrio made his Marvel Cinematic Universe debut as Wilson Fisk in the first season of Daredevil. He reprised the role in an extended cameo appearance in season 2, and in season 3 as a series regular.
D'Onofrio has also had success behind the camera, producing The Whole Wide World (1996) and Guy (1997), and executive producing The Velocity of Gary (1998) and Steal This Movie (2000). In 2005, he directed and starred in the short film Five Minutes, Mr. Welles (2005), which represented a culmination of D'Onofrio's desire to improve on his performance as Welles in Ed Wood, which reportedly left director Tim Burton underwhelmed. Burton decided to procure the services of voiceover artist Maurice LaMarche due to being known for his excellent imitation of Welles ' voice to produce a more dramatically effective rendering of the character 's dialogue. Disappointed with his performance, having been given only two weeks notice to prepare for the role, D'Onofrio wrote, produced, directed, and starred in the short in answer to the critics and himself. The film depicts D'Onofrio as Welles preparing for his role in The Third Man.
In 2008, he returned to directing with the feature - length musical slasher Do n't Go in the Woods (2010), written by his friend Joe Vinciguerra, featuring a score by Sam Bisbee, and starring various unknown actors hand - picked by D'Onofrio. It follows an indie rock band who venture into the woods to write new music, only to meet a crazed murderer (Tim Lajcik). The movie, shot in 13 days near Kingston, New York, had a budget of $100,000 and played at numerous festivals throughout 2009 and 2010. Initially slated for national release in December 2011, the film opened to limited theaters on January 13, 2012, and was released on DVD on June 12, 2012.
He also portrayed Vic Hoskins in the action adventure film Jurassic World (2015). He played Jack Horne in Antoine Fuqua 's 2016 remake of The Magnificent Seven.
On October 27, 2009, D'Onofrio made his musical debut, appearing in character as comedic country singer George Geronimo Gerkie at Joe 's Pub in New York City. He appeared as Gerkie again at New York 's Hammerstein Ballroom on December 6, 2009, during Matt Pinfield 's Holiday Extravaganza Show and at the premiere of his movie Do n't Go in the Woods at Joe 's Pub on May 28, 2010. A fourth concert was held at the pub on July 22, 2010, with proceeds from the event going to the Utah Meth Cops project.
On November 11, 2011, while teaching students at the Tribeca Flashpoint Media Arts Academy, D'Onofrio discussed plans for further concerts, and a George Gerkie documentary which is to be filmed by Ultrasuede: In Search of Halston director Whitney Smith.
In September 2011, Australian hip - hop band, The Funkoars, released an album titled The Quickening, featuring the song "Being Vincent D'Onofrio '', an homage to D'Onofrio's career and his work on Law and Order: Criminal Intent. In February 2012, the band announced their upcoming "Being Vincent D'Onofrio Tour 2012 '' with artwork featuring D'Onofrio's face in place of the band members '.
In 2014, D'Onofrio released two songs as part of an avant garde spoken - word project with multi-instrumentalist and composer Dana Lyn. The first single, "I 'm a Hamster '', gathered attention on social media. The full album was made available for purchase in March, 2015, on the band 's website.
In 1998, D'Onofrio, with his father Gene and sister Elizabeth, founded the RiverRun International Film Festival in Winston - Salem, North Carolina. In 2003, former film producer and dean of the School of Filmmaking at the University of North Carolina School of the Arts, Dale Pollock, took over the festival and moved it from Brevard, North Carolina, to Winston - Salem. Annually, the festival showcases the best films offered from the independent and international industry, as well as those from student filmmakers.
In 2008, alongside his sister, Toni, D'Onofrio began hosting events to raise money for the Utah Meth Cops Project. He served as the project 's spokesperson from 2009 -- 2012.
In the fall of 2011, D'Onofrio became a member of the advisory board for the Woodstock Film Festival, which holds an annual event for independent films. Other members of the board include Griffin Dunne, Ethan Hawke, and Aidan Quinn.
In February 2011, D'Onofrio became a public face of the gun control debate, appearing in an ad by the Citizens Crime Commission of New York City urging a ban on large - capacity ammunition magazines.
On August 9, 2012, it was announced that D'Onofrio had been chosen to narrate the documentary, Heroes Behind The Badge (2012). The film follows four fallen officers and the impact their deaths have had on their families, colleagues, and communities. The proceeds are benefitting a memorial museum being built in Washington, DC. A longtime supporter of the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial, D'Onofrio has been the spokesperson for the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund and Museum since 2010. A follow up to the documentary, subtitled Sacrifice and Survival, was released in the fall of 2013.
On November 13, 2012, D'Onofrio joined the cast of the off - Broadway production Clive, alongside Brooks Ashmanskas and Zoe Kazan. Produced by Jonathan Marc Sherman and directed by Ethan Hawke, the play, based on Baal by Bertolt Brecht, officially opened at The New Group at Theatre Row on February 7, 2013.
In the early 1990s, D'Onofrio was in a relationship with actress Greta Scacchi, with whom he starred in several films during that period (including The Player and Fires Within). The couple had one daughter, Leila (born 1992).
On March 22, 1997, D'Onofrio married Dutch model Carin van der Donk, and the couple had a son (born 1999). The couple split in the early 2000s, but reconciled and had a second son (born 2008).
On November 10, 2004, D'Onofrio collapsed on the set of Law & Order: Criminal Intent. He collapsed again at home a few days later, and after further testing, was diagnosed with exhaustion. The cause of his exhaustion was explained later as his 14 - hour days filming Criminal Intent, coupled with the filming of his short film Five Minutes, Mr. Welles during the show 's hiatus.
During an interview in January 2012, D'Onofrio discussed his frustration with conflicting reports on his current marital status, including inaccuracies on Internet Movie Database. He has stated that, despite some reports, he is currently married. His family and he reside in a townhouse in the Gramercy Park neighborhood of Manhattan.
|
thou shalt not call the name of the lord in vain | Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain - wikipedia
"Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain '' (KJV; also "You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God '' (NRSV) and variants) is one of the Ten Commandments.
It is a prohibition of blasphemy, specifically, the misuse or "taking in vain '' of the name of the God of Israel. Exodus 20: 7 reads:
Based on this commandment, Second Temple Judaism by the Hellenistic period developed a taboo of pronouncing the name of God at all, resulting in the replacement of the Tetragrammaton by "Adonai '' (literally "my lords '' -- see Adonai) in pronunciation.
In the Hebrew Bible itself, the commandment is directed against abuse of the name of God, not against any use; there are numerous examples in the Hebrew Bible and a few in the New Testament where God 's name is called upon in oaths to tell the truth or to support the truth of the statement being sworn to, and the books of Daniel and Revelation include instances where an angel sent by God invokes the name of God to support the truth of apocalyptic revelations. God himself is presented as swearing by his own name ("As surely as I live... '') to guarantee the certainty of various events foretold through the prophets.
The Hebrew לא תשא לשוא is translated as "thou shalt not take in vain ''. The word here translated as "in vain '' is שוא shav ' "emptiness, vanity; emptiness of speech, lying '', while "take '' is נשא nasa ' "to lift, carry, bear, take, take away '' (appearing in the second person as תשא). The expression "to take in vain '' is also translated less literally as "to misuse '' or variants. Some have interpreted the commandment to be against perjury, since invoking God 's name in an oath was considered a guarantee of the truth of a statement or promise. Other scholars believe the original intent was to prohibit using the name in the magical practice of conjuration.
Hebrew Bible passages also refer to God 's name being profaned by hypocritical behavior of people and false representation of God 's words or character. Many scholars also believe the commandment applies to the casual use of God 's name in interjections and curses (blasphemy).
The object of the command "thou shalt not take in vain '' is את ־ שם ־ יהוה אלהיך at - shem - YHWH elohik "this - same name of YHWH, thy elohim '', making explicit that the commandment is against the misuse of the proper name Yahweh specifically.
In the Hebrew Bible, as well as in the Ancient Near East and throughout classical antiquity more generally, an oath is a conditional self - curse invoking deities that are asked to inflict punishment on the oath - breaker. There are numerous examples in the Book of Samuel of people strengthening their statements or promises with the phrase, "As surely as Yahweh lives... '' and such statements are referred to in Jeremiah as well. The value of invoking punishment from God was based on the belief that God can not be deceived or evaded. For example, a narrative in the Book of Numbers describes how such an oath is to be administered by a priest to a woman suspected of adultery, with the expectation that the accompanying curse will have no effect on an innocent person.
Such oaths may have been used in civil claims, regarding supposed theft, for example, and the commandment is repeated in the context of honest dealings between people in Leviticus 19: 12. At one point of the account of the dedication of the Temple of Solomon, Solomon prays to Yahweh, asking him to hear and act upon curses uttered in a dispute that are then brought before his altar, to distinguish between the person in the right and the one in the wrong.
The prophet Isaiah rebuked Israel as the Babylonian Captivity drew near, pointing out that they bore the name of God, and swore by him, but their swearing was hypocritical since they had forsaken the exclusive worship of Yahweh for the worship of idols. The Israelites had been told in Leviticus that sacrificing their children to idols and then coming to worship God caused God 's name to be profaned, thus breaking the commandment. According to the Book of Jeremiah, Yahweh told him to look around Jerusalem, asserting that he would not be able to find an honest man -- "Even when they say, As Yahweh lives, ' they are sure to be swearing falsely. '' Jeremiah refers to a situation in which Israelites repented and took oaths in God 's name -- only to renege by reclaiming as slaves persons they had freed as part of their repentance. This hypocritical act was also considered profaning God 's name. In Jeremiah 12, an opportunity is also described for Israel 's neighbors to avoid destruction and prosper if they stop swearing by their idol and swear only by the name of Yahweh.
To avoid coming under guilt by accidentally misusing God 's name, Jewish scholars do not write or pronounce the proper name in most circumstances, but use substitutes such as "Adonai (the Lord), '' or "HaShem (the Name). '' In English translations of the Bible, the name Adonai is often translated "Lord, '' while the proper name Yahweh represented by the tetragrammaton is often indicated by the use of capital and small capital letters, Lᴏʀᴅ.
Joseph Telushkin, a Modern Orthodox rabbi, wrote that the commandment is much more than a prohibition against casual interjections using God 's name. He pointed out that the more literal translation of Lo tissa is "you shall not carry '' rather than "you shall not take '', and that understanding this helps one understand why the commandment ranks with such as "You shall not murder '' and "You shall not commit adultery ''.
One of the first commandments listed by Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah is the responsibility to sanctify God 's name. Maimonides thought the commandment should be taken as generally as possible, and therefore he considered it forbidden to mention God 's name unnecessarily at any time. Jewish scholars referred to this as "motzi shem shamayim lavatalah '', "uttering the Name of Heaven uselessly. '' To avoid guilt associated with accidentally breaking the commandment, Jewish scholars applied the prohibition to all seven biblical titles of God in addition to the proper name, and established the safeguard of circumlocution when referring to the Name of God. In writing names of God, a common practice includes substituting letters or syllables so that the written word is not exactly the name, or writing the name in an abbreviated manner. Orthodox Jews will not even pronounce a name of God unless it is said in prayer or religious study. The Sacred Name (Tetragrammaton), is never pronounced by these Jews but always read as "Adonai (the Lord), '' "HaShem (the Name), '' or sometimes "AdoShem ''.
May His great Name be blessed forever and ever.
The Kaddish is an important prayer in a Jewish prayer service whose central theme is the magnification and sanctification of God 's name. Along with the Shema and Amidah, it is one of the most important and central prayers of Jewish liturgy.
In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus taught that a person 's word should be reliable and one should not swear by God or his creation. In his letter, the Apostle James reiterates the instruction to just say ' yes ' or ' no ' and keep your word, "so that you may not fall into condemnation. ''
According to David Cook, appeals to authorities to validate the truth of a promise had expanded in Jesus ' day, which was not in line with the original commandment. Jesus is quoted as warning that they were blind and foolish who gave credibility to such arguments.
According to the Gospel of John, Jesus made appeals to the power of the name of God and also claimed the name of God as his own, which constituted blasphemy if it were not true. The Gospel of John relates an incident where a group attempts to stone Jesus after he speaks God 's name. Jesus says that he is the Messiah, and makes parallels between himself and the "Son of Man '' referred to by the prophet Daniel, which evokes an emphatic response that he has blasphemed (broken the commandment) and deserves death.
Jesus came to them and said, "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. ''
The Apostle Paul occasionally invokes God 's name in his letters, calling God as witness to the purity of his motives and honesty of his dealings with the churches to whom he ministered.
The author of Hebrews reviewed God 's promise to Abraham as assurance that outstanding promises will yet be fulfilled. "Human beings, of course, swear by someone greater than themselves, and an oath given as confirmation puts an end to all dispute. '' In the case of the promise of God to Abraham, God swore by his own name to guarantee the promise, since there was nothing greater for him to swear by. Philo pointed out that it is natural that God would swear by himself, even though this is "a thing impossible for anyone else. ''
Similar to the events described in the Book of Daniel, the Book of Revelation includes a description of an angel who swears by God to the truth of the end - time events being revealed to John.
O Lord, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth!
The Catholic Church teaches that the Lord 's name is holy and should be introduced into one 's speech only to bless, praise or glorify that name. The name should be used respectfully, with an awareness of the presence of God. It must not be abused by careless speech, false oaths, or words of hatred, reproach or defiance toward God, or used in magic. Since Jesus Christ is believed to be the Messiah, and "the image of the invisible God, '' this commandment is applied to the name of Jesus Christ as well.
The sentiment behind this commandment is expressed in the Lord 's Prayer, which begins, "Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. '' According to Pope Benedict XVI, when God revealed his name to Moses he established a relationship with mankind; Benedict stated that the Incarnation was the culmination of a process that "had begun with the giving of the divine name. '' Benedict elaborated that this means the divine name could be misused and that Jesus ' inclusion of "hallowed be thy name '' is a plea for the sanctification of God 's name, to "protect the wonderful mystery of his accessibility to us, and constantly assert his true identity as opposed to our distortion of it. ''
Taking an oath or swearing is to take God as witness to what one affirms. It is to invoke the divine truthfulness as a pledge of one 's own truthfulness.
Promises made to others in God 's name engage the divine honor, fidelity, truthfulness, and authority. They must be respected in justice. To be unfaithful to them is to misuse God 's name and in some way to make God out to be a liar. (1 John 1: 10)
For the same reason, the Catholic Catechism teaches that it is a duty to reject false oaths that others might try to impose; an oath may be made false because it attests to a lie, because an illegitimate authority is requiring it, or because the purpose of the oath is contrary to God 's law or human dignity.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints believe in this commandment as written in Exodus 20. This commandment has been repeated in the LDS Scriptures such as the Book of Mormon and in Doctrine and Covenants.
Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.
Keep yourselves from evil to take the name of the Lord in vain, for I am the Lord your God, even the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham and of Isaac and of Jacob.
And again, the Lord God hath commanded that men should not murder; that they should not lie; that they should not steal; that they should not take the name of the Lord their God in vain; that they should not envy; that they should not have malice; that they should not contend one with another; that they should not commit whoredoms; and that they should do none of these things; for whoso doeth them shall perish.
Former prophet and president of the Church, Spencer W. Kimball told the following story to inspire believers: President Kimball underwent surgery many years ago, he was wheeled from the operating room to the intensive care room. The attendant who pushed the gurney which carried him stumbled and let out an oath using the name of the Lord. President Kimball, who was barely conscious, said weakly, "Please! Please! That is my Lord whose names you revile. '' There was a deathly silence; then the young man whispered with a subdued voice, "I am sorry. ''
Matthew Henry described five categories of actions that constitute taking God 's name in vain: 1) hypocrisy -- making a profession of God 's name, but not living up to that profession; 2) covenant breaking -- if one makes promises to God yet does not carry out the promised actions; 3) rash swearing; 4) false swearing; and 5) using the name of God lightly and carelessly, for charms or spells, jest or sport. He pointed out that though a person may hold himself guiltless in one of these matters, the commandment specifically states that God will not.
The Lutheran Witness, a doctrinal document representing the Lutheran faith, supports the view that oaths should not generally be taken at all, except "for the glory of God and the welfare of our neighbor. '' Specifically, it states that proper use of God 's name includes administration of oaths in court, and in swearing - in a spiritual or political leader to their respective offices, which include responsibilities toward God and fellow human beings.
In his Institutes of the Christian Religion, John Calvin sets the stage for discussing this commandment by noting that an oath is calling God to witness that what we say is true, and that an appropriate oath is a kind of worship of God in that it implies a profession of faith. When human testimony fails, people appeal to God as witness, as the only one able to bring hidden things to light and know what is in the heart. False swearing robs God of his truth (to the observer), and therefore it is a serious matter. With regard to the casual use of God 's name, Calvin summarized, "remember that an oath is not appointed or allowed for passion or pleasure, but for necessity. '' He wrote that the frequency of casual use of the name of God has dulled the public conscience but that the commandment, with its penalty, still stands.
Historian Winwood Reade has a different interpretation of the third commandment: "Invention of the Oath: But the chief benefit which religion ever conferred upon mankind, whether in ancient or in modern times, was undoubtedly the oath. The priests taught that if a promise was made in the name of the gods, and that promise was broken, the gods would kill those who took their name in vain. Such is the true meaning of the third commandment. Before that time treaties of peace and contracts of every kind in which mutual confidence was required could only be effected by the interchange of hostages. But now by means of this purely theological device a verbal form became itself a sacred pledge: men could at all times confide in one another; and foreign tribes met freely together beneath the shelter of this useful superstition which yet survives in our courts of law. ''
|
when does the next season of ink master start | Ink Master (season 11) - wikipedia
Ink Master: Grudge Match -- Cleen vs. Christian is the eleventh season of the tattoo reality competition Ink Master that premiered on Paramount Network on August 28, 2018 instead of its original airdate September 4. Hosted by Dave Navarro and co-judged by Oliver Peck and Chris Nunez, Season 11 will finally see Ink Master veterans Cleen Rock One and Christian Buckingham getting the chance to settle their heated rivalry that began in Season 7 and again in Season 9. But they wo n't be doing it alone this time as each of them will coach a new group of artists where the winner will receive $100,000, a feature in Inked Magazine and the title of Ink Master. In addition, the winning coach will also receive $100,000.
The first episode featured 22 artists competing to be one of the official 18 artists that were split into two teams of 9 artists. The top 14, who were chosen by the judges and the coaches, chose who they want to be on while the remaining 8 artists that were not selected went head to head in the knockout round that determined who gets the final spots on either Team Cleen or Team Christian. Teej Poole, Tony Medellin and Austin Rose previously competed in the second season of the spin - off Ink Master: Angels and won the Angel Face Off which guaranteed them a spot in this season of Ink Master.
|
what did french capetian kings do to maintain power | Succession to the French throne - wikipedia
This article covers the mechanism by which the French throne passed from the establishment of the Frankish Kingdom in 486 to the fall of the Second French Empire in 1870.
The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region (known as Francia in Latin) largely corresponding to ancient Gaul from the middle of the 5th century.
Clovis I was the first Germanic ruler to convert to Roman Catholicism. The Franks began to adopt Christianity following the baptism of Clovis, an event that inaugurated the alliance between the Frankish kingdom and the Roman Catholic Church. Even so, the Merovingian kings were largely beyond the control of the Pope. Because they were able to worship with their Catholic neighbors, the newly - Christianized Franks found much easier acceptance from the local Gallo - Roman population than did the Arian Visigoths, Vandals or Burgundians. The Merovingians thus built what eventually proved the most stable of the successor - kingdoms in the west.
Following Frankish custom, the kingdom was partitioned among Clovis ' four sons, and over the next century this tradition of partition continued. Even when several Merovingian kings simultaneously ruled their own realms, the kingdom -- not unlike the late Roman Empire -- was conceived of as a single entity. Externally, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity and conquered Burgundy in 534. After the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. Internally, the kingdom was divided among Clovis ' sons and later among his grandsons which frequently saw war between the different kings, who allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king created conflict between the surviving brothers and the deceased 's sons, with differing outcomes. Due to frequent warfare, the kingdom was occasionally united under one king. Although this prevented the kingdom from being fragmented into numerous parts, this practice weakened royal power, for they had to make concessions to the nobility to procure their support in war.
In each Frankish kingdom the Mayor of the Palace served as the chief officer of state. From about the turn of the eighth century, the Austrasian Mayors tended to wield the real power in the kingdom, laying the foundation for a new dynasty.
The Carolingians consolidated their power in the late seventh century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux et princeps Francorum hereditary and becoming the de facto rulers of the Franks as the real powers behind the throne.
To legalize the power already being exercised by the mayors of the palace, Pepin requested and received from the pope a decision that whoever exercised the actual power in the kingdom should be the legal ruler. After this decision the throne was declared vacant. Childeric III was deposed and confined to a monastery.
According to ancient custom, Pepin was then elected King of the Franks by an assembly of Frankish nobles, with a large portion of his army on hand (in case the nobility inclined not to honor the Papal bull). Although such elections happened infrequently, a general rule in Germanic law stated that the king relied on the support of his leading men. These men reserved the right to choose a new leader if they felt that the old one could not lead them in profitable battle. While in later France the kingdom became hereditary, the kings of the later Holy Roman Empire proved unable to abolish the elective tradition and continued as elected rulers until the Empire 's formal end in 1806. In 754 the pope reaffirmed the election of Pepin by crossing the Alps and personally anointing the new king in the Old Testament manner, as the Chosen of the Lord.
Behind the pope 's action lay his need for a powerful protector. In 751 the Lombards had conquered the Exarchate of Ravenna, the center of Byzantine government in Italy, were demanding tribute from the pope, and threatened to besiege Rome. Following Pepin 's coronation, the pope secured the new ruler 's promise of armed intervention in Italy and his pledge to give the papacy the Exarchate of Ravenna, once it was conquered. In 756 a Frankish army forced the Lombard king to relinquish his conquests, and Pepin officially gave Ravenna to the pope. Known as the "Donation of Pepin, '' the gift made the pope a temporal ruler over the Papal States, a strip of territory that extended diagonally across northern Italy.
The greatest Carolingian monarch was Charlemagne, who was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Roman Empire, is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire.
The Carolingians followed the Frankish custom of dividing inheritances among the surviving sons, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons (sub -) kings in the various regions (regna) of the Empire, which they would inherit on the death of their father. Though the Carolingian Empire may have several kings, the imperial dignity was accorded only to the oldest son.
Charlemagne had three legitimate sons who survived infancy: Charles the Younger, King of Neustria, Pepin, King of Italy, and Louis, King of Aquitaine. In the Divisio Regnorum of 806, Charlemagne had slated Charles the Younger as his successor as emperor and chief king, ruling over the Frankish heartland of Neustria and Austrasia, while giving Pepin the Iron Crown of Lombardy, which Charlemagne possessed by conquest. To Louis 's kingdom of Aquitaine, he added Septimania, Provence, and part of Burgundy. But Charlemagne 's other legitimate sons died -- Pepin in 810 and Charles in 811 -- and Louis alone remained to be crowned co-emperor with Charlemagne in 813. Pepin, King of Italy, left behind a son, Bernard. On the death of Charlemagne in 814, Louis inherited the entire Frankish kingdom and all its possessions (the concept of successional representation was not yet well - established). But Bernard was allowed to retain control of Italy, the sub-kingdom of his father.
Following the death of Louis the Pious, the surviving adult Carolingians fought a three - year civil war ending only in the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the empire into three regna while imperial status and a nominal lordship was accorded to Lothair I.
The Carolingians differed markedly from the Merovingians in that they disallowed inheritance to illegitimate offspring, possibly in an effort to prevent infighting among heirs and assure a limit to the division of the realm. In the late ninth century, however, the lack of suitable adults among the Carolingians necessitated the rise of Arnulf of Carinthia, a bastard child of a legitimate Carolingian king.
The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire in 888. They ruled on in East Francia until 911 and they held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. Though they asserted their prerogative to rule, their hereditary, God - given right, and their usual alliance with the Church, they were unable to stem the principle of electoral monarchy and their propagandism failed them in the long run. Carolingian cadet branches continued to rule in Vermandois and Lower Lorraine after the last king died in 987, but they never sought thrones of principalities and made peace with the new ruling families.
From 977 to 986, Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks, allied himself with the German emperors Otto II and Otto III and with Archbishop Adalberon of Reims to dominate the Carolingian king, Lothair. By 986, he was king in all but name. After Lothair 's son Louis V died in May 987, Adalberon and Gerbert of Aurillac convened an assembly of nobles to elect Hugh Capet as their king.
Immediately after his coronation, Hugh began to push for the coronation of his son Robert. Hugh 's own claimed reason was that he was planning an expedition against the Moorish armies harassing Borrel II of Barcelona, an invasion which never occurred, and that the stability of the country necessitated two kings should he die while on expedition. Ralph Glaber, however, attributes Hugh 's request to his old age and inability to control the nobility. Modern scholarship has largely imputed to Hugh the motive of establishing a dynasty against the claims of electoral power on the part of the aristocracy, but this is not the typical view of his contemporaries and even some modern scholars have been less skeptical of Hugh 's "plan '' to campaign in Spain. Robert was eventually crowned on 25 December 987. A measure of Hugh 's success is that when he died in 996, Robert continued to reign without anyone disputing his rights, but during his long reign actual royal power dissipated into the hands of the great territorial magnates.
Thus, the early Capetians made their position de facto hereditary by associating their eldest sons to the kingship while they still live. By the death of Philip I, this hereditary feature had become established in custom. Even though Philip refused to have his son crowned during his lifetime, Louis succeeded with little trouble. Yet the association of the eldest son to the kingship continued for two more generations, with Philip II Augustus being the last king so crowned.
Henry I became sole ruler on his father 's death in 1031. The succession, however, was hotly contested by his younger brother Robert. Constance of Arles, Henry 's mother, preferred to place her younger son, Robert, on the throne. She allied herself with one of the more powerful counts of the time, Odo II, Count of Blois.
This alliance was particularly worrisome for Henry I. Odo II of Blois was a very powerful lord and had warred against Henry 's father throughout his reign; he had enlarged his possessions to the point of encircling the royal demesne. With his alliance, the queen mother and her son Robert managed to expel King Henry from his own demesne lands, forcing him to seek refuge at the court of the duke of Normandy, Robert.
King Henry formed an alliance with the powerful duke of Normandy, Robert, by granting him the French Vexin, or the lands between the rivers Epte and Oise. Although this has been debated by modern scholarship, the fact remains that Robert fought alongside the king. Henry also managed to gain the alliance of another powerful count, Baldwin IV of Flanders.
Finally, Henry added Emperor Henry II to his camp. The emperor had personal issues with Odo II. He wished nothing more than to rid himself of a powerful foe and troublesome neighbour. Odo had invaded Henry 's lands in Burgundy and took many castles and places. Henry and his allies recovered the royal lands that had been lost to the usurpers. The conflict did n't end there; there was still a chance for Robert to win the throne. Henry, to guarantee his brother 's submission, granted him the vast duchy of Burgundy, which had been added to the royal demesne by Robert II.
Odo found himself in Imperial Burgundy against Henry II. At the battle of Bar - le - Duc, Odo was killed in battle in the year 1037. His lands and properties were divided amongst his sons, ending a threat against the Capetian monarchy.
Henry I had managed to maintain his royal title and dignity, but the price was great. The greatest problem to have arisen from the crisis was the growth in independence of the lords and castellans in the lands of the royal demesne. This had the effect of weakening royal authority even further. Secondly, Henry I lost a great deal of territory and land in suppressing the revolt. The French Vexin was granted away to the duke of Normandy, the duchy of Burgundy, a substantial part of the royal demesne, was given away to Robert, the king 's younger brother.
An appanage is a fief conceded to a younger son or a younger brother of the king. In France, the origin of the appanage can be found either in the old Frankish custom of dividing the inheritance between the sons (a custom which feudalism replaced with the partage noble in which the eldest son received most of the estates); or in the fact that, at its origins, the Capetian monarchy was relatively weak, and the principle of succession by the eldest son was not secure until the late 12th century.
The first such appanage in the history of the Capetian monarchy was the duchy of Burgundy, which Henry I ceded to his younger brother Robert. Later, Louis VII gave Dreux to his son Robert, in 1137, Philip Augustus gave Domfront and Mortain to his younger son Philip Hurepel (who had also become count of Boulogne by marriage). The last two cases were not under the same kind of duress, but probably reflect the same desire to ward off quarrels.
The original appanages, just like other feudal fiefs, could pass through the female line. As the monarchy became more powerful, they began to restrict the transmission of appanages in the male line, although this did not become standard for some time. The greatest example is the Duchy of Burgundy, which may have been illegally confiscated by Louis XI after the death of the last male duke. After Burgundy, the restriction to male heirs became standard (it is mentioned in an ordinance of Charles V in 1374), but was not formalized until the Edict of Moulins in 1566.
The Capetians also conceded fiefs to daughters or sisters in the form of dowry, although this practice became less and less common over time.
The Salic Law (Lex Salica) is a code of law written around the time of Clovis I for the Salian Franks, in Latin mixed with Germanic words. It deals mainly with monetary compensations (wehrgeld) and also with civil law with respect to men and land. Clause 6 in title 59, which deals with inheritance rules for allodial lands (i.e. family lands not held in benefice) specifies that in "concerning salic lands (terra Salica) no portion or inheritance is for a woman but all the land belongs to members of the male sex who are brothers. '' A capitulary of Chilperic, ca. 575, expands this by admitting inheritance by a daughter in the absence of sons: "if a man had neighbors but after his death sons and daughters remained, as long as there were sons they should have the land just as the Salic Law provides. And if the sons are already dead then a daughter may receive the land just as the sons would have done had they lived. '' The monarchy is nowhere mentioned. The Salic Law was reformulated under Charlemagne and still applied in the 9th century, but it slowly disappeared as it became incorporated into local common laws. By the 14th century it was completely forgotten.
From 987 to 1316, every king of France was fortunate to have a son to succeed him. This state of affairs lasted over three hundred years, spanning 13 generations. The Capetians did not even have to deal with the question of successional representation; Hugh Magnus, eldest son of Robert II, and Philip, eldest son of Louis VI, did not leave behind children of their own when they predeceased their respective fathers. Thus, for such a long time, the succession to the throne was undisputed, so that there was no reason for the peers of the realm to elect a new king. Since 987, the Capetians had always passed the crown to their eldest surviving son, and this birthright became itself a source of unquestionable legitimacy. Louis VIII was the last king acclaimed before the sacred unction (last remnant of the original election). From St. Louis, in 1226, King was acclaimed after the anointing. The voice of the barons was no longer necessary in determining the king.
Philip the Fair was not concerned about the lack of male heirs. He had three sons, well married, and a daughter, Isabella of France, Queen of England by her marriage to Edward II of England. The eldest son, Louis the Quarrelsome, was King of Navarre and Count of Champagne since the death of his mother. He would, at the death of his father, become King of France and Navarre. His wife, Margaret of Burgundy had given him a daughter, but she was young and he could expect her to give him a son later. As for his two other sons, Philip, Count of Poitiers and Charles, Count of La Marche, they had married the two daughters of Otto IV, Count of Burgundy and Mahaut, Countess of Artois, Joan and Blanche. The king could believe his succession was assured.
Everything collapsed in the spring of 1314, when the affairs of the daughters - in - law of the king were discovered (also known as the Tour de Nesle Affair). Somewhat neglected by their husbands, the princesses entertained themselves without them. The lover of Margaret of Burgundy was a young knight named Gauthier d'Aunay. Gautier 's brother, Philippe d'Aunay, was meanwhile Blanche 's lover. Without participating in the adventures of her sister and her sister - in - law, Joan knew everything and kept silent. Royal reaction was brutal. The Aunay brothers were tried and executed summarily; Margaret of Burgundy died of cold in the tower of Chateau Gaillard; Blanche of Burgundy was imprisoned for ten years before ending her days in Maubuisson Abbey, near Pontoise.
The dynastic succession was jeopardized. Margaret 's death would allow Louis to remarry. But for the summer of 1314, the future king of France had no wife and no son. He only had a daughter, Joan, who could not be denied the inheritance of Navarre (which allowed female inheritance). This girl was suspected of illegitimacy, because of her mother 's adultery with Gauthier d'Aunay, which could be dangerous for the crown of France, given the risk of particularly serious political crises because of suspicions of illegitimacy. Any rebellious vassal, to legitimize his rebellion, could accuse the future queen of bastardy.
Louis X died on June 5, 1316, having just had time to marry again, after a reign of eighteen months, leaving his new wife Clementia of Hungary pregnant. Philip of Poitiers was at Lyon at the day of the death of his brother. The prince took the regency of both France and Navarre. Joan 's claim was supported by her maternal grandmother, Agnes of France, and her uncle, Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy. The arguments they invoked in favor of Joan were in full conformity with feudal law which has always authorized a daughter to succeed to the fief in the absence of sons. Indeed, female succession was a reality in France. Aquitaine had been ruled by a duchess, Eleanor, and countesses had ruled Toulouse and Champagne, as well as in Flanders and Artois. Mahaut, Countess of Artois, belonged to the Court of Peers since 1302. Outside the realm, women have played a role in the devolution of the English crown as well as the crown of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. And Joan I of Navarre had brought her kingdom of Navarre to her husband Philip the Fair. The idea that a woman would become queen of France was in itself nothing shocking to the barons. Indeed, at the death of Louis VIII, the kingdom was governed by a woman -- Blanche of Castile -- regent in the name of her young son Louis IX.
The regent made a treaty with the Duke of Burgundy. It was agreed that if Queen Clementia of Hungary gave birth to a son, Philip will maintain the regency until his nephew 's majority. In the event that the queen gave birth to a daughter, Philip undertook to renounce Navarre and Champagne in favor of the princesses, if they renounced the crown of France at the age of consent. If not, their claim was to remain, and "right was to be done to them therein ''; but Philip would no longer renounce Navarre and Champagne.
On November 15, 1316, Queen Clementia gave birth to a son, John the Posthumous. Unfortunately, the child lived only five days, and the kingdom remained without a direct heir. By his treaty with the Duke of Burgundy, Philip would only rule the two kingdoms as regent or governor, until Joan reached the age of consent. But Philip had himself crowned at Rheims, on January 9, 1317. Opposed by the Duke of Burgundy, and his own brother, Charles, Count of La Marche, it was thought prudent to shut the gates of the town during the ceremony. Back at Paris, an assembly of prelates, barons and burgesses acknowledged Philip as their sovereign, and asserted that "women do not succeed to the French throne. ''
The Duke of Burgundy championed his niece 's rights. Philip won him over by giving him his daughter, Joan of France, with the promise of the counties of Artois and Burgundy. The princess Joan, daughter of Louis X, was given an annuity of 15,000 pounds. In return, Joan of Navarre must, at her twelfth year, ratify the treaty which disinherited her, not only of her claim to France, but also of her unquestionable right to Navarre and Champagne.
In 1322, Philip V the Tall died after a reign of six years. He left only daughters. Thus, his younger brother, Charles of La Marche, would become king under the name of Charles IV the Fair. Despite two successive marriages with Marie of Luxembourg and Joan of Évreux, Charles the Fair, as his brother Philip the Tall, left only daughters when he died in 1328. Thus, in less than fourteen years, the three sons of Philip the Fair, Louis X the Quarrelsome, Philip V the Tall and Charles IV the Fair, had died.
However, like his brother Louis X, Charles IV the Fair left his wife pregnant. Before dying, the youngest son of Philip the Fair designated as regent his cousin, Philip of Valois. He was the eldest son of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair. A few months later, Queen Joan of Évreux gave birth to a daughter, Blanche. Philip of Valois, a grown man and prominent lord, had no trouble being proclaimed king by another assembly of lords and prelates in Vincennes and crowned on May 29, 1328.
King Charles IV is no longer. He has no male descendants. He is the youngest son of Philip the Fair. The situation in 1328 is unlike that of 1316. In 1316, a king 's son was competing with a brother and a younger child. In 1328, Philip of Valois is not the closest in the line, or the more direct, because the last Capetians girls left now have husbands. But the Count of Valois was the closest male relative in the male line, and he is 35 years old. He is the eldest male of the family.
While the peers of France deliberate which of these two powerful lords will ascend the throne, a letter arrived from across the Channel. In this letter, Isabella claimed the crown of France for her young son Edward III, King of England, and he would be regarded as the third contender:
The peers and the lawyers are studying this question: can Isabella of France transmit a right she does not have? Can her son Edward claim the crown of the Capetians?
Isabella of France had a horrible reputation. Nicknamed the "She - Wolf of France '', she joined the English nobles against her husband, King Edward II, who was defeated and captured. After putting her husband to death, she displayed herself in public with her lover, the regicide Roger Mortimer. All of this was well known in France. Also, her son Edward III belonged to the House of Plantagenet, a dynasty that had long been in conflict with the French crown.
But Isabella 's reasoning was flawed by a detail as it were negligible: if, as a woman, Isabella could transfer that right to the crown although she can not have it for herself, then by primogeniture the true heir would have been Philip of Burgundy, a grandson of Philip V of France. Isabella of France may have simply forgotten that her brothers had left daughters of their own.
However, no one thought of nominating one of the daughters of three kings; to do so would recognize the right of women to the throne, and would be de facto considering the reigns of Philip V the Tall and Charles IV the Fair as nothing but a theft at the expense of Joan of France, daughter Louis X the Stubborn. Nor did they nominate the young Philip of Burgundy, the senior living male heir of Philip IV.
The peers did not want to risk giving the throne to a bastard. And, instead of proposing a daughter of Philip V or Charles IV, they decided that women should be excluded from succession to avoid endless squabbles of law.
The famous Salic law will be rediscovered in 1358, to be used in a propaganda fight to defend the rights of Valois against the claims of the English king. Thus, whatever the legal twist, the rights of Edward III were very questionable.
The day after the funeral of Charles IV of France, the great nobles convened. Valois has already taken the title of regent, and used it already, while his cousin was dying. The assembly can only bow to the facts. Having postponed for a moment the question of the legitimacy of excluding women from succession, the will to rule the English king out was stronger. Edward III was thus ousted from the competition, but there remained two claimants to the throne, Philip of Valois and Philip of Évreux.
An agreement was reached to satisfy everyone. Philip of Évreux and his wife Joan received the kingdom of Navarre and other territorial compensation in exchange for which they would recognize Philip of Valois as King of France.
The kingdom of Navarre belonged to the King of France since the marriage of Philip IV and Joan I of Navarre, Countess of Champagne and Brie. Louis X had inherited Navarre from his mother and in 1328 his daughter Joan was finally recognized as Queen of Navarre, despite the suspicions of illegitimacy (the late return was not in the least prevented Philip the Tall and Charles the Fair, who officially called themselves Kings of France and Navarre). In addition, Philip of Valois, not being himself a descendant and heir of the kings of Navarre as were his predecessors, could restore the kingdom of Navarre without regret to Joan, the rightful heir, in exchange for her giving up the crown of France. The kingdom of Navarre will not return to the kings of France until much later, when Henry of Navarre, the future Henry IV, accedes to the throne of France, thus establishing the Bourbon dynasty. Thereafter, the French kings will again bear the title "King of France and Navarre. ''
Soon after, Philip of Valois was proclaimed King of France under the name of Philip VI of France by the peers of the realm. The Valois took power following the direct Capetians.
The last royal election dates back to Louis VIII the Lion in 1223. The royal power was weakened and so was the legitimacy of the Count of Valois, for it was not as unassailable as that of his predecessors on the throne. They were expecting their generous gifts, great concessions from the new king. Edward III came to pay tribute to French king, hoping also for some territorial compensation. Philip VI did not understand the danger that threatened him and did nothing to protect himself.
The succession to Charles IV the Fair, decided in favor of Philip VI, was used as a pretext by Edward III to transform what would have been a feudal struggle between himself as Duke of Guyenne against the King of France, to a dynastic struggle between the House of Plantagenet and the House of Valois for control of the French throne.
The conflict, known as the Hundred Years War, dragged on for decades. England won several famous military victories, but was unable to fully overcome French resistance. Yet in the aftermath of the Battle of Agincourt, Henry V of England, great - grandson of Edward III, became the heir to the French throne in accordance to the Treaty of Troyes. He would marry Catherine, daughter of King Charles VI of France, while Charles ' son, the Dauphin Charles was declared illegitimate and disinherited.
Yet Henry V would predecease Charles VI, and it was his infant son who would become "King of France ''. The Dauphin still had his supporters, and became Charles VII. Eventually, the tide would turn in favor of the French, and the English were driven out. The Treaty of Troyes, which had been ratified by the Estates - General of France, was never repudiated, but the military victory of Charles VII rendered its provisions moot. The Kings of England would thereby continue to call themselves "Kings of England and France '', dropping the nominal claim to France only in 1800.
Thus emerged the principle of the unavailability of the crown -- no person or body could divert the succession from the lawful heir. The throne would pass by the sheer force of custom, not by the testament of the king, or by any edict, decree, or treaty, or by the generosity of any person. By this principle, the French do not consider Henry VI of England as a legitimate king of France.
The House of Valois had secured the principle of agnatic succession following their victory in the Hundred Years War. When the senior line of the Valois became extinct, they were followed by the Valois - Orléans line descended from Louis I, Duke of Orléans, younger brother of Charles VI, and then, by the Valois - Angoulême line descended from a younger son of Louis I.
Henry II of France was succeeded by his sons, none of whom would succeed in producing a male heir. The sons of Henry II would be the last heirs male of Philip III of France. Right after them ranked the Bourbons, descended from a younger brother of Philip III.
Thus, with the death of François, Duke of Anjou, younger brother of King Henry III of France, the heir presumptive became the Head of the House of Bourbon, Henry III, King of Navarre. Since Henry was a Protestant, most of Catholic France found him unacceptable. By the Treaty of Nemours, the Catholic League attempted to disinherit the King of Navarre by recognizing Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, Navarre 's uncle, as heir. Navarre had been excommunicated by Pope Sixtus V.
On his deathbed, Henry III called for Henry of Navarre, and begged him, in the name of Statecraft, to become a Catholic, citing the brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused. In keeping with Salic law, he named Navarre as his heir.
On Henry III 's death in 1589, the League proclaimed the Cardinal de Bourbon king, while he was still a prisoner of Henry III in the castle of Chinon. He was recognized as Charles X by the Parliament of Paris on 21 November 1589. With Henry III 's death, custody of the Cardinal fell to Navarre (now Henry IV of France), the Cardinal 's nephew. When the old Cardinal died in 1590, the League could not agree on a new candidate. The Catholic League had great hopes for Charles, Duke of Guise, whom they considered to elect as king. However, the Duke of Guise declared his support for Henry IV of France in 1594, for which Henry paid him four million livres and made him Governor of Provence. Some supported Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain, the daughter of Philip II of Spain and Elisabeth of France, eldest daughter of Henry II of France. The prominence of her candidacy hurt the League, which became suspect as agents of the Spanish.
For a time, Henry IV attempted to take his kingdom by conquest. For this, he had to capture Paris, which was defended by the Catholic League and the Spanish. Despite the campaigns between 1590 and 1592, Henry IV was "no closer to capturing Paris ''. Realizing that Henry III had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king succeeding in resolutely Catholic Paris, Henry agreed to convert, reputedly stating "Paris vaut bien une messe '' ("Paris is well worth a Mass ''). He was formally received into the Catholic Church in 1593, and was crowned at Chartres in 1594 as League members maintained control of the Cathedral of Rheims, and, skeptical of Henry 's sincerity, continued to oppose him. He was finally received into Paris in March 1594, and 120 League members in the city who refused to submit were banished from the capital. Paris ' capitulation encouraged the same of many other towns, while others returned to support the crown after Pope Clement VIII absolved Henry, revoking his excommunication in return for the publishing of the Tridentine Decrees, the restoration of Catholicism in Béarn, and appointing only Catholics to high office.
With the success of Henry IV, the principles of the French succession were kept inviolable. The kingship of Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, as Charles X, was delegitimized, having been contrary to these principles. A new requirement to the French succession was recognized: the King of France must be Catholic. Yet since religion could be changed, it could not be the basis for permanent exclusion from the throne.
Louis XIV, grandson of Henry IV, was the longest - reigning king in European history. Louis XIV had only one son to survive to adulthood, the Dauphin Louis. The Dauphin, in turn, had three sons: Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philip, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry.
In 1700, Charles II of Spain died. His heir, in accordance to cognatic primogeniture followed in Spain, would have been the Dauphin Louis. However, since the Dauphin was the heir to the French throne, and the Duke of Burgundy was in turn the Dauphin 's heir, Charles II settled his succession on the Duke of Anjou in order to prevent the union of France and Spain.
Most European rulers accepted Philip as King of Spain, though some only reluctantly. Louis XIV confirmed that Philip V retained his French rights despite his new Spanish position. Admittedly, he may only have been hypothesizing a theoretical eventuality and not attempting a Franco - Spanish union. However, Louis also sent troops to the Spanish Netherlands, evicting Dutch garrisons and securing Dutch recognition of Philip V. In 1701, he transferred the asiento to France, alienating English traders. He also acknowledged James Stuart, James II 's son, as king on the latter 's death. These actions enraged Britain and the United Provinces. Consequently, with the Emperor and the petty German states, they formed another Grand Alliance, declaring war on France in 1702. French diplomacy, however, secured Bavaria, Portugal and Savoy as Franco - Spanish allies.
Thus, the War of the Spanish Succession began. The war, over a decade long, was concluded by the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714). The allies were bent on removing Philip V from the succession to the French throne; he only agreed to this after the semi-Salic law was successfully enacted in Spain.
However, the fact remained that the Treaty of Utrecht had disregarded the French principles of succession. Indeed, taking advantage of the power vacuum caused by Louis XIV 's death in 1715, Philip announced he would claim the French crown if the infant Louis XV died.
The validity of the renunciations were not debated in public until the French Revolution, when the National Assembly first addressed this issue in a three - day session beginning on 15 September 1789. After many debates, the Assembly voted on a final text of a statement defining the succession to the Crown. This read: "The crown is hereditary from male to male, by order of primogeniture, with the absolute exclusion of women and their descendants, without prejudging the effect of renunciations ''. The Spanish Ambassador, the Count of Fernan Nuñez wrote to the Spanish Prime Minister, the Count of Floridablanca, that same date: "All the clergy and the major part of the nobility and also of the Third Estate has pronounced for the resolution favorable to the House of Spain... by 698 votes to 265 the majority had concluded the question in a sense again most advantageous for us... ''
In 1791 the French National Assembly drew up a new, written Constitution to which the King gave his assent, and which governed France for the last year of the 18th century monarchy. For the first time it was necessary to define formally, as a matter of statutory constitutional law, the system of succession, and the titles, privileges and prerogatives of the Crown. In debating the succession to the Crown the contemporary understanding of the law of succession was publicly clarified. It rebutted the assertion by some that the claim by the Spanish line is a late construct, made to satisfy the ambitions of princes deprived of other claims. Indeed, it is evident that the issue of the rights of the Spanish line to the French crown remained an important constitutional issue.
When the issue of the rights of the Spanish line arose, the Assembly voted to include a phrase in the article on the succession that implicitly protected their rights. That this was the purpose of the clause seems certain: hence the phrase in Title III, Chapter II, article I:
Louis XV had ten legitimate children, but there were only two sons, only one of whom survived to adulthood, Louis, Dauphin of France. This did not help dispel the concerns about the future of the dynasty; should his male line fail, the succession would be disputed by a possible war of succession between the descendants of Philip V and the House of Orléans descended from the younger brother of Louis XIV.
The Dauphin Louis predeceased his father but left behind three sons, Louis Auguste, Duke of Berry, Louis Stanislas, Count of Provence and Charles Philippe, Count of Artois. The Duke of Berry succeeded his grandfather as King Louis XVI.
Louis XVI would be the only French king to be executed, during the French Revolution. For the first time, the Capetian monarchy had been overthrown. The monarchy would be restored under his younger brother, the Count of Provence, who took the name Louis XVIII in consideration of the dynastic seniority of his nephew, Louis, from 1793 - 1795 (the child never actually reigned). Louis XVIII died childless and was succeeded by his younger brother, the Count of Artois, as Charles X.
Compelled by what he felt to be a growing, manipulative radicalism in the elected government, Charles felt that his primary duty was the guarantee of order and happiness in France and its people; not in political bipartisanship and the self - interpreted rights of implacable political enemies. He issued the Four Ordinances of Saint - Cloud, which was intended to quell the people of France. However, the ordinances had the opposite effect of angering the French citizens. In Paris, a committee of the liberal opposition had drawn up and signed a petition in which, they asked for the ordonnances to be withdrawn; more surprising was their criticism "not of the King, but his ministers '' -- thereby disproving Charles X 's conviction that his liberal opponents were enemies of his dynasty. Charles X considered the ordonnances vital to the safety and dignity of the French throne. Thus, he did not withdraw the ordonnances. This resulted in the July Revolution.
Charles X abdicated in favor of his 10 - year - old grandson, Henri, Duke of Bordeaux, (forcing his son Louis Antoine to renounce his rights along the way) and naming Louis Philippe III, Duke of Orléans Lieutenant General of the Kingdom, charging him to announce to the popularly elected Chamber of Deputies his desire to have his grandson succeed him. Louis Philippe did not do this, in order to increase his own chances of succession. As a consequence, because the chamber was aware of Louis Philippe 's liberal policies and of his popularity with the masses, they proclaimed Louis Philippe, who for eleven days had been acting as the regent for his small cousin, as the new French king, displacing the senior branch of the House of Bourbon.
The House of Orléans took the throne in defiance of the principles of the Capetian monarchy, and could be viewed as a separate institution altogether.
Upon his accession to the throne, Louis Philippe assumed the title of King of the French -- a title already adopted by Louis XVI in the short - lived Constitution of 1791. Linking the monarchy to a people instead of a territory (as the previous designation King of France and of Navarre) was aimed at undercutting the legitimist claims of Charles X and his family.
By an ordinance he signed on 13 August 1830, the new king defined the manner in which his children, as well as his sister, would continue to bear the surname "d'Orléans '' and the arms of Orléans, declared that his eldest son, as Prince Royal (not Dauphin), would bear the title Duke of Orléans, that the younger sons would continue to have their previous titles, and that his sister and daughters would only be styled Princesses of Orléans, not of France.
The government of Louis Philippe grew increasingly conservative over the years. After ruling for 18 years, the 1848 wave of revolutions reached France and overthrew Louis Philippe. The king abdicated in favor of his nine - year - old grandson, Philippe, Count of Paris. The National Assembly initially planned to accept young Philippe as king, but the strong current of public opinion rejected that. On 26 February, the Second Republic was proclaimed.
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769 - 1821) came to power by a military coup on Nov 10, 1799. The regime he put in place was headed by three Consuls, and he was the First Consul. He became Consul for Life in 1802, and then transformed the regime into a hereditary monarchy in 1804. The rules of succession as set down in the constitution are:
At the time the law of succession was decreed Napoleon I had no legitimate sons, and it seemed unlikely he would have any due to the age of his wife, Josephine of Beauharnais. His eventual response was an unacceptable one, in the eyes of Catholic France, of engineering a dubious annulment, without papal approval, of his marriage to Josephine and undertaking a second marriage to the younger Mary Louise of Austria, with whom he had one son, Napoleon, King of Rome, also as Napoleon II and the Duke of Reichstadt. He was not married and had no children, thus leaving no further direct descendants of Napoleon I.
The law was proclaimed on May 20, 1804. No contradiction was seen between France being a Republic and it being governed by an Emperor. Indeed, until 1809, French coins bore "République Française '' on one side and "Napoléon Empereur '' on the other, pursuant to a decree of June 26, 1804; the legend on the reverse was replaced by "Empire français '' by decree of October 22, 1808). This was a return to the Roman use of the word Emperor (Augustus was officially only the First Citizen, rather than monarch, of the Roman Republic).
In 1852, Napoleon III, having restored the Bonapartes to power in France, enacted a new decree on the succession. The claim first went to his own male legitimate descendants in the male line.
If his own direct line died out, the new decree allowed the claim to pass to Jérôme Bonaparte, Napoleon I 's youngest brother who had previously been excluded, and his male descendants by Princess Catharina of Württemberg in the male line. His descendants by his original marriage to the American commoner Elizabeth Patterson, of which Napoleon I had greatly disapproved, were excluded.
The only remaining Bonapartist claimants since 1879, and today, have been descendants of Jérôme Bonaparte and Catherina of Württemberg in the male line.
In 1870, royalists became the majority in the National Assembly. There were two claimants to the French royal legacy: Henri d'Artois, Count of Chambord, and Philippe d'Orléans, Count of Paris. The former were supported by the Legitimists, supporters of the elder line of the Bourbons, and the Orléanists, liberal constitutional monarchists that had supported Louis Philippe and his line. Since the Count of Chambord was childless, and was expected to remain so, the Orléans line agreed to support the Count of Chambord.
Raised however, by his grandfather Charles X of France, as if the Revolution never happened, the Count of Chambord insisted that he would only take the crown if France would abandon the tricolour flag in favor of the white fleur de lys flag. He refused to compromise this point, which upset the restoration of the monarchy. The Orléans did not oppose him, and did not make an immediate claim to the throne while the Count of Chambord lived. The Count of Chambord lived, however, longer than expected. At the time of his death, the impetus behind the monarchical restoration had been lost.
Thus, after the death of the Count of Chambord, the Orléans line had two distinct claims to the throne of France: the right derived from Orléanist theory, as heirs of Louis Philippe; and the right derived from Legitimist theory, as heirs of Hugh Capet.
The death of the Count of Chambord split the Legitimists in two camps. Most acknowledged the House of Orléans as the new royal house. Yet a party, with a hatred for that house, recognized the Carlists of Spain, then the eldest descendants of Philip V of Spain. The Orléanist party derisively called them the Blancs d'Espagne (Spanish Whites), for having supported a Spanish prince over a French prince. In later times the Orléanist and Legitimist claims of the House of Orléans was merged into the name of Orléanist, as the pro-Spanish party assumed the name of Legitimists.
The unacceptability of the House of Orléans to the Blancs d'Espagne stems from the actions of two ancestors of that house -- Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, also known as Philippe Egalite, and his son Louis Philippe, later King of the French. According to Charles Dumoulin, a French jurist of the sixteenth century, treason is one case wherein a person of the royal blood could be deprived of his succession to the throne. Philippe Egalite had voted for the abolition of the monarchy, the guilt of Louis XVI of France, and the death sentence for that unhappy monarch. His son, Louis Philippe, restored in royal favor following the Bourbon Restoration, appointed lieutenant - general of the kingdom during the final days of the reign of Charles X of France, overthrew the senior line by accepting kingship for himself.
The Legitimist stand is that the succession to the throne is based on customs and precedents thereafter unalterable. The heir to the throne, according to those customs, is the heir of Louis XIV, who can not be excluded. The Orléanist stand is that the laws of succession could be altered, and that among those customs and precedents is the requirement that the heir must be French. The heir to the throne, according to them, is the Orléans line, since not one of Philip V 's descendants was French when the succession opened in 1883.
In the Treaty of Utrecht, Philip V of Spain renounced his right of succession to the French throne on the condition that the semi-Salic law of succession should be instituted in Spain. For Legitimists the treaty is void ab initio, since the succession law can not be altered in this way. Further, assuming arguendo that the treaty is valid, the repeal of semi-Salic law in Spain had broken the condition of the renunciation; the purpose of the treaty -- the separation of the crowns of France and Spain -- has been served, since the King of Spain is not the heir to France. For Orléanists the treaty is a valid alteration to the French law of succession. Further, Louis Philippe was the last official First Prince of the Blood, who were, by tradition, immediate heir to the throne after the royal family itself.
The second point of contention between the Legitimists and the Orléanists is the nationality requirement. For Orléanists, foreign - born heirs forfeit their right of succession to estates in France by the law of aubain. Foreigners include, apart from the usual definition, those Frenchmen who left without intent of returning. They also cite the opinion of Charles Dumoulin, a French jurist of the sixteenth century:
Common sense requires that princes of the blood who have become foreigners be excluded from the throne just as the male descendants of princesses. The exclusion of both is in the spirit of the fundamental custom, which overlooks the royal blood in princesses only to prevent the scepter from falling in foreign hands.
For this reason, Orléanists also exclude the Orléans - Braganza (Brazilians) and Orléans - Galliera (Spanish), junior descendants of Louis Philippe, King of the French, from the succession to the French throne.
Legitimists and Orléanists cite numerous examples and counter-examples of foreigners included and excluded in the French line of succession. There is no clear precedent on whether foreigners ought to be included or excluded. But in 1573, the Duke of Anjou, the future Henry III of France, who was elected King of Poland, had been assured by letters patent that his rights to the French throne would not lapse, nor those of any children he may have, even though they were to be born outside France. Similar letters patent were issued for Philip V of Spain, but later withdrawn. In these instances, the French court had shown themselves ready to recognize that the Capetian blood right overcame the law of aubain. For Orléanists, the function of the letters patent was to preserve the French nationality of Philip V and his descendants, and with those letters patent withdrawn, they ceased to be French.
|
what is the use of i am feeling lucky button in google | Google search - Wikipedia
Google Search, commonly referred to as Google Web Search or simply Google, is a web search engine developed by Google. It is the most - used search engine on the World Wide Web, handling more than three billion searches each day. As of April 2018, it is the most used search engine in the US with 79 % market share.
The order of search results returned by Google is based, in part, on a priority rank system called "PageRank ''. Google Search also provides many different options for customized search, using symbols to include, exclude, specify or require certain search behavior, and offers specialized interactive experiences, such as flight status and package tracking, weather forecasts, currency, unit and time conversions, word definitions, and more.
The main purpose of Google Search is to hunt for text in publicly accessible documents offered by web servers, as opposed to other data, such as images or data contained in databases. It was originally developed by Larry Page and Sergey Brin in 1997. In June 2011 Google introduced "Google Voice Search '' to search for spoken, rather than typed, words. In May 2012 Google introduced a Knowledge Graph semantic search feature in the U.S.
Analysis of the frequency of search terms may indicate economic, social and health trends. Data about the frequency of use of search terms on Google can be openly inquired via Google Trends and have been shown to correlate with flu outbreaks and unemployment levels, and provide the information faster than traditional reporting methods and surveys. As of mid-2016, Google 's search engine has begun to rely on deep neural networks.
Competitors of Google include Baidu and Soso.com in China; Naver.com and Daum.net in South Korea; Yandex in Russia; Seznam.cz in the Czech Republic; Yahoo in Japan, Taiwan and the US, as well as Bing and DuckDuckGo. Some smaller search engines offer facilities not available with Google, e.g. not storing any private or tracking information.
Google 's rise to success was largely due to a patented algorithm called PageRank that helps rank web pages that match a given search string. When Google was a Stanford research project, it was nicknamed BackRub because the technology checks backlinks to determine a site 's importance. Previous keyword - based methods of ranking search results, used by many search engines that were once more popular than Google, would rank pages by how often the search terms occurred in the page, or how strongly associated the search terms were within each resulting page. The PageRank algorithm instead analyzes human - generated links assuming that web pages linked from many important pages are themselves likely to be important. The algorithm computes a recursive score for pages, based on the weighted sum of the PageRanks of the pages linking to them. PageRank is thought to correlate well with human concepts of importance. In addition to PageRank, Google, over the years, has added many other secret criteria for determining the ranking of pages on result lists, reported to be over 250 different indicators, the specifics of which are kept secret to keep spammers at bay and help Google maintain an edge over its competitors globally.
In a potential hint of Google 's future direction for their Search algorithm, Eric Schmidt, Google 's then chief executive, said in a 2007 interview with the Financial Times: "The goal is to enable Google users to be able to ask the question such as ' What shall I do tomorrow? ' and ' What job shall I take? ' ''. Schmidt reaffirmed this during a 2010 interview with the Wall Street Journal: "I actually think most people do n't want Google to answer their questions, they want Google to tell them what they should be doing next. ''
In 2013 the European Commission found that Google Search favored Google 's own products, instead of offering consumers the best result for their needs. In February 2015 Google announced a major change to its mobile search algorithm which would favor mobile friendly over other websites. Nearly 60 % of Google 's online search traffic comes from mobile phones. Google says it wants its users to have access to premium quality websites. Those websites which lack a mobile friendly interface would be demoted and it is expected that this update will cause a shake - up of ranks. Businesses who fail to update their websites accordingly could see a dip in their regular websites traffic.
Google indexes hundreds of terabytes of information from web pages. For websites that are currently down or otherwise not available, Google provides links to cached versions of the site, formed by the search engine 's latest indexing of that page. Additionally, Google indexes some file types, being able to show users PDFs, Word documents, Excel spreadsheets, PowerPoint presentations, certain Flash multimedia content, and plain text files. Users can also activate "SafeSearch '', a filtering technology aimed at preventing explicit and pornographic content from appearing in search results.
In 2012, Google changed its search indexing tools to demote sites that had been accused of piracy.
Despite Google search 's immense index, sources generally assume that Google is only indexing less than 5 % of the total Internet, with the rest belonging to the deep web, inaccessible through its search tools.
Because Google is the most popular search engine, many webmasters attempt to influence their website 's Google rankings. An industry of consultants has arisen to help websites increase their rankings on Google and on other search engines. This field, called search engine optimization, attempts to discern patterns in search engine listings, and then develop a methodology for improving rankings to draw more searchers to their clients ' sites. Search engine optimization encompasses both "on page '' factors (like body copy, title elements, H1 heading elements and image alt attribute values) and Off Page Optimization factors (like anchor text and PageRank). The general idea is to affect Google 's relevance algorithm by incorporating the keywords being targeted in various places "on page '', in particular the title element and the body copy (note: the higher up in the page, presumably the better its keyword prominence and thus the ranking). Too many occurrences of the keyword, however, cause the page to look suspect to Google 's spam checking algorithms. Google has published guidelines for website owners who would like to raise their rankings when using legitimate optimization consultants. It has been hypothesized, and, allegedly, is the opinion of the owner of one business about which there have been numerous complaints, that negative publicity, for example, numerous consumer complaints, may serve as well to elevate page rank on Google Search as favorable comments. The particular problem addressed in The New York Times article, which involved DecorMyEyes, was addressed shortly thereafter by an undisclosed fix in the Google algorithm. According to Google, it was not the frequently published consumer complaints about DecorMyEyes which resulted in the high ranking but mentions on news websites of events which affected the firm such as legal actions against it. Google Search Console helps to check for websites that use duplicate or copyright content.
"Universal search '' was launched by Google on May 16, 2007 as an idea that merged the results from different kinds of search types into one. Prior to Universal search, a standard Google search would consist of links only to websites. Universal search, however, incorporates a wide variety of sources, including websites, news, pictures, maps, blogs, videos, and more, all shown on the same search results page. Marissa Mayer, then - vice president of search products and user experience, described the goal of Universal search as "we 're attempting to break down the walls that traditionally separated our various search properties and integrate the vast amounts of information available into one simple set of search results.
In August 2009, Google invited web developers to test a new search architecture, codenamed "Caffeine '', and give their feedback. The new architecture provided no visual differences in the user interface, but added significant speed improvements and a new "under - the - hood '' indexing infrastructure. The move was interpreted in some quarters as a response to Microsoft 's recent release of an upgraded version of its own search service, renamed Bing, as well as the launch of Wolfram Alpha, a new search engine based on "computational knowledge ''. Google announced completion of "Caffeine '' on June 8, 2010, claiming 50 % fresher results due to continuous updating of its index.
With "Caffeine '', Google moved its back - end indexing system away from MapReduce and onto Bigtable, the company 's distributed database platform.
The Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base used by Google to enhance its search engine 's results with information gathered from a variety of sources. This information is presented to users in a box to the right of search results. Knowledge Graph boxes were added to Google 's search engine in May 2012, starting in the United States, with international expansion by the end of the year. The information covered by the Knowledge Graph grew significantly after launch, tripling its original size within seven months, and being able to answer "roughly one - third '' of the 100 billion monthly searches Google processed in May 2016. The information is often used as a spoken answer in Google Assistant and Google Home searches. The Knowledge Graph has been criticized for providing answers without source attribution.
In 2013, Google significantly upgraded its search algorithm with "Hummingbird ''. Its name was derived from the speed and accuracy of the hummingbird. The change was announced on September 26, 2013, having already been in use for a month. "Hummingbird '' places greater emphasis on natural language queries, considering context and meaning over individual keywords. It also looks deeper at content on individual pages of a website, with improved ability to lead users directly to the most appropriate page rather than just a website 's homepage. The upgrade marked the most significant change to Google search in years, with more "human '' search interactions and a much heavier focus on conversation and meaning. Thus, web developers and writers were encouraged to optimize their sites with natural writing rather than forced keywords, and make effective use of technical web development for on - site navigation.
In October 2016, Gary Illyes, a webmaster trends analyst with Google, announced that the search engine would be making a separate, primary web index dedicated for mobile devices, with a secondary, less up - to - date index for desktop use. The change was a response to the continued growth in mobile usage, and a push for web developers to adopt a mobile - friendly version of their websites. In December 2017, Google began rolling out the change, having already done so for a few websites.
Google search consists of a series of localized websites. The largest of those, the google.com site, is the top most - visited website in the world. Some of its features include a definition link for most searches including dictionary words, the number of results you got on your search, links to other searches (e.g. for words that Google believes to be misspelled, it provides a link to the search results using its proposed spelling), and many more.
Google search accepts queries as normal text, as well as individual keywords. It automatically corrects misspelled words, and yields the same results regardless of capitalization. For more customized results, one can use a wide variety of operators, including, but not limited to:
Google applies query expansion to submitted search queries, using techniques to deliver results that it considers "smarter '' than the query users actually submitted. This technique involves several steps, including:
In 2008, Google started to give users autocompleted search suggestions in a list below the search bar while typing.
Google 's homepage includes a button labeled "I 'm Feeling Lucky ''. This feature originally allowed users to type in their search query, click the button and be taken directly to the first result, bypassing the search results page. With the 2010 announcement of Google Instant, an automatic feature that immediately displays relevant results as users are typing in their query, the "I 'm Feeling Lucky '' button disappears, requiring that users opt - out of Instant results through search settings in order to keep using the "I 'm Feeling Lucky '' functionality. In 2012, "I 'm Feeling Lucky '' was changed to serve as an advertisement for Google services; users hover their computer mouse over the button, it spins and shows an emotion ("I 'm Feeling Puzzled '' or "I 'm Feeling Trendy '', for instance), and, when clicked, takes users to a Google service related to that emotion.
Tom Chavez of "Rapt '', a firm helping to determine a website 's advertising worth, estimated in 2007 that Google lost $110 million in revenue per year due to use of the button, which bypasses the advertisements found on the search results page.
In May 2009, Google announced that they would be parsing website microformats in order to populate search result pages with "Rich snippets ''. Such snippets include additional details about results, such as displaying reviews for restaurants and social media accounts for individuals.
In May 2016, Google expanded on the "Rich snippets '' format to offer "Rich cards '', which, similarly to snippets, display more information about results, but shows them at the top of the mobile website in a swipeable carousel - like format. Originally limited to movie and recipe websites in the United States only, the feature expanded to all countries globally in 2017.
Besides the main text - based search - engine features of Google search, it also offers multiple quick, interactive experiences. These include, but are not limited to:
On certain occasions, the logo on Google 's webpage will change to a special version, known as a "Google Doodle ''. This is a picture, drawing, animation or interactive game that includes the logo. It is usually done for a special event or day although not all of them are well known. Clicking on the Doodle links to a string of Google search results about the topic. The first was a reference to the Burning Man Festival in 1998, and others have been produced for the birthdays of notable people like Albert Einstein, historical events like the interlocking Lego block 's 50th anniversary and holidays like Valentine 's Day. Some Google Doodles have interactivity beyond a simple search, such as the famous "Google Pacman '' version that appeared on May 21, 2010.
During Google 's developer conference in May 2013, the company announced that, on Google Chrome and Chrome OS, users would be able to say "OK Google '', with the browser initiating an audio - based search, with no button presses required. After having the answer presented, users can follow up with additional, contextual questions; an example include initially asking "OK Google, will it be sunny in Santa Cruz this weekend? '', hearing a spoken answer, and reply with "how far is it from here? '' An update to the Chrome browser with voice - search functionality rolled out a week later, though it required a button press on a microphone icon rather than "OK Google '' voice activation. Google released a browser extension for the Chrome browser, named with a "beta '' tag for unfinished development, shortly thereafter. In May 2014, the company officially added "OK Google '' into the browser itself, though the company removed it in October 2015, citing low usage, though the microphone icon for activation remained available. In May 2016, 20 % of search queries on mobile devices were done through voice.
In May 2017, Google enabled a new "Personal '' tab in Google Search, letting users search for content in their Google accounts ' various services, including email messages from Gmail and photos from Google Photos.
In June 2017, Google expanded its search results to cover available job listings. The data is aggregated from various major job boards and collected by analyzing company homepages. Initially only available in English, the feature aims to simplify finding jobs suitable for each user.
The Google feed is a personalized stream of articles, videos, and other news - related content. The feed contains a "mix of cards '' which show topics of interest based on users ' interactions with Google, or topics they choose to follow directly. Cards include, "links to news stories, YouTube videos, sports scores, recipes, and other content based on what (Google) determined you 're most likely to be interested in at that particular moment. '' Users can also tell Google they 're not interested in certain topics to avoid seeing future updates.
The Google feed launched in December 2016 and received a major update in July 2017. As of May 2018, the Google feed can be found on the Google app and by swiping left on the home screen of certain Android devices.
Until May 2013, Google Search had offered a feature to restrict search results to specific languages. A Google spokesperson told Search Engine Land that "Removing features is always tough, but we do think very hard about each decision and its implications for our users. Unfortunately, this feature never saw much pick up ''.
Instant search was announced in September 2010 as a feature that displayed suggested results while the user typed in their search query. The primary advantage of the new system was its ability to save time, with Marissa Mayer, then - vice president of search products and user experience, proclaiming that the feature would save 2 - 5 seconds per search, elaborating that "That may not seem like a lot at first, but it adds up. With Google Instant, we estimate that we 'll save our users 11 hours with each passing second! '' Matt Van Wagner of Search Engine Land wrote that "Personally, I kind of like Google Instant and I think it represents a natural evolution in the way search works '', and also praised Google 's efforts in public relations, writing that "With just a press conference and a few well - placed interviews, Google has parlayed this relatively minor speed improvement into an attention - grabbing front - page news story ''. The upgrade also became notable for the company switching Google Search 's underlying technology from HTML to AJAX.
Instant Search could be disabled via Google 's "preferences '' menu for those who did n't want its functionality.
The publication 2600: The Hacker Quarterly compiled a list of words that Google Instant did not show suggested results for, with a Google spokesperson giving the following statement to Mashable:
There are a number of reasons you may not be seeing search queries for a particular topic. Among other things, we apply a narrow set of removal policies for pornography, violence, and hate speech. It 's important to note that removing queries from Autocomplete is a hard problem, and not as simple as blacklisting particular terms and phrases.
In search, we get more than one billion searches each day. Because of this, we take an algorithmic approach to removals, and just like our search algorithms, these are imperfect. We will continue to work to improve our approach to removals in Autocomplete, and are listening carefully to feedback from our users.
Our algorithms look not only at specific words, but compound queries based on those words, and across all languages. So, for example, if there 's a bad word in Russian, we may remove a compound word including the transliteration of the Russian word into English. We also look at the search results themselves for given queries. So, for example, if the results for a particular query seem pornographic, our algorithms may remove that query from Autocomplete, even if the query itself would n't otherwise violate our policies. This system is neither perfect nor instantaneous, and we will continue to work to make it better.
PC Magazine discussed the inconsistency in how some forms of the same topic are allowed; for instance, "lesbian '' was blocked, while "gay '' was not, and "cocaine '' was blocked, while "crack '' and "heroin '' were not. The report further stated that seemingly normal words were also blocked due to pornographic innuendos, most notably "scat '', likely due to having two completely separate contextual meanings, one for music and one for a sexual practice.
In July 2017, Google removed Instant results, due to a growing number of searches on mobile devices, where interaction with search, as well as screen sizes, differ significantly from a computer.
Various search engines provide encrypted Web search facilities. In May 2010 Google rolled out SSL - encrypted web search. The encrypted search can be accessed at encrypted.google.com However, the web search is encrypted via Transport Layer Security (TLS) by default today, thus every search request should be automatically encrypted if TLS is supported by the web browser. On its support website, Google announced that the address encrypted.google.com will be turned off in April 30 of 2018, stating that all Google products and most new browsers use HTTPS connections as the reason for the discontinuation.
Google flags search results with the message "This site may harm your computer '' if the site is known to install malicious software in the background or otherwise surreptitiously. Google does this to protect users against visiting sites that could harm their computers. For approximately 40 minutes on January 31, 2009, all search results were mistakenly classified as malware and could therefore not be clicked; instead a warning message was displayed and the user was required to enter the requested URL manually. The bug was caused by human error. The URL of "/ '' (which expands to all URLs) was mistakenly added to the malware patterns file.
Searches made by search engines, including Google, leave traces. This raises concerns about privacy. In principle, if details of a user 's searches are found, those with access to the information -- principally state agencies responsible for law enforcement and similar matters -- can make deductions about the user 's activities. This has been used for the detection and prosecution of lawbreakers; for example a murderer was found and convicted after searching for terms such as "tips with killing with a baseball bat ''.
A search may leave traces both on a computer used to make the search, and in records kept by the search provider. When using a search engine through a browser program on a computer, search terms and other information may be stored on the computer by default, unless the browser is set not to do this, or they are erased. Saved terms may be discovered on forensic analysis of the computer. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) or search engine provider (e.g., Google) may store records which relate search terms to an IP address and a time. Whether such logs are kept, and access to them by law enforcement agencies, is subject to legislation in different jurisdictions and working practices; the law may mandate, prohibit, or say nothing about logging of various types of information. Some search engines, located in jurisdictions where it is not illegal, make a feature of not storing user search information.
Google has been criticized for placing long - term cookies on users ' machines to store these preferences, a tactic which also enables them to track a user 's search terms and retain the data for more than a year.
In 2012 the US Federal Trade Commission fined Google US $ 22.5 million for violating their agreement not to violate the privacy of users of the Apple Safari (web browser). The FTC was also continuing to investigate if Google 's favoring of their own services in their search results violated antitrust regulations.
In late June 2011, Google introduced a new look to the Google home page in order to boost the use of the Google+ social tools.
One of the major changes was replacing the classic navigation bar with a black one. Google 's digital creative director Chris Wiggins explains: "We 're working on a project to bring you a new and improved Google experience, and over the next few months, you 'll continue to see more updates to our look and feel. '' The new navigation bar has been negatively received by a vocal minority.
In November 2013, Google started testing yellow labels for advertisements displayed in search results, to improve user experience. The new labels, highlighted in yellow color, and aligned to the left of each sponsored link help users clearly differentiate between organic and sponsored results.
On December 15, 2016, Google rolled out a new desktop search interface that mimics their modular mobile user interface. The mobile design consists of a tabular design that highlights search features in boxes. and works by imitating the desktop Knowledge Graph real estate, which appears in the right - hand rail of the search engine result page, these featured elements frequently feature Twitter carousels, People Also Search For, and Top Stories (vertical and horizontal design) modules. The Local Pack and Answer Box were two of the original features of the Google SERP that were primarily showcased in this manner, but this new layout creates a previously unseen level of design consistency for Google results.
Google offers a "Google Search '' mobile app for Android and iOS devices. The mobile apps exclusively feature a "feed '', a news feed - style page of continually - updated developments on news and topics of interest to individual users. Android devices were introduced to a preview of the feed in December 2016, while it was made official on both Android and iOS in July 2017.
In April 2016, Google updated its Search app on Android to feature "Trends ''; search queries gaining popularity appeared in the autocomplete box along with normal query autocompletion. The update received significant backlash, due to encouraging search queries unrelated to users ' interests or intentions, prompting the company to issue an update with an opt - out option. In September 2017, the Google Search app on iOS was updated to feature the same functionality.
Google is available in many languages and has been localized completely or partially for many countries, including separate regional domain names.
On September 29, 2015, an ex-employee of Google, Sanmay Ved, managed to buy the domain Google.com via Google 's domain registration service and gained full webmaster control. His access was shut down one minute later. He told Business Insider that "I used to work at Google so I keep messing around with the product. I type in Google.com and to my surprise it showed it as available... I thought it was some error, but I could actually complete check out ''. The cost for the domain was $12. In compensation for finding the security vulnerability, Google offered him $6,000. After Ved explained that he wanted to give the money to charity, Google doubled the amount to $12,000.
In addition to its tool for searching webpages, Google also provides services for searching images, Usenet newsgroups, news websites, videos, searching by locality, maps, and items for sale online. In 2012, Google has indexed over 30 trillion web pages, and received 100 billion queries per month. It also caches much of the content that it indexes. Google operates other tools and services including Google News, Google Shopping, Google Maps, Google Custom Search, Google Earth, Google Docs, Picasa, Panoramio, YouTube, Google Translate, Google Blog Search and Google Desktop Search.
There are also products available from Google that are not directly search - related. Gmail, for example, is a webmail application, but still includes search features; Google Browser Sync does not offer any search facilities, although it aims to organize your browsing time.
Also Google starts many new beta products, like Google Social Search or Google Image Swirl.
In 2009, Google claimed that a search query requires altogether about 1 kJ or 0.0003 kW h, which is enough to raise the temperature of one liter of water by 0.24 ° C. According to green search engine Ecosia, the industry standard for search engines is estimated to be about 0.2 grams of CO emission per search. Google 's 40,000 searches per second translate to 8 kg CO per second or over 252 million kilos of CO per year.
In 2007, a group of researchers observed a tendency for users to rely on Google Search exclusively for finding information, writing that "With the Google interface the user gets the impression that the search results imply a kind of totality. (...) In fact, one only sees a small part of what one could see if one also integrates other research tools. ''
In 2011, Google Search query results have been shown to be tailored to users by Internet activist Eli Pariser, effectively isolating users in what he defined as a filter bubble. Pariser holds algorithms used in search engines such as Google Search responsible for catering "a personal ecosystem of information ''. Although contrasting views have mitigated the potential threat of "informational dystopia '' and questioned the scientific nature of Pariser 's claims, filter bubbles have been mentioned to account for the surprising results of the U.S. presidential election in 2016 alongside fake news and echo chambers, suggesting that Facebook and Google have designed personalized online realities in which "we only see and hear what we like ''.
At the 2016 New Hampshire primary, the top - searched Democratic candidate was Bernie Sanders with 72 % of the searches and won with 60 % of the vote, according to real - time results of Google 's trending search queries, and Hillary Clinton received 28 % of the queries and 38 % of the vote. The top - searched Republican candidate was Donald Trump, who received 41 % of the searches an hour before the polls closed and won with 35 % of the vote and John Kasich got 16 % of both the vote and the searches.
|
when does jess come back in season 6 new girl | New Girl (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of the American comedy series New Girl premiered September 20, 2016 on Fox at 8: 30 pm (Eastern) and concluded on April 4, 2017. During the series, it moved to 8: 00 pm (Eastern) in early 2017.
Developed by Elizabeth Meriwether under the working title Chicks & Dicks, the series revolves around offbeat teacher Jess (Zooey Deschanel) after her moving into an LA loft with three men, Nick (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Winston (Lamorne Morris); Jess 's best friend Cece (Hannah Simone) also appears regularly. The characters, who are in their early thirties, deal with maturing relationships and career choices.
New Girl was renewed for a sixth season on April 12, 2016. The season premiere will mark Zooey Deschanel 's directorial debut with the episode picking up three months after the events of the season five finale. TVLine confirmed Megan Fox 's return midseason in an eight episode arc. At the 2016 Television Critics Association Summer Tour, FOX announced that this season would include a one - hour crossover with Brooklyn Nine - Nine, which aired on October 11. Only Deschanel will appear on Brooklyn Nine - Nine, while Andy Samberg, Andre Braugher, Joe Lo Truglio and Chelsea Peretti appear on New Girl.
The gang travels to New York to accompany Schmidt who is receiving a special award from his old high school. Jess faces her fears of coming back to New York, despite having a terrible history with the city. She ends up having her car commandeered by Det. Jake Peralta (Andy Samberg), who ends up wrecking it into a newspaper stand and goes to the ninety - ninth precinct to deal with the situation. In the end, she learns something about why she had such a terrible history with the city. Meanwhile, in an effort to get money to get to Schmidt 's old neighborhood in Long Island, Nick and Winston become buskers at a subway station. Schmidt 's mother Louise (Nora Dunn) and Cece frequently compete to please Schmidt.
|
who is the freed prisoner in the allegory of the cave | Allegory of the cave - wikipedia
The Allegory of the Cave, or Plato 's Cave, was presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work Republic (514a -- 520a) to compare "the effect of education (παιδεία) and the lack of it on our nature ''. It is written as a dialogue between Plato 's brother Glaucon and his mentor Socrates, narrated by the latter. The allegory is presented after the analogy of the sun (508b -- 509c) and the analogy of the divided line (509d -- 511e). All three are characterized in relation to dialectic at the end of Books VII and VIII (531d -- 534e).
Plato has Socrates describe a group of people who have lived chained to the wall of a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall. The people watch shadows projected on the wall from objects passing in front of a fire behind them, and give names to these shadows. The shadows are the prisoners ' reality. Socrates explains how the philosopher is like a prisoner who is freed from the cave and comes to understand that the shadows on the wall are not reality at all, for he can perceive the true form of reality rather than the manufactured reality that is the shadows seen by the prisoners. The inmates of this place do not even desire to leave their prison, for they know no better life. The prisoners manage to break their bonds one day, and discover that their reality was not what they thought it was. They discovered the sun, which Plato uses as an analogy for the fire that man can not see behind. Like the fire that cast light on the walls of the cave, the human condition is forever bound to the impressions that are received through the senses. Even if these interpretations (or, in Kantian terminology, intuitions) are an absurd misrepresentation of reality, we can not somehow break free from the bonds of our human condition -- we can not free ourselves from phenomenal state just as the prisoners could not free themselves from their chains. If, however, we were to miraculously escape our bondage, we would find a world that we could not understand -- the sun is incomprehensible for someone who has never seen it. In other words, we would encounter another "realm '', a place incomprehensible because, theoretically, it is the source of a higher reality than the one we have always known; it is the realm of pure Form, pure fact.
Socrates remarks that this allegory can be paired with previous writings, namely the analogy of the sun and the analogy of the divided line.
The allegory of the cave is also called the analogy of the cave, myth of the cave, metaphor of the cave, parable of the cave, and Plato 's Cave.
Plato begins by having Socrates ask Glaucon to imagine a cave where people have been imprisoned from birth. These prisoners are chained so that their legs and necks are fixed, forcing them to gaze at the wall in front of them and not look around at the cave, each other, or themselves (514a -- b). Behind the prisoners is a fire, and between the fire and the prisoners is a raised walkway with a low wall, behind which people walk carrying objects or puppets "of men and other living things '' (514b). The people walk behind the wall so their bodies do not cast shadows for the prisoners to see, but the objects they carry do ("just as puppet showmen have screens in front of them at which they work their puppets '' (514a)). The prisoners can not see any of what is happening behind them, they are only able to see the shadows cast upon the cave wall in front of them. The sounds of the people talking echo off the walls, and the prisoners believe these sounds come from the shadows (514c).
Socrates suggests that the shadows are reality for the prisoners because they have never seen anything else; they do not realize that what they see are shadows of objects in front of a fire, much less that these objects are inspired by real things outside the cave which they do not see (514b - 515a).
Plato then supposes that one prisoner is freed. This prisoner would look around and see the fire. The light would hurt his eyes and make it difficult for him to see the objects casting the shadows. If he were told that what he is seeing is real instead of the other version of reality he sees on the wall, he would not believe it. In his pain, Plato continues, the freed prisoner would turn away and run back to what he is accustomed to (that is, the shadows of the carried objects). He writes "... it would hurt his eyes, and he would escape by turning away to the things which he was able to look at, and these he would believe to be clearer than what was being shown to him. ''
Plato continues: "Suppose... that someone should drag him... by force, up the rough ascent, the steep way up, and never stop until he could drag him out into the light of the sun. '' The prisoner would be angry and in pain, and this would only worsen when the radiant light of the sun overwhelms his eyes and blinds him.
"Slowly, his eyes adjust to the light of the sun. First he can only see shadows. Gradually he can see the reflections of people and things in water and then later see the people and things themselves. Eventually, he is able to look at the stars and moon at night until finally he can look upon the sun itself (516a). '' Only after he can look straight at the sun "is he able to reason about it '' and what it is (516b). (See also Plato 's Analogy of the Sun, which occurs near the end of The Republic, Book VI.)
Plato continues, saying that the freed prisoner would think that the world outside the cave was superior to the world he experienced in the cave; "he would bless himself for the change, and pity (the other prisoners) '' and would want to bring his fellow cave dwellers out of the cave and into the sunlight (516c).
The returning prisoner, whose eyes have become accustomed to the sunlight, would be blind when he re-enters the cave, just as he was when he was first exposed to the sun (516e). The prisoners, according to Plato, would infer from the returning man 's blindness that the journey out of the cave had harmed him and that they should not undertake a similar journey. Socrates concludes that the prisoners, if they were able, would therefore reach out and kill anyone who attempted to drag them out of the cave (517a).
The allegory contains many forms of symbolism used to describe the state of the world. The cave is a symbol of the world and the prisoners are those who inhabit the world. The chains that prevent the prisoners from leaving the cave represent ignorance, meaning they interfere with the prisoners seeing the truth. The shadows cast on the walls of the cave represent what people see in the present world. Last, the freed prisoner represents those in society who see the physical world for the illusion that it is.
The allegory is probably related to Plato 's theory of Forms, according to which the "Forms '' (or "Ideas ''), and not the material world known to us through sensation, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. Only knowledge of the Forms constitutes real knowledge or what Socrates considers "the good ''. Socrates informs Glaucon that the most excellent people must follow the highest of all studies, which is to behold the Good. Those who have ascended to this highest level, however, must not remain there but must return to the cave and dwell with the prisoners, sharing in their labors and honors.
Plato 's Phaedo contains similar imagery to that of the allegory of the Cave; a philosopher recognizes that before philosophy, his soul was "a veritable prisoner fast bound within his body... and that instead of investigating reality of itself and in itself is compelled to peer through the bars of a prison. ''
Scholars debate the possible interpretations of the allegory of the Cave, either looking at it from an epistemological standpoint -- one based on the study of how Plato believes we come to know things -- or through a political (Politeia) lens. Much of the scholarship on the allegory falls between these two perspectives, with some completely independent of either. The epistemological view and the political view, fathered by Richard Lewis Nettleship and A.S. Ferguson respectively, tend to be discussed most frequently. Nettleship interprets the allegory of the cave as representative of our innate intellectual incapacity, in order to contrast our lesser understanding with that of the philosopher, as well as an allegory about people who are unable or unwilling to seek truth and wisdom. Ferguson, on the other hand, bases his interpretation of the allegory on the claim that the cave is an allegory of human nature and that it symbolizes the opposition between the philosopher and the corruption of the prevailing political condition.
Cleavages have emerged within these respective camps of thought, however. Much of the modern scholarly debate surrounding the allegory has emerged from Martin Heidegger 's exploration of the allegory, and philosophy as a whole, through the lens of human freedom in his book The Essence of Human Freedom: An Introduction to Philosophy and The Essence of Truth: On Plato 's Cave Allegory and Theaetetus. In response, Hannah Arendt, an advocate of the political interpretation of the allegory, suggests that through the allegory, Plato "wanted to apply his own theory of ideas to politics ''. Conversely, Heidegger argues that the essence of truth is a way of being and not an object. Arendt criticized Heidegger 's interpretation of the allegory, noting that "Heidegger... is off base in using the cave simile to interpret and "criticize '' Plato 's theory of ideas ''.
The following is a list of supplementary scholarly literature on the Allegory of the Cave that includes articles from epistemological, political, alternative, and independent viewpoints on the allegory:
The themes and imagery of Plato 's cave have appeared throughout Western thought and culture. Some examples include:
|
who was supposed to take arkansas' constitution to washington in order to get approval for statehood | Constitution of Arkansas - wikipedia
The Constitution of the State of Arkansas is the governing document of the U.S. state of Arkansas. It was adopted in 1874, shortly after the Brooks - Baxter War. It replaced the 1868 constitution adopted by the legislature following the end of the American Civil War and under which Arkansas rejoined the Union.
The Brooks - Baxter War and passage of the new constitution are considered to mark the end of Reconstruction in Arkansas. This was two years before the disputed 1876 presidential election and national compromise that resulted in the Republican government withdrawing federal troops from the South. The state has passed numerous amendments to the constitution -- 94 as of October 2015.
By gaining passage of the Election Law of 1891 and a poll tax amendment in the general election of 1892, the Democratic Party consolidated its control of state politics over Republicans and a farmer - labor coalition; it also effectively disenfranchised most African Americans. By 1895 no African Americans were left in the state house; their exclusion from politics lasted for decades deep into the 20th century.
In 1833, the Territory of Arkansas was eager to be admitted as a state, although Congress was hesitant to admit another pro-slavery state due to the tense equality achieved under the Missouri Compromise. The territory elected delegates for a state constitutional convention. Territorial governor, William Fulton tried to halt the convention, but Attorney General, Benjamin F. Butler ruled the assemblage legal. The first state constitution was ratified by Congress on January 30, 1836, and on June 15 of that year, President Andrew Jackson signed the act making Arkansas the 25th state.
The first constitution was vague and short. It was replaced by the second Arkansas state constitution when Arkansas seceded from the Union on May 6, 1861. This constitution was very similar to the original except for its references to The Confederate States of America.
Arkansas adopted a new Constitution on March 18, 1864, after the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. This constitution stipulated that federal recognition and support would resume after ten percent of 1860 voters took the oath of allegiance to the union. Slavery was abolished in this constitution, but there was no provision as to civil rights for freedmen, or former slaves. This constitution was passed in an effort to complete Reconstruction and return power to local governments as quickly as possible. This was the first constitution to define election procedures for a number of important posts within the state government.
Congress 's 1867 Reconstruction Acts followed passage of the 13th and 14th Amendments emancipating slaves and making them citizens. The 1867 Acts required former Confederate states to recognize former slaves as citizens, and to adopt constitutions providing suffrage for freedmen.
In late 1867 Arkansas elected delegates to a new Constitutional Convention, which took place in early 1868 in the old capital building in Little Rock. At that Convention, the delegates drafted a new Constitution. It was adopted by popular referendum in the spring of 1868. That June Arkansas became the first rebel state to be readmitted to the Union under the Reconstruction Acts. The Constitution of 1868 made racial discrimination illegal; provided suffrage (voting) rights for freedmen age 21 and older; provided for public schools for the first time, for both black and white children; and it established a state university.
The fifth and current constitution was adopted in 1874. Democrats regained control of the state legislature for the first time since the Civil War. They spent a summer re-writing the constitution.
This version reflects attitudes related to the war and its aftermath. The delegates gave the most power to county governments, including for legal issues, transportation, taxation and spending. The power of the governor was significantly curtailed. State officials ' terms were dropped from four years to two years, and more state positions were required to be filled by popular election, rather than appointment by the governor. This is the constitution that the state uses today, with some 87 amendments and various other changes.
Arkansas held constitutional conventions in 1918, 1969, and 1979, called the Sixth, Seventh, and Eight Constitutional Conventions, respectively. None of these drafts were ratified. Arkansas has passed numerous amendments - 90 at last count.
We, the People of the State of Arkansas, grateful to Almighty God for the privilege of choosing our own form of government; for our civil and religious liberty; and desiring to perpetuate its blessings, and secure the same to our selves and posterity; do ordain and establish this Constitution.
This article establishes the boundaries of Arkansas as running from the Mississippi river on the east to the Oklahoma and Texas borders on the west, and bound by Missouri in the north and Louisiana in the south. This article also defines the seat of government as being in Little Rock.
For the most part, this article affirms the same limits to the State Government that are similarly constrained by the US Constitution to the Government of the United States.
One interesting note, Section 26 states that no religious test shall be applied as a requirement to vote or hold office, yet later on in the constitution Atheists are expressly forbidden from holding office.
Arkansas law § 5 - 68 - 204 violates Sections 2, 3, 4, 6, 13, 15, 24, and 25 of Article 2.
Article 3 mandates that all elections shall be fair and equal. No person shall be denied the right to vote. Any resident citizen over the age of 18 may register and vote. Electors are exempt from arrest while they are traveling to and from elections. Soldiers may not vote on the basis of being stationed in Arkansas, they must establish residency through other means.
This article states that there will be 3 branches of government, legislative, judicial, and executive.
Article 5 provides for the operations of the Arkansas General Assembly. It requires the Assembly to meet biennially (Section 5) and limits these meetings to 60 days unless otherwise approved by two - thirds of both houses (Section 17). Section 4 sets the qualifications for members. Amendment 86 allows for biennial fiscal sessions in even - numbered years; these sessions are limited to legislative deliberation regarding the state budget, though other issues may be brought before the houses via approval of a two - thirds vote of the membership.
Section 1 allows for passage of laws or constitutional amendments by initiative. Petitions require signatures equal to eight percent of registered voters to appear on the ballot for a law, or ten percent for a constitutional amendment (see below). Section 1 also allows, by six percent of voters placing a petition, for a statewide referendum on any law or any part of a law. The petition must be filed no later than 90 days after final adjournment of the Assembly. The law is suspended until it is voted on in the next election; if part of a law, the portion subject to referendum is suspended while all other provisions remain in effect.
It also includes highly restrictive provisions regarding appropriations:
An example of how the restrictions can wreak havoc took place in 1989, when the general appropriations bill (which far exceeded $2.5 million) failed to gain the required three - fourths majority, but was "declared passed '' by the General Assembly under the "just debts of the State '' exemption, and all subsequent special appropriations bills were passed thereafter. However, the Arkansas Supreme Court disagreed with the Assembly 's use of the just debts provision. As a result, it declared every single appropriations bill of the session unconstitutional -- the general bill did not receive the votes needed to pass under Section 39, and under Section 40 all other appropriations bills were invalid since the general bill must be passed first -- requiring the Assembly to return in special session to reenact them.
Appropriations do not constitute the state budget in Arkansas; that is enacted near the end of the session, when the Revenue Stabilization Law, which provides the mechanism for distributing the state 's revenue (even general revenues), is amended to reflect the submitted budget. Any appropriation not funded by the Revenue Stabilization Law is essentially null and void. Some observers believe that the Revenue Stabilization Act, while strict in its implementation, has prevented the state from suffering the financial difficulties of other states with less - strict preventive measures to avoid deficit spending.
Article 19 Section 1, titled "Atheists disqualified from holding office or testifying as witness '', states: "No person who denies the being of a God shall hold any office in the civil departments of this State, nor be competent to testify as a witness in any court. ''
Classified as a religious test, there are no known cases of this article being enforced in modern times, as religious freedom is provided for in the United States Constitution 's Bill of Rights. In addition, Article Six of the United States Constitution is considered to prohibit such religious tests. It says: "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. '' Current legal precedent holds that this provision is binding on the states as well under the liberty clause of the 14th Amendment to the federal constitution. Additionally, the First Amendment to the federal constitution establishes freedom of religion as a constitutional right. While the wording of this amendment specifically bars Congress from restricting freedom of religion, current precedent holds that this amendment and the rest of the United States Bill of Rights are binding on the states by the liberty clause of the 14th Amendment.
In addition to the 20 Articles listed above, numerous amendments (94 as of October 2015, per the link below) have been added. Though some amendments have been physically incorporated into the text of the Constitution (e.g. Amendment 1, adding Article 20 and Amendment 90, incorporated changes made to Amendment 82), others remain physically separate from the text.
Notable amendments shown separately include:
The current Constitution allows for two methods of amendment. However, each method is shown in a separate section.
Under Section 22 of Article 19, either house of the General Assembly may propose amendments. The amendment requires majority approval of both houses in a recorded vote, publication in at least one newspaper in each county for six months prior to the next election of the Assembly, and majority approval of the voters.
However, the Section places further restrictions on legislative amendments, requiring each amendment to appear separately on the ballot and limiting the number per ballot to three.
Under Section 1 of Article 5 (as amended by Amendment 7), ten percent of legal voters may propose an amendment by initiative, requiring majority approval of the voters. The proposed amendment must be filed with the Arkansas Secretary of State not less than four months before the election, and 30 days prior to the election the petitioners (at their own expense) must publish the amendment "in some paper of general circulation ''. Unlike legislative amendments, there are no limits on the number of amendments by initiative that may be proposed on any one ballot.
Section 13 originally set the state 's usury limit at 10 %; it was amended in the early 1980s to 5 % above the Federal Reserve Discount Rate on 90 - day commercial paper (see the latest rates), but falling interest rates and poorly worded provisions made the amended version more onerous than the original. For example, a clause in the 1980s amendment appears to set a 17 % limit for consumer loans; but since they were not exempted from the main "5 % above discount rate '' provision, the courts ruled that the limit for consumer loans was the lesser of the two clauses, usually the 5 % rule. Also, other language in the amendment applying the usury limit "at the time of the contract '' made floating - rate loans extremely difficult, even though the usury limit was a floating rate. Neither the original nor amended provisions allowed the legislature to make any exceptions to the general usury law, as happened in other states. The Arkansas legislature tried to permit payday loans anyway, but after two adverse decisions in 2008, the Attorney General ordered all payday lenders in the state to shut down.
After out - of - state banks took over most lending in Arkansas, banks located in the state received special relief from the usury law through Section 731 of the Federal Gramm - Leach - Bliley Act in 1999. Also in that year, an Arkansas Supreme Court decision allowed out - of - state auto finance companies to engage in subprime lending through Arkansas dealerships without violating the usury law. Today, only a handful of loans made to Arkansans are still subject to this law, mainly private - party lending and some prime auto loans from companies such as GMAC and Ford Credit.
This unique and unusual article (added by Amendment 1) prohibits the General Assembly from making appropriations for payment of principal and interest on several bond issues from 1869 to 1871, commonly referred to as Holford bonds. They were passed during Reconstruction by the General Assembly. Some of the bonds refinanced disputed debt outstanding from shortly after Arkansas ' statehood in 1836. These bonds had been central to the Brooks - Baxter War.
|
who is running for house of representatives oklahoma | United States House of Representatives Elections, 2018 - Wikipedia
(retiring)
The 2018 United States House of Representatives elections will be held on November 6, 2018. Elections will be held to elect representatives from all 435 congressional districts across each of the 50 U.S. states. Non-voting delegates from the District of Columbia and four of the five inhabited U.S. territories will also be elected. The winners of this election will serve in the 116th United States Congress, with seats apportioned among the states based on the 2010 United States Census. Republicans have held a House majority since January 2011 (see 2010 results), although they lost six seats in the 2016 elections and another in special elections leading up to the 2018 election.
The midterm elections will take place halfway through Republican President Donald Trump 's term. The 2018 Senate elections, 2018 gubernatorial elections, and many state and local elections will also be held on this date.
In the November general elections, fifty - three incumbents are not seeking re-election either to retire or to seek other positions.
Thirty - six Republicans are not seeking re-election in 2018.
Seventeen Democrats are not seeking re-election in 2018.
Six members announced their retirements, but either rejoined the race or resigned early. Sorted by district name.
Several sites and individuals publish predictions of competitive seats. These predictions look at factors such as the strength of the incumbent (if the incumbent is running for re-election), the strength of the candidates, and the partisan leanings of the Congressional District (reflected in part by the CD 's Cook Partisan Voting Index rating). The predictions assign ratings to each seat, with the rating indicating the predicted advantage that a party has in winning that seat.
Most election predictors use:
Of the 435 seats available, 171 are considered "safe '' or "solid '' Republican seats by all five of the groups making predictions and 151 are similarly "safe '' or "solid '' Democrat seats. The remaining 113 seats are considered competitive (not "safe '' or "solid '') by at least one of the five groups making predictions. These 113 seats are listed below.
Polls have also been conducted regarding respondents ' party preference in the upcoming election. Only unique sets of data from tracking polls are included. For example, the Ipsos / Reuters poll, which began tracking on May 19, 2017, has a sampling period of five days, so only every sixth tracking poll is included. When a poll includes results for both adults and either registered or likely voters, only results for the sample of voters is listed.
Elections ordered by election date.
For the regularly scheduled November elections. Shading added for future events.
|
is nick van exel in the hall of fame | Nick Van Exel - wikipedia
Nickey Maxwell Van Exel (born November 27, 1971) is an American retired professional basketball player who is currently an assistant coach for the Memphis Grizzlies of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Van Exel played for six NBA teams from 1993 through 2006, and is a former NBA All - Star.
Van Exel was raised primarily by his mother, Joyce. He attended St. Joseph High School, a private high school in Kenosha, Wisconsin. He played from 1987 to 1989 and scored 1,282 points, including 772 as a senior. He led the WISAA (private schools) state tournament in scoring as a junior and senior when his team lost in the finals both years. He was named to the Associated Press all - state team as a senior.
Van Exel wanted to play college basketball, but his grades were n't high enough to qualify for a top - flight program, so he went to junior college at Trinity Valley Community College for two years. He applied himself to his studies and qualified to enroll at the University of Cincinnati and play for coach Bob Huggins.
Prior to Van Exel 's arrival, the Bearcats had gone 18 - 12. In 1991 -- 92, with Van Exel as starting point guard averaging 12.3 points and 2.9 assists per game, the Bearcats went 29 - 5, won their league tournament, and won four NCAA tournament games to advance to the NCAA Final Four, where they were defeated by Michigan and their "Fab Five. ''
In his senior year, Van Exel led the University of Cincinnati Bearcats with 18.3 points and 4.5 assists per game as the team went 27 - 5, again won their league tournament, and advanced to the NCAA Elite Eight before falling in overtime to North Carolina. Van Exel earned Third - team All - America honors (AP, Basketball Times and Basketball Weekly) and was a finalist for the Wooden Award for player of the year. In only two seasons, he became Cincinnati 's all - time leader in three - point field goals made (147), attempted (411), and percentage (. 358). These records have since been surpassed.
In a 13 - year NBA career, Van Exel played for the San Antonio Spurs, Portland Trail Blazers, Golden State Warriors, Dallas Mavericks, Denver Nuggets and Los Angeles Lakers.
Van Exel 's career began when he was selected by the Los Angeles Lakers in the second round as the 37th overall pick of the 1993 NBA draft. Van Exel and Eddie Jones were the centerpiece of the Lakers ' rebuilding plan after the end of their successful Showtime era in the early ' 90s. Led by Van Exel 's flashy play, the two guards helped the team to the playoffs in 1995 after the Lakers had missed the postseason for the first time in years in 1994. Van Exel was known for his shooting streaks, buzzer - beating shots, and speed, earning him the nickname "Nick the Quick ''.
During his career with the Lakers, Van Exel averaged 14.9 points per game as well as 7.3 assists per game, finishing in the top 10 in the NBA in that category twice. In 1996, during a game against the Denver Nuggets, he pushed a referee, resulting in an ejection, seven - game suspension, and $187,000 fine.
On June 24, 1998, after five seasons as the starting point guard, Van Exel was traded to the Denver Nuggets for Tony Battie and the draft rights to Tyronn Lue.
Playing on a Nuggets team which was one of the worst in the league, Van Exel achieved several career highs. Over four seasons he put up averages of 17.7 ppg and 8.4 apg, averaging 21.4 ppg through 45 games of the 2001 -- 02 season.
On February 21, 2002, he was traded by the Nuggets along with Raef LaFrentz, Avery Johnson, and Tariq Abdul - Wahad to the Dallas Mavericks for Juwan Howard, Donnell Harvey, Tim Hardaway, and a 2002 first - round pick.
In Dallas, Van Exel played a smaller role, but contributed effectively by creating scoring opportunities and scoring key three pointers. He averaged 12.5 ppg during the 2002 -- 03 season, and nearly 20 ppg in the 2003 playoffs, carrying the offensive load for the Mavericks in a tight series against the Sacramento Kings, scoring 36 and 40 points in back - to - back wins in games 2 and 3.
Van Exel was traded on August 18, 2003 to the Golden State Warriors along with Evan Eschmeyer, Avery Johnson, Popeye Jones, and Antoine Rigaudeau in exchange for Antawn Jamison, Chris Mills, Danny Fortson, and Jiří Welsch. During the 2003 -- 04 season, he played in a career low 39 games, averaging 12.6 ppg and 5.3 apg.
On July 20, 2004, he was traded by Golden State to the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for Dale Davis and Dan Dickau. With the Blazers he played in only 53 games, averaging 11 ppg.
Van Exel was waived by Portland on August 3, 2005, and he signed with the San Antonio Spurs on August 29. After signing, Van Exel stated that it would be his last season in an NBA uniform. Due to knee and elbow injuries, he only played in 65 games during the 2005 -- 06 season. He averaged career lows in almost every statistical category, including points (5.5 ppg) and minutes (15 mpg). In the playoffs, San Antonio was eliminated by the Dallas Mavericks in a series that lasted seven games. Two days later, on May 24, 2006, ESPN 's Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon reported on their show Pardon the Interruption that Van Exel would soon announce his retirement.
Texas Southern University hired Van Exel as an assistant coach to the Tigers men 's basketball team on October 15, 2009.
On September 8, 2010, the Atlanta Hawks hired Van Exel as a player development instructor. Van Exel remained in that position for the 2010 -- 11, 2011 -- 12, and 2012 -- 13 seasons. In 2013 -- 14, he served as an assistant coach for the Milwaukee Bucks.
On July 8, 2015, Van Exel was named head coach of the Texas Legends in the NBA D - League replacing Eduardo Nájera
On June 8, 2016, Van Exel was hired by the Memphis Grizzlies to serve as an assistant coach.
Van Exel once appeared on an episode of MTV Cribs.
On January 31, 2013, Van Exel 's 22 - year - old son, Nickey Van Exel, was convicted of murdering his friend and sentenced to 60 years in prison.
|
how does a torque converter lockup switch work | Torque converter - wikipedia
A torque converter is a type of fluid coupling which transfers rotating power from a prime mover, like an internal combustion engine, to a rotating driven load. In a vehicle with an automatic transmission, the torque converter connects the power source to the load. It is usually located between the engine 's flexplate and the transmission. The equivalent location in a manual transmission would be the mechanical clutch.
The key characteristic of a torque converter is its ability to multiply torque when the output rotational speed is so low that it allows the fluid coming off the curved vanes of the turbine to be deflected off the stator while it is locked against its one - way clutch, thus providing the equivalent of a reduction gear. This is a feature beyond that of the simple fluid coupling, which can match rotational speed but does not multiply torque, thus reduces power.
Some of these devices are also equipped with a "lockup '' mechanism which rigidly binds the engine to the transmission when their speeds are nearly equal, to avoid slippage and a resulting loss of efficiency.
By far the most common form of torque converter in automobile transmissions is the hydrokinetic device described in this article. There are also hydrostatic systems which are widely used in small machines such as compact excavators.
There are also mechanical designs for continuously variable transmissions and these also have the ability to multiply torque. They include the pendulum - based Constantinesco torque converter, the Lambert friction gearing disk drive transmission and the Variomatic with expanding pulleys and a belt drive.
Torque converter equations of motion are dominated by Leonhard Euler 's eighteenth century turbomachine equation:
The equation expands to include the fifth power of radius; as a result, torque converter properties are very dependent on the size of the device.
A fluid coupling is a two element drive that is incapable of multiplying torque, while a torque converter has at least one extra element -- the stator -- which alters the drive 's characteristics during periods of high slippage, producing an increase in output torque.
In a torque converter there are at least three rotating elements: the impeller, which is mechanically driven by the prime mover; the turbine, which drives the load; and the stator, which is interposed between the impeller and turbine so that it can alter oil flow returning from the turbine to the impeller. The classic torque converter design dictates that the stator be prevented from rotating under any condition, hence the term stator. In practice, however, the stator is mounted on an overrunning clutch, which prevents the stator from counter-rotating with respect to the prime mover but allows forward rotation.
Modifications to the basic three element design have been periodically incorporated, especially in applications where higher than normal torque multiplication is required. Most commonly, these have taken the form of multiple turbines and stators, each set being designed to produce differing amounts of torque multiplication. For example, the Buick Dynaflow automatic transmission was a non-shifting design and, under normal conditions, relied solely upon the converter to multiply torque. The Dynaflow used a five element converter to produce the wide range of torque multiplication needed to propel a heavy vehicle.
Although not strictly a part of classic torque converter design, many automotive converters include a lock - up clutch to improve cruising power transmission efficiency and reduce heat. The application of the clutch locks the turbine to the impeller, causing all power transmission to be mechanical, thus eliminating losses associated with fluid drive.
A torque converter has three stages of operation:
The key to the torque converter 's ability to multiply torque lies in the stator. In the classic fluid coupling design, periods of high slippage cause the fluid flow returning from the turbine to the impeller to oppose the direction of impeller rotation, leading to a significant loss of efficiency and the generation of considerable waste heat. Under the same condition in a torque converter, the returning fluid will be redirected by the stator so that it aids the rotation of the impeller, instead of impeding it. The result is that much of the energy in the returning fluid is recovered and added to the energy being applied to the impeller by the prime mover. This action causes a substantial increase in the mass of fluid being directed to the turbine, producing an increase in output torque. Since the returning fluid is initially traveling in a direction opposite to impeller rotation, the stator will likewise attempt to counter-rotate as it forces the fluid to change direction, an effect that is prevented by the one - way stator clutch.
Unlike the radially straight blades used in a plain fluid coupling, a torque converter 's turbine and stator use angled and curved blades. The blade shape of the stator is what alters the path of the fluid, forcing it to coincide with the impeller rotation. The matching curve of the turbine blades helps to correctly direct the returning fluid to the stator so the latter can do its job. The shape of the blades is important as minor variations can result in significant changes to the converter 's performance.
During the stall and acceleration phases, in which torque multiplication occurs, the stator remains stationary due to the action of its one - way clutch. However, as the torque converter approaches the coupling phase, the energy and volume of the fluid returning from the turbine will gradually decrease, causing pressure on the stator to likewise decrease. Once in the coupling phase, the returning fluid will reverse direction and now rotate in the direction of the impeller and turbine, an effect which will attempt to forward - rotate the stator. At this point, the stator clutch will release and the impeller, turbine and stator will all (more or less) turn as a unit.
Unavoidably, some of the fluid 's kinetic energy will be lost due to friction and turbulence, causing the converter to generate waste heat (dissipated in many applications by water cooling). This effect, often referred to as pumping loss, will be most pronounced at or near stall conditions. In modern designs, the blade geometry minimizes oil velocity at low impeller speeds, which allows the turbine to be stalled for long periods with little danger of overheating (as when a vehicle with an automatic transmission is stopped at a traffic signal or in traffic congestion while still in gear).
A torque converter can not achieve 100 percent coupling efficiency. The classic three element torque converter has an efficiency curve that resembles ∩: zero efficiency at stall, generally increasing efficiency during the acceleration phase and low efficiency in the coupling phase. The loss of efficiency as the converter enters the coupling phase is a result of the turbulence and fluid flow interference generated by the stator, and as previously mentioned, is commonly overcome by mounting the stator on a one - way clutch.
Even with the benefit of the one - way stator clutch, a converter can not achieve the same level of efficiency in the coupling phase as an equivalently sized fluid coupling. Some loss is due to the presence of the stator (even though rotating as part of the assembly), as it always generates some power - absorbing turbulence. Most of the loss, however, is caused by the curved and angled turbine blades, which do not absorb kinetic energy from the fluid mass as well as radially straight blades. Since the turbine blade geometry is a crucial factor in the converter 's ability to multiply torque, trade - offs between torque multiplication and coupling efficiency are inevitable. In automotive applications, where steady improvements in fuel economy have been mandated by market forces and government edict, the nearly universal use of a lock - up clutch has helped to eliminate the converter from the efficiency equation during cruising operation.
The maximum amount of torque multiplication produced by a converter is highly dependent on the size and geometry of the turbine and stator blades, and is generated only when the converter is at or near the stall phase of operation. Typical stall torque multiplication ratios range from 1.8: 1 to 2.5: 1 for most automotive applications (although multi-element designs as used in the Buick Dynaflow and Chevrolet Turboglide could produce more). Specialized converters designed for industrial, rail, or heavy marine power transmission systems are capable of as much as 5.0: 1 multiplication. Generally speaking, there is a trade - off between maximum torque multiplication and efficiency -- high stall ratio converters tend to be relatively inefficient below the coupling speed, whereas low stall ratio converters tend to provide less possible torque multiplication.
The characteristics of the torque converter must be carefully matched to the torque curve of the power source and the intended application. Changing the blade geometry of the stator and / or turbine will change the torque - stall characteristics, as well as the overall efficiency of the unit. For example, drag racing automatic transmissions often use converters modified to produce high stall speeds to improve off - the - line torque, and to get into the power band of the engine more quickly. Highway vehicles generally use lower stall torque converters to limit heat production, and provide a more firm feeling to the vehicle 's characteristics.
A design feature once found in some General Motors automatic transmissions was the variable - pitch stator, in which the blades ' angle of attack could be varied in response to changes in engine speed and load. The effect of this was to vary the amount of torque multiplication produced by the converter. At the normal angle of attack, the stator caused the converter to produce a moderate amount of multiplication but with a higher level of efficiency. If the driver abruptly opened the throttle, a valve would switch the stator pitch to a different angle of attack, increasing torque multiplication at the expense of efficiency.
Some torque converters use multiple stators and / or multiple turbines to provide a wider range of torque multiplication. Such multiple - element converters are more common in industrial environments than in automotive transmissions, but automotive applications such as Buick 's Triple Turbine Dynaflow and Chevrolet 's Turboglide also existed. The Buick Dynaflow utilized the torque - multiplying characteristics of its planetary gear set in conjunction with the torque converter for low gear and bypassed the first turbine, using only the second turbine as vehicle speed increased. The unavoidable trade - off with this arrangement was low efficiency and eventually these transmissions were discontinued in favor of the more efficient three speed units with a conventional three element torque converter. It is also found that efficiency of torque converter is maximum at very low speeds.
As described above, impelling losses within the torque converter reduce efficiency and generate waste heat. In modern automotive applications, this problem is commonly avoided by use of a lock - up clutch that physically links the impeller and turbine, effectively changing the converter into a purely mechanical coupling. The result is no slippage, and virtually no power loss.
The first automotive application of the lock - up principle was Packard 's Ultramatic transmission, introduced in 1949, which locked up the converter at cruising speeds, unlocking when the throttle was floored for quick acceleration or as the vehicle slowed down. This feature was also present in some Borg - Warner transmissions produced during the 1950s. It fell out of favor in subsequent years due to its extra complexity and cost. In the late 1970s lock - up clutches started to reappear in response to demands for improved fuel economy, and are now nearly universal in automotive applications.
As with a basic fluid coupling the theoretical torque capacity of a converter is proportional to r N 2 D 5 (\ displaystyle r \, N ^ (2) D ^ (5)), where r (\ displaystyle r) is the mass density of the fluid (kg / m3), N (\ displaystyle N) is the impeller speed (rpm), and D (\ displaystyle D) is the diameter (m). In practice, the maximum torque capacity is limited by the mechanical characteristics of the materials used in the converter 's components, as well as the ability of the converter to dissipate heat (often through water cooling). As an aid to strength, reliability and economy of production, most automotive converter housings are of welded construction. Industrial units are usually assembled with bolted housings, a design feature that eases the process of inspection and repair, but adds to the cost of producing the converter.
In high performance, racing and heavy duty commercial converters, the pump and turbine may be further strengthened by a process called furnace brazing, in which molten brass is drawn into seams and joints to produce a stronger bond between the blades, hubs and annular ring (s). Because the furnace brazing process creates a small radius at the point where a blade meets with a hub or annular ring, a theoretical decrease in turbulence will occur, resulting in a corresponding increase in efficiency.
Overloading a converter can result in several failure modes, some of them potentially dangerous in nature:
|
where does barney work in how i met your mother | Barney Stinson - wikipedia
Barnabas "Barney '' Stinson is a fictional character portrayed by Neil Patrick Harris and created by Carter Bays and Craig Thomas for the CBS television series How I Met Your Mother. One of the main characters, Barney is a womanizer who uses many ' plays ' in his ' playbook ' to help him have sex with women. The character is known for his love of wearing expensive suits, laser tag, alcohol and various catchphrases, including "Suit up! '', "Legendary '', "Wait for it '' (often combining the two as "legen -- wait for it -- dary! ''), and "Daddy 's home ''. In later seasons, he has a few serious relationships, marries, divorces, and has a child with an unnamed woman from a one - night stand.
Critics have praised the character and credit him for much of the show 's success. He is considered the show 's breakout character.
The show 's creators envisioned Barney as what Bays later described as a "large, John Belushi - type character ''; nonetheless, Megan Branman, the casting director for How I Met Your Mother, invited Harris to audition. He assumed that he was invited solely because the two were friends and did not believe he had a chance of winning the role. Harris later said: "Since I (considered) myself the long shot, I did n't care that much, and I think that allowed a freedom. '' His audition centered on a scene playing laser tag, and Harris attempted a dive roll, accidentally knocking over a chair and slamming into a wall in the process. CBS executives enjoyed his playing and soon offered Harris the part. The character is named for a heroin dealer in the James Ellroy novel L.A. Confidential.
Barney Stinson is one of five main characters on How I Met Your Mother. He is a manipulative, oversexed businessman in his thirties who always wears a suit, likes women with "daddy issues '' and is frequently willing to offer his (sometimes hypocritical) opinion. Throughout the earlier seasons, Barney is a huge womanizer, and has been described as a "high - functioning sociopath '' by his best friend, Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor). Barney has a plethora of strategies and rules designed to meet women, sleep with them, and discard them. Through several seasons of the show, four (4) of the main characters are couples, as Ted began dating Robin Scherbatsky (Cobie Smulders) and Ted 's roommate Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel) becomes engaged and later married to Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan). This leaves Barney the only single character, and, according to Harris, Barney is "resentful '' that the other characters have paired up. Later on, in season 5, he dates Robin. They end up breaking up not long after, once they both realize they are making one another miserable.
Harris describes Barney as a man who "likes to create crazy situations and then sit back and watch it all go down. '' He is an opportunist who manipulates any situation so that it goes his way. He is also highly competitive, and will take on "challenges '' to complete outlandish tasks in order to prove his worth. He is proud and stubborn, and attempts to stand by his word no matter what. In "I Heart NJ '', for example, he refuses to put down his fist unless someone offers him a fist bump. By the end of the episode, he has the same fist elevated in a sling after struggling to keep his fist up throughout the episode. In "Lucky Penny '', when the others do not believe that he can run the New York City Marathon the next day without training, Barney immediately agrees to do so. Although he succeeds, he is unable to walk afterwards. Although he thinks of himself as worldly, Barney is sometimes extremely naive, believing many lies his mother told him well into adulthood, such as believing that Bob Barker is his father.
Barney, like Harris himself, is an illusionist. His favorite types of magic tricks involve fire, as seen in the tenth episode of the second season, "Single Stamina '' and in the fourth episode of the fourth season, "Intervention ''. Barney uses magic tricks mostly to pick up women. His most common method of picking up women is telling them elaborate lies about himself, often using an alias. Many of his schemes for picking up women are in a book he has written called "The Playbook '', which is exposed in the episode "The Playbook ''. He has commitment issues, as evidenced in his reluctance to put a label on his relationship with Robin and the fact that she is one of the few women he has actually dated since the show started.
Barney is very well - connected and is the most affluent member of the group. He frequently buys expensive items -- such as a last - minute plane ticket to San Francisco, thousands of dollars in postage stamps, or two televisions specifically for smashing in frustration -- in the spur of the moment. He is also something of a metrosexual; he waxes his chest, enjoys manicures and has an extensive knowledge of designer labels and gourmet food. However, he is also seen to have a gambling problem that he occasionally gets under control, only to relapse as seen in several episodes such as "Atlantic City '', where he has gambling buddies in the Chinese Triad, and "Monday Night Football ''.
Although The Early Show described him as "Utterly devoid of morality '', Barney lives by the "Bro Code '', his own code of ethics. Despite his overall questionable character, according to creator Craig Thomas, Barney is "a pretty fragile character who 's really afraid of being alone. He just wants people to like him, to be important to people, and to have disciples who follow his word. '' He has displayed a softer, kinder side on several occasions, however, such as preventing Marshall from sleeping with other women when he and Lily break up, and persuading Lily to come back to Marshall.
In "The Slutty Pumpkin Returns '', Barney finds out he is one quarter Canadian, much to his horror and embarrassment.
Throughout the series, one major character development is apparent in Barney: At the beginning of the show, his character is a womanizer who completely objectifies sex and women and wants nothing to do with dating and relationships. Although he does date Robin in Season 5, he resumes his promiscuous lifestyle immediately after they break up. In Seasons 6 and 7, however, he begins to confront his personal issues, like his relationship with his estranged father and his fear of commitment. By the time late Season 7 rolls around, Barney has finally "grown up, '' and has now warmed to the idea of a commitment and marriage, culminating in his proposal to his girlfriend, Quinn. Although he briefly retreats to his escapades after he and Quinn break up, he does make one major final leap in his maturity when he burns The Playbook and proposes to Robin in Season 8 's two - part episode "The Final Page, '' after finally admitting to himself that he is still in love with her. Robin accepts and they plan their wedding in the second half of the season.
The final season revolves around Barney and Robin 's wedding weekend. After some apprehension on both their parts, they get married in "The End of the Aisle '' after he vows to always be honest with her. The series finale, "Last Forever '', reveals that, three years after their wedding, they get divorced because Robin 's hectic travel schedule prevents them from spending any time together. Barney returns to a lifestyle of meaningless sex with multiple women for several years afterward, until he gets one of his one - night stands pregnant. He hates the idea of being a father until the day his child -- a girl named Ellie -- is born. He falls in love with her at first sight and becomes a devoted father, turning away from his player lifestyle for good.
A few references have been offered to identify Barney 's Birthday: In "Natural History '', Barney claims he was six years old on July 23, 1981. This puts his birthday somewhere between July 24, 1974 and July 23, 1975; in "Zoo or False '', Ted says Barney was born seven years after the moon landing (which occurred in July 1969), In "Columns '' set in 2007, Barney gives his age as 31 further confirming his birth year is 1976. In "The Drunk Train '' Marshall states Barney is a Scorpio which places his birthday between October 23 - November 21, 1976.
He was raised in Port Richmond, Staten Island by his mother Loretta (younger version voiced by Megan Mullally, played by Frances Conroy), who was apparently very promiscuous. His father proved to be an ongoing mystery in the series. When Barney was young, he asked his mother who his father was, and as The Price Is Right happened to be on TV at the time, she pointed to Bob Barker and replied, "Oh, I do n't know. That guy. '' Barney believed the lie wholeheartedly. Years later, as portrayed in the season 2 episode "Showdown '', he appears on The Price Is Right with the intention of naming Barker as his father on national television, until he panics at the last minute and can not go through with it. As a child, Barney was terrible at sports, and from various episodes it is shown he had few friends (one scene shows that no one attended his birthday party). In the episode "The Leap, '' Lily reveals that Barney planned on being a violinist when he was young.
In "Natural History '', Barney finds out that a man named Jerome Whittaker, whom Barney believed to be his uncle, signed a form claiming to be Barney 's father. Barney finally meets Jerome (John Lithgow) again in the episode "Legendaddy '' and learns that he is in fact his father. Upon meeting, Jerome feels pressured to act like the hard - partying womanizer he once was in order to impress Barney, and also because Barney refuses to see him any other way. Barney eventually breaks down and accuses Jerome of walking out on him. Jerome, who can offer no excuse, apologizes and pleads with Barney to allow him to be a part of his life. Later in the sixth season, in "Hopeless '', Jerome tries to impress Barney by acting like his old self, but later reveals he was just pretending. Barney, nevertheless, willingly listens to advice from Jerome about settling down. Barney also learns of his Canadian heritage, when he finds out that Jerome 's mother was born in Manitoba.
Barney has three half - siblings: James (played by Wayne Brady), from his mother 's side, a gay African American who is married to a man, with whom he has an adopted son and daughter (as revealed in the season seven episode "The Rebound Girl ''); Carly (played by Ashley Benson), a university student from his father 's side with whom Ted has a one - night stand in "Ring Up! '', and Jerome Jr. (JJ), from his father 's side, who is 11. He also has a female cousin named Leslie, with whom he accidentally grinds in a nightclub, as seen in the episode "Okay Awesome ''.
Throughout the series Barney has claimed to have attended MIT; In the final season, Barney explains that MIT is an acronym for the Magicians Institute of Teaneck, not the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He has worn a Cornell Big Red T - shirt, indicating that he may have gone there, instead. As evidenced in Season 2 "Atlantic City '', Barney learned at least conversational Korean, Chinese at some point, as well as some French. His musical skills include playing the drums, dancing the tango and singing. He is also skilled at juggling and laser tag.
"Game Night '' reveals that Barney had once been an innocent, idealistic young man who wanted to join the Peace Corps with his first serious girlfriend, Shannon. When she left him for a suit - wearing womanizer, James arranged for the 23 - year - old Barney to lose his virginity to their mother 's friend, Rhonda "the Man Maker '' French. After he slept with Rhonda and was led to believe he satisfied her, he became a similarly suit - wearing womanizer, even going so far as to adopt some of his rival 's catchphrases. He lives by a strict code known as the Bro Code.
Barney is also revealed to have had a gambling problem, enabled by his mother, who is a bookmaker. However, he assures the group that it is not a problem because he is so good at it. He revealed in "Atlantic City '' that he lost his entire life savings playing a Chinese game. He has also apparently lost every one of his many bets on the Super Bowl. He will go to any lengths to win a bet, even if it takes one year for just $10.
While Barney 's softer, generous side is not often apparent, it is not always relegated to flashbacks. When Marshall and Lily break their engagement in season one, Barney lures women away from Marshall so that he can remain faithful to the woman he truly loves. It is revealed that it was Barney who convinced Lily to come back to New York, even buying her a plane ticket home. Barney 's relationship with women evolves throughout the series; in the later seasons, he begins to desire a more conventional relationship, as evidenced by his subsequent proposals to both Quinn Garvey and Robin Scherbatsky. He is also known to write a blog. In an allusion to Harris ' role in Doogie Howser, M.D., the music played during his blogging sessions is the theme song from the show.
Throughout the series, Barney frequently refuses to say what he does for a living, brushing off any questions about his job with a dismissive "Please. ''
Barney is apparently quite wealthy, and is undeniably the richest out of the five. He lives in an upscale apartment and is rich enough to own two 300 inch televisions shipped from Japan as well as expensive memorabilia, including an Imperial Stormtrooper costume from the Star Wars films. Barney is also shown to be a fan of the rock groups AC / DC, Van Halen and Bon Jovi.
In his blog, he writes that he is the Director of WHO DID THIS. The company he works for, Altrucell, advertises itself as the world 's largest producer of the felt covers of tennis balls; however, Future Ted implies that the company 's main profits come from other, less innocent sources, such as logging, oil drilling, small arms, tobacco farming and missile construction. Barney states in "Cupcake '' that, as a lawyer for Altrucell, Marshall would make more money in three months than he and Lily make in a year because his company has so many lawsuits against it. In the season 3 episode "The Bracket, '' he says that he is good enough at lying to avoid perjury charges. As of Season 4, his company is involved in a hostile takeover of Goliath National Bank (GNB) and consequently shifts him to the management team of the bank, but he remains a powerful executive and continues to use the same office he has had since it was first shown in Season 1. Despite this, he has suggested there is the possibility he will one day wash up on shore with no teeth or fingerprints and supposedly has come under attack by ninjas in the past during work. In Season 4, during the episode "Happily Ever After '', Barney states to a woman that he is an "Attorney in Law '', though this was probably just part of a pick - up line as he immediately followed it with "Let 's talk about getting you off ''. His video resume was published in Season 4 episode "The Possimpible ''. In a season 8 episode, it was implied that the full extent of Barney 's career might never be revealed.
In the Season 9 episode "Unpause '', he drunkenly reveals that his job is to "Provide Legal Exculpation And Sign Everything '' (P.L.E.A.S.E.), setting him up to be the fall guy for his company 's nefarious activities. Unknown to his company, he has been conspiring with the federal government as part of a long - term plan to get revenge on his boss, who stole his girlfriend prior to the start of the series.
Ted is Barney 's self - proclaimed best friend and "wing man ''. They meet in 2001 at MacLaren 's, and Barney takes it upon himself to "teach Ted how to live ''. While Ted is often annoyed by Barney 's antics, he considers him a good friend, and in "Miracles, '' says that Barney is like a brother to him. Their friendship has been tested, however; in "The Goat '', Ted finds out that Barney and Robin slept together and ends their friendship, and refuses to speak to him for several episodes. In the third - season finale, "Miracles '', however, Ted forgives Barney after Barney severely injures himself while trying to help him. They remain an important part of each other 's lives for the rest of the series, with Barney comforting Ted after he is left at the altar in "Shelter Island '' and Ted teaching Barney how to be a good boyfriend to Robin in "Robin 101 ''. Ted is the best man at Barney 's wedding, and, along with the other main characters, is present for the birth of his child.
Barney meets Marshall around the same time as Ted, and takes it upon himself to give Marshall unwanted advice on picking up women. While Marshall makes fun of Barney 's promiscuity and ethical lapses, however, Barney has helped him many times throughout the series. For example, Barney gets him an internship at Altrucell in "Life Among the Gorillas '', keeps him from sleeping with other women in "The Scorpion and the Toad '', persuades Lily to come back to him in "Bachelor Party '', and gets him a job at Goliath National Bank in "The Best Burger in New York ''. Barney is "co-best man '' with Ted at Marshall 's wedding. Along with the other main characters, Marshall is present for the birth of Barney 's daughter. In the episode "Slap Bet '', Barney loses a bet with Marshall and agrees to let Marshall slap him five times at random occasions "throughout eternity ''. This is later extended to eight slaps in the episode "Disaster Averted ''. Marshall administers these slaps in the episodes "Slap Bet '', "Stuff '', "Slapsgiving '', "Slapsgiving 2: Revenge of the Slap '', "Slapsgiving 3: Slappointment in Slapmarra '', and "The End of the Aisle ''.
Barney makes many unwelcome sexual advances toward Lily throughout the series, and frequently implies that Lily is secretly attracted to him, despite all evidence to the contrary. Nevertheless, he considers Lily a confidante, seeking her advice on winning Robin over and telling her deeply personal secrets, such as his failed ambition to be a concert violinist. He also admires her skill at lying and manipulating people, considering it to be on par with his own. While Lily calls Barney "the world 's biggest pervert '' and a "womanizing creep '', she also considers him one of her best friends. Along with the other main characters, Lily is present for the birth of Barney 's daughter.
Barney and Robin start out as friends, but he falls in love with her after they impulsively sleep together in "Sandcastles in the Sand ''. Throughout Season 4, he struggles with his feelings for her, until they finally get together in the season finale "The Leap ''. They become a full - fledged couple in season 5, but they break up in "The Rough Patch '' when they find that they are making each other miserable. They never truly get over each other, however, even while they are dating other people. In the eighth season, he launches an elaborate plan to win Robin 's heart (encouraged by Ted 's future wife) that ends with Barney proposing to her. She accepts, and they get engaged. The final season revolves around their wedding weekend. After much doubt and soul - searching, they get married in "The End of the Aisle ''. The series finale, "Last Forever '', reveals that, after three years of marriage, they get divorced because Robin 's work schedule prevents them from spending any time together. They do not see each other again for several years, until Ted 's wedding.
Barney and Robin start out as friends, but he falls in love with her after they impulsively sleep together in "Sandcastles in the Sand ''. Throughout Season 4, he struggles with his feelings for her, until they finally get together in the season finale "The Leap ''. They become a full - fledged couple in season 5, but they break up in "The Rough Patch '' when they find that they are making each other miserable. They never truly get over each other, however, even while they are dating other people. In the eighth season, he launches an elaborate plan to win Robin 's heart (encouraged by Ted 's future wife) that ends with Barney proposing to her. She accepts, and they get engaged. The final season revolves around their wedding weekend. After much doubt and soul - searching, they get married in "The End of the Aisle ''. The series finale, "Last Forever '', reveals that, after three years of marriage, they get divorced because Robin 's work schedule prevents them from spending any time together. They do not see each other again for several years, until Ted 's wedding.
Barney has two other serious girlfriends throughout the series: Nora (Nazanin Boniadi), on whom he cheats with Robin; and Quinn (Becki Newton), a stripper to whom he proposes, but with whom he breaks up upon realizing that they do n't trust each other.
In 2008, the book The Bro Code, ostensibly written by Barney, was published. Three other books ostensibly written by Barney, Bro on the Go (2009), The Playbook (2010), and Bro Code for Parents: What to Expect When You 're Awesome (2012), were also published.
In 2010, Barney was featured in a Super Bowl commercial that showed him in the stands at the Super Bowl with a sign stating "Hey Ladies Call Barney Stinson 1 - 877 - 987 - 6401. '' A recorded message by Neil Patrick Harris was played if the number was dialed.
In the show 's pilot, Barney first utters the phrase, "Suit up! '', as he tells others to dress like him to go out. The phrase "Suit up! '' came from an ad for a suit sale in a later episode about his past with Shannon. According to creator Thomas, this is a sign that Barney "thought of his suit as some kind of superhero outfit that separated him from the pack. '' The phrase is repeated in many episodes, and is often modified to fit whatever clothing Barney is wearing, such as "Flight suit up '', "Snow suit up '', and even "Birthday suit up ''. He also uses the word "awesome '' to describe anything that he finds remotely pleasing, and invents different kinds of "high - fives '' for every occasion. However, Barney 's arguably most famous catch phrase is "Legendary! '' which he uses to describe anything and everything fun and exciting (In fact, Ted says that he over-uses it). When saying something is legendary, he typically says "it 's going to be Legen... wait for it... dary! Legendary! '' He also says "wait for it '' quite often. And also he often uses the word "Nice '' to express when he glad in something or someone.
In the show Barney frequently approaches attractive women with Ted in tow and asks "Haaaaaave you met Ted? '' as a way to start a conversation with strangers. Thomas says that this phrase is based in real life, as a one - time friend of his often used a similar line to meet women. He is also prone to saying "Daddy 's Home '' as either a chat - up line or for grand entrances, and "True Story '' as an ending to stories or theories that are generally erroneous.
Barney often uses the phrase "Challenge accepted '' when someone mentions an outlandish task that supposedly can not be done; he takes this as a personal challenge and attempts, usually successfully, to perform the task.
According to The Early Show, Barney is one of the main reasons that the show has been a success. Maclean 's stated that Barney is the show 's most popular character and explains that the most likeable characters are often those with the best catchphrases. In 2006, TV Land named Barney 's "Suit Up '' one of the 100 Best Catchphrases. Barney 's signature phrase is one of only four from contemporary television shows, as writers are now less likely to have a character repeat a phrase in many episodes. In June 2010, Entertainment Weekly named him one of the 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years. Paste included him in their list of the 20 Best Characters of 2011, ranking him No. 4.
From 2007 -- 10, Harris was nominated for a Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for his work playing Barney. In 2008, Fireside published The Bro Code. Ostensibly written by Stinson, although actually penned by Matt Kuhn, a writer for the show, the book reveals the code by which the character supposedly lives his life (though he has been shown disregarding and / or violating a large portion of the articles in the book). Oxford Dictionaries recognized Stinson as "the quintessence of a certain iteration of the contemporary bro '' and noted how his language uses the word liberally.
|
who plays rufus in bill and ted's excellent adventure | Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure - wikipedia
Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure is a 1989 American science - fiction comedy buddy film in which two slackers travel through time to assemble a menagerie of historical figures for their high school history presentation.
The film was written by Chris Matheson and Ed Solomon and directed by Stephen Herek. It stars Alex Winter as Bill S. Preston, Esquire; Keanu Reeves as Ted "Theodore '' Logan; and George Carlin as Rufus. Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure received generally positive reviews upon release and was commercially successful. It is now considered a cult classic. A sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey, was released two years later.
In 2688, humanity exists as a utopian society due to the inspiration of the music and wisdom of the Two Great Ones: Bill S. Preston, Esq. and Ted "Theodore '' Logan. Rufus is tasked by the leaders to travel back to San Dimas, California, in 1988 using a time machine disguised as a telephone booth to ensure that Bill and Ted, who, in their present, are dimwitted metalhead slacker high school students, get a good grade in their final history oral report and pass the class. Should they fail, Ted 's father, Police Captain John Logan, plans to ship Ted to a military academy in Alaska, ending Bill and Ted 's fledgling band, the "Wyld Stallyns '', thus altering the future. Bill, meanwhile, has a crush on his father 's new wife Missy who 's just a few years older than Bill himself.
Bill and Ted struggle with the report, which asks them to envision how three historical figures would see San Dimas in the present. While they are asking strangers at the local Circle K convenience store for help, Rufus arrives in the time machine. The two are distrustful until the time machine arrives again nearby, out from which step future versions of Bill and Ted. They prove to their younger selves that they are really them and that they should trust Rufus. They privately ask Rufus a question and then depart. The younger versions of Bill and Ted accept Rufus ' offer to take them into the past. Rufus takes them to a battlefield in Austria, 1805 where Napoleon Bonaparte is commanding the French army against Austria. They return to the present, unaware that the time machine has caught Napoleon in its wake and pulled him along. Landing near Ted 's house, Rufus reminds them that they must still reach the school on time to give their report and then departs, returning the time machine to them. The two discover Napoleon after he falls out of a nearby tree, and come up with the idea of borrowing other historical figures to bring to the present. They leave Napoleon with Ted 's younger brother, Deacon, and start traveling through time.
The two befriend Billy the Kid in The Old West, 1879 and Socrates in Ancient Greece, 410 BC before stopping in London, 1461 where they become infatuated with Princesses Elizabeth and Joanna. The teens anger the princesses ' supposed father, Henry VI of England (Henry had only a son and in early 1461 was imprisoned in the Tower), who orders their beheading, but they are rescued by Billy and Socrates. They are forced to leave without the princesses and, in the escape, the telephone booth is damaged. Dialing a random number, they land next in the Utopian future, where Bill and Ted are amazed by the music playing and that the citizens worship them. They leave after a brief stay and, believing they have plenty of time before the report, start collecting more historical figures for extra credit, including Sigmund Freud in Vienna, 1901, Ludwig van Beethoven in Kassel, 1810, Joan of Arc in Orléans, 1429, Genghis Khan in Mongolia, 1209, and Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., 1863. Having run out of room in the phone booth, Bill and Ted finally discover the time machine is damaged.
After making ad hoc repairs to the time machine, Bill and Ted try to return to the present but land outside the Circle K, recognizing the situation they previously witnessed. After reassuring their younger selves, they learn from Rufus how to dial the right number to get to their present and that they are running out of time. Once they arrive to the present, Bill 's stepmother has him, Ted, and the historical figures get their household chores done before taking them to the local mall, where the historical figures are left to experience San Dimas while Bill and Ted look for Napoleon; Ted finds Deacon had ditched Napoleon earlier out of embarrassment, but they later find him at the water slide park "Waterloo '' (the name based on the Napoleon 's famous battle of "Waterloo '') with the irony lost on Bill and Ted. Meanwhile, the historical figures had caused trouble at the mall and have been arrested by Captain Logan. Upon discovering this, Bill and Ted figure out how they can use the time machine to set up an event at the police station to allow them to free the historical figures without getting caught. After freeing them, Bill 's stepmother drives them all to the high school and arrive just in time, where they give an impressive presentation with the help of the historical figures that receives a standing ovation. They pass their course and return the historical figures to their proper times.
Later, as Bill and Ted are practicing, Rufus arrives, showing he had rescued the princesses from England and introduced them to the modern world, and that they become part of Wyld Stallyns. Elated, Bill and Ted resume their practice with their usual ineptitude, with Rufus breaking the fourth wall and promising, "They do get better... ''
The film was shot in 1987 in the Phoenix, Arizona metropolitan area, mostly in and around Scottsdale 's Coronado High School. Coronado 's auditorium was torn down during 2005 - 07 renovations, but its unique roof and intricate exterior mosaic, seen in an opening scene when Bill and Ted leave school in a red Mustang, was saved and moved, piece by piece, to the new auditorium. The interior shots of the auditorium were filmed inside the East High School auditorium, which was in Phoenix on 48th Street just north of Van Buren. East High School was demolished in 2002 as part of a redevelopment project. The production also shot a sequence on the Western Street on the back lot of Southwestern Studio in Carefree, Arizona. Odescalchi castle was used as Henry VI 's castle.
The scenes at Waterloo are a combination of establishing shots at Raging Waters in San Dimas and shots with the actors at Golfland Sunsplash in Mesa, Arizona. The bowling alley was a Fair Lanes - branded alley at that time but is now the AMF Tempe Village Lanes on Rural Road at US 60, three miles south of Arizona State University. The mall was Phoenix Metrocenter, between Peoria and Dunlap Avenues at Interstate 17. It has since been renovated and no longer looks as it did in the film. The Circle K store is at the intersection of Southern and Hardy in Tempe.
The film also employs computer - generated imagery for the scenes where Bill & Ted are travelling through the ' Circuits of Time ', created by the VFX house Perpetual Motion Pictures.
The film 's writers, Ed Solomon and Chris Matheson, appear in the film 's ice cream scene. Solomon is credited as the "stupid '' waiter, and Matheson is credited as the "ugly '' waiter. They are given similar credits in Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey.
When Rufus plays his guitar solo, the hands in the close - up are those of Stevie Salas, who composed the film 's guitar music.
The film took nearly two years to make. Filming took place from February to May 1987 and it was planned to be released in 1988. However, the film 's original distributor, De Laurentiis Entertainment Group, went bankrupt. Orion Pictures and Nelson Entertainment bought the rights to the movie in 1988, and it was released theatrically on February 17, 1989.
It was followed in 1991 by a sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey.
Writing for Wired to mark the 25th anniversary of the film 's release, Angela Watercutter noted
There 's a longstanding urban legend that Reeves auditioned for the role of Bill and Winter auditioned for Ted, but that 's not exactly how Winter remembers it. "The reason that that ended up in lore was because at a certain point Keanu got it in his head that he was playing Bill and I was playing Ted, '' he says. "To be fair to Reeves, it 's possible that out of the 80 trillion times we had to do the scenes (in auditions) the very, very last time we went in he happened to get the Bill sides and I happened to get the Ted sides. '' After Reeves found out he was playing Ted, though, he was Sad Keanu. "We 're sitting in the office waiting to meet the producers for the first time and I 'm pretty jazzed and he 's miserable, '' Winters says. "I 'm like, ' Dude, what 's wrong? We finally got it after all this bullshit, ' you know? And he 's like, ' Yeah, but I 'm Ted. ' And I was like, ' Yeah, you 're Ted. That 's awesome. ' He was like, ' I thought I was Bill. ' I was like, ' What fucking difference does it make? For god 's sake, they 're completely interchangeable. If you want you can be Bill and I 'll be Ted, I really do n't care. It 's not going to impact the way I play this guy one iota. ' ''
In earlier drafts of the script, Rufus was 28 years old and historical figures Bill and Ted plucked from history included Charlemagne (whom they referred to as "Charlie Mangay ''), Babe Ruth, and a non-famous medieval person called "John the Serf ''. John is listed in the credits.
In a 1991 interview, co-writer Ed Solomon said the characters of Bill and Ted were originally envisaged as "14 - year - old skinny guys, with low - rider bell - bottoms and heavy metal T - shirts '' who were despised by the popular kids at school. Casting Reeves and Winter changed the filmmakers ' images of the characters because "... once you cast Alex and Keanu, who look like pretty cool guys, that was hard to believe ''.
Originally, the time machine was to be a 1969 Chevrolet van, but the idea was abandoned as being too close in concept to the DeLorean used in the Back to the Future trilogy. Instead, despite the similarities to Doctor Who 's time machine, the TARDIS, the film 's time machine was styled after a 1960s American telephone booth, though a newer model Ford van would be used as the rock concert "band wagon '' for the sequel.
In April 2013, Winter commented on Carlin 's casting: "He was a very happy accident. They were going after serious people first. Like Sean Connery. And someone had the idea, way after we started shooting, of George. That whole movie was a happy accident. No one thought it would ever see the light of day. ''
The film 's soundtrack was released in 1989. The tracks are as follows:
These tracks are ordered for the album differently than they are in the movie. In the movie, the songs show up in the following order: "I Ca n't Break Away '', "Dancing with a Gypsy '', "Father Time '', "Dangerous '', "In Time '', "Two Heads Are Better Than One '', "The Boys and Girls Are Doing It '', "Play with Me '', "Walk Away '', "Not So Far Away '' and "Two Heads '' (reprised over the credits).
The following songs appeared in the film but were not included in the soundtrack:
A theatrical sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey, was released in 1991.
A third theatrical film in the Bill & Ted franchise was planned, and a screenplay was written, though it never got past the pre-production phase. Although rumors claimed that the script was adapted into the 1996 film Bio-Dome, Alex Winter has said that it was not.
In 2010, Reeves indicated that Matheson and Solomon were working on a script for a third film, confirming in April 2011 that a draft was complete. Winter said in March 2012 that he and Reeves both liked the finished script, which revisits the two characters after the changes of the past twenty years. The current script does not feature the return of the Grim Reaper from Bogus Journey, but since actor William Sadler has expressed interest, the writers are considering ways to include the character. In August 2012, Dean Parisot (director of the sci - fi / comedy film Galaxy Quest) signed on to direct the film, although MGM, which holds the rights to the Bill & Ted franchise, has yet to give the movie an official greenlight. In an April 2014 article on the original film 's 25th anniversary, Alex Winter reported that work on going ahead with the second sequel was still in progress.
Two spin - off television series were produced; both were titled Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventures.
DC Comics produced a tie - in comic following the plot of the first movie timed to coincide with that film 's release on home video. The sequel was adapted by DC 's competitor Marvel Comics, published to coincide with the second film 's release in theaters. Its popularity led to the ongoing Marvel series Bill & Ted 's Excellent Comic Book by Evan Dorkin, which lasted for 12 issues.
There was a weekly 2 / 4 page semi-adaptation of the animated series published for a year by UK 's defunct Look - In Magazine from 1991 to 1992.
There were also Game Boy, NES and Atari Lynx games released, which were very loosely based on the film 's plot. A PC title and nearly identical Amiga and Commodore 64 port were made in 1991 by Off the Wall Productions and IntraCorp, Inc. under contract by Capstone Software and followed the original film very closely.
The annual Halloween Horror Nights events at Universal Studios Orlando and Hollywood have featured since 1992 (Orlando) and 1997 - 1999 / 2007 (Hollywood) Bill & Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure, a show satirizing pop culture of the year with Bill & Ted as the protagonists fighting villains who steal their phone booth for their own schemes.
The show differs from year to year, with spoofs of various pop culture icons. The main plot involves Bill and Ted being threatened by an evil villain from a popular film of that year, with appearances by a host of villains, heroes, and celebrities. The show usually includes elaborate dance numbers, stunts, and multiple double - entendres for the late night event crowd. In 2013, the Hollywood version of the show was cancelled in the middle of its run following complaints of homophobic humor.
On August 15, 2017, Universal announced that 2017 will be the final year of Bill and Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure in Orlando. And on November 4, 2017, Bill and Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure came to a final close, but not before a surprise appearance of Rufus.
Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure grossed $40.4 million domestically on a budget of about $10 million. The Washington Post gave the film a negative review, finding the script written by Chris Matheson and Ed Solomon as "made only the sketchiest attempts to draw their historical characters. They exist as foils and nothing else, and the gags that are hung on them are far from first - rate '', and that if director "Stephen Herek, has any talent for comedy, it 's not visible here. More than anything, the picture looks paltry and undernourished. '' Variety wrote about each historical figure that Bill & Ted meet, stating that "Each encounter is so brief and utterly cliched that history has little chance to contribute anything to this pic 's two dimensions. '' Vincent Canby of The New York Times referred to the film as a "painfully inept comedy '' and that the "one dimly interesting thing about Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure is the way the two teen - age heroes communicate in superlatives. We are about to fail most egregiously, says Ted to Bill, or maybe it 's Bill to Ted. They are also fond of odd words, such as bodacious. '' In the Los Angeles Times, Chris Willman was also unimpressed, concluding: "Make no mistake, Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure (...) is not a satire of mindlessness; it 's unabashed glorification of dumbness for dumbness ' sake. Bill and Ted are heroic in their ability to reduce some of history 's great minds to their level. However, writing for Radio Times, Alan Jones decided: "A nonstop giggle from start to finish, this beguiling grab - bag of time - travel clichés, hard - rock music and Valley - speaking cool dudes is a flawless, purpose - built junk movie ''.
The film has a 78 % "Certified fresh '' rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 45 reviews with an average rating of 6.5 / 10, the site 's critical consensus reads: "Keanu Reeves and Alex Winter are just charming, goofy, and silly enough to make this fluffy time - travel Adventure work ''.
The successes of the film and the animated series spawned a short - lived breakfast cereal called Bill & Ted 's Excellent Cereal.
The phone booth used in the film was given away in a contest presented by Nintendo Power magazine, to promote Bill & Ted 's Excellent Video Game Adventure. It was won by Kenneth Grayson of Mississippi.
In 2010, the city of San Dimas celebrated 50 years of incorporation. The celebration 's slogan was San Dimas, 1960 -- 2010 -- An Excellent Adventure.
Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure was selected as number 8 in Rolling Stone 's ' 10 Best Stoner Movies of All Time ' in 2013.
Writing in The Guardian on the occasion of the film 's 25th anniversary, Hadley Freeman found: "Of all the delightfully improbable scenarios depicted in Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure -- from Napoleon Bonaparte causing havoc on a waterslide to Billy the Kid and Socrates (aka "So - crayts '', of course) picking up chicks in a California mall to George Carlin acting in a film alongside Keanu Reeves and a member of the Go - Go 's -- none would have seemed more unlikely on its release than the idea that one day, with much media fanfare, the public would be celebrating the film 's 25th anniversary. By the time Bill & Ted was released in 1989, the 80s teen film explosion was starting to taper out. (...) Moreover, there had already been plenty of films about time - travelling teens by the time Bill & Ted rocked up in cinemas, such as Peggy Sue Got Married and Back to the Future. Few who were around then would have bet that a goofy movie about a pair of California metalheads skipping back through time in a phonebox collecting historical characters to bring back to 20th - century California for their history report would still be remembered today. But I am very much among those few ".
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Writing in British Sunday newspaper The Observer, Tom Holland noted,
Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure does not tend to be rated as one of cinema 's profounder treatments of the relationship between present and past. The story of two Californian slackers with a time machine who, for complicated reasons, have to assemble assorted celebrities from history in order to pass a high - school project, it is chiefly remembered for bringing Keanu Reeves to the attention of a mass audience. Classicists, however, will always cherish it as the only film ever to combine the music of Van Halen with Greek philosophy. When Bill and Ted embark on their quest, what should be their first destination if not classical Athens, and who should be the very first ' historical dude ' bundled into their time machine if not a bald - headed man in a sheet whom they persist in calling ' Soh - kraytz '? ''
Holland continued:
Even to metalheads, then, the philosophy of ancient Greece serves as something that is both primal and emblematic of civilisation as a whole. Socrates, in particular, the ' lover of wisdom ' who insisted that the most fundamental presumptions of his countrymen should be subjected to experimental investigation, and who ended up being made to drink hemlock for his pains, has always been admired as the very fountainhead of rationalism. Yet when it comes to identifying what he taught and believed, there is a problem, on which Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure, rather unexpectedly, puts its finger. Socrates, transplanted to 1980s California, can only communicate with his abductors by gesturing and gurning -- since Bill and Ted, it goes without saying, speak not a word of ancient Greek. Even the miracle of time travel, it appears, can not serve to alter what is, for any historian, a most awkward fact: that it is impossible to be certain of what Socrates actually said.
|
who played neal on once upon a time | Michael Raymond - James - wikipedia
Michael Raymond - James (born Michael Weverstad; December 24, 1977) is an American actor. He is best known for playing René Lenier in the first season of the HBO series True Blood, Britt Pollack on the FX series Terriers, and Neal Cassidy / Baelfire on the ABC series Once Upon a Time.
Raymond - James was born in Detroit, Michigan, and graduated Clarkston High School in 1996, where he was a football and track standout. He started out doing theater and studied at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute in New York, with George Loros, Geoffrey Horne and Robert Castle. Following several stage appearances in New York, including ' The Petrified Forest ' at the Pantheon Theater, he relocated to Los Angeles.
He has guest starred in such series as CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, NCIS, Medium, Boston Legal, ER and the season two premiere of Lie to Me. He starred in the FX original series Terriers which was canceled by FX on December 6, 2010 after the first season.
In his feature debut Raymond - James played the best friend of Justin Timberlake 's character in Black Snake Moan with Christina Ricci and Samuel Jackson. The actor also starred in Jonny Hirschbein 's award - winning short film ' The Fix, ' working alongside Robert Patrick and David Paymer. His feature - film credits include ' Moonlight Serenade, ' starring as a piano prodigy opposite Academy Award Nominee Amy Adams.
In an episode of The Walking Dead titled "Nebraska '', Raymond - James played a young man named Dave, who presents a threat to series protagonist Rick Grimes and his group.
He starred in Once Upon a Time as Neal Cassidy / Baelfire, who is Henry 's father as well as Rumpelstiltskin 's son and is later revealed to be the grandson of Peter Pan.
|
can a member of an enterprise be excluded from making management decisions | Decision management - wikipedia
Decision management, also known as enterprise decision management (EDM) or business decision management (BDM) entails all aspects of designing, building and managing the automated decision - making systems that an organization uses to manage its interactions with customers, employees and suppliers. Computerization has changed the way organizations are approaching their decision - making because it requires that they automate more decisions, to handle response times and unattended operation required by computerization, and because it has enabled "information - based decisions '' -- decisions based on analysis of historical behavioral data, prior decisions, and their outcomes.
Decision management is described as an "emerging important discipline, due to an increasing need to automate high - volume decisions across the enterprise and to impart precision, consistency, and agility in the decision - making process ''. Decision management is implemented "via the use of rule - based systems and analytic models for enabling high - volume, automated decision making ''.
Organizations seek to improve the value created through each decision by deploying software solutions (generally developed using BRMS and predictive analytics technology) that better manage the tradeoffs between precision or accuracy, consistency, agility, speed or decision latency, and cost of decision - making within organizations. The concept of decision yield, for instance, focuses on all five key attributes of decision - making: more targeted decisions (precision); in the same way, over and over again (consistency); while being able to adapt "on - the - fly '' (business agility) while reducing cost and improving speed, is an overall metric for how well an organization is making a particular decision.
Organizations are adopting decision management technology and approaches because they need a higher return from previous infrastructure investments, are dealing with increasing business decision complexity, face competitive pressure for more sophisticated decisions and because increasingly short windows of competitive advantage means that the speed of business is outpacing speed of information technology to react.
Other terms used include "intelligent process automation '' (where decision management is combined with business process management).
There are a number of different approaches used to apply decision management principles. In general these follow three steps:
Decision management often involves the use of A / B testing and experimentation as well.
|
how does angle of deviation vary with angle of incidence | Minimum deviation - wikipedia
As a ray of light enters the transparent material, the ray 's direction is deflected, based on the entrance angle (typically measured relative to the perpendicular to the surface), the material 's refractive index, and according to Snell 's Law. A beam passing through an object like a prism or water drop is deflected twice: once entering, and again when exiting. The sum of these two deflections is called the deviation angle.
The deviation angle in a prism depends upon:
Refractive index of the prism: The refractive index depends on the material and the wavelength of the light. The larger the refractive index, the larger the deviation angle.
Angle of the prism: The larger the prism angle, the larger the deviation angle.
Angle of incidence: The deviation angle depends on the angle that the beam enters the object, called angle of incidence. The deviation angle first decreases with increasing incidence angle, and then it increases.
There is an angle of incidence at which the sum of the two deflections is a minimum. The deviation angle at this point is called the "minimum deviation '' angle, or "angle of minimum deviation ''. At the minimum deviation angle, the incidence and exit angles of the ray are identical. One of the factors that causes a rainbow is the bunching of light rays at the minimum deviation angle that is close to the rainbow angle.
A convenient way to measure the refractive index of a prism is to direct a light ray through the prism so it produces the minimum deviation angle. This yields a simple formula:
n λ = sin (A + D λ 2) sin (A 2) (\ displaystyle n_ (\ lambda) = (\ sin ((A + D_ (\ lambda) \ over 2)) \ over \ sin ((A \ over 2))))
where n is the refractive index at a wavelength λ, D is the angle of minimum deviation, and A is the internal angle of the prism.
The angle of minimum deviation is attained when the angle of incidence and angle of emergence for a ray of light being refracted through a prism, are equal.
Also, the variation of angle of deviation with an arbitrary angle of incidence can be encapsulated into a single equation:
D = i − A + arcsin (n ⋅ sin (A − arcsin (sin i n))) (\ displaystyle D = i - A+ \ arcsin \ left (n \ cdot \ sin \ left (A - \ arcsin \ left ((\ frac (\ sin i) (n)) \ right) \ right) \ right))
Where, D (\ displaystyle D) is the angle of deviation at an arbitrary angle of incidence i (\ displaystyle i), and n (\ displaystyle n) is the refractive index of the prism.
It may be noted that minimum deviation in a rectangular slab is zero as both the surfaces separating two media are parallel, whereas, in a prism they are inclined to each other.
|
what were the states obligations under the articles of confederation | Articles of Confederation - wikipedia
The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution. It was approved, after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777), by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for ratification. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states. The central government established by the Articles received only those powers which the former colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament.
The Articles formed a war - time confederation of states, with an extremely limited central government. While unratified, the document was used by the Congress to conduct business, direct the American Revolutionary War, conduct diplomacy with foreign nations, and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. The adoption of the Articles made few perceptible changes in the federal government, because it did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress, since its organization remained the same.
As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government 's weaknesses became apparent, especially after Shays ' Rebellion, individuals began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger national government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. It was quickly realized that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the President), courts, and taxing powers.
The political push to increase cooperation among the then - loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin 's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With civil disobedience resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as intolerable acts of Parliament, and armed conflict resulting in dissidents being proclaimed rebels and outside the King 's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government that would run the American Revolutionary War and gain the colonies their collective independence.
It was an era of constitution writing -- most states were busy at the task -- and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.
To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations '' demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto '' which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "(t) he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations. ''
Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances '' and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states ' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league '' among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.
On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures. The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate. Consensus was achieved by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states.
The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in November 1777. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland 's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land.
The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:
The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation 's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions "shall be inviolably observed by every state '' and that "the Union shall be perpetual ''.
Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles:
Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the Continental Army, but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food. Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war - making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:
George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.
The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783 -- 84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union. Knox wrote:
The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign... It is a favorite toast in the army, "A hoop to the barrel '' or "Cement to the Union ''.
As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution. ''
Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.
The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state 's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States ' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.
The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a quorum. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, John Adams, John Hancock, and Benjamin Franklin, retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held office in state governments; and for the general public, local government and self - rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress 's impotence.
Inherent weaknesses in the confederation 's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote in a diplomatic correspondence to James Monroe that, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth. ''
Furthermore, the 1786 Jay -- Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation 's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil -- forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of Jay 's Treaty in 1795, after the federal Constitution came into force.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government 's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.
Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions. '' Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity. '' He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent '' or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith. '' The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.
Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states ' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.
Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long - lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national (later, federal) government would be sovereign and expand westward -- as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now - familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler - farmers.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it did n't happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states.
No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada '' in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress -- referred to in many official records as President of the United States in Congress Assembled -- chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.
There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, Samuel Huntington, had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779.
The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress -- the only federal institution -- little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast - growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786 -- 87, Shays ' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.
The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental ''. Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.
When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington 's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like - minded nationalists, won Washington 's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long - term crisis.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.
The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.
On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent.
After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina 's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.
The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. Chevalier de La Luzerne, French Minister to the United States, felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780 when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the Chesapeake Bay for protection from the British (who were conducting raids in the lower part of the bay), he indicated that French Admiral Destouches would do what he could but La Luzerne also "sharply pressed '' Maryland to ratify the Articles, thus suggesting the two issues were related.
On February 2, 1781, the much - awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills '' was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation '' and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next. '' The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.
Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.
The signers and the states they represented were:
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts Bay
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
South Carolina
Virginia
Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).
Original parchment pages of the Articles of Confederation, National Archives and Records Administration.
Preamble to Art. V, Sec. 1
Art. V, Sec. 2 to Art. VI
Art. VII to Art. IX, Sec. 2
Art. IX, Sec. 2 to Sec. 5
Art. IX, Sec. 5 to Art. XIII, Sec. 2
Art. XIII, Sec. 2 to signatures
On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following James Madison 's recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the Annapolis Convention, the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in Philadelphia in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention. '' Although the states ' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed - door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, describes the change this way:
The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.
In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays ' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.
Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:
Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government '' proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire '' that, in the time - honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.
Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.
Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war - weary populace. '' The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation 's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.
When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state, '' much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.
Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges. ''
According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously:
(T) he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.
On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection... has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation. '' Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.
Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states - parties did not have to comply with the Articles ' unanimous consent rule ''. In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.
On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire 's all - important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable '' to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation '' only, but not "under the Constitution ''.
By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.
Works related to Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union at Wikisource Media related to Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Articles of Confederation at Wikiquote
|
who wins season 1 of the great british baking show | The Great British Bake Off - wikipedia
The Great British Bake Off, often referred to as Bake Off or GBBO, is a British television baking competition produced by Love Productions, in which a group of amateur bakers compete against each other in a series of rounds, attempting to impress a group of judges with their baking skills, with a contestant being eliminated in each round, with the winner being selected from the remaining contestants that make it to the finals. The show 's first episode was aired on 17 August 2010, with its first four series broadcast on BBC Two, until its growing popularity led the BBC to move it to BBC One for the next three series. After its seventh series, Love Productions signed a three - year deal with Channel 4 to produce the show for the broadcaster.
The programme was originally presented by Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc, with Mary Berry and Paul Hollywood the judges. The current presenters are Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig with Hollywood and Prue Leith on the judging panel. In chronological order, the winners are Edd Kimber, Joanne Wheatley, John Whaite, Frances Quinn, Nancy Birtwhistle, Nadiya Hussain, Candice Brown and Sophie Faldo.
The show has become a significant part of British culture and is credited with reinvigorating interest in baking throughout the United Kingdom, with many of its participants, including winners, having gone on to start a career based on bakery, while the BAFTA award - winning programme has spawned a number of specials and spin - off shows -- a celebrity charity series in aid of Sport Relief or Comic Relief; Junior Bake Off for young children (broadcast on the CBBC channel); after - show series An Extra Slice; and Bake Off: Crème de la Crème for teams of professional pastry chefs. The show 's format was used as the basis for two BBC Two series, The Great British Sewing Bee and The Great Pottery Throw Down, and, in addition to the show being shown in other countries (in the United States and Canada, the show is referred to as The Great British Baking Show), the format has also been sold to many countries around the world where local versions of the show are produced.
The idea of the baking competition was conceived by producer Anna Beattie after she spoke to a friend who had seen ' bake - offs ' in America. Beattie was also inspired by village fete baking competitions; she said: "I loved that idea of village fetes and an old - fashioned baking competition with people who only wanted to bake a good cake. '' However, Beattie failed to interest any channel in the idea for four years. In early 2009, they pitched the idea to Janice Hadlow, the then controller of BBC Two. The pitch was successful, and Hadlow and the Commissioning Editor Charlotte Moore commissioned the programme, which was then developed over the next six months. The development team first selected Mary Berry as a judge, and following an audition Paul Hollywood was also appointed. Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc were approached to be presenters of the show.
On 17 August 2010, the first episode of The Great British Bake Off was shown on BBC Two. It stayed on BBC Two for four years, grew in popularity and become the most popular programme on that channel. In its fifth series it was moved to BBC One where it stayed for three years. It was the most - watched programme on British television in 2015 and 2016. Following extended negotiations, Love Productions announced that the seventh series of the show would be the last broadcast by the BBC. On 12 September 2016, Love agreed to a three - year deal to broadcast the show on Channel 4. Giedroyc and Perkins subsequently announced that they would not be returning when the show moves to its new network. On 22 September, Berry announced that she would also be leaving the show when it moved to Channel 4, while Hollywood later announced he would stay. In March 2017, it was announced that Prue Leith would join Hollywood as judge, while Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig would take over as presenters.
The programme operates on a weekly elimination process to find the best all - around baker from the contestants, who are all amateurs. The applicants to the show are assessed by a researcher, followed by an audition in London with two of their bakes. They then undergo a screen test and an interview with a producer. A second audition involves the applicants baking two recipes for the judges in front of the cameras. Ten contestants were chosen for the first series, twelve for the following two series, thirteen for the fourth, and back to twelve from series five onwards.
In each episode, the amateur bakers are given three challenges: a signature bake, a technical challenge, and a show - stopper. The three challenges take place over two days, and the filming takes up to 16 hours a day. The contestants are assessed by the judges who then choose a "Star Baker '' for the week (introduced in series 2), and a contestant is also eliminated. In the final round, three bakers are left and a winner is chosen from the three.
In the first series, the location of the cast and crew moves from town to town each week, but starting from the second series, the competition is held in one location in a specially constructed marquee. Interspersed in the programme are the background of the contestants as well as video vignettes on the history of baking. What each baker intends to bake during a particular challenge is illustrated using animated graphics. These graphics have been created by illustrator Tom Hovey since the show 's inception in 2010.
Series 1 of The Great British Bake Off saw ten home bakers take part in a bake - off to test their baking skills as they battled to be crowned the Great British Bake Off 's best amateur baker. Each week the nationwide tour saw the bakers put through three challenges in a particular discipline. The rounds took place in various locations across the UK, with the final round being held at Fulham Palace, London.
The three finalists were Ruth Clemens, Miranda Gore Browne, and Edd Kimber. On 21 September 2010, Edd Kimber was crowned the best amateur baker.
The number of amateur baker contestants increased to twelve for the second series. Unlike Series 1, this year The Great British Bake Off stayed in one location -- Valentines Mansion, a 17th - century mansion house in Redbridge, London.
All the Series 2 finalists were female: Holly Bell, Mary - Anne Boermans, and the winning contestant Joanne Wheatley.
A third series of The Great British Bake Off began on 14 August 2012. The series was filmed at Harptree Court in East Harptree, Somerset.
In contrast to Season 2, there was an all - male final. The finalists were Brendan Lynch, James Morton and John Whaite, who won the final in a surprise result.
The fourth series of The Great British Bake Off started on 20 August 2013 on BBC Two. The series was again filmed at Harptree Court in East Harptree, Somerset. The all - female final was won by Frances Quinn, with Ruby Tandoh and Kimberley Wilson as runners up.
The fifth series of The Great British Bake Off began airing on 6 August 2014 on BBC One. This series was filmed at Welford Park in Berkshire. There were twelve bakers taking part. Mary Berry and Paul Hollywood returned as judges, whilst Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc continued to present the series. Richard Burr was awarded the largest number of star baker designations of any series so far, but was beaten by Nancy Birtwhistle in the final.
A spin - off show The Great British Bake Off: An Extra Slice, hosted by comedian Jo Brand on BBC Two, was also launched as a companion series this year. Each episode was broadcast two days after the main show but later moved to the same night. The show includes interviews with eliminated contestants.
The sixth series began on 5 August 2015 on BBC One, again from Welford Park in Berkshire. Spin - off show The Great British Bake Off: An Extra Slice returned for a second series, with Jo Brand as host. This series was won by Nadiya Hussain, with Ian Cumming and Tamal Ray as runners up.
The seventh series began on 24 August 2016 on BBC One, once again from Welford Park in Berkshire, a later than usual start following the BBC 's coverage of the Olympic Games. This series was won by Candice Brown, with Jane Beedle and Andrew Smyth as runners up.
The eighth series of The Great British Bake Off began airing on 29 August 2017. This is the first series of The Great British Bake Off to be broadcast on Channel 4 following its move from the BBC. The series features new hosts Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig, and new judge Prue Leith along with returning judge Paul Hollywood. This series was won by Sophie Faldo, with Kate Lyon and Steven Carter - Bailey finishing as runners - up.
As of the sixth series, there have been four incomplete bakes.
The early reviews for the first series were mixed. Lucy Mangan of The Guardian wondered if "competitive baking (is) a contradiction in terms '' and found the proceedings humourless. Iain Hollingshead of The Daily Telegraph was scathing, describing the presenters as "annoying '', the judge Paul Hollywood as looking "sinister without being interesting '', and that the audience would be so bored that they "could certainly forgive the cameraman if he were to commit hara - kiri in a giant pool of egg and flour. ''
However, reviews from the later series were more positive. Andrew Collins of The Guardian called it "the nicest show on television '' and judged it the best TV programme of 2012. Rachel Ward of The Daily Telegraph thought the programme "had just the right consistency of mouth - watering morsels, good humour, and fascinating history '', while Tom Sutcliffe of The Independent considered the contest "perfectly baked ''.
Bake Off was moved to Channel 4 in 2017, and reviews of the programme on the channel were largely positive, although a few felt that it did not compare well to the BBC version. Mark Lawson of The Guardian described the programme on Channel 4 as "both exactly the same but also just subtly different enough '', and that "only someone desperate to dislike the re-plated show could argued that (it) has soured, spoiled or binned its recipe ''. Michael Hogan of The Telegraph thought that while "Mary, Mel and Sue might be gone but the show 's recipe remains as winning as ever. The four Cs -- chemistry, camaraderie, comedy, cakes -- were all present and correct. '' Anna Leszkiewicz of the New Statesman however considered that while the format had been left largely unchanged and the contestants "irresistibly likeable '', "every single change to the show has been for the worse ''.
The show has become a significant part of British culture and is credited with spurring an interest in home baking, with supermarkets and department stores in the UK reporting sharp rises in sales of baking ingredients and accessories. It was also credited with reviving the Women 's Institute, whose membership reached its highest level since the 1970s. The show also boosted the sales of bakery books and the number of baking clubs, and independent bakeries also showed an increase. According to one analyst, more than three - fifths of adults have baked at home at least once in 2013 compared with only a third in 2011.
The first series of The Great British Bake Off premiered in August 2010 with moderate ratings of just over 2 million viewers for its first episode. This was enough to place it in BBC Two 's top ten for that week, and over the series the audience grew to over three million, with the semi-final and final both achieving first place in BBC Two 's weekly ratings. During the second series, the ratings gradually increased, and it became a surprise hit with nearly 4 million watching each episode. Week two was the last time that the show was out - rated by another BBC Two programme in the same week (it came second to the drama Page Eight); from then until the show 's move to BBC One, every competition episode would be the channel 's number one rated programme of the week. By its final episode it had averaged 4.56 million viewers, peaking at 5.1 million in its last 15 minutes.
The ratings continued to strengthen in the third series, and the show began to beat its competition in its timeslot. The final of the series where John Whaite was crowned the winner saw its highest rating yet, with an average of 6.5 million viewers that peaked at 7.2 million, which made it the second highest - rated BBC Two - originated show after Top Gear since at least 2006. The fourth series achieved some of the highest ratings seen on BBC Two. The viewer count for its premiere episode was more than two million higher than that of the previous series, while the final episode was seen by 9.1 million viewers at its peak, more than twice the number of viewers on BBC One and ITV. The final episode is the most - watched show on BBC Two since the present ratings system was introduced in 2002, beating the previous record set by Top Gear. As a result of its high ratings, the show was moved to BBC One.
After its move to BBC One, the opening episode was watched by over 7 million viewers according to overnight figures, beating the figure of 5.6 million for the opening episode of the previous year. A "sabotage '' controversy surrounding episode four helped the show gain its biggest ever audience of 10.3 million viewers, with 2 million people who watched it on BBC iPlayer. The final of the show gained an overnight viewing figure of 12.29 million, then the highest viewing figure of the year for a non-sporting event on UK TV. In the following year, the top ten ratings for 2015 was also dominated by The Great British Bake Off, with seven of the year 's ten most - watched television programmes being episodes of the show, topped by the final episode with 15.05 million viewers. In the last series on the BBC in 2016, nine of the top ten most - watched programmes of the year were episodes of the show, with 16.03 million viewers watching the finale.
The first series broadcast by Channel 4 opened with average viewing figures of 5.8 million, rising to 6.5 million to include those watching on Channel 4 + 1. Although this was the lowest figure for an opening episode since 2013, it was Channel 4 's biggest overnight audience since the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 Paralympics. The 7 - day rating for the episode was 9.46 million.
In September 2012, production company Love Productions was sanctioned by the BBC for product placement of Smeg fridges. The issue came to light after a viewer wrote to the Radio Times complaining of "blatant product promotion ''. After an investigation, the BBC said Love Production 's loan agreement with Smeg did not meet editorial guidelines and was being revised for the third series, and that appropriate retrospective hire payments would be made. The BBC asked Smeg to remove a notice from its website promoting its association with the show, which it has since done.
During the fourth series, there were accusations of favouritism towards female contestants after the last man Glenn Cosby was eliminated from the show; however, similar claims were not made the previous year over the all - male final, or even the year before, when there was also an all - female quarter - final. The fourth series also suffered allegations of Paul Hollywood 's favouritism towards Ruby Tandoh, and personal attacks on Tandoh by various people including the chef Raymond Blanc. Both Paul Hollywood and Ruby Tandoh denied the accusation.
In the fourth episode of the fifth series, there was controversy around the elimination of contestant Iain Watters. During the final showstopper round contestants were tasked with producing a Baked Alaska. Iain 's ice cream was shown as having not set and in a show of frustration he threw his bake in the bin. The editing of the show suggested that another contestant, Diana Beard, had caused the failure by removing the ice cream from a freezer, and the perceived "sabotage '' resulted in a furore on social media networks. However, unseen footage broadcast in the accompanying programme An Extra Slice shows Luis holding the large floor freezer that contained Iain 's ice cream open as he piped the sides of his own baked Alaska, while Mel warns him to pipe quickly and close the freezer. Later in the episode, when Iain removes his ice cream to begin the next step of his dish, it is still quite soft, indicating it went into the freezer he shared with Diana without being completely frozen. Various members of the cast posted comments in support of Diana and a BBC spokesman later issued a statement that "Diana removing Iain 's ice cream from the freezer for less than a minute was in no way responsible for Iain 's departure. ''
More than 800 complaints were lodged with the BBC over the incident and some also complained to the communication watchdog Ofcom.
A number of viewers complained to the BBC feedback show Points of View in the fifth series about the "constant smutty remarks '' from the presenters Mel and Sue. This series was seen as having more innuendos than previous ones; some reviewers noted the "extra pinch of saucy spice '' and "the increasingly filthy - minded hosts Mel Giedroyc and Sue Perkins '', while the Daily Mail argued that the "smutty '' innuendos made the show no longer fit for family entertainment. The series 3 winner John Whaite however argued that innuendo is part of what made the show a success, whilst judge Paul Hollywood described the innuendos as banter in the spirit of the Carry On films and is a part of British culture, a view shared by others.
The success of The Great British Bake Off led to the BBC commissioning many other series closely following the format from Love Productions for example The Great British Sewing Bee and The Great Pottery Throw Down. However the 2014 series Hair using the same format was produced in house by the BBC, Love Productions responded by making preparations to sue the BBC for infringing their copyright. Although the matter was kept quiet, with the BBC settling out of court and compensating Love Productions, the matter soured relations between the BBC and Love Productions. In September 2016, it was announced that the BBC had lost the broadcast rights of the show to Channel 4. Channel 4 offered £ 25 million for the show outbidding the £ 15 million offered by the BBC. In January 2017 the BBC waived its rights to keep the program off the air until 2018, and wished the programme "well for the future ''.
On 31 October 2017, judge Prue Leith accidentally revealed the winner of Series 8 on Twitter twelve hours before the finale was due to air. This caused uproar among many fans of the show. She quickly deleted the tweet and apologised to the fans who saw the tweet.
The Great British Bake Off was nominated for a Rose d'Or in the Lifestyle section of the 2012 competition and won. The programme has been nominated a number of times in various categories for the BAFTA awards and won in 2012, 2013, and 2016. It also won two 2015 National Television Award for Skills Challenge Show.
The UK version of The Great British Bake Off is broadcast in many countries and it has been sold to 196 territories as of 2015. The format has also been sold to 20 territories by 2015, making it the third most successful BBC format after Dancing with the Stars (Strictly Come Dancing) and The Weakest Link. Many of these shows have been successful. The Junior Bake Off format has also been sold to Thailand.
Beginning in 2014, the US broadcaster PBS has aired several series of the show under the name The Great British Baking Show. The change of name was necessary due to the fact that "Bake - Off '' is a registered trademark of Pillsbury in the United States. The fifth series was broadcast as Season 1 in Winter 2014 -- 2015; the fourth series was then broadcast as Season 2 in Fall 2015, and the sixth series was broadcast as Season 3 in Summer 2016.
The CBC began broadcasting The Great British Bake Off in Canada in August 2017, starting with the seventh series and also with the Great British Baking Show title.
Current and upcoming versions include:
Legend: Airing or in production No longer airing
Episode viewing figures from BARB.
|
lord of the ring return of the king cast | The Lord of the Rings: the Return of the King - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King is a 2003 epic high fantasy adventure film produced, written, and directed by Peter Jackson based on the second and third volumes of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings. It is the third and final instalment in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, following The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) and The Two Towers (2002), preceding The Hobbit film trilogy (2012 -- 14).
Released on 17 December 2003, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King became one of the most critically and commercially successful films of all time. It was the second film to gross $1 billion worldwide ($1.12 billion), becoming the highest - grossing film released by New Line Cinema, as well as the biggest financial success for Time Warner in general at the time. The film was the highest - grossing film of 2003 and, by the end of its theatrical run, the second highest - grossing film in history. As of May 2018, it is the 19th highest - grossing film of all time.
At the 76th Academy Awards, it won all 11 Academy Awards for which it was nominated, therefore holding the record for highest Oscar sweep. The wins included the awards for Best Picture, the first time a fantasy film has done so; it was also the second sequel to win a Best Picture Oscar (following The Godfather Part II) and Best Director. The film jointly holds the record for the largest number of Academy Awards won with Ben - Hur (1959) and Titanic (1997). The film has been re-released twice, in 2011 and 2017.
Two Hobbits, Smeagol and Déagol, are fishing when Déagol discovers the One Ring in the river. Sméagol is immediately ensnared by the Ring, and fights and kills his friend for it. He retreats into the Misty Mountains as the Ring twists his body and mind until he becomes the creature Gollum.
Centuries later, Gandalf leads Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and King Théoden to Isengard where they reunite with Merry and Pippin. Gandalf retrieves the defeated Saruman 's palantír. Pippin later looks into the seeing - stone, and is telepathically attacked by Sauron himself. Gandalf deduces that Sauron will attack Gondor 's capital Minas Tirith. He rides there to warn Gondor 's steward Denethor, taking Pippin with him. Pippin volunteers to be Denethor 's servant.
Meanwhile, Gollum leads Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee to Minas Morgul, where they witness the Witch - king of Angmar leading an Orc army. The hobbits begin climbing a precarious stair carved in the cliff face that will take them into Mordor via a ' secret way ' - unaware that Gollum plans to kill them and take the Ring. Sauron 's army strikes and overwhelms Osgiliath, forcing Faramir and his garrison to retreat back to Minas Tirith.
Gollum disposes of the last of the hobbits ' food, blaming Sam. Frodo leaves Sam behind before they arrive at the tunnel leading to Mordor, where Gollum tricks him into venturing into the lair of the giant spider Shelob. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, telling him that he must destroy the Ring for both of their sakes. Enraged, Gollum attacks Frodo, but falls down a chasm. Frodo continues on, but Shelob discovers, paralyses and binds him. However, Sam arrives and drives Shelob away. Believing Frodo to be dead, Sam hides as orcs appear and learns from them that his friend is still alive, before the Orcs take Frodo with them. Sam follows the Orcs into the Tower of Cirith Ungol, and frees Frodo so they can continue their journey.
While helping Théoden gather his forces, Aragorn is approached by Elrond who informs him Arwen is dying. Following a vision of her son by Aragorn, she refused to leave Middle Earth. Elrond gives Aragorn the sword Andúril, Isildur 's sword Narsil reforged, so he can reclaim his birthright while gaining reinforcements from the Dead Men of Dunharrow. Joined by Legolas and Gimli, Aragorn travels to the Paths of the Dead, recruiting the Army of the Dead, who can only be released from the curse Isildur placed on them for refusing to fight Sauron by one of his heirs. Faramir is gravely wounded after a futile effort to retake Osgiliath, and believing his son to be dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf is left to defend the city against the Orc army, led by Gothmog. As Gothmog 's army forces its way into the city, Denethor attempts to kill himself and Faramir on a pyre. Pippin alerts Gandalf and they save Faramir, but Denethor leaps to his death from the top of Minas Tirith just before Théoden and his nephew, Éomer, arrive with the Rohirrim. Initially, the Rohirrim have the advantage at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, but are eventually overwhelmed by the Oliphaunt - riding Haradrim while the Witch - king mortally wounds Théoden. Though Théoden 's niece Éowyn, having posed as a male soldier, battles and slays the Witch - King with Merry 's help, Théoden dies of his wounds. Aragorn arrives with the Army of the Dead, who overcome the Orcs and win the battle; Aragorn then allows the Army of the Dead to go to their rest. Aragorn and the other captains of Men decide to lead all who can march upon the Black Gate as a distraction, so Frodo and Sam can get to Mount Doom.
Aragorn 's army draw out Sauron 's forces and empties Mordor, allowing the exhausted Hobbits to stagger to the volcano, but Gollum attacks them just as they reach Mount Doom. Frodo finally succumbs to the Ring 's power and claims it as his own, refusing to destroy it. Gollum attacks Frodo and bites his finger off to reclaim the Ring, but Frodo fights back and knocks Gollum, who is holding the Ring, into the volcano. As Frodo and Sam escape, the Ring and Sauron are both destroyed, causing a chain - reaction that consumes the mountain, topples Barad - dûr, and kills most of the fleeing Orcs as the ground crumbles beneath them. Gandalf flies in with eagles to rescue the Hobbits, who awaken later in the Houses of Healing and are reunited with the surviving Fellowship members. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and takes Arwen as his queen. The Hobbits then return to the Shire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. A few years later, Frodo departs Middle Earth for the Undying Lands with his uncle Bilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam the Red Book of Westmarch which details their adventures. Sam then returns to the Shire, where he embraces Rosie and their children.
Like the preceding films in the trilogy, The Return of the King has an ensemble cast, and some of the cast and their respective characters include:
There are also cameos from Peter Jackson, Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo, Rick Porras and Andrew Lesnie on the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam 's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob. Sean Astin 's daughter played Sam and Rosie 's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene, Sarah McLeod 's daughter plays their younger daughter. Jackson 's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, while Christian Rivers played a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded. Royd Tolkien cameos as a Ranger in Osgiliath, while in the Extended Edition Howard Shore appears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers of The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game are featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor. At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched by Alan Lee, an idea suggested by Ian McKellen.
As with all of Peter Jackson 's movie adaptions of The Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included leaving only a very few events from the novel omitted from the film; there are however some events in the film significantly altered from the novels as there are some events invented only in the film just as there are certain details in the film not present in the books.
The film version of The Return of the King contains major scenes that occurred in the middle portion of the novel The Two Towers but were not included in the film version, such as the attack by Shelob and the palantír subplot, owing to Jackson 's realigning events of the film to fit the timeline as described in the book 's Appendices, rather than the main prose. However, it is notable that the plot of the second half of Book III is either completely omitted (chapter "The Road to Isengard '') or only shown in one scene (chapter "The Voice of Saruman ''). Saruman 's murder by Gríma (seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of the Scouring of the Shire. In the film, Saruman drops the palantír when he is fatally attacked, whereas in the book Gríma throws it at the Fellowship, unaware of its value.
In the film, all journeys of the companions from Isengard to Minas Tirith are compressed and simplified, as the entire company travels from Isengard to Edoras and arrives there simultaneously to recuperate after the Battle of Helm 's Deep. Pippin 's looking into the palantír happens in Edoras, and he and Gandalf leave for Minas Tirith from there, but in the book this takes place at Dol Baran with the appearance of a Nazgûl on a winged steed, and they stay at Edoras only one night. In contrast to the film, Aragorn and Théoden march from Dol Baran to Helm 's Deep to take a night 's rest. It is in the Hornburg where Aragorn looks into the Palantír (as opposed to the film 's Extended Edition, in which he does so much later in Minas Tirith after the Battle of the Pelennor Fields) and decides to take the Paths of the Dead. In the film, Aragorn and Theóden depart not before their encampment at Dunharrow, but in the book, Aragorn and the Dúnedain (which are absent in the film) ride from Helm 's Deep over the fields to Edoras and then to Dunharrow and the Dimholt, whereas in the book, Théoden takes slower mountain paths and arrives in Dunharrow after Aragorn and his companions have already left. Théoden is seen to set out directly from Dunharrow to Minas Tirith, omitting his brief return to Edoras from Dunharrow to muster all remaining forces there, as told in the book.
The sequence of the Paths of the Dead adds a conversation between Aragorn and the King of the Dead (in the book the Dead do n't speak at all) and a scene where the companions must flee an avalanche of skulls, but leaves out the encounter with Baldor 's skeleton. In contrast to the book, the viewer does n't get told what happened in Lebennin between Aragorn and the Corsairs of Umbar. The film version (Extended Edition) does n't correspond with the map of Gondor, as the company sees a near river with Corsair ships immediately after leaving the Haunted Mountain. In the book, the River Anduin lies several hundred miles farther east, requiring a much longer journey with the Army of the Dead following behind, bringing terror to the towns they pass along the way.
The basis of Elrond and Arwen 's subplot arguing about Arwen 's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond 's relevance to the story.
Denethor, the Steward of Gondor, was a more tragic character in the book. In the film, overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven him to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film, and major captains and generals (including Imrahil of the Tower Guard and the Knights of Dol Amroth) are not present. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf 's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor 's use of the palantír which drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out - thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes.
The Rammas Echor which encircles the Pelennor Fields is n't shown in the film, and the fields themselves are empty grassland in the films, instead of being rich farmland dotted with small villages in the book.
The Battle of the Pelennor Fields is also altered: though Faramir goes on a suicide mission, the conflict is a simplification of the siege of Osgiliath. With generals such as Forlong and Imrahil absent, Gandalf commands the defence of Minas Tirith owing to Denethor 's despair. While Denethor gives command to Gandalf in the book, in this film Gandalf forcibly takes control after Denethor tells his men to flee rather than fight. The Orcs and Trolls also never get into the city in the book. The Witch - king enters and stands off against Gandalf before the Rohirrim arrive, but in the film Orcs invade the city after Grond breaks the Gate. The confrontation takes place while Gandalf journeys to save Faramir, during which Gandalf has his staff broken in the film (but not in the book).
A subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitive Drúedain during their journey to the besieged Gondor is excised from the film. The Red Arrow brought by a messenger from Gondor to ask for aid is absent. Éowyn 's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to have Miranda Otto playing a man. When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin with a description of the Undying Lands, which is a descriptive passage in the book 's final chapter. The film depicts the Army of the Dead fighting in the Battle, whereas in the book they are released from service prior to this, after helping Aragorn defeat the Corsairs of Umbar at the port city of Pelargir in Lebennin; Aragorn 's reinforcements are merely more Gondorians, and the Dúnedain, Aragorn 's people (the rangers of the North). An unstoppable and invulnerable force, the Dead wipe out Sauron 's forces. The film also cuts out several supporting characters, such as Halbarad, a friend of Aragorn 's, who helps lead the Dúnedain, Beregond, a member of the Citadel Guard of Gondor, whom Pippin befriends, and Elladan and Elrohir, the twin sons of Elrond who deliver Aragorn 's banner and accompany him to the Pelennor Fields. Elladan and Elrohir are replaced by Elrond in the film, instead delivering Andúril in Dunharrow, and then returning to Rivendell. In the books Aragorn is n't doubtful about his destiny, but had already decided to claim the throne of Gondor from the beginning of the Quest; thus, it was he who had the shards of Narsil forged to Andúril in Rivendell, carrying it from there on the whole journey.
The film also altered the circumstances of Théoden 's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden 's rallying speech ("To death! '') before the initial charge in the film are spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King.
The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book 's chapters in the Houses of Healing: The Warden, the talk of Athelas, the comical conversation with the herb - master, the woman Ioreth and her saying about a King 's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn 's true identity are left out altogether.
In the film, Aragorn leads the entire remaining force of Rohan and Gondor 's men to the Black Gate without incident. In the book, tactics are discussed, forces divide and fight smaller skirmishes in Anórien and Ithilien before the army (only a fraction of the full remaining strength of the nations of men) reach the Morannon. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is also largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is only briefly referenced in the Extended Edition with a scene where the two hold hands. Sam and Frodo 's major rift in their friendship, due to Gollum 's machinations, never takes place in the book, but was added by the writers in believing that it added drama and more complexity to the character of Frodo. Frodo enters Shelob 's lair alone in the film, whereas in the book he and Sam entered together. This was done to make the scene more horrific with Frodo being alone, and Sam 's rescue at the last minute more dramatic. Frodo 's ordeal in the Tower of Cirith Ungol and subsequent rescue by Sam are also changed; in the book, Frodo is stripped, beaten, and cruelly interrogated by the Orcs, while in the film, he is tied up but only briefly threatened by an Orc moments before Sam 's arrival. The reunion of Frodo and Sam in the film is also shorter and less emotional than in the book; rather than comforting the physically injured and severely traumatised Frodo as in the book, Sam, after killing the Orc that was threatening Frodo but had not struck him, briefly accepts his apology for having doubted him and returns the Ring to him before suggesting that they find some Orc clothing for Frodo to wear. In the film, Sam also does not experience "delusions of grandeur '' about what he could do if he took the Ring for himself, like he does in the book. Sam instead overcomes a very brief moment of temptation which, instead of stemming from thoughts of how he could use the Ring for himself, seems to come from his concern for Frodo and wish to reduce the Ring 's harm to his friend by sharing the burden. Also, in the film viewers do not know that Sam has the Ring until he gives it back to Frodo, whereas in the book the reader knows that Sam has the Ring. When Sam and Frodo are diverted into the Orc march in Mordor and are about to collapse, in the film 's Extended Edition they start a fake combat between each other and thus provoke some chaos during which they manage to escape, instead of slipping off during a congestion caused by several armies trying to get through the narrow Isenmouthe, as told in the novel. Gollum 's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was also rewritten for the film, as the writers felt Tolkien 's original idea (Gollum simply slips and falls off) was anti-climactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team eventually realised that it looked more like Frodo murdering Gollum. As a result, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring and both slip over the edge by accident.
In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle - earth, referenced only briefly in the main text of The Return of the King, and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs of Moria, the attacks on Lothlórien and the Woodland Realm of Thranduil by the forces of Dol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and the Lonely Mountain by a force of Easterlings. These events are hinted at in a comment by Legolas (also in the book) that the other peoples of Middle Earth are unlikely to ride to war in Gondor because war has already arrived in their own lands.
There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn does), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl (while Frodo putting on the One Ring distracted the Nazgûl, who raced away to Mount Doom in the book before a confrontation could occur), and Aragorn kills the Mouth of Sauron in the extended edition of the film but not in the book. There was an even larger change planned: Sauron himself would come out in physical form to battle Aragorn, who would only be saved by the destruction of the Ring. Jackson eventually realised it ignored the point of Aragorn 's true bravery in distracting Sauron 's army against overwhelming odds, and a computer generated Troll was placed over footage of Sauron in the finished film. In the book, after the destruction of the Ring the spirit of Sauron rises like a black cloud from the ruin of Barad - dûr before being blown away by the wind, but in the film the Eye of Sauron erupts in flame and then explodes as Barad - dûr collapses. As in all of Jackson 's Middle - earth adaptions, the eagles do not speak.
During the Battle for Minas Tirith, the White Tree of Gondor is shown to bear one white blossom, thus blooming by itself at Aragorn 's coronation. Thereby the film ignores the book 's story where Gandalf and Aragorn find a seedling of the white tree up in the mountains and plant it in the courtyard in place of the still - dead tree.
Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad - dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or significantly altered in the film. Aragorn 's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the City. Omitted entirely are the camp at the Field of Cormallen, Aragorn 's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen 's wedding, Galadriel and Celeborn being present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden 's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to the Shire with stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was always seen by the screenwriters as anti-climactic.
Since Saruman is killed long before, after the battle at Helm 's Deep in the film, he is unable to exact revenge on Frodo and the hobbits by ruining the Shire as depicted in the books. In the film, the Shire is virtually unchanged when they return, and their friends and neighbours seem unaware of the climactic events that have taken place outside of their borders. Thus, the esteem earned by Merry and Pippin at the Battle of Bywater and the work to restore the Shire using Galadriel 's gift do n't appear in the film.
At the end of the book, Frodo and Sam leave the Shire alone, meet Galadriel, Elrond and Bilbo along the way at the Woody End, and meet Gandalf at the Grey Havens, with Merry and Pippin arriving just in time to say their farewells and accompany Sam back to Bag End. In the film, however, all of the Hobbits travel with Gandalf to the Havens to find the Elves waiting there, including Celeborn, who remains in Middle - Earth in the book. When Sam returns to the Shire, he is n't shown to live in Bag End (where he dwells with Rose in the book), but in a different Hobbit - hole of his own.
The Lord of the Rings film trilogy is unusual in that it was, up until the release of Jackson 's prequel trilogy The Hobbit, the only series whose separate instalments were written and shot simultaneously (excluding pick up shoots). Jackson found The Return of the King the easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story, unlike the other two films. The Return of the King was originally the second of two planned films under Miramax from January 1997 to August 1998, and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with The Two Towers ' Battle of Helm 's Deep. Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film 's release.
Middle - earth as envisioned by Jackson was primarily designed by Alan Lee and John Howe, former Tolkien illustrators, and created by Weta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy 's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures, as well as the Art Department which built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, while Grant Major and Dan Hennah organised the planning and building respectively.
The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outside Wellington, from the Helm 's Deep set. That set 's gate became Minas Tirith 's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition 's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch - king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by the Baptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired by Siena.
There was also the Citadel, the exterior of which was in the Stone Street Studios backlot, using forced perspective. It contains the withered White Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebanese olive trees. The interior was within a three - story former factory in Wellington, and colour wise is influenced by Charlemagne 's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone and polystyrene statues of past Kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from the Númenóreans of the first film 's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th - century Italian and German armour served as inspiration, while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient / medieval Mediterranean Basin look.
Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob 's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe 's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having a wisdom tooth pulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city. Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien 's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as "boring '', it was redesigned with more tipping angles. The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure.
The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999, with the body based on a tunnelweb spider and the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson 's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being an arachnophobe himself. Shelob 's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set.
The Return of the King also brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle - earth, men who ride the mûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state, while their underground city is influenced by Petra. The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence from Kiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single dead mûmak. Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence from J.M.W. Turner paintings.
The Return of the King was shot during 2000, though Astin 's coverage from Gollum 's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods in Queenstown interrupted the focus on The Fellowship of the Ring. Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact the last. Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes from The Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at a Matamata farm, while interior scenes shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington, shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Sean Astin 's costume, and then negatives producing out - of - focus reels. Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May.
The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in April at the Rangipo Desert, a former minefield. New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd 's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed at Mount Ruapehu for the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage.
Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, including Pinnacles. In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word "weed '' as they smoked pipe - weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help.
Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed in Twizel with 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use of computer - generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in the Battle of Helm 's Deep in the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recapture Osgiliath, as were scenes in the city itself. At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors ' first scene was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was the bluescreened reaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them.
The 2003 pick - ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue - screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day. The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn 's coronation, rushed into a single day under second unit director Geoff Murphy on 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom, and Théoden 's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap.
There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were "pathetic '' compared to the Uruk - hai of the second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta created grotesque new "über Orcs '' as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Christian Rivers also redesigned the Witch - king and all of his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield.
With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with a mûmak, and Howard Shore also appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli 's drinking game at Edoras. The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, although John Rhys - Davies burned his final Gimli prosthetic. Viggo Mortensen headbutted the stunt team goodbye. Pick - ups ended on 27 June 2003.
Scenes shot afterwards included various live - action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson 's house. For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar.
Post-production began in November 2002, with the completion of the 41⁄2 hour assembly cut of the film that Annie Collins had been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4 - hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds. Jackson reunited with longtime collaborator Jamie Selkirk to edit the final film. Like The Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film, for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir. The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging of Narsil, Gollum 's backstory, and Saruman 's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film 's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain. Despite pick - ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene. Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at the Copenhagen premiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly. They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee 's casting in Jackson 's Hobbit films. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003. Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according to Elijah Wood, his response was "yup, it 's good, pretty good ''.
The Return of the King contains 1,488 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. Visual effects work began with Alan Lee and Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of the Pelennor Fields in November 2002. Gary Horsfield also created a digital version of the Barad - dûr during his Christmas break at home by himself, for the film 's climax. In the meantime, Jackson and Christian Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000. Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am.
For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for the MASSIVE digital horses (though deaths were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith 's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate, and redoing a shot of two mûmakil Éomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob 's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture.
Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking a mûmak required numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum 's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull - like digital version, depending on the character 's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200 % for unsettling effect.
The Return of the King also has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb, John Noble threw a size double named Fon onto a prostrate Billy Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf 's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson 's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1: 72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5 m in diameter. 1: 14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter. The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring 's destruction, on 25 November.
The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. A Tasmanian devil was Shelob 's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta 's animators, while the mûmakil is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron 's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith 's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances. The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work.
The music was composed by Howard Shore, who previously composed the first two parts of the trilogy. Shore watched the assembly cut of the film, and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule. The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir 's speeches at the Council of Elrond in The Fellowship of the Ring and at Osgiliath in The Two Towers ' Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film.
The score features the London Philharmonic Orchestra, London Voices, London Oratory School Schola and featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets (and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85 singers in the mixed choir with additional players for all - male and all - female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist "bands '' playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it. One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings.
Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film 's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.
Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro, Sissel Kyrkjebø and James Galway also contribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings "Asea Aranion '', which was originally meant the score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, "Into the West '', was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh. Annie Lennox (formerly of Eurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker named Cameron Duncan who had befriended Peter Jackson.
After two years of attention and acclaim since the release of The Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final instalment was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington 's Embassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city 's population.
The theatrical edition of the film was released on VHS and DVD on May 25, 2004. The DVD was a 2 - disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, but Return of the King 's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten - minute preview). However, it contained a seven - minute trailer of the entire trilogy.
The Return of the King followed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material, plus 10 minutes of fan - club credits. However, this set took longer to produce than the others because the cast and crew, no longer based in New Zealand for the trilogy, were spread all over the world working on other projects. The set was finally released on December 14, 2004 in the UK and US. The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three - year charter membership.
A collectors ' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50 - minute music documentary DVD, Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer 's Journey Through Middle - earth. The DVD has a DTS - ES soundtrack. The DVD also features two humorous Easter Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another where Vince Vaughn and Ben Stiller attempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2 's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition of The Return of the King was released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is a two - sided DVD containing both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind - the - scenes documentary.
The theatrical Blu - ray release was released in the United States in April 2010. The individual Blu - ray disc of The Return of the King was released in September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy. The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011. It has a runtime of 263 minutes.
The film earned $377,845,905 in the United States and Canada and $742,083,616 in other countries for a worldwide total of $1,119,929,521. Worldwide, it is the eigteenth highest - grossing film of all time when not adjusted for inflation, the highest - grossing film of 2003, the second highest - grossing film of the 2000s, and the highest - grossing instalment in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. It was the second film in history to earn over $1 billion, making it the second highest - grossing film at the time. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2003 film, and the highest - grossing instalment in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34.5 million. This record was first surpassed by Spider - Man 2 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening. The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first - day total of The Fellowship of the Ring -- which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 -- as well as a significant increase over The Two Towers -- which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. It went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million ($124.1 million with weekday previews). Its Friday - Sunday opening weekend was a record - high for December (first surpassed by I Am Legend). The film also set single - day records for Christmas Day and New Year 's Day (both first surpassed by Meet the Fockers).
Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2003 film and the highest - grossing film of the series. On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countries and it set an opening - weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the 5 - day weekend as a whole. It set opening - day records in 13 of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark), Mexico, Chile, and Puerto Rico. It set opening - weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland. In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single - day, Friday gross, Saturday gross, and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days.
The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast that The Return of the King would surpass The Two Towers in total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster movie trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes. The Return of the King has helped The Lord of the Rings franchise to become the highest - grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with $2,917,506,956, beating other notable ones such as the Star Wars trilogies, and surviving from being out - grossed by subsequent trilogies like Pirates of the Caribbean and Harry Potter, despite ticket price inflation.
These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimated that the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs).
The Return of the King holds an approval rating of 93 % on the aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 269 reviews, with an average rating of 8.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King is a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy ''. The film holds a weighted average score of 94 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 41 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave three and a half out of four saying, "'' Return of the King '' is such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films. '' Richard Corliss of Time named it the best film of the year. The main criticism of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King was its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on its length. Joel Siegel of Good Morning America said in his review for the film (which he gave an ' A '): "If it did n't take forty - five minutes to end, it 'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it 's just one of the great achievements in film history. '' There was also criticism regarding the Army of the Dead 's appearance, rapidly ending the Battle of the Pelennor Fields.
In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth on Empire 's 100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers ' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible. In 2007, Total Film named The Return of the King the third best film of the past decade (Total Film 's publication time), behind The Matrix and Fight Club.
The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Score, Best Original Song, Best Visual Effects, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Make - up, Best Sound Mixing and Best Film Editing. At the 76th Academy Awards in 2004, the film won all the categories for which it was nominated and it holds the record for highest Academy Award totals along with Titanic and Ben - Hur. It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by the National Board of Review, until the release of The Shape of Water in 2017.
The film also won four Golden Globes (including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director), five BAFTAs, two MTV Movie Awards, two Grammy Awards, nine Saturn Awards, the New York Film Critics Circle award for Best Picture, the Nebula Award for Best Script, and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form.
|
what does the t in disney's epcot mean | Epcot - Wikipedia
Epcot (originally named EPCOT Center) is a theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida. It is owned and operated by the Walt Disney Company through its Parks and Resorts division. Inspired by an unrealized concept developed by Walt Disney, the park opened on October 1, 1982 and was the second of four theme parks built at Walt Disney World, after the Magic Kingdom. Spanning 300 acres (120 ha), more than twice the size of the Magic Kingdom park, Epcot is dedicated to the celebration of human achievement, namely technological innovation and international culture, and is often referred to as a "permanent world 's fair ''. The park is divided into two sections: Future World, made up of eight pavilions, and World Showcase, themed to 11 world nations.
In 2015, the park hosted about 11.98 million guests, ranking it the third-most - visited theme park in North America and the sixth-most - visited theme park in the world. The park is represented by Spaceship Earth, a geodesic sphere that also serves as an attraction. Epcot was known as EPCOT Center until 1994 when it was renamed Epcot ' 94, then Epcot ' 95, now commonly known simply as Epcot.
The theme park opened on October 1, 1982. The dedication plaque near the entrance states:
To all who come to this place of joy, hope and friendship, welcome.
Epcot Center is inspired by Walt Disney 's creative genius. Here, human achievements are celebrated through imagination, the wonders of enterprise, and concepts of a future that promises new and exciting benefits for all.
The park 's name, EPCOT, is an acronym for Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow, a utopian city of the future planned by Walt Disney, often interchanging "city '' and "community. '' In Walt Disney 's words: "EPCOT will take its cue from the new ideas and new technologies that are now emerging from the creative centers of American industry. It will be a community of tomorrow that will never be completed but will always be introducing and testing, and demonstrating new materials and new systems. And EPCOT will always be a showcase to the world of the ingenuity and imagination of American free enterprise. '' His original vision was for a model community which would have been home to twenty thousand residents and a test bed for city planning as well as organization. It was to have been built in the shape of a circle with businesses and commercial areas at its center with community buildings, schools, and recreational complexes around it while residential neighborhoods would line the perimeter. This radial plan concept is strongly influenced by British planner Ebenezer Howard and his Garden Cities of To - morrow. Transportation would have been provided by monorails and PeopleMovers (like that in Magic Kingdom 's Tomorrowland). Automobile traffic would be kept underground, leaving pedestrians safe above ground. The original model of EPCOT can still be seen by passengers riding the Tomorrowland Transit Authority attraction in the Magic Kingdom park; when the PeopleMover enters the showhouse for Stitch 's Great Escape!, the remaining portion of the model is visible on the left (when facing forward) behind glass. Walt Disney was not able to obtain funding and permission to start work on his Florida property until he agreed to first build Magic Kingdom. He died nearly five years before Magic Kingdom opened.
After Disney 's death, Walt Disney Productions decided that it did not want to be in the business of running a city without Walt 's guidance. The model community of Celebration, Florida has been mentioned as a realization of Disney 's original vision, but Celebration is based on concepts of new urbanism which is radically different from Disney 's modernist and futurist visions. However, the idea of EPCOT was instrumental in prompting the state of Florida to create the Reedy Creek Improvement District (RCID) and the cities of Bay Lake and Reedy Creek (now Lake Buena Vista), a legislative mechanism allowing Disney to exercise governmental powers over Walt Disney World. Control over the RCID is vested in the landowners of the district, and the promise of an actual city in the district would have meant that the powers of the RCID would have been distributed among the landowners in EPCOT. Because the idea of EPCOT was never implemented, Disney remained almost the sole landowner in the district allowing it to maintain control of the RCID and the cities of Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista; Disney further cemented this control by deannexing Celebration from the RCID.
The original plans for the park showed indecision over the park 's purpose. Some Imagineers wanted it to represent the cutting edge of technology, while others wanted it to showcase international cultures and customs. At one point, a model of the futuristic park was pushed together against a model of a World 's Fair international theme, and the two were combined. The park was originally named EPCOT Center to reflect the ideals and values of the city. It was constructed for an estimated $800 million to $1.4 billion and took three years to build, at the time the largest construction project on Earth. The parking lot serving the park is 141 acres (57 ha) (including bus area) and can accommodate 11,211 vehicles (grass areas hold additional 500 + vehicles). Before it opened on October 1, 1982, Walt Disney World Ambassador Genie Field introduced E. Cardon Walker, Disney 's chairman and CEO, who dedicated EPCOT Center. Walker also presented a family with lifetime passes for the two Walt Disney World theme parks. His remarks were followed by Florida Governor Bob Graham and William Ellinghaus, president of AT&T.
As part of the opening - day ceremony, dancers and band members performed We 've Just Begun to Dream. The Sherman Brothers wrote a song especially for the occasion entitled "The World Showcase March ''. During the finale, doves and many sets of balloons were released. Performing groups representing countries from all over the world performed in World Showcase. Water was gathered from major rivers across the globe and emptied into the park 's fountain of nations ceremonial containers to mark the opening. Located at the front of the park is a plaque bearing Walker 's opening - day dedication.
In November 2016, it was announced at the Destination D fan event that Epcot would be receiving "a major transformation '' that would help transition the park into being "more Disney, timeless, relevant, family - friendly '' while keeping the original vision alive. No further details were mentioned. In July 2017, The Walt Disney Company announced that Epcot would undergo a multi-year, redesign and expansion plan that would introduce Guardians of the Galaxy and Ratatouille attractions to Future World and World Showcase, as well as maintaining the original vision and spirit for the park.
Epcot is divided into two main themed areas: Future World and World Showcase. The World Showcase usually opens two hours after park opening and remains open later than the Future World section of the park. Most major attractions in Future World remain open until the park 's closing time. A secondary park gate is located between the France and United Kingdom pavilions of World Showcase and is known as the International Gateway. The International Gateway is directly accessible to guests arriving from the nearby Epcot Area Resorts and Disney 's Hollywood Studios.
Future World consists of a variety of pavilions that explore innovative aspects and applications including technology and science, with each pavilion featuring self - contained attractions. Future World also serves as the park 's main entrance and features the park 's iconic landmark, Spaceship Earth, a large geodesic sphere structure which houses a themed attraction inside. Originally, each pavilion of Future World featured a unique circular logo which was featured on park signage and the attractions themselves. The logos, including that of Epcot itself, have been phased out over recent years, but some remnants are still scattered throughout the park; the pavilions are now instead identified by name and recognized by the main attraction (s) housed inside. The various pavilions and attractions located in Future World include the following:
Each pavilion was initially sponsored by a corporation which helped fund its construction and maintenance in return for the corporation 's logos and some marketing elements appearing throughout the pavilion. For example, Universe of Energy was sponsored by Exxon from 1982 to 2004, and The Land was sponsored by Kraft from 1982 to 1993, then Nestlé from 1993 to 2009. Each pavilion contains a private "VIP area '' for its sponsor with offices, lounges, and reception areas hidden away from regular park guests. While some pavilions still retain active sponsorships, in recent years several pavilions have lost sponsorships due to lack of interest from partner companies in renewing expiring agreements. After General Electric left Horizons in 1993, it closed for a couple of years, then reopened temporarily while neighboring attractions Universe of Energy and World of Motion were renovated. Horizons closed permanently on January 9, 1999, and was demolished in 2000 to make room for the opening of Mission: SPACE on October 9, 2003. Metlife sponsored Wonders of Life from 1989 to 2001, until that area was closed. However, the Wonders of Life pavilion is still mostly intact and is used for both the Flower and Garden Festival and the Food and Wine Festival. Current active sponsorships include the following:
World Showcase is a large area reminiscent of a permanent world 's fair containing 11 pavilions, each themed and dedicated to represent a specific country. The pavilions surround the World Showcase Lagoon, a large manmade lake located in the center of World Showcase with a perimeter of 1.2 miles (1.9 km). In clockwise order, the 11 pavilions are:
Of the 11 pavilions, only Morocco and Norway were not present at the park 's opening, as they were added in 1984 and 1988, respectively. Each pavilion contains themed architecture, landscapes, streetscapes, attractions, shops and restaurants representing the respective country 's culture and cuisine. In an effort to maintain the authenticity of the represented countries, the pavilions are primarily staffed by citizens of the respective countries as part of the Cultural Representative Program through Q1 visa agreements. Some pavilions also contain themed rides, shows, and live entertainment representative of the respective country. The only pavilion that is directly sponsored by the government of its respective country is Morocco; the remaining pavilions are primarily sponsored by private companies with affiliations to the represented countries.
Originally, the showcase was to include partnerships with the governments of the different countries. According to Disney 's 1975 Annual Report, the Showcase would:
... offer participating countries a permanent installation for such features as themed restaurants and shops, product exhibits, industrial displays, cultural presentations, a trade center, and even special facilities for business meetings.
Major sponsorships for each participating nation will be asked to provide the capital to cover the cost of designing, developing and constructing its attraction and / or ride and all exhibits, as well as the Pavilion itself. It will also have the responsibility for funding the housing for its employees in the International Village. Its land lease will cover the cost of maintaining the attraction for a minimum of ten years.
The Disney organization will be responsible for area development, including the construction of transportation systems and utilities. We will also build and operate the internal people moving system, the Courtyard of Nations and central theater facility.
Pavilions for Brazil, Puerto Rico, Russia, Switzerland, Costa Rica, Spain, Venezuela, United Arab Emirates, and Israel have occasionally been rumored as potential future pavilions but have never made it past the planning phases to date. The Israeli, Spanish, and an Equatorial Africa pavilion (blending elements of the cultures of countries such as Kenya and Zaire) were even announced as coming soon in 1982, but never took off. Instead, a small African themed refreshment shop known as the Outpost currently resides where Equatorial Africa was to be. Israel, five African countries (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Namibia, and South Africa), as well as eight other countries (Brazil, Chile, India, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Scotland, and Sweden), took part in the Millennium Village during the Millennium Celebration.
There are currently nine undeveloped spots for countries around the World Showcase -- including the space occupied by the Outpost -- in between the locations of the current countries. Two of the potential locations, on either side of the United Kingdom, are currently occupied by World ShowPlace. Two more lie on either side of the American Adventure, though this pavilion 's use of reversed forced perspective may preclude the construction of additional buildings as they would ruin the illusion.
Unlike Magic Kingdom, which up until 2012 did not serve alcohol and now only serves it in a few table service locations, most stores and restaurants at Epcot, especially in the World Showcase, serve and / or sell a variety of alcoholic beverages including specialty drinks, craft beers, wines, and spirits reflective of the respective countries. The park also hosts the Epcot International Food & Wine Festival, an annual event featuring food and drink samplings from all over the world, along with live entertainment and special exhibits.
Originally based on the Disney Channel animated series Kim Possible, the World Showcase Adventure is an interactive mobile attraction taking place in several pavilions throughout the World Showcase. The attraction is an electronic scavenger hunt that has guests using special "Kimmunicators '' (in actuality, customized cell phones) to help teenage crime - fighters Kim Possible and Ron Stoppable solve a "crime '' or disrupt an evil - doer 's "plans for global domination. '' The "Kimmunicator '' is able to trigger specific events within the pavilion grounds that provide clues to completing the adventure. Launched in January 2009 and presented by Verizon Wireless, the Adventure is included in park admission. It was succeeded by Agent P 's World Showcase Adventure, based on Disney 's Phineas and Ferb, on June 23, 2012.
Illuminations: Reflections of Earth is an award - winning show taking place in the World Showcase Lagoon every night at the park 's closing time (usually 9: 00 pm). It features fireworks, lasers, fire, and water fountains timed to a musical score over the World Showcase Lagoon. A large rotating globe with curved LED screens is the centerpiece of the show and is used to display images of people and places. The current version premiered as part of the park 's Millennium Celebration in 2000. The show tells the story of Earth and is divided into three movements titled "Chaos, '' "Order, '' and "Meaning. '' The music has an African tribal sound to it, to emphasize the idea of humanity as a single unified tribe on this planet; the lagoon is surrounded by nineteen large torches signifying the first 19 centuries of the common era, and the show culminates in the globe opening like a lotus blossom to reveal a twentieth torch, representing the now - completed 20th century.
Epcot hosts a number of special events during the year:
The Official Album of Walt Disney World EPCOT Center was the official album for EPCOT Center in 1983. It was originally released on LP and audio cassette and is no longer being produced.
|
where does the connecticut river begin and end | Connecticut River - wikipedia
The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States, flowing roughly southward for 406 miles (653 km) through four U.S. states. It rises at the U.S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges at Long Island Sound. Its watershed encompasses five U.S. states and one Canadian province, 11,260 square miles (29,200 km) via 148 tributaries, 38 of which are major rivers. It produces 70 % of Long Island Sound 's fresh water, discharging at 19,600 cubic feet (560 m) per second.
The Connecticut River Valley is home to some of the northeastern United States ' most productive farmland, as well as a metropolitan region of approximately two million people surrounding Springfield, Massachusetts and Connecticut 's capital in Hartford.
The word "Connecticut '' is a French corruption of the Mohegan word quinetucket, which means "beside the long, tidal river ''. The word came into English during the early 1600s to name the river, which was also called simply "The Great River ''.
Prior to Dutch exploration beginning in 1614, numerous indigenous tribes lived throughout the fertile Connecticut River valley. Information concerning how these tribes lived and interacted stems mostly from English accounts written during the 1630s.
The Pequots dominated a territory in the southernmost region of the Connecticut River valley, stretching roughly from the river 's mouth at Old Saybrook northward to just below the Big Bend at Middletown. They warred with and attempted to subjugate neighboring agricultural tribes such as the Western Niantics, while maintaining an uneasy stand - off with their rivals the Mohegans.
The Mattabesset (Tunxis) tribe takes its name from the place where its sachems ruled at the Connecticut River 's Big Bend at Middletown, in a village sandwiched between the territories of the aggressive Pequots to the south and the more peaceable Mohegans to the north.
The Mohegans dominated the region due north, where Hartford and its suburbs sit, particularly after allying themselves with the Colonists against the Pequots during the Pequot War of 1637. Their culture was similar to that of the Pequots, as they had split off from the Pequots and become their rivals some time prior to the Europeans ' explorations of the area.
The peaceful, agricultural Pocomtuc tribe lived in unfortified villages alongside the Connecticut River north of the Enfield Falls, on the fertile stretch of hills and meadows surrounding Springfield, Massachusetts. The Pocomtuc village of Agawam eventually became Springfield, situated on the Bay Path where the Connecticut River meets the western Westfield River and eastern Chicopee River. The Pocomtuc villagers at Agawam helped Puritan explorers settle this site and remained friendly with them for decades, unlike tribes farther north and south along the Connecticut River. The region stretching from Springfield north to the New Hampshire and Vermont state borders fostered many agricultural Pocomtuc and Nipmuc settlements, with its soil enhanced by sedimentary deposits. Occasionally, these villages endured invasions from more aggressive confederated tribes living in New York, such as the Mohawk, Mahican, and Iroquois tribes.
The Pennacook tribe mediated many early disagreements between colonists and other Indian tribes, with a territory stretching roughly from the Massachusetts border with Vermont and New Hampshire, northward to the rise of the White Mountains in New Hampshire. The Western Abenaki (Sokoki) tribe lived in the Green Mountains region of Vermont but wintered as far south as the Northfield, Massachusetts area. They later merged with members of other Algonquin tribes displaced by wars and famines.
In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block became the first European explorer to chart the Connecticut River, sailing as far north as Enfield Rapids. He called it the "Fresh River '' and claimed it for the Netherlands as the northeastern border of the New Netherland colony. In 1623, Dutch traders constructed a fortified trading post at the site of Hartford, Connecticut called the Fort Huys de Hoop ("Fort House of Hope '').
Four separate Puritan - led groups settled the fertile Connecticut River Valley, and they founded the two large cities that continue to dominate the Valley today: Hartford (est. 1635) and Springfield (est. 1636). The first group of pioneers left the Plymouth Colony in 1632, and ultimately founded the village of Matianuck several miles north of the Dutch fort at modern Hartford which became Windsor, Connecticut. In 1633, a group left the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Watertown, seeking a site where they could practice their religion more freely. With this in mind, they founded Wethersfield, Connecticut in 1633, several miles south of the Dutch fort at Hartford.
In 1635, Reverend Thomas Hooker led settlers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony settlement at Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he had feuded with Reverend John Cotton, to the site in Connecticut of the Dutch Fort House of Hope, where he founded Newtowne (Hartford). Shortly after Hooker 's arrival, Newtowne annexed Matianuck based on laws articulated in Connecticut 's settlement charter, the Warwick Patent of 1631. The patent, however, had been physically lost, and the annexation was almost certainly illegal.
The fourth English settlement along the Connecticut River came out of a 1635 scouting party commissioned by William Pynchon to find the most advantageous site on the Connecticut River for conducting commerce and agriculture, hoping to found a city there. His scouts located the Pocumtuc village of Agawam, where the Bay Path trade route crossed the Connecticut River at two of its major tributaries, the Chicopee River to the east and Westfield River to the west, and located just north of Enfield Falls, the river 's first unnavigable waterfall. Pynchon correctly surmised that traders utilizing any of these major roads or waterways would have to dock and change ships at his site, thereby granting the settlement a commercial advantage. The settlement was initially named Agawam Plantation and was allied with the southern settlements that became the state of Connecticut. They switched allegiances in 1641 and renamed it Springfield in honor of Pynchon 's native town in England.
Of these settlements, Hartford and Springfield quickly emerged as powers. In 1641, Springfield splintered off from the Hartford - based Connecticut Colony, instead allying itself with the Boston - based Massachusetts Bay Colony. For decades, Springfield remained the Massachusetts Bay Colony 's westernmost settlement, on the northern border of the Connecticut Colony. By 1654 however, the success of these English settlements rendered the Dutch position on the Connecticut untenable. A treaty relocated the boundary between the Connecticut Colony and New Netherland Colony westward, near present - day Greenwich. The treaty allowed the Dutch to maintain their trading post at Foot Huys de Hoop, which they did until the 1664 British takeover of New Netherland.
The Connecticut River Valley 's central location, fertile soil, and abundant natural resources made it the target of centuries of border disputes, beginning with Springfield 's defection from the Connecticut Colony in 1641, which brought the Massachusetts Bay Colony to the river. Conflicting royal treaties of 1764 sparked the river 's east - siders to unite with Ethan Allen and the west - siders against New York and the British. The 1783 Treaty of Paris created a disputed border with Canada from the Connecticut 's "northernmost headwaters ''. A 1933 U.S. Supreme Court decision settled a contentious boundary dispute between Vermont and New Hampshire. The Connecticut River 's history is characterized by both political intrigue and technological innovation.
During 1640 and 1641, two controversies took place that altered the political boundaries of the Lower Connecticut River region, preventing it from administration by a single political body. The Connecticut Colony administered Springfield during the 1630s, in addition to Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor; however, by 1640, Springfield 's advantageous geography enabled it to become the Connecticut Colony 's most commercially prosperous settlement. The Colony endured a crippling grain shortage during the spring of 1640 which caused many cattle to die of starvation. The grain shortage became a matter of survival for the Colony but not for Springfield, due to its prosperity.
In response to the shortage, leading citizens of Wethersfield and Hartford gave power to Pynchon, Springfield 's founder, to purchase corn for all of the Connecticut Colony 's settlements from the Pocumtuc. Colony leaders authorized him to offer large sums of money to the Indians, far above market prices; however, the Indians refused to sell at even "reasonable '' prices, and thus he refused to buy the corn altogether. Pynchon argued that it was best not to broadcast the Connecticut Colonists ' weaknesses to the Indians, who he believed might capitalize on it; likewise, he aimed to keep market values and trade with the Indians steady in the future.
Hartford 's leading citizens were furious with Pynchon 's willingness to further imperil the starving settlements. With Windsor 's and Wethersfield 's consent, they commissioned Captain John Mason who had fought in the Pequot War to travel to Springfield with "money in one hand and a sword in the other '' to make a deal with the Indians, and also to rebuke Pynchon. On reaching Springfield, Mason threatened the Indians with war if they did not sell their corn at reasonable prices. The Indians capitulated and ultimately sold the corn to the Colonists. However, Mason 's violent approach aroused distrust among the Pocumtuc tribe. Mason also upbraided Pynchon in public. This incident arose partly from differences of opinion regarding how to interact with the Indian tribes. Pynchon had achieved mutual benefits by trading with the Pocumtucs, whereas Mason had used force. Nevertheless, it caused Springfield 's settlers to rally around the humiliated Pynchon, and led to the settlement severing ties with the Connecticut Colony.
As this controversy was heating up, the Massachusetts Bay Colony saw an opportunity to gain a foothold along the fertile Connecticut River Valley. In 1640, Boston asserted a claim to jurisdiction over lands surrounding the river; however, Springfield remained politically independent until tensions with the Connecticut Colony were exacerbated by a final confrontation later that year.
Hartford kept a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut River at Old Saybrook for protection against the Pequots, Wampanoags, Mohegans, and the New Netherland Colony. After Springfield broke ties with the Colony, the remaining Connecticut settlements demanded that Springfield 's ships pay tolls when passing the mouth of the river. The ships refused to pay this tax without representation at Connecticut 's fort, but Hartford refused to grant it. In response, the Massachusetts Bay Colony solidified its friendship with Springfield by levying a toll on Connecticut Colony ships entering Boston Harbor. Connecticut was largely dependent on sea trade with Boston and therefore permanently dropped its tax on Springfield, but Springfield allied with Boston nonetheless, drawing the first state border across the Connecticut River.
The Fort at Number 4 in Charlestown, New Hampshire was the northernmost English settlement on the Connecticut River until the end of the French and Indian War in 1763. Abenaki Indians resisted British attempts at colonization, but Colonists began settling north of Brattleboro, Vermont following the war. Settlement of the Upper Connecticut River Valley increased quickly, with population assessments of 36,000 by 1790.
The area that is now Vermont was claimed by both New Hampshire and New York, and was settled primarily through the issuance of land grants by New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth beginning in the 1740s. New York protested these grants, and King George III decided in 1764 that the border between the provinces should be the western bank of the Connecticut River. Ethan Allen, the Green Mountain Boys, and other residents of the disputed area resisted attempts by New York to exercise authority over the area, which resulted in the establishment of the independent Vermont Republic in 1777 and its eventual accession to the United States in 1791 as the fourteenth state. Boundary disputes between Vermont and New Hampshire lasted for nearly 150 years and were finally settled in 1933, when the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed King George 's boundary as the ordinary low - water mark on the Vermont shore. In some places, the state line is now inundated by the impoundments of dams built after this time.
The Treaty of Paris (1783) that ended the American Revolutionary War created a new international border between New Hampshire and the Province of Canada at "northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut ''. Several streams fit this description, and thus a boundary dispute led to the short - lived Indian Stream Republic, which existed from 1832 to 1835.
The broad, fertile Connecticut River Valley attracted agricultural settlers and colonial traders to Hartford, Springfield, and the surrounding region. The high volume and numerous falls of the river led to the rise of industry along its banks during the Industrial Revolution. The cities of Springfield and Hartford in particular became centers of innovation and "intense and concentrated prosperity. ''
The Enfield Falls Canal was opened in 1829 to circumvent shallows around Enfield Falls, and the locks built for this canal gave their name to the town of Windsor Locks, Connecticut. The Connecticut River Valley functioned as America 's hub of technical innovation into the 20th century, particularly the cities of Springfield and Hartford, and thus attracted numerous railroad lines. The proliferation of the railroads in Springfield and Hartford greatly decreased the economic importance of the Connecticut River. From the late 1800s until today, it has functioned largely as a center of wildlife and recreation.
Starting about 1865, the river was used for massive logging drives from Third Connecticut Lake to initially water powered sawmills near Enfield Falls. Trees cut adjacent to tributary streams including Perry Stream and Indian Stream in Pittsburg, New Hampshire, Halls Stream on the Quebec -- New Hampshire border, Simms Stream, the Mohawk River, and the Nulhegan River basin in Essex County, Vermont, would be flushed into the main river by the release of water impounded behind splash dams. Several log drivers died trying to move logs through Perry Falls in Pittsburg. Teams of men would wait at Canaan, Vermont, to protect the bridges from log jams. Men guided logs through a 400 - foot (120 m) drop along the length of Fifteen - Mile Falls (now submerged under Moore and Comerford reservoirs), and through Logan 's Rips at Fitzdale, Mulligan 's Lower Pitch, and Seven Islands. The White River from Vermont and Ammonoosuc River from New Hampshire brought more logs into the Connecticut. A log boom was built between Wells River, Vermont, and Woodsville, New Hampshire, to hold the logs briefly and release them gradually to avoid jams in the Ox Bow. Men detailed to this work utilized Woodsville 's saloons and red - light district. Some of the logs were destined for mills in Wilder and Bellows Falls, Vermont, while others were sluiced over the Bellows Falls dam. North Walpole, New Hampshire, contained twelve to eighteen saloons, patronized by the log drivers. Mount Tom was the landmark the log drivers used to gauge the distance to the final mills near Holyoke, Massachusetts. These spring drives were stopped after 1915, when pleasure boat owners complained about the hazards to navigation. The final drive included 500 workers controlling 65 million feet of logs. A final pulp drive consisted of 100,000 cords of four - foot logs in 1918. This was to take advantage of the wartime demand.
In March 1936, due to a winter with heavy snowfall, an early spring thaw and torrential rains, the Connecticut River flooded, overflowing its banks, destroying numerous bridges and isolating hundreds of people who had to be rescued by boat.
The dam at Vernon, Vermont, was topped by 19 feet (5.8 m). Sandbagging by the National Guard and local volunteers helped prevent the dam 's powerhouse from being overwhelmed, despite blocks of ice breaking through the upstream walls.
In Northampton, Massachusetts, looting during the flood became a problem, causing the mayor of the city to deputize citizen patrols to protect flooded areas. Over 3,000 refugees from the area were housed in Amherst College and the Massachusetts State Agricultural College (now UMass Amherst).
Unprecedented accumulated ice jams compounded the problems created by the flood, diverting water into unusual channels and damming the river, raising water levels even further. When the jam at Hadley, Massachusetts, gave way, the water crest overflowed the dam at Holyoke, overwhelming the sandbagging there. The village of South Hadley Falls was essentially destroyed, and the southern parts of Holyoke were severely damaged, with 500 refugees.
In Springfield, Massachusetts, 5 sq mi (13 km), and 18 miles (29 km) of streets, were flooded, and 20,000 people lost their homes. The city lost power, and nighttime looting caused the police to issue a "shoot on sight '' edict; 800 National Guard troops were brought in to help maintain order. Rescue efforts using a flotilla of boats saved people trapped in upper stories of buildings, bringing them to local fraternal lodges, schools, churches and monasteries for lodging, medical care, and food. The American Red Cross and local, state and Federal agencies, including the WPA and the CCC, contributed aid and manpower to the effort. Flooding of roads isolated the city for a time. When the water receded, it left behind silt - caused mud which in places was 3 feet (1 m) thick; the recovery effort in Springfield, at the height of the American Great Depression, took approximately a decade.
Overall, the flood caused 171 deaths and US $ 500 million (US $8,800,000,000 with inflation) in damages. Across the northeast, over 430,000 people were made homeless or destitute by flooding that year.
The Connecticut River Flood Control Compact between the states of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont was established in 1953 to help prevent serious flooding.
The creation of the Quabbin Reservoir in the 1930s diverted the Swift River, which feeds the Chicopee River, a tributary of the Connecticut. This resulted in an unsuccessful lawsuit by the state of Connecticut against the diversion of its riparian waters.
Demand for drinking water in eastern Massachusetts passed the sustainable supply from the existing system in 1969. Diverting water from the Connecticut River was considered several times, but in 1986 the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority instead undertook a campaign of water conservation. Demand was reduced to sustainable levels by 1989, reaching approximately a 25 % margin of safety by 2009.
By far the largest river ecosystem in New England, the Connecticut River watershed spans five of the six New England states -- New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, as well as small portions of Maine and the Canadian province of Quebec.
The Connecticut River rises from the Fourth Connecticut Lake, a small pond that sits 300 yards (270 m) south of the U.S. national border with Chartierville, Quebec, Canada, in the town of Pittsburg, New Hampshire, United States. Beginning at an elevation of 2,670 feet (810 m) above sea level, the Connecticut River flows through the remaining Connecticut Lakes and Lake Francis -- for 14 - mile (23 km), all within the town of Pittsburg -- and then widens as it delineates 255 - mile (410 km) of the border between New Hampshire and Vermont. The Connecticut drops more than 2,480 feet (760 m) in elevation as it winds south to the border of Massachusetts, at which point it sits 190 feet (58 m) above sea level.
The region along the river upstream and downstream from Lebanon, New Hampshire and White River Junction, Vermont, is known locally as the "Upper Valley ''. The exact definition of the region varies, but it generally is considered to extend south to Windsor, Vermont, and Cornish, New Hampshire, and north to Bradford, Vermont, and Piermont, New Hampshire.
Following the most recent ice age, the Middle Connecticut River Valley sat at the bottom of Lake Hitchcock. Its lush greenery and rich, almost rockless soil comes from the ancient lake 's sedimentary deposits. In the Middle Connecticut region, the river reaches its maximum depth -- 130 feet (40 m) -- at Gill, Massachusetts, around the French King Bridge, and its maximum width -- 2,100 feet (640 m) -- at Longmeadow, directly across from the Six Flags New England amusement park. The Connecticut 's largest falls -- South Hadley Falls -- features a vertical drop of 58 feet (18 m). Lush green forests and agricultural hamlets dot this middle portion of the Connecticut River; however, the region is best known for its numerous college towns, such as Northampton, South Hadley, and Amherst, as well as the river 's most populous city, Springfield. The city sits atop bluffs beside the Connecticut 's confluence with two major tributaries, the Chicopee River to the east and Westfield River to the west.
The Connecticut River is influenced by the tides as far north as Enfield Rapids in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, approximately 58 miles (93 km) north of the river 's mouth. Two million residents live in the densely populated Hartford - Springfield region, which stretches roughly between the college towns of Amherst, Massachusetts, and Middletown, Connecticut. Hartford, the Connecticut River 's second largest city and only state capital, is located at the southern end of this region on an ancient floodplain that stretches to Middletown.
15 miles (24 km) south of Hartford, at Middletown, the Lower Connecticut River section begins with a narrowing of the river, and then a sharp turn southeast. Throughout southern Connecticut, the Connecticut passes through a thinly populated, hilly, wooded region before again widening and discharging into Long Island Sound between Old Saybrook and Old Lyme. Due to the presence of large, shifting sandbars at its mouth, the Connecticut is the only major river in the Northeastern United States without a port at its mouth.
The Connecticut River carries a heavy amount of silt, especially during the spring snow melt, from as far north as Quebec. This heavy silt concentration manifests in a large sandbar near the Connecticut 's mouth, which has, historically, provided a formidable obstacle to navigation. Due to the difficulty it presents to ships, the Connecticut is one of the few major rivers in the United States without a major city at its mouth. The Connecticut 's major cities -- Hartford and Springfield -- lie 45 and 69 miles (70 and 110 km) upriver, respectively.
The Nature Conservancy named the Connecticut River 's tidelands one of the Western Hemisphere 's "40 Last Great Places '', while the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands listed its estuary and tidal wetlands complex as one of 1,759 wetlands of international importance.
In 1997, the Connecticut River was designated one of only 14 American Heritage Rivers, which recognized its "distinctive natural, economic, agricultural, scenic, historic, cultural and recreational qualities. '' In May 2012, the Connecticut River was designated America 's first National Blueway, in recognition of the restoration and preservation efforts on the river.
The Connecticut River 's flow is slowed by main stem dams, which create a series of slow - flowing basins from Lake Francis Dam in Pittsburg, New Hampshire, to the Holyoke Dam at South Hadley Falls in Massachusetts. Among the most extensively dammed rivers in the United States, the Connecticut may soon flow at a more natural pace, according to scientists at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, who have devised a computer that -- "in an effort to balance human and natural needs '' -- coordinates the holding and releasing of water between the river 's 54 largest dams.
The Connecticut River watershed encompasses 11,260 square miles (29,200 km), connecting 148 tributaries, including 38 major rivers and numerous lakes and ponds. Major tributaries include (from north to south) the Passumpsic, Ammonoosuc, White, Black, West, Ashuelot, Millers, Deerfield, Chicopee, Westfield, and Farmington rivers. The Swift River, a tributary of the Chicopee, has been dammed and largely replaced by the Quabbin Reservoir which provides water to the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority district in eastern Massachusetts, including Boston and its metropolitan area.
There are several species of anadromous and catadromous fish, including brook trout, winter flounder, blueback herring, alewife, rainbow trout, large brown trout, American shad (Alosa sapidissima), hickory shad, smallmouth bass, Atlantic sturgeon, striped bass (Morone saxatilis), carp, catfish, American eel, sea lamprey, and endangered shortnose sturgeon and dwarf wedgemussels. Additionally, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service has repopulated the river with another species of migratory fish, the Atlantic salmon, which for more than 200 years had been extinct from the river due to damming. Several fish ladders and fish elevators have been built to allow fish to resume their natural migration upriver each spring.
Much of the beginning of the river 's course in the town of Pittsburg is occupied by the Connecticut Lakes, which contain lake trout and landlocked salmon. Landlocked salmon make their way into the river during spring spawning runs of bait fish and during their fall spawn. The river has fly - fishing - only regulations on 5 miles (8 km) of river. Most of the river from Lake Francis south is open to lure and bait as well. Two tail - water dams provide cold river water for miles downstream, making for bountiful summer fishing on the Connecticut.
After the first major dam was built near Turners Falls, Massachusetts, thirteen additional dams have ended the Connecticut River 's great anadromous fish runs. Fish ladders constructed since the first fish passage in 1980 at Turners Falls, have enabled migrating fish to return to some of their former spawning grounds. In addition to dams, warm water discharges between 1978 and 1992 from Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant in Vernon, Vermont released water up to 105 ° F (41 ° C) degrees and the thermal plume reached 55 miles (89 km) downstream to Holyoke. This thermal pollution appears to be associated with an 80 % decline in American shad fish numbers from 1992 to 2005 at Holyoke dam. This decline may have been exacerbated by over-fishing in the mid-Atlantic and predation from resurging striped bass populations. The nuclear plant was closed at the end of 2014 but the 2015 shad run at Vernon numbered only 42,000 shad.
There are 12 species of freshwater mussels. Of those, 11 occur in the mainstem of the Connecticut, all but the brook floater, which is found only in small streams and rivers. Species diversity is higher in the southern part of the watershed (Connecticut and Massachusetts) than in the northern part (Vermont and New Hampshire), largely due to differences in stream gradient and substrate. Eight of the 12 species in the watershed are listed as endangered, threatened, or of Special Concern in one or more of the states in the watershed.
The mouth of the river up to Essex is thought to be one of the busiest stretches of waterway in Connecticut. Some local police departments and the state Environmental Conservation Police patrol the area a few times a week. Some towns keep boats available if needed. In Massachusetts, the most active stretch of the Connecticut River is centered on the Oxbow, 14 miles (23 km) north of Springfield in the college town of Northampton.
Primitive camping is available along much of the river, for non-motorized boats, via the Connecticut River Paddlers ' Trail. The Paddlers ' Trail currently includes campsites on over 300 miles (480 km) of the river.
The Water Quality Act of 1965 had a major impact on controlling water pollution in the Connecticut River and its tributaries.
Since then, the river has been restored from Class D to Class B (fishable and swimmable). Many towns along the Lower Connecticut River have enacted a cap on further development along the banks, so that no buildings may be constructed except on existing foundations. Currently, a website provides water quality reports twice a week, indicating whether various portions of the river are safe for swimming, boating and fishing.
Listed from south to north by location of mouth:
The Connecticut River is a barrier to travel between western and eastern New England. Several major transportation corridors cross the river including Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor, Interstate 95 (Connecticut Turnpike), Interstate 90 (Massachusetts Turnpike), Interstate 89, Interstate 93, and Interstate 84. In addition, Interstate 91, whose route largely follows the river north - south, crosses it twice -- once in Connecticut and once in Massachusetts.
|
guns n roses i don't need your civil war | Civil War (song) - wikipedia
"Civil War '' is a song by the rock band Guns N ' Roses which originally appeared on the 1990 compilation Nobody 's Child: Romanian Angel Appeal, and later on the 1991 album Use Your Illusion II. It is a protest song on war, referring to all war as "civil war '' and stating that war only "feeds the rich while it buries the poor ''. In the song, lead singer Axl Rose asks, "What 's so civil about war, anyway? ''
It was released as a single in 1993 in several regions. Several regions in which the single was not released instead saw the release of The "Civil War '' EP.
"Civil War '' was the brainchild of the Guns N ' Roses artists Axl Rose, Slash, and Duff McKagan. Slash stated that the song was an instrumental he had written right before the band left for the Japanese leg of its Appetite for Destruction world tour. Axl wrote lyrics and it was worked into a proper song at a sound check in Melbourne, Australia. On September 27, 1993, Duff McKagan explained where the song came from in an interview on Rockline:
Basically it was a riff that we would do at sound - checks. Axl came up with a couple of lines at the beginning. And... I went in a peace march, when I was a little kid, with my mom. I was like four years old. For Martin Luther King. And that 's when: "Did you wear the black arm band when they shot the man who said: ' Peace could last forever '? '' It 's just true - life experiences, really.
"Civil War '' reached number four on the Mainstream Rock chart in Billboard magazine.
The song samples Strother Martin 's speech in the 1967 movie, Cool Hand Luke: "What we 've got here is... failure to communicate. Some men you just ca n't reach. So you get what we had here last week, which is the way he wants it... well, he gets it. I do n't like it any more than you men. ''
It quotes a speech by a Peruvian Shining Path guerrilla officer saying "We practice selective annihilation of mayors and government officials, for example, to create a vacuum, then we fill that vacuum. As popular war advances, peace is closer ''.
The song also includes the American Civil War song, "When Johnny Comes Marching Home '', whistled by Axl Rose in the intro and outro.
"Civil War '' is the B - side track to the June 1991 release of Guns N ' Roses "You Could Be Mine '' single, the promotional single for Terminator 2: Judgment Day. However, "Civil War '' was not featured in the film.
Of the 30 combined tracks on Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II, "Civil War '' (Track No. 1 on Use Your Illusion II) is the sole track to be recorded featuring original Guns N ' Roses drummer, Steven Adler, who was fired shortly after the track 's recording in 1990. Adler was replaced by then - drummer for The Cult, Matt Sorum, the drummer for all other 29 tracks on the two - disc set.
This song was covered by the band Hoobastank for a "stripped '' or acoustic set.
The song was first played at Farm Aid 1990, the first and last time the song was played with original drummer Steven Adler. The song was played many times from 1991 through 1993, though after 1993 the song was not performed again until December 4, 2011 at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville, Tennessee. As of 2017, the song is played at almost every show.
|
what teams did quarterback nick foles play for | Nick Foles - Wikipedia
Nicholas Edward Foles (born January 20, 1989) is an American football quarterback for the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Arizona, and was drafted by the Eagles in the third round of the 2012 NFL Draft. He has also played for the St. Louis Rams and Kansas City Chiefs.
Foles played his first game with the Eagles in Week 10 of the 2012 season after Michael Vick left with an injury. Foles then made his first start the following week. In Week 9 of the 2013 season, he became the second quarterback to post a perfect passer rating (158.3) while passing for more than 400 yards, and also the first quarterback in NFL history to post a perfect passer rating and throw seven touchdowns in a single game. It was the 60th time in NFL history that a perfect passer rating was achieved overall.
After stints with the Rams and the Chiefs, Foles returned to the Eagles in 2017. After Carson Wentz was injured late in the regular season, Foles led the Eagles to the franchise 's first - ever Super Bowl win. The Eagles defeated the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII, and Foles was named the Super Bowl MVP.
Foles was born and raised in Austin, Texas, the son of restaurateurs Larry and Melissa Foles. He graduated in 2007 from Westlake High School.
A two - year starter for the football team, Foles threw for 5,658 yards and 56 touchdowns, breaking most school records previously held by Drew Brees; he later played against Brees and the New Orleans Saints during the 2013 -- 14 NFL playoffs.
Foles also excelled at basketball, where he started three years, twice received team MVP honors, and was recruited by Georgetown, Baylor, and Texas. He also played high school football with Justin Tucker, kicker for the Baltimore Ravens, and Kyle Adams, a free agent formerly of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Chicago Bears
Foles originally committed to Arizona State but later decided to attend Michigan State. He ultimately transferred to the University of Arizona.
Foles attended Michigan State for one year. He appeared in a game against Alabama -- Birmingham, where he completed 5 of 8 passes for 57 yards.
Foles transferred to Arizona and had to redshirt his 2008 freshman season.
After quarterback Willie Tuitama graduated, Foles competed with expected successor Matt Scott, who got the nod after spring practice because the coaches believed he could run effectively as well as pass. Despite victories against Central Michigan and Northern Arizona, Scott struggled against Iowa and the next week was benched in favor of Foles. In Corvallis, Foles led the Wildcats to a victory against Oregon State. He started the rest of the season, completing 260 of 409 pass attempts for 2,486 yards, 19 touchdowns, and nine interceptions.
As a redshirt junior in 2010, Foles was the unquestioned starter. Foles led the Wildcats to a 7 -- 1 start, including a victory against # 9 Iowa on national television. Foles led the game - winning drive that ended with a touchdown pass to Bug Wright. A knee injury in the Washington State game sidelined him for two games, but Foles finished off his junior year with 3,191 yards, 20 touchdowns, and 10 interceptions.
During the 2011 season, Foles completed 387 of 560 passes for 4,334 yards and 28 touchdowns. He ranked first in the Pac - 12 Conference and fifth among all NCAA Division I FBS players with an average of 352.58 yards of total offense per game. He also ranked second in the Pac - 12 and 20th among all FBS players in total passing yardage.
Foles graduated from the University of Arizona with a degree in communication.
Foles was selected by the Philadelphia Eagles in the third round with the 88th overall pick in the 2012 NFL Draft. He signed a four - year contract with the team on May 21, 2012. Despite speculation that Foles would start the Eagles ' Monday Night Football game against the New Orleans Saints on November 5 (Week 9), Eagles coach Andy Reid stated that Vick would start that game. The following week against the division rival Dallas Cowboys, after Vick left the game in the second quarter with concussion symptoms, Foles made his NFL debut. Foles threw his first career touchdown pass to wide receiver Jeremy Maclin for 44 yards and finished with 22 completed passes out of 32 attempts for 219 yards, one touchdown, and one interception. With Philadelphia behind 31 -- 23 in the last minute, Foles lost the ball as he was sacked, and Jason Hatcher of the Cowboys recovered the ball in the end zone for a touchdown. Vick was eventually ruled out of the following game against the Washington Redskins in Week 11, and Foles made his first career start. Philadelphia lost to the Redskins 31 -- 6, and Foles was 21 - for - 47 in passing 204 yards with no touchdowns and two interceptions.
On Monday, December 3, 2012, Eagles coach Andy Reid announced that Foles would start for the remainder of the year, regardless of when Michael Vick returned from a concussion. The following Week 14 game on December 9, Foles earned his first win as a starter in the Eagles ' 23 -- 21 win over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. With two seconds remaining on the clock and Philadelphia down 21 -- 16 at the Bucs ' one - yard line, Foles threw a 1 - yard pass to Jeremy Maclin for the game - winning touchdown as time expired. Foles completed 32 - of - 51 passes for 381 yards and two touchdowns -- both coming in the final four minutes. He also had 27 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown. On December 23, Foles broke his hand against the Redskins, and was replaced by Vick in the season finale against the New York Giants. On December 26, Foles was placed on injured reserve.
Going into training camp, new head coach Chip Kelly announced that Foles would compete with Vick and newly drafted rookie Matt Barkley for the Eagles starting quarterback job in the 2013 season. Going into preseason, it became clear that the job was a two - way battle between Foles and Vick. Foles played average during preseason while Vick excelled past him. On August 20, it was announced that Vick would start the season and Foles would be the backup.
Foles saw his first action during a Week 4 loss against the Denver Broncos. He completed 3 out of 4 attempted passes for a total of 49 yards and one touchdown, with no interceptions.
On October 6, Foles entered the game against the New York Giants in the second quarter, after Vick suffered a hamstring injury. Foles completed 16 of 25 passes for 197 yards and 2 touchdowns, leading the Eagles to a 36 -- 21 win over the Giants. Later in the week, it was announced that Foles would get the start in Week 6 against the 0 -- 4 Tampa Bay Buccaneers, after Vick was declared unable to start due to his injury. In his Week 6 start on October 13, Foles had one of the best starts of his career, completing 22 of 31 passes for 296 yards and 4 total touchdowns (3 passing, 1 rushing) in a 31 -- 20 win over the Bucs, a performance that earned him NFC Offensive Player of the Week.
On October 15, Vick announced that he needed another week of rehab before he was able to start again, making Foles the starter for the Week 7 matchup against the Dallas Cowboys for the division lead. However, against the Cowboys, Foles completed only 11 of 29 passes for a total of 80 yards, with no touchdowns. In that same game, Foles left in the 4th quarter after suffering a head injury, and was replaced by rookie Matt Barkley. Barkley did not perform well either, throwing 3 interceptions. The Eagles went on to lose 17 -- 3 to the Cowboys thus dropping to 3 -- 4 on the season and 1 game out of first place. The next day, Foles was diagnosed with a concussion and ruled out of any participation in the Week 8 matchup against the Giants on medical grounds.
Vick left the game late in the second quarter of the Eagles 15 -- 7 loss to the Giants in Week 8, aggravating the hamstring injury he had previously picked up in Week 5.
Foles was given his third start of the season for Week 9 against the Oakland Raiders. Against the Raiders, Foles threw for seven touchdowns, tying a record held by six other quarterbacks. Foles is one of three quarterbacks to throw seven touchdowns and zero interceptions; he also amassed a perfect passer rating (158.3), having thrown more touchdown passes than incompletions. Foles was awarded his second NFC Offensive Player of the Week Award of the season for his performance vs the Raiders.
In Week 10 of the regular season, Foles played in his sixth game of the season (four starts) against the Green Bay Packers. Coming into the game the Eagles had lost to the Packers on the last three occasions the teams had met (including post season). Foles completed 12 out of 18 passes for a total of 228 yards, 3 touchdowns, and no interceptions. His passer rating was extremely high for the second consecutive week, finishing at 149.3 and becoming the first quarterback in NFL history to post passer ratings above 149 in consecutive weeks. Foles carried 8 times during the game, including a 16 yard long run, finishing the game with 38 yards total and one fumble lost. The Eagles won the game 27 -- 13 and moved to 5 -- 5.
Foles continued as the starting quarterback in Week 11 of the regular season against the Washington Redskins at home. For the sixth time this season, Foles ' passer rating eclipsed 100, as he completed 17 of his 26 attempts for 298 yards with 0 touchdowns and 0 interceptions. Foles rushed the ball on 9 occasions during the game, ending with 47 total yards and a rushing touchdown. He led the Eagles to a 24 -- 0 lead at the end of the third quarter, before a comeback from the Redskins meant the game finished 24 -- 16. The win moved the Eagles to an overall record of 6 -- 5 -- 0 and first position in the NFC East. The Eagles had not won at Lincoln Financial Field in 413 days since defeating the New York Giants on September 30, 2012; ending a streak of 10 consecutive home defeats. On November 27, Foles was named the NFC Player of the Month for his play during the month of November.
The Eagles did not have a game scheduled for Week 12 of the regular season. The team returned to action on Sunday, December 1, for a home game against the Arizona Cardinals. Following their bye week, the Eagles had slipped into 2nd place in the divisional standings behind fierce rivals the Cowboys. Foles was named as the starting quarterback for the remainder of the season, a decision which Vick (who began the year as the number one quarterback) fully agreed with.
For the seventh time this season, Foles 's passer rating eclipsed 100, as he completed 21 of 34 attempted passes for a total of 237 yards, with 3 touchdowns and 0 interceptions. He also rushed for 22 yards on 9 attempts and fumbled on one occasion, although this was recovered by his teammates -- and did not result in a turnover. Following a closely contested game, the Eagles held on to win 24 -- 21 despite a fourth quarter comeback by Carson Palmer. Foles set a team record for most passes without an interception (233), breaking Michael Vick 's mark of 224 set in 2010. He also moved within one touchdown pass of the record 20 straight touchdown passes set by Peyton Manning and zero interceptions to start a season before throwing an interception in a blizzard game in Philadelphia against the Detroit Lions in which the Eagles won 34 -- 20. The win took the Eagles to an overall record of 8 -- 5 and surpassed Dallas for the number one spot in the NFC East. A week later in Minnesota, the team 's five game winning streak was snapped with a loss to Minnesota. However, Foles again had another impressive game with yet another passer rating over 100 and three more touchdowns and only his second interception of the season. The following week, the Eagles defeated the Chicago Bears 54 -- 11, which saw another passer rating over 100 and a completion of 84.0 % of his passes, a career - high. Foles helped lead the Eagles to their first NFC East division title in three years by beating the Cowboys in the regular season finale. Foles had his ninth game with a passer rating over 100.
Foles finished the 2013 regular season with 27 touchdown passes and only 2 interceptions, surpassing Tom Brady 's 2010 season posting of 36 / 4 for the best TD - INT ratio in NFL history, and a season leading 119.0 passer rating and third in NFL history trailing only to Aaron Rodgers ' 122.5 rating in 2011 and Peyton Manning 's 121.1 rating in 2004. Foles led the Eagles to a playoff berth, the first since 2010. Hosting the Saints in the playoffs at Lincoln Financial Field, the Eagles lost on a last - minute field goal as the game ended at 26 -- 24. Foles threw for 195 yards, two touchdowns, and no interceptions, for a passer rating of 105.0, in his postseason debut. Foles was awarded the "NFL Greatness on the Road '' award for his seven touchdown, perfect game performance against the Oakland Raiders during a road game in 2013.
Foles was also assigned to the 2014 Pro Bowl as an alternate and was drafted by Team Sanders. Despite losing the game, Foles went 7 for 10 for 89 yards and a go ahead touchdown. Foles won the Pro Bowl Offensive MVP award, which included a new GMC truck.
Going into 2014, Chip Kelly had released Foles ' top receiver, DeSean Jackson, but Jeremy Maclin, who had good chemistry with Foles in 2012, returned from an ACL tear and had a career season, gaining 702 yards and six touchdowns with Foles as quarterback, finishing with 1,318 yards and ten scores. He was also aided by rookie receiver Jordan Matthews, second year tight end Zach Ertz, and veteran running back Darren Sproles.
Foles and the Eagles kicked off their 2014 season with a Week 1 home matchup against the Jacksonville Jaguars. Foles started the game poorly, losing 2 fumbles and throwing an interception in the first half. Foles only lost 2 fumbles and threw 2 interceptions the entire 2013 season. The Eagles defense also performed poorly, as they trailed 17 -- 0 after the first half. However, the Eagles roared back in the second half, scoring 34 unanswered points to defeat the Jags 34 -- 17. Overall, Foles completed 24 of 45 passes for 332 yards and 2 touchdowns, along with the 3 turnovers.
Foles led the Eagles to a 30 -- 27 win over the Colts after trailing by as much as 20 -- 6 early in the third. Foles went 21 -- 37, passing for 331 yards, 1 touchdown, and 1 interception during the game.
Foles played his best game of the young season in 37 -- 34 win over the division rival Washington Redskins. Foles fought off the slow starts of games past, a strong Washington defensive front seven, and a brutal blindside hit from Washington defensive lineman Chris Baker which resulted in a major brawl between both teams and causing Eagles left tackle Jason Peters, the strongest player in their line, and Baker to be ejected from the game. Foles finished the game completing 66 percent of his passes, going for 325 yards and three touchdowns. In Week 8, Foles set a franchise record for most completions in a game with 36 and threw a career - high 62 times in a close loss to the Arizona Cardinals, finishing with 411 passing yards and 2 TDs. The following week in a game against the Houston Texans, Foles left the game during the first half with a broken collarbone, which led to Foles being put on injured reserve, ending his 2014 season. Mark Sanchez finished out the season as the Eagles starting quarterback.
After a league - best 27 -- 2 TD - INT ratio in 2013, Foles finished the season with 2,163 yards in 8 games, and a 13 -- 10 TD - INT ratio. He also fumbled 4 times, only recovering it once. Overall, all of his stats were narrowly beaten by Sanchez, including turnovers (14 -- 11 TD -- INT ratio). On the bright side, he was on pace to have over 4,000 yards passing and he led the team to a 6 -- 2 record as starter, first place in the NFC East and second place in the NFC.
On March 10, 2015, the Eagles traded Foles, a 2015 fourth - round pick, and a 2016 second - round pick to the St. Louis Rams in exchange for Sam Bradford and a 2015 fifth - round pick. Foles signed a two - year, $24.5 million extension with the Rams on August 7, 2015. Foles 's first game with the team came against the division rival Seattle Seahawks, who had the league 's No. 1 defense in 2013 and 2014. Foles went 18 for 27 and passed for 297 yards in the game, and his lone passing touchdown came with 53 seconds left, bringing the game into overtime. He also ran for 11 yards and 1 touchdown, which put the Rams in the lead in the middle of the second quarter. In overtime, Foles threw a 22 - yard pass to wide receiver Stedman Bailey, which set up the Rams ' game - winning field goal over the defending NFC Champions.
Following the dramatic win, Foles struggled against his former divisional rival, the Washington Redskins. Although he did n't turn the ball over, he only completed 17 passes out of 32 for 150 yards and the Rams lone touchdown as they lost 24 -- 10. Foles ' accuracy improved the following week, going 19 -- 28 for 197 yards, but he threw no touchdowns and his first interception as a Ram against the Pittsburgh Steelers, and the Rams dropped to 1 -- 2. Following the two losses, Foles bounced back, going 16 -- 24 for 3 touchdowns and no turnovers to hand the 3 -- 0 Arizona Cardinals their first loss of the season. After that game, Foles ' problems with turnovers from 2014 started to show, as he completed 11 passes out of 30 for 141 yards, 1 touchdown, and a career - high 4 interceptions against the Green Bay Packers. On November 16 Foles was benched in favor of Case Keenum. He won his starting job back two weeks later after Keenum was out with a concussion, but his struggles worsened. In a loss against Cincinnati Bengals, he went 30 -- 46 for 228 yards (his second highest total of the year) and 3 interceptions, and followed it up by going 15 / 35 for 146 yards and 1 interception in a 27 -- 3 loss to the Arizona Cardinals. Foles was again benched after Keenum returned from his concussion.
Upset that the now - Los Angeles Rams drafted quarterback Jared Goff with the first overall pick of the 2016 NFL draft, Foles requested and was granted a release on July 27, 2016.
Foles signed with the Kansas City Chiefs on August 3, 2016. It was a one - year deal worth $1.75 million and included a second - year option for 2017, worth between $6.75 million and $16 million depending on his performance during the Chiefs ' 2016 season. In Week 8 at Indianapolis Colts after Alex Smith left the game with a concussion, Foles took over for the remainder of the game, and finished 16 / 22 completions with 223 yards and two touchdowns. The Chiefs announced that Foles would start in Week 9 against the Jacksonville Jaguars as Smith was still recovering from injury. Foles won the game over the Jaguars, 19 -- 14, and finished 20 -- 33 with 187 yards and a touchdown. The next day, Smith was announced to start Week 10.
On March 9, 2017, the Chiefs declined a second - year option on his contract, making him a free agent.
On March 13, 2017, Foles signed a two - year contract to return to the Philadelphia Eagles to back up 2016 first - round pick Carson Wentz. During Week 14 against the Los Angeles Rams, Foles came in relief of Wentz, who left the game with a torn ACL. Foles completed 6 of 10 passes for 42 yards as the Eagles won 43 -- 35, clinching their first division title since 2013. On December 11, 2017, head coach Doug Pederson announced that Foles would be the starter after Wentz was ruled out for the season. Starting his first game of the season in Week 15, Foles threw for 237 yards and 4 touchdowns in a 34 -- 29 victory over the New York Giants.
On January 13, 2018, the Eagles defeated the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, in the NFC Divisional playoff game, with Foles completing 23 of 30 passes for 246 yards. This was the Eagles ' first playoff victory in nine seasons. On January 21, 2018, the Eagles defeated the Minnesota Vikings, 38 -- 7, in the NFC Championship Game, with Foles going 26 of 33 for 352 yards and 3 touchdowns. The Vikings were 3 - point favorites with the league 's top - ranked defense entering the game.
In Super Bowl LII, Foles caught a touchdown pass from tight end Trey Burton, becoming the first player to both throw and catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, while also being the third quarterback to catch a pass in a Super Bowl, after John Elway in Super Bowl XXII and Jim Kelly in Super Bowl XXVI. The Eagles defeated the New England Patriots 41 -- 33 to win their first Super Bowl. Foles completed 28 of 43 passes for 373 yards, 3 passing touchdowns and 1 interception, and was named the Most Valuable Player of the game.
Foles is a Christian, saying, "I 'm a Christian and I believe in God... and when you do great, you stay humble and you give Him glory. '' Foles is currently an online graduate student at Liberty University, earning his master 's degree in divinity.
Foles has planned to become a pastor after his football career, saying, "I want to be a pastor in a high school, It 's on my heart. I took a leap of faith last year and signed up to take classes at seminary. I wanted to continue to learn and challenge my faith. It 's a challenge because you are writing papers that are biblically correct. You want to impact people 's hearts. ''
He married Tori Moore, who is the younger sister of former NFL tight end Evan Moore, in 2014. Moore and Foles were briefly teammates with the Eagles in 2012.
The couple have a daughter, Lily James, born in 2017.
Names in bold are still active
|
who sings the song to the left to the left | Irreplaceable - wikipedia
"Irreplaceable '' is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her second studio album, B'Day (2006). The song was written by Shaffer "Ne - Yo '' Smith, Tor Erik Hermansen, Mikkel, S. Eriksen, Espen Lind, Amund Bjørklund, Beyoncé and produced by Stargate and Beyoncé. "Irreplaceable '' was originally a country record; it was re-arranged as a mid-tempo ballad with pop and R&B influences by modifying the vocal arrangements and instrumentation. During the production and recording sessions, Beyoncé and Ne - Yo wanted to create a record which people of either gender could relate to. The song 's lyrics are about the breakdown of a relationship with an unfaithful man and the song contains a message about female empowerment.
Following the moderate chart performances of "Déjà Vu '' and "Ring the Alarm '', "Irreplaceable '' was released internationally on October 23, 2006 as the album 's second single, and the third in the United States on December 5, 2006. The single was released through Columbia Records. Pitchfork Media and Rolling Stone placed it on their lists of Best Songs of the 2000s. "Irreplaceable '' won several awards, including Best R&B / Soul Single at the 2007 Soul Train Music Awards. It was nominated for the Record of the Year award at the 50th Grammy Awards.
The single became Beyoncé 's fourth number - one in the U.S., was B'Day 's most successful release, and remained at the top of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart for ten consecutive weeks. "Irreplaceable '' was the twenty - fifth most successful song of the 2000s (decade) in the U.S., and was certified double - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It became Beyoncé 's second single to achieve 200 million audience impressions in 2006. She is the second singer to achieve this feat in the U.S., the first having been Mariah Carey in 2005. "Irreplaceable '' peaked at number one in Australia, at number four in the United Kingdom, and reached the top twenty in several European countries. "Irreplaceable '' was 2007 's tenth best - selling digital single with over 4.6 million copies sold worldwide.
The single 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and served as the debut performance of Beyoncé 's all - female band, Suga Mama. The video was included on the 2007 B'Day Anthology Video Album, and a video edit was produced for "Irreemplazable '', the Spanish version of the song. It won the Video of the Year award at the 2007 Black Entertainment Television (BET) Awards, and was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year at the 2007 Awards. "Irreplaceable '' has regularly featured in Beyoncé 's tours and live performances since 2006. The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) recognized the song as one of the most performed of 2007 at the ASCAP Pop Music Awards.
"Irreplaceable JP '' was written for Chrisette Michele. Production team Stargate and singer - songwriter Ne - Yo had written for Beyoncé 's second album B'Day, but Tor Erik Hermansen of Stargate said that they might not have gone in the direction they did on the song. The tune did not suit Beyoncé 's voice, and Ne - Yo wrote the lyrics from a male perspective, although it was not based upon his personal experiences. Ne - Yo wrote the song in the country style, thinking of country singers Shania Twain and Faith Hill during the sessions. When Ne - Yo heard them playing the song with a guitar, he thought it sounded like country music. But when the drums were incorporated into the music, it was brought to an R&B vibe, and Ne - Yo considered making an R&B - country western music song instead.
When the team worked with Ne - Yo, they recorded the song with a male vocalist. However, they thought a female vocalist would be more suitable, and Ne - Yo also thought that it was empowering for a woman to sing it. Eriksen of Stargate said it was an A&R person who suggested that the song would work better when sung by a woman. Two labels wanted the song. While Beyoncé worked on material for B'Day, she was pleased with the demo of the "Irreplaceable '' that was presented to her. However, "Irreplaceable '' did not seem to fit on B'Day, which was supposed to be "a hard - hitting club album ''. Swizz Beatz, who was working on the album, declared that Beyoncé would be crazy not to include the song on the record. Beyoncé asked for changes to the song, including the addition of drums, vocal arrangements, and singing in a higher register than the demo. Espen Lind and Amund Bjørklund, from the Norwegian production team Espionage, wrote the chord structure and the guitar part. In an interview with MTV, Ne - Yo said, "Beyoncé had some stuff that she wanted to get off her chest '', while aiming to make a record that women could relate to, in keeping with the theme of the album.
The recording was engineered by Jim Caruana and mixed by Jason Goldstein at Sony Music Studios in New York City. Goldstein was hired to mix B'Day. He said: "This song was really simple to mix. It was produced by Stargate and the sounds are really good and they all made sense, and there was lots of room for all the instruments. '' Goldstein used a board equalizer for the drums ' treatment. For the acoustic guitars, he used the analogue flanger of a TC 1210 spatial expander "to sweeten the sound '' and to give them "a little bit more spread ''. Goldstein thought "Irreplaceable '' sounded "a bit old - school ''; an eighth note delay echo was placed on the song 's lead vocal at 341ms, using the Echo Farm plug - in software. For the backing vocals, Goldstein used Echo Farm with a quarter note delay at 682ms and Sony 's Oxford Dynamics compressor / limiter in dual - mono mode.
The compressor was placed in Classic setting, to emulate the LA - 2A leveling amplifier, and the Warmth button used to add harmonics. Oxford Dynamics was used for the bass in a different setting. Goldstein passed the final mix through the Oxford EQ and Inflator plug - ins. Pro Tools software was used to print the aux track into a 44.1 kHz / 24 - bit CD and then into a 24 - bit CD master. After the sessions for "Irreplaceable '' ended, Hermansen said that "everyone felt they had captured something special and that Beyoncé had done the track justice '', but there were still concerns that urban radio might not play the song as it featured acoustic guitars and had more of a pop appeal. "But then it became the biggest urban record... ever, '' (Hermansen) said.
A controversy arose over the writing credits on "Irreplaceable ''. Ne - Yo told MTV: "Apparently Beyoncé was at a show somewhere and right before the song came on she said, ' I wrote this for all my ladies ' and then the song came on... The song is a co-write. I wrote the lyrics, I wrote all the lyrics. Beyoncé helped me with the melodies and the harmonies and the vocal arrangement and that makes it a co-write. Meaning my contribution and her contribution made that song what it is. '' In 2011, Ne - Yo said that he wrote the song for himself, but thought that it would be better suited for Beyoncé, and later regretted giving the song to her. Some of Beyoncé 's fans read Ne - Yo 's remark as disrespectful towards her. However, he clarified his comment later through Twitter, writing, "I said I originally wrote the song for me... Once I realized how the song comes across if sung by a guy, that 's when I decided to give it away. ''
"Irreplaceable '' is a mid-tempo ballad with pop and R&B influences. Written in the key of B ♭ major, the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 88 beats per minute. Beyoncé 's vocal range in the song spans nearly two and a half octaves, from B ♭ to E ♭. While most of the songs on the album are aggressive and uptempo, her voice on "Irreplaceable '' is toned down. "Irreplaceable '' uses a gently strummed acoustic guitar, following the B ♭ -- F -- Cm -- E ♭ chord series. Hermansen and Eriksen combined the classic chord progression on an acoustic guitar, a modern - sounding 808 drum beat and cellos. Al Shipley of Stylus Magazine noted that the guitar strum can be found in Rihanna 's 2007 single "Hate That I Love You '', a song co-produced by Stargate and Ne - Yo. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone wrote that Chris Brown 's 2007 single "With You '', another Stargate - produced song, also features the same element. He wrote, "' With You ' is the convincer, even if you can instantly tell that producer Stargate was just trying to roll out ' Irreplaceable ' one more time. '' while Billboard magazine wrote that it "leans a bit too heavily '' to the song.
Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun - Times wrote that "Irreplaceable '' resembles ballads sung by Whitney Houston. Spence D. of IGN wrote that the song was inspired by Aretha Franklin 's work since "Irreplaceable '' consists of several variations in gutturals and octave range. The lyrics of "Irreplaceable '' concern the breakdown of a woman 's relationship with her boyfriend after she discovers his infidelity, and the song "sounds a lot like a statement of independence ''. Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe wrote, "With a heretofore unknown grasp of nuance, Beyonce combines heartache, bravado, and anger as she tells a cad he 's far from irreplaceable -- and that, in fact, her new man will be arriving momentarily. '' Hermansen said that "Irreplaceable '' is a song that "people from all walks of life can enjoy ''. Beyoncé said that the song is "a little honest '', and, "... basically we ca n't forget our power and our worth. And sometimes you 're so in love, you forget that. And sometimes you feel like you 're not being appreciated. And sometimes they forget that they can be replaced. ''
The song 's lyrics are constructed in the verse - pre-chorus - chorus form. It begins with guitar strumming, and Beyoncé sings the hook - intro, "To the left, to the left: everything you own in a box to the left ''. In bar seven, she sings the first verse, arguing with her boyfriend about the indifference of their relationship, and tells him to walk away. The pre-chorus and chorus follow, "You must not know ' bout me... I can have another you by tomorrow / I could have another you in a minute... Do n't you ever for a second get to thinking / You 're irreplaceable ''. In the second verse, Beyoncé recollects the moment she discovered her boyfriend 's infidelity. The same pattern leads to the second chorus. Towards the end, Beyoncé sings the bridge, where she tells her lover, "Replacing you is so easy ''. The song closes with an ad - libbed chorus. The Boston Globe noted that Beyoncé sings some parts of it in a higher register "that complements the lyrics ' wounded sensibility ''.
During the production of "Irreplaceable '', Hermansen thought that the track would not receive radio play because of the acoustic guitars, and deemed the song too pop - oriented. Hermansen did not expect "Irreplaceable '' to conform to any genre. Despite his prediction, the song became successful on urban charts. It was played in New York and on country radio stations. Shortly after the release of "Irreplaceable '', Beyoncé told MTV: "I love ' Irreplaceable '. I think it 's important to have those songs. I 've had so many people come up to me in tears, saying, ' I experienced my first breakup. If it was n't for the song, I would n't be strong enough to not call. I would n't know how much I 'm worth. ' I 'm happy to be a part of that. ''
"Irreplaceable '' was released in the United Kingdom on October 23, 2006, as the second single there. In the US, "Irreplaceable '' was the third single from B'Day ', and followed "Ring the Alarm ''. The single was released on December 5, 2006, and featured the album and instrumental versions of the track. "Irreplaceable '' was the second single released from B'Day in international markets on Columbia Records. Two versions of the single were released in the UK on October 26, 2006. A CD single, which featured the album version of "Irreplaceable '', and the Freemasons club mix radio edit of "Ring the Alarm '', was released. An enhanced CD, which included the album version, three remixes of "Ring the Alarm '', and the "Ring the Alarm '' music video, was also released. A 12 '' single was released in the UK the following week. In Australia, a maxi single, which featured the album version and two remixes of "Déjà Vu '', was released on December 5, 2006. A Maurice Joshua remix edit of the song was released in Australia two weeks later.
Beyoncé recorded a Spanish version of the song, called "Irreemplazable '', with additional lyrical contributions from Rudy Pérez and was included on the second disc of the deluxe edition of B'Day released on June 12, 2007. An Irreemplazable EP was released in the US on August 28, 2007, and on September 10, 2007, in the UK. The EP includes "Irreemplazable '', the Norteña Remix of "Irreplaceable '', "Amor Gitano '', three versions of "Beautiful Liar '', the Timbaland remix of "Get Me Bodied '' featuring Voltio, and "Oye '', the Spanish version of "Listen ''. As a fundraiser for the 2011 earthquake in the Tōhoku region of Japan, a compilation album that included "Irreplaceable '', called Songs for Japan, was released on March 25, 2011.
Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly noted "Irreplaceable '' to be "a lilting tune unlike anything Beyoncé has ever performed ''. Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe wrote that the song is "gentle but maddeningly hook - y ''. Spence Abbott of IGN wrote that "Irreplaceable '' and "Resentment '' go for "a much more traditional contemporary R&B vibe '' than any of the previous tracks on B'Day, making them stand out as if they were recorded separately from the rest of the album.
Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel wrote that "Irreplaceable '' is a "clever ballad '' and the most memorable track on B'Day. He added that it has the most potential of catching on with fans quickly, and that it is the only song on the album that "you might actually want to sing along to ''. Mike Joseph of PopMatters commented that "' Irreplaceable ' tellingly, was co-written by Ne - Yo, who may not be the powerhouse vocalist Beyonce is, but has significantly stronger songwriting skills. It 's the best song on the album -- perhaps Ms. Knowles should take a hint. '' Tim Finney of Pitchfork Media, called "Irreplaceable '' the best song on B'Day and praised its overall production, writing:
Before, Beyoncé 's approach to heartbreak was always literal, her voice and her words declaiming her feelings with a studied earnestness that at times was difficult to believe, let alone connect with. ' Irreplaceable ' is the first song in which Beyoncé lies to herself, and the way her voice perfectly betrays that lie (revealing a giveaway tremble in the stiff upper lip of the lyrics) simultaneously renders it her most sophisticated and her most honest performance to date.
Mark Edward Nero ranked it as the ninth best R&B song of 2006, and wrote, "This song has modern - day classic written all over it. '' The Village Voice listed it 18 on their list of best songs of 2006. Staff members of Pitchfork Media ranked the song on their list of The Top 100 Tracks of 2006 at number 45. Shaheem Reid, Jayson Rodriguez and Rahman Dukes of MTV News placed the song at number 3 on their year - end list of 27 Essential R&B Songs of 2007.
In 2009, Ryan Schreiber ranked "Irreplaceable '' at number 183 on his list of Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s (decade). Barry Schwartz of Stylus Magazine wrote that "Irreplaceable '' recaptured Beyoncé 's 2003 debut single "Crazy in Love '' 's near - perfection, describing it as "gentle but defiant '', and further wrote, "Through some breezy strums and a sweet plaintive melody Beyonce delivers her most genuinely emotional vocal to date, equal parts vulnerable, upset, pissed off, vindictive, resigned, and apathetic. '' Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 60 on its list of 100 Best Songs of the 2000s.
"Irreplaceable '' won the award for Best R&B / Soul Single, Female, at the 2007 Soul Train Music Award, and the ' Favorite Song ' award at the 2007 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in the 2008 Grammy Awards, and Song of the Year at the VH1 Soul Vibe awards. "Irreplaceable '' was recognized as one of the five most - performed songs of 2007 by the ASCAP Pop Music Awards.
"Irreplaceable '' entered various charts worldwide, and became the most successful single released from B'Day. The single debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on November 4, 2006, at number eighty - seven. It climbed the charts rapidly because of its radio airplay, and it was Greatest Airplay Gainer certification for six consecutive weeks by early December 2006. Three weeks after the release of "Irreplaceable '', B'Day re-entered the top ten on the US Billboard 200 chart. The single reached number one on December 16, becoming Beyoncé 's fourth number one single as a solo artist, and her second in 2006, following "Check on It '' (2005). The single spent ten consecutive weeks at number one and was replaced by Nelly Furtado 's "Say It Right '' (2006) on February 24, 2007. The feat was achieved after Kanye West 's 2005 single, "Gold Digger '' featuring Jamie Foxx, spent ten weeks at the top spot. "Irreplaceable '' outperformed "Baby Boy '' 's nine - weeks at number one. Beyoncé 's former group Destiny 's Child 's 2000 single "Independent Women Part I '' remained at number one for eleven weeks late in 2000 and early in 2001. "Irreplaceable '' remained on the chart for thirty weeks, has sold over 3,139,000 paid digital downloads in the US as of October 2012 according to Nielsen SoundScan, and was certified double - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It was additionally certified triple - platinum, denoting sales of three million master ringtones.
According to Mediabase "Irreplaceable '' passed the 200 million audience impressions mark on December 11, 2006. Another single of Beyoncé, "Check on It '' previously passed this mark on January 31, 2006. Consequently, Beyoncé became the second singer to achieve this in the United States, the first having been Mariah Carey whose two singles, "We Belong Together '' (2005) and "Shake It Off '' (2005), passed the same audience impressions mark in 2005. "Irreplaceable '' stayed at number one on the US Hot 100 Airplay for eleven consecutive weeks, and was the best - performing US single of 2007, topping the Billboard Top Hot 100 Hits. "Irreplaceable '' installed Beyoncé at third place for the most number one singles by a female songwriter, overtaking Janet Jackson and Carole King and tying Diane Warren for nine number - one singles. Beyoncé received three song - writing credits in one year, the only woman to achieve this since King in 1971 and Carey in 1991. In February 2010, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) listed "Irreplaceable '' as the highest certified master ringtone of the 2000s decade by a female solo artist. By August 2011, the single had sold over three million digital downloads in the United States. "Irreemplazable '' charted equally well, peaking at number four on the Hot Latin Songs. The EP appeared on the Latin Pop Albums at number two, Top Latin Albums at number three, Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums at number forty - one and on the Billboard 200 at number 105.
"Irreplaceable '' debuted at number eight on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart, and peaked at number one for three consecutive weeks, becoming Beyoncé 's first and only number one single in Australia. It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipment of 70,000 copies. "Irreplaceable '' appeared twice on the ARIA year - end charts, reaching number twenty - three in 2006, and number forty - two in 2007. "Irreplaceable '' debuted at number three on November 6, 2006, on the New Zealand Singles Chart, the song 's highest entry on any chart. It peaked at number one, and remained on the chart for eighteen weeks. It was later certified Platinum by the RIANZ. "Irreplaceable '' peaked within the top fifteen in several European singles charts. It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart, spending 12 weeks in the top 20 and 25 weeks on the chart. It was Beyoncé 's fifth longest - charting single, and spent more weeks on the chart than her number - one singles "Crazy in Love '' and "Déjà Vu '' but slightly less than her recent hits "If I Were a Boy '', "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) '', "Halo '' and "Sweet Dreams ''. On the UK iTunes chart, "Irreplaceable '' is currently Beyoncé 's most downloaded on I Am... Sasha Fierce single and still ranks in the top 30 of R&B / Soul songs. Due to a performance of "Irreplaceable '' at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival by Beyoncé on June 26, 2011, the song made a re-entry in the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart, entering at number thirty - three. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Irreplaceable '' was 2007 's tenth best - selling digital single with over 4.6 million copies sold worldwide; the song has since sold 9.5 million becoming one of the best - selling songs of its decade.
"Irreplaceable '' was directed by Anthony Mandler, who co-directed the video of "Get Me Bodied ''. The video features the debut performance of Beyoncé 's all - female band, Suga Mama, who also appeared in the "Green Light '' music video. Her acting - then - ex-boyfriend in the video is model Bobby Roache, who played police officer for the "Ring the Alarm '' music video and warrior during Jay - Z and Beyoncé 's live performance at the 2006 Fashion Rocks show. The video was included on the 2007 B'Day Anthology Video Album, and a video edit was produced for "Irreemplazable ''. Part of the video which shows Beyoncé dancing in silhouette in front of a glass door is inspired by a James Bond movie. Late in January 2008, "Irreemplazable '' premiered on the MiTRL, a video countdown show on the bilingual channel MTV Tr3s.
The music video follows the storyline of the song 's lyrics. "She told me to pack up all my stuff, I 'm getting kicked out -- the video starts off like that '', said Roache. It opens with Beyoncé filing her nails in silence, as her ex-partner packs up his property, as Beyoncé orders him to leave. Mid-way in the video, Beyoncé follows her then - ex-boyfriend outside the house and leans on a 2007 Jaguar XK. She appears to be pretentiously caressing him; only for the audience to find out that she is repossessing things she bought for him. He leaves her and the car, about to ride off in a taxi. Between cuts, Beyoncé manages herself in front of a mirror; putting on a lipstick, wearing huge curlers and a high - waisted skirt. There are additional beats mixed to the arrangement for the video version that can be heard, when Beyoncé sings with her all - female band, Suga Mama, towards the end. It ends with Beyoncé greeting her new boyfriend at the front door.
At the 2007 Black Entertainment Television (BET) Awards, Beyoncé won Video of the Year Award for "Irreplaceable '', an award for which "Beautiful Liar '' was also nominated. It was nominated for Video of the Year during the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, but it lost to Rihanna 's single, "Umbrella '' (2007). At the 2007 Soul Train Music Awards, the video was nominated for the Michael Jackson Award for Best R&B / Soul or Rap Music Video, but lost to rapper (and husband) Jay - Z 's "Show Me What You Got '' video. The video received two nominations for Best Female Artist and Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Australia Video Music Awards.
Beyoncé performed "Irreplaceable '' during various public appearances, including the 2006 American Music Awards, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, the Today Show.
The song was a part of Beyoncé 's set list for her tour The Beyoncé Experience and I Am... World Tour. "Irreplaceable '' was the closing song during her 2007 The Beyoncé Experience world tour. It was performed late in the set on earlier tour dates, but when Beyoncé embarked on the US leg, it was performed earlier in the show. Beyoncé performed "Irreplaceable '' during her Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live revue.
Beyoncé has performed "Irreplaceable '' without backup dancers or live instrumentation, or in another case, Beyoncé was accompanied by two drummers, two keyboardists, a percussionist, a horn section, three backup vocalists called the Mamas, and the lead guitarist, Bibi McGill. Footage of Beyoncé 's performance at the Staples Center, Los Angeles was included on The Beyoncé Experience Live! DVD (2007), and the deluxe edition of I Am... World Tour (2010). According to NME, "' Irreplaceable ' (at the Glastonbury Festival) sparked a mass singalong, with the crowd taking the lead on the entire first verse. '' Following the performance of "Irreplaceable '' at the Glastonbury Festival, the song was digitally released in the UK and the US on June 27, 2011, as charity single to raise funds for Oxfam, WaterAid and Greenpeace. This version charted at number twenty - six on the UK Singles Chart and seven on the UK Indie Chart for the week ending July 9, 2011.
American band Sleigh Bells recorded an acoustic cover of the song during their Maida Vale sessions and released it Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 show on March 6, 2012. A writer of Billboard magazine commented that their cover was "ethereal ''. Ray Rahman of Entertainment Weekly described the cover as "really good!... Krauss also has a teen - pop background thanks to her Rubyblue days, so it 's actually not that surprising that she can find her away around a Top 40 single so well. '' However, Maura Johnston of The Village Voice gave a negative review for the cover, saying: "Krauss sighs her way through the song, turning her voice into a mew that sounds like she was trying to sing along with the radio while not being heard by her roommates or anyone else outside of a six - inch radius... Also, some of the guitar chords are a bit off... it 's sorta disappointing. ''
The song was covered by Patricia Tumulak of Eat Bulaga! for the album of the same title.
A parody version, performed by the South African group Woman2Woman went viral in January 2017 after an appearance on SABC3 The Expresso Show. It features the group performing the song in an exaggerated Cape - Malay - accent with some of the lyrics rewritten to suit the Cape Flats vibe. The idea of this was the brain child of Ramaine Barreiro - Lloyd. Huffington Post journalist Alexandra Willis did an article about The "Irreplaceable singers '' The trio also did a cover of Pink 's ' Dear Mr President ' which was shown on Channel 24. The Woman2Woman concerts in October raised 10000 Rands for Cansa in female Cancer awareness month. Felicity Kiran, Lauren - Lee Bock and Anray Amansure are solo artists in their own right.
Credits are taken from B'Day liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
when was the battle of dien bien phu and what was the result | Battle of Dien Biên Phủ - wikipedia
Decisive Viet Minh victory
French Union
Undeclared
Viet Minh
1,571 -- 2,293 dead 5,195 -- 6,650 wounded 1,729 missing 11,721 captured (of which 4,436 wounded) 62 aircraft and 10 tanks lost 167 aircraft damaged
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu (French: Bataille de Diên Biên Phu; Vietnamese: Chiến dịch Điện Biên Phủ, IPA: (ɗîəˀn ɓīən fû)) was the climactic confrontation of the First Indochina War between the French Union 's French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Viet Minh communist - nationalist revolutionaries. It was, from the French view before the event, a set piece battle to draw out the Vietnamese and destroy them with superior firepower. The battle occurred between March and May 1954 and culminated in a comprehensive French defeat that influenced negotiations underway at Geneva among several nations over the future of Indochina.
As a result of blunders in French decision - making, the French began an operation to insert, then support, the soldiers at Điện Biên Phủ, deep in the hills of northwestern Vietnam. Its purpose was to cut off Viet Minh supply lines into the neighboring Kingdom of Laos, a French ally, and tactically draw the Viet Minh into a major confrontation in order to cripple them. The plan was to resupply the French position by air, and was based on the belief that the Viet Minh had no anti-aircraft capability. The Viet Minh, however, under General Võ Nguyên Giáp, surrounded and besieged the French. The Viet Minh brought in vast amounts of heavy artillery (including antiaircraft guns). They moved these weapons through difficult terrain up the rear slopes of the mountains surrounding the French positions, dug tunnels through the mountain, and placed the artillery pieces overlooking the French encampment. This positioning of the artillery made it nearly impervious to French counter-battery fire.
The Viet Minh opened fire with a massive artillery bombardment in March. After several days the French artillery commander, Charles Piroth, unable to respond with any effective counterbattery fire, committed suicide. The Viet Minh occupied the highlands around Điện Biên Phủ and bombarded the French positions. Tenacious fighting on the ground ensued, reminiscent of the trench warfare of World War I. The French repeatedly repulsed Viet Minh assaults on their positions. Supplies and reinforcements were delivered by air, though as the key French positions were overrun, the French perimeter contracted and the air resupply on which the French had placed their hopes became impossible. As the Viet Minh antiaircraft fire took its toll, fewer and fewer of those supplies reached the French. The garrison was overrun in May after a two - month siege, and most of the French forces surrendered. A few of them escaped to Laos. The French government in Paris then resigned, and the new Prime Minister, the left - of - centre Pierre Mendès France, supported French withdrawal from Indochina.
The war ended shortly after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and the signing of the 1954 Geneva Accords. France agreed to withdraw its forces from all its colonies in French Indochina, while stipulating that Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel, with control of the north given to the Viet Minh as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh, and the south becoming the State of Vietnam, nominally under Emperor Bảo Đại, preventing Ho Chi Minh from gaining control of the entire country. The refusal of Ngô Đình Diệm (the US - supported President of the first Republic of Vietnam (RVN)) to allow elections in 1956, as had been stipulated by the Geneva Conference, eventually led to the Vietnam War.
By 1953, the First Indochina War was not going well for France. A succession of commanders -- Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, Jean Étienne Valluy, Roger Blaizot, Marcel Carpentier, Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, and Raoul Salan -- had proven incapable of suppressing the insurrection of the Viet Minh fighting for independence. During their 1952 -- 53 campaign, the Viet Minh had overrun vast swathes of Laos, a French ally and Vietnam 's western neighbor, advancing as far as Luang Prabang and the Plain of Jars. The French were unable to slow the Viet Minh advance, who fell back only after outrunning their always - tenuous supply lines. In 1953, the French had begun to strengthen their defenses in the Hanoi delta region to prepare for a series of offensives against Viet Minh staging areas in northwest Vietnam. They set up fortified towns and outposts in the area, including Lai Châu near the Chinese border to the north, Nà Sản to the west of Hanoi, and the Plain of Jars in northern Laos.
In May 1953, French Premier René Mayer appointed Henri Navarre, a trusted colleague, to take command of French Union Forces in Indochina. Mayer had given Navarre a single order -- to create military conditions that would lead to an "honorable political solution ''. According to military scholar Phillip Davidson,
On arrival, Navarre was shocked by what he found. There had been no long - range plan since de Lattre 's departure. Everything was conducted on a day - to - day, reactive basis. Combat operations were undertaken only in response to enemy moves or threats. There was no comprehensive plan to develop the organization and build up the equipment of the Expeditionary force. Finally, Navarre, the intellectual, the cold and professional soldier, was shocked by the "school 's out '' attitude of Salan and his senior commanders and staff officers. They were going home, not as victors or heroes, but then, not as clear losers either. To them the important thing was that they were getting out of Indochina with their reputations frayed, but intact. They gave little thought to, or concern for, the problems of their successors.
Simultaneously, Navarre had been searching for a way to stop the Viet Minh threat to Laos. Colonel Louis Berteil, commander of Mobile Group 7 and Navarre 's main planner, formulated the hérisson ("hedgehog '') concept. The French army would establish a fortified airhead by airlifting soldiers adjacent to a key Viet Minh supply line to Laos. They would cut off Viet Minh soldiers fighting in Laos and force them to withdraw. "It was an attempt to interdict the enemy 's rear area, to stop the flow of supplies and reinforcements, to establish a redoubt in the enemy 's rear and disrupt his lines ''.
The hedgehog concept was based on French experiences at the Battle of Nà Sản. In late November and early December 1952, Giáp attacked the French outpost at Nà Sản, which was essentially an "air - land base '', a fortified camp supplied only by air. The French beat back Giáp 's forces repeatedly, causing them to suffer very heavy losses. The French hoped that by repeating the strategy on a much larger scale, they would be able to lure Giáp into committing the bulk of his forces in a massed assault. This would enable superior French artillery, armor, and air support to decimate the exposed Viet Minh forces. The experience at Nà Sản convinced Navarre of the viability of the fortified airhead concept.
French staff officers disastrously failed to treat seriously several crucial differences between Điện Biên Phủ and Nà Sản: First, at Nà Sản, the French commanded most of the high ground with overwhelming artillery support. At Điện Biên Phủ, however, the Viet Minh controlled much of the high ground around the valley, their artillery far exceeded French expectations, and they outnumbered the French troops four to one. Giáp compared Điện Biên Phủ to a "rice bowl, '' where his troops occupied the edge and the French the bottom. Second, Giáp made a mistake in Nà Sản by committing his forces to reckless frontal attacks before being fully prepared. He learned his lesson: at Điện Biên Phủ, Giáp spent months meticulously stockpiling ammunition and emplacing heavy artillery and antiaircraft guns before making his move. Teams of Viet Minh volunteers were sent into the French camp to scout the disposition of the French artillery. Wooden artillery pieces were built as decoys and the real guns were rotated every few salvos to confuse French counterbattery fire. As a result, when the battle finally began, the Viet Minh knew exactly where the French artillery pieces were, while the French did not even know how many guns Giáp possessed. Third, the aerial resupply lines at Nà Sản were never severed, despite Viet Minh antiaircraft fire. At Điện Biên Phủ, Giáp amassed antiaircraft batteries that quickly shut down the runway, and made it extremely difficult and costly for the French to bring in reinforcements.
In June, Major General René Cogny, the commander of the Tonkin Delta, proposed Điện Biên Phủ, which had an old airstrip built by the Japanese during World War II, as a "mooring point ''. In another misunderstanding, Cogny envisioned a lightly defended point from which to launch raids; however, Navarre believed that he intended a heavily fortified base capable of withstanding a siege. Navarre selected Điện Biên Phủ for the location of Berteil 's "hedgehog '' operation. When presented with the plan, every major subordinate officer protested: Colonel Jean - Louis Nicot (commander of the French Air transport fleet), Cogny, and generals Jean Gilles and Jean Dechaux (the ground and air commanders for Operation Castor, the initial airborne assault on Điện Biên Phủ). Cogny pointed out, presciently, that "we are running the risk of a new Nà Sản under worse conditions ''. Navarre rejected the criticisms of his proposal and concluded a November 17 conference by declaring that the operation would begin three days later, on 20 November 1953.
Navarre decided to go ahead with the operation, despite operational difficulties. These later became painfully obvious (but at the time may have been less apparent). He had been repeatedly assured by his intelligence officers that the operation had very little risk of involvement by a strong enemy force. Navarre had previously considered three other ways to defend Laos: mobile warfare, which was impossible given the terrain in Vietnam; a static defense line stretching to Laos, which was not feasible given the number of troops at Navarre 's disposal; or placing troops in the Laotian provincial capitals and supplying them by air, which was unworkable due to the distance from Hanoi to Luang Prabang and Vientiane. Navarre believed that he was left only with the hedgehog option, which he characterized as "a mediocre solution ''. The French National Defense Committee ultimately agreed that Navarre 's responsibility did not include defending Laos. However, its decision (which was drawn up on 13 November) was not delivered to him until 4 December, two weeks after the Điện Biên Phủ operation began.
Operations at Điện Biên Phủ began at 10: 35 on the morning of 20 November 1953. In Operation Castor, the French dropped or flew 9,000 troops into the area over three days, including a bulldozer to prepare the airstrip. They were landed at three drop zones: "Natasha '' (northwest), "Octavie '' (southwest), and "Simone '' (southeast) of Điện Biên Phủ. The Viet Minh elite 148th Independent Infantry Regiment, headquartered at Điện Biên Phủ, reacted "instantly and effectively ''. Three of its four battalions, however, were absent that day. Initial operations proceeded well for the French. By the end of November, six parachute battalions had been landed, and the French Army was consolidating its positions.
It was at this time that Giáp began his countermoves. He had expected an attack, but could not foresee when or where it would occur. Giáp realized that, if pressed, the French would abandon Lai Châu Province and fight a pitched battle at Điện Biên Phủ. On 24 November, Giáp ordered the 148th Infantry Regiment and the 316th Division to attack Lai Chau, while the 308th, 312th, and 351st divisions assault Điện Biên Phủ from Việt Bắc.
Starting in December, the French, under the command of Colonel Christian de Castries, began transforming their anchoring point into a fortress by setting up seven satellite positions. (Each was said to be named after a former mistress of de Castries, although the allegation is probably unfounded, as the eight names begin with letters from the first nine of the alphabet, excluding F.) The fortified headquarters was centrally located, with positions "Huguette '' to the west, "Claudine '' to the south, and "Dominique '' to the northeast. The other positions were "Anne - Marie '' to the northwest, "Beatrice '' to the northeast, "Gabrielle '' to the north, and "Isabelle '' 6 km (3.7 mi) to the south, covering the reserve airstrip.
The choice of de Castries as the local commander at Điện Biên Phủ was, in retrospect, a bad one. Navarre had picked de Castries, a cavalryman in the 18th - century tradition, because Navarre envisioned Điện Biên Phủ as a mobile battle. Điện Biên Phủ required someone adept at World War I - style trench warfare, something for which de Castries was not suited.
The arrival of the 316th Viet Minh Division prompted Cogny to order the evacuation of the Lai Chau garrison to Điện Biên Phủ, exactly as Giáp had anticipated. En route, they were virtually annihilated by the Viet Minh. "Of the 2,100 men who left Lai Chau on 9 December, only 185 made it to Điện Biên Phủ on 22 December. The rest had been killed, captured, or deserted ''. The Viet Minh troops converged on Điện Biên Phủ.
The French had committed 10,800 troops, with more reinforcements totaling nearly 16,000 men, to the defense of a monsoon - affected valley surrounded by heavily wooded hills that had not been secured. Artillery as well as ten M24 Chaffee light tanks and numerous aircraft were committed to the garrison. The garrison included French regular troops (notably elite paratroop units plus artillery), Foreign Legionnaires, Algerian and Moroccan tirailleurs, and locally recruited Indochinese infantry. All told, the Viet Minh had moved 50,000 regular troops into the hills surrounding the valley, totaling five divisions including the 351st Heavy Division, which was made up entirely of heavy artillery. Artillery and antiaircraft guns, which outnumbered the French artillery by about four to one, were moved into positions overlooking the valley. The French came under direct and sporadic Viet Minh artillery fire for the first time on 31 January 1954, and patrols encountered the Viet Minh in all directions. The French were surrounded.
The Viet Minh assault began in earnest on 13 March 1954 with an attack on outpost "Beatrice ''. Viet Minh artillery opened a fierce bombardment of the fortification and French command was disrupted at 18: 15 when a shell hit the French command post, killing the Legionnaire commander Major Paul Pegot and his entire staff. A few minutes later, Colonel Jules Gaucher, commander of the entire northern sector, was killed by Viet Minh artillery. The Viet Minh 312th Division then launched a massive infantry assault, using sappers to defeat French obstacles. French resistance at Beatrice collapsed shortly after midnight following a fierce battle. Roughly 500 French legionnaires were killed. The French estimated that Viet Minh losses totalled 600 dead and 1,200 wounded. The French launched a counterattack against "Beatrice '' on the following morning, but it was quickly beaten back by Viet Minh artillery. The victory at "Beatrice '' "galvanized the morale '' of the Viet Minh troops.
Much to French disbelief, the Viet Minh had employed direct artillery fire, in which each gun crew does its own artillery spotting (as opposed to indirect fire, in which guns are massed further away from the target, out of direct line of sight, and rely on a forward artillery spotter). Indirect artillery, generally held as being far superior to direct fire, requires experienced, well - trained crews and good communications, which the Viet Minh lacked. Navarre wrote that, "Under the influence of Chinese advisers, the Viet Minh commanders had used processes quite different from the classic methods. The artillery had been dug in by single pieces... They were installed in shellproof dugouts, and fire point - blank from portholes... This way of using artillery and AA guns was possible only with the expansive ant holes at the disposal of the Vietminh and was to make shambles of all the estimates of our own artillerymen. '' Two days later, the French artillery commander, Colonel Charles Piroth, distraught at his inability to bring counterfire on the well - camouflaged Viet Minh batteries, went into his dugout and committed suicide with a hand grenade. He was buried there in secret to prevent loss of morale among the French troops.
Following a five - hour cease fire on the morning of 14 March, Viet Minh artillery resumed pounding French positions. The air strip, already closed since 16: 00 the day before due to a light bombardment, was now put permanently out of commission. Any further French supplies would have to be delivered by parachute. That night, the Viet Minh launched an attack on "Gabrielle '', held by an elite Algerian battalion. The attack began with a concentrated artillery barrage at 17: 00. This was very effective and stunned the defenders. Two regiments from the crack 308th Division attacked starting at 20: 00. At 04: 00 the following morning, an artillery shell hit the battalion headquarters, severely wounding the battalion commander and most of his staff.
De Castries ordered a counterattack to relieve "Gabrielle ''. However, Colonel Pierre Langlais, in forming the counterattack, chose to rely on the 5th Vietnamese Parachute Battalion, which had jumped in the day before and was exhausted. Although some elements of the counterattack reached "Gabrielle '', most were paralyzed by Viet Minh artillery and took heavy losses. At 08: 00 the next day, the Algerian battalion fell back, abandoning "Gabrielle '' to the Viet Minh. The French lost around 1,000 men defending Gabrielle, and the Viet Minh between 1,000 and 2,000 attacking the strongpoint. The loss of the outpost "Beatrice '' and now "Gabrielle '', allowed almost pinpoint artillery to be rained down for the rest of the battle and cut off any air resupply using the airstrip, and this dictated the resulting events.
"Anne - Marie '' was defended by Tai troops, members of a Vietnamese ethnic minority loyal to the French. For weeks, Giáp had distributed subversive propaganda leaflets, telling the Tais that this was not their fight. The fall of "Beatrice '' and "Gabrielle '' had severely demoralized them. On the morning of 17 March, under the cover of fog, the bulk of the Tais left or defected. The French and the few remaining Tais on "Anne - Marie '' were then forced to withdraw.
17 March through 30 March saw a lull in fighting. The Viet Minh further tightened the noose around the French central area (formed by the strongpoints "Huguette '', "Dominique '', "Claudine '', and "Eliane ''), effectively cutting off Isabelle and its 1,809 personnel. During this lull, the French suffered from a serious crisis of command. "It had become painfully evident to the senior officers within the encircled garrison -- and even to Cogny at Hanoi -- that de Castries was incompetent to conduct the defense of Dien Bien Phu. Even more critical, after the fall of the northern outposts, he isolated himself in his bunker so that he had, in effect, relinquished his command authority ''. On 17 March, Cogny attempted to fly into Điện Biên Phủ to take command, but his plane was driven off by antiaircraft fire. Cogny considered parachuting into the encircled garrison, but his staff talked him out of it.
De Castries ' seclusion in his bunker, combined with his superiors ' inability to replace him, created a leadership vacuum within the French command. On 24 March, an event took place which later became a matter of historical debate. The historian Bernard Fall records, based on Langlais ' memoirs, that Colonel Langlais and his fellow paratroop commanders, all fully armed, confronted de Castries in his bunker on 24 March. They told him he would retain the appearance of command, but that Langlais would exercise it. De Castries is said by Fall to have accepted the arrangement without protest, although he did exercise some command functions thereafter. Phillip Davidson stated that the "truth would seem to be that Langlais did take over effective command of Dien Bien Phu, and that Castries became ' commander emeritus ' who transmitted messages to Hanoi and offered advice about matters in Dien Bien Phu ''. Jules Roy, however, makes no mention of this event, and Martin Windrow argues that the "paratrooper putsch '' is unlikely to have ever happened. Both historians record that Langlais and Marcel Bigeard were known to be on good terms with their commanding officer.
The French aerial resupply took heavy losses from Viet Minh machine guns near the landing strip. On 27 March, the Hanoi air transport commander, Nicot, ordered that all supply deliveries be made from 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or higher; losses were expected to remain heavy. De Castries ordered an attack against the Viet Minh machine guns 3 km (1.9 mi) west of Điện Biên Phủ. Remarkably, the attack was a complete success, with 350 Viet Minh soldiers killed and seventeen AA machine guns destroyed (French estimate), while the French lost 20 killed and 97 wounded.
The next phase of the battle saw more massed Viet Minh assaults against French positions in the central Điện Biên Phủ -- at "Eliane '' and "Dominique '' in particular. Those two areas were held by five understrength battalions, composed of Frenchmen, Legionnaires, Vietnamese, North Africans, and Tais. Giáp planned to use the tactics from the "Beatrice '' and "Gabrielle '' skirmishes.
At 19: 00 on 30 March, the Viet Minh 312th Division captured "Dominique 1 and 2 '', making "Dominique 3 '' the final outpost between the Viet Minh and the French general headquarters, as well as outflanking all positions east of the river. At this point, the French 4th Colonial Artillery Regiment entered the fight, setting its 105 mm howitzers to zero elevation and firing directly on the Viet Minh attackers, blasting huge holes in their ranks. Another group of French soldiers, near the airfield, opened fire on the Viet Minh with antiaircraft machine guns, forcing the Viet Minh to retreat.
The Viet Minh 's simultaneous attacks elsewhere were more successful. The 316th Division captured "Eliane 1 '' from its Moroccan defenders, and half of "Eliane 2 '' by midnight. On the other side of Điện Biên Phủ, the 308th attacked "Huguette 7 '', and nearly succeeded in breaking through, but a French sergeant took charge of the defenders and sealed the breach.
Just after midnight on 31 March, the French launched a counterattack against "Eliane 2 '', and recaptured half of it. Langlais ordered another counterattack the following afternoon against "Dominique 2 '' and "Eliane 1 '', using virtually "everybody left in the garrison who could be trusted to fight ''. The counterattacks allowed the French to retake "Dominique 2 '' and Eliane 1, but the Viet Minh launched their own renewed assault. The French, who were exhausted and without reserves, fell back from both positions late in the afternoon. Reinforcements were sent north from "Isabelle '', but were attacked en route and fell back to "Isabelle ''.
Shortly after dark on 31 March, Langlais told Major Marcel Bigeard, who was leading the defense at "Eliane '', to fall back across the river. Bigeard refused, saying "As long as I have one man alive I wo n't let go of ' Eliane 4 '. Otherwise, Dien Bien Phu is done for. '' The night of the 31st, the 316th Division attacked "Eliane 2 ''. Just as it appeared the French were about to be overrun, a few French tanks arrived, and helped push the Viet Minh back. Smaller attacks on "Eliane 4 '' were also pushed back. The Viet Minh briefly captured "Huguette 7 '', only to be pushed back by a French counterattack at dawn on 1 April.
Fighting continued in this manner over the next several nights. The Viet Minh repeatedly attacked "Eliane 2 '', only to be beaten back. Repeated attempts to reinforce the French garrison by parachute drops were made, but had to be carried out by lone planes at irregular times to avoid excessive casualties from Viet Minh antiaircraft fire. Some reinforcements did arrive, but not enough to replace French casualties.
On 5 April, after a long night of battle, French fighter - bombers and artillery inflicted particularly devastating losses on one Viet Minh regiment, which was caught on open ground. At that point, Giáp decided to change tactics. Although Giáp still had the same objective -- to overrun French defenses east of the river -- he decided to employ entrenchment and sapping to try to achieve it.
On 10 April, the French attempted to retake "Eliane 1 '', which had been lost eleven days earlier. The loss posed a significant threat to "Eliane 4 '', and the French wanted to eliminate that threat. The dawn attack, which Bigeard devised, was preceded by a short, massive artillery barrage, followed by small unit infiltration attacks, followed by mopping - up operations. "Eliane 1 '' changed hands several times that day, but by the next morning the French had control of the strongpoint. The Viet Minh attempted to retake it on the evening of 12 April, but were pushed back.
At this point, the morale of the Viet Minh soldiers was greatly lowered due to the massive casualties they had received. During a period of stalemate from 15 April to 1 May, the French intercepted enemy radio messages which told of whole units refusing orders to attack, and communist prisoners said that they were told to advance or be shot by the officers and noncommissioned officers behind them. Worse still, the Viet Minh lacked advanced medical care, with one stating that "Nothing strikes at combat morale like the knowledge that if wounded, the soldier will go uncared for ''. To avert the crisis of mutiny, Giáp called in fresh reinforcements from Laos.
During the fighting at "Eliane 1 '', on the other side of camp, the Viet Minh entrenchments had almost entirely surrounded "Huguette 1 and 6 ''. On 11 April, the garrison of "Huguette 1 '' attacked, and was joined by artillery from the garrison of "Claudine ''. The goal was to resupply "Huguette 6 '' with water and ammunition. The attacks were repeated on the nights of the 14 -- 15 and 16 -- 17 April. While they did succeed in getting some supplies through, the French suffered heavy casualties, which convinced Langlais to abandon "Huguette 6 ''. Following a failed attempt to link up, on 18 April, the defenders at "Huguette 6 '' made a daring break out, but only a few managed to make it to French lines. The Viet Minh repeated the isolation and probing attacks against Huguette 1, and overran the fort on the morning of 22 April. With the fall of "Huguette 1 '', the Viet Minh took control of more than 90 percent of the airfield, making accurate parachute drops impossible. This caused the landing zone to become perilously small, and effectively choked off much needed supplies. A French attack against "Huguette 1 '' later that day was repulsed.
"Isabelle '' saw only light action until 30 March, when the Viet Minh isolated it and beat back the attempt to send reinforcements north. Following a massive artillery barrage on 30 March, the Viet Minh began employing the same trench warfare tactics that they were using against the central camp. By the end of April, "Isabelle '' had exhausted its water supply and was nearly out of ammunition.
The Viet Minh launched a massed assault against the exhausted defenders on the night of 1 May, overrunning "Eliane 1 '', "Dominique 3 '', and "Huguette 5 '', although the French managed to beat back attacks on "Eliane 2 ''. On 6 May, the Viet Minh launched another massed attack against "Eliane 2 ''. The attack included, for the first time, Katyusha rockets. The French artillery fired a "TOT '' (Time On Target) attack, so artillery rounds fired from different positions would strike on target at the same time. This barrage defeated the first assault wave. A few hours later that night, the Viet Minh detonated a mine shaft, blowing "Eliane 2 '' up. The Viet Minh attacked again, and within a few hours then had overrun the defenders.
On 7 May, Giáp ordered an all - out attack against the remaining French units with over 25,000 Viet Minh against fewer than 3,000 garrison troops. At 17: 00, de Castries radioed French headquarters in Hanoi and talked with Cogny.
De Castries: "The Viets are everywhere. The situation is very grave. The combat is confused and goes on all about. I feel the end is approaching, but we will fight to the finish. '' Cogny: "Of course you will fight to the end. It is out of the question to run up the white flag after your heroic resistance. ''
By nightfall, all French central positions had been captured. The last radio transmission from the French headquarters reported that enemy troops were directly outside the headquarters bunker and that all the positions had been overrun. The radio operator in his last words stated: "The enemy has overrun us. We are blowing up everything. Vive la France! '' That night the garrison made a breakout attempt, in the Camarón tradition. While some of the main body managed to break out, none succeeded in escaping from the valley. However at "Isabelle '', a similar attempt later the same night saw about 70 troops, out of 1,700 men in the garrison, escape to Laos.
On 8 May, the Viet Minh counted 11,721 prisoners, of whom 4,436 were wounded. This was the greatest number the Viet Minh had ever captured: one - third of the total captured during the entire war. The prisoners were divided into groups. Able - bodied soldiers were force - marched over 600 km (370 mi) to prison camps to the north and east, where they were intermingled with Viet Minh soldiers to discourage French bombing runs. Hundreds died of disease along the way. The wounded were given basic first aid until the Red Cross arrived, extracted 858 prisoners, and provided better aid to the remainder. Those wounded who were not evacuated by the Red Cross were sent into detention.
The Viet Minh captured 8,000 French and marched them 500 miles on foot to prison camps; less than half survived the march. Of 10,863 prisoners (including Vietnamese fighting for the French), only 3,290 were officially repatriated four months later; however, the losses figure may include the 3,013 prisoners of Vietnamese origin whose eventual fate is unknown.
The garrison constituted roughly a tenth of the total French Union manpower in Indochina. The defeat seriously weakened the position and prestige of the French as previously planned negotiations over the future of Indochina began.
The Geneva Conference opened on 8 May 1954, the day after the surrender of the garrison. Ho Chi Minh entered the conference on the opening day with the news of his troops ' victory in the headlines. The resulting agreement temporarily partitioned Vietnam into two zones: the North was administered by the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam while the South was administered by the French - supported State of Vietnam. The last units of the French Union forces withdrew from Indochina in 1956. This partition was supposed to be temporary, and the two zones were meant to be reunited through national elections in 1956. After the French withdrawal, the United States supported the southern government, under Emperor Bao Dai and Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem, which opposed the Geneva agreement, and which claimed that Ho Chi Minh 's forces from the North had been killing Northern loyalists and terrorizing people both north and south. The North was supported by both the People 's Republic of China (PRC) and the Soviet Union (USSR). This arrangement proved tenuous and escalated into the Vietnam War (Second Indochina War), eventually bringing 500,000 American troops into South Vietnam.
France 's defeat in Indochina, coupled with the German destruction of her armies just 14 years earlier, seriously damaged its prestige elsewhere in its colonial empire, as well as with its NATO allies, most importantly, the United States. Within its empire, the defeat in Indochina served to spur independence movements in other colonies, notably the North African territories from which many of the troops who fought at Điện Biên Phủ had been recruited.
In 1954, six months after the battle at Điện Biên Phủ ended, the Algerian War started, and by 1956, both the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates had gained independence. A French board of inquiry, the Catroux Commission, later investigated the defeat.
According to the Mutual Defense Assistance Act, the United States provided the French with material aid during the battle -- aircraft (supplied by the USS Saipan), weapons, mechanics, 24 CIA / CAT pilots, and U.S. Air Force maintenance crews. The United States, however, intentionally avoided overt direct intervention. In February 1954, following the French occupation of Điện Biên Phủ but before the battle, Democratic senator Michael Mansfield asked the United States Defense Secretary, Charles Erwin Wilson, whether the United States would send naval or air units if the French were subjected to greater pressure there, but Wilson replied that "for the moment there is no justification for raising United States aid above its present level ''. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also stated, "Nobody is more opposed to intervention than I am ''. On 31 March, following the fall of "Beatrice '', "Gabrielle '', and "Anne - Marie '', a panel of U.S. Senators and House Representatives questioned the American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral Arthur W. Radford, about the possibility of American involvement. Radford concluded it was too late for the U.S. Air Force to save the French garrison. A proposal for direct intervention was unanimously voted down by the committee, which "concluded that intervention was a positive act of war ''.
The United States did covertly participate in the battle. Following a request for help from Henri Navarre, Radford provided two squadrons of B - 26 Invader bomber aircraft to support the French. Following this, 37 American transport pilots flew 682 sorties over the course of the battle. Earlier, in order to succeed the pre-Điện Biên Phủ Operation Castor of November 1953, General Chester McCarty made available 12 additional C - 119 Flying Boxcars flown by French crews.
Two of the American pilots, James McGovern, Jr., and Wallace Buford, were killed in action during the siege of Điện Biên Phủ. On 25 February 2005, the seven still living American pilots were awarded the French Legion of Honor by Jean - David Levitte, the French ambassador to the United States. The role that the American pilots played in this battle had remained little known until 2004. The American historian Erik Kirsinger researched the case for more than a year to establish the facts.
The French author Jules Roy suggests that Admiral Radford discussed with the French the possibility of using nuclear weapons in support of the French garrison. Moreover, John Foster Dulles reportedly mentioned the possibility of lending atomic bombs to the French for use at Điện Biên Phủ, and a similar source claims that the British Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden was aware of the possibility of the use of nuclear weapons in that region.
In January 1968, during the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese Army (still under Giáp 's command) initiated a siege and artillery bombardment on the U.S. Marine Corps base at Khe Sanh, South Vietnam. Historians are divided on whether this was a genuine attempt to repeat their success at Điện Biên Phủ by forcing the surrender of the Marine base, or else a diversion from the rest of the Tết Offensive, or an example of the North Vietnamese Army keeping its options open. At Khe Sanh, a number of factors were significantly different from Điện Biên Phủ. Khe Sanh was much closer to an American supply base (45 km or 28 mi) compared to a French one at Điện Biên Phủ (200 km or 120 mi).
At Khe Sanh, the U.S. Marines held the high ground, and their artillery forced the North Vietnamese to use their own artillery from a much greater distance. By contrast, at Điện Biên Phủ, the French artillery (six 105 mm batteries and one battery of four 155 mm howitzers and mortars) was only sporadically effective; Furthermore, by 1968, the American military presence in Vietnam dwarfed that of the French, and included numerous technological advances such as effective helicopters.
Khe Sanh received 18,000 tons of aerial resupplies during the 77 - day battle, whereas during the 167 days that the French forces at Điện Biên Phủ held out, they received only 4,000 tons. Also, the US Air Force dropped 114,810 tons of bombs upon the Vietnamese at Khe Sanh -- roughly as many as on Japan during 1945 during World War II.
Many of the flights operated by the French Air force to evacuate casualties had female flight nurses on board. A total of 15 women served on flights to Điện Biên Phủ. One, Geneviève de Galard, was stranded there when her plane was destroyed by shellfire while being repaired on the airfield. She remained on the ground providing medical services in the field hospital until the surrender. She was referred to as the "Angel of Điện Biên Phủ ''. Historians disagree regarding this moniker, with Martin Windrow maintaining that de Galard was referred to by this name by the garrison itself, but Michael Kenney and Bernard Fall maintaining it was added by outside press agencies.
The French forces came to Điện Biên Phủ accompanied by two bordels mobiles de campagne, ("mobile field brothels ''), served by Algerian and Vietnamese women. When the siege ended, the Viet Minh sent the surviving Vietnamese women for "re-education ''.
This battle was depicted in at least three films:
Today the battlefield is a large historical site. French positions such as Beatrice, Isabelle, Elaine, Muong Thanh Bridge and De Castries 's Bunker have been preserved. Nearly 30 kilometres away from the centre of Dien Bien Phu lays the Viet Minh army complex ranging from shelters and trenches, also preserved in Muong Phang village. A 96 meter underground tunnel connects the working places of General Vo Nguyen Giap and General Hoang Van Thai. In addition monuments and memorials to both sides are situated in the region.
|
four unequal access to basic services reason enough to commit crime in south africa | Crime in South Africa - Wikipedia
Crime is a prominent issue in South Africa. The country has a very high rate of murders, assaults, rapes (adult, child, elderly and infant), and other crimes compared to most countries. Most emigrants from South Africa state that crime was a big factor in their decision to leave. The South African Police Service is responsible for managing 1,115 police stations across South Africa.
In February 2007, the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation was contracted by the South African government to carry out a study on the nature of crime in South Africa. The study concluded that the country is exposed to high levels of violence as a result of different factors.
A survey for the period 1990 -- 2000 compiled by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ranked South Africa second for assault and murder (by all means) per capita and first for rapes per capita in a data set of 60 countries. Total crime per capita was 10th out of the 60 countries in the dataset.
The United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute have conducted research on the victims of crime which shows the picture of South African crime as more typical of a developing country.
Recently released statistics from the South African Police Service (SAPS) and Statistics South Africa (SSA) saw a slight decline of 1.4 % in violent crimes committed in South Africa.
Around 49 people are murdered in South Africa every day. The murder rate increased rapidly in the late - 1980s and early - 1990s. Between 1994 - 2009, the murder rate halved from 67 to 34 murders per 100,000 people. Between 2011 - 2015, it stabilised to around 32 homicides per 100,000 people although the total number of lives lost has increased due to the increase in population. There have been numerous press reports on the manipulation of crime statistics that have highlighted the existence of incentives not to record violent crime. Nonetheless, murder statistics are considered accurate.
Homicides per 100,000 from April to March:
The country has one of the highest rates of rape in the world, with some 65,000 rapes and other sexual assaults reported for the year ending in March 2012, or 127.6 per 100,000 people in the country. The incidence of rape has led to the country being referred to as the "rape capital of the world ''. One in three of the 4,000 women questioned by the Community of Information, Empowerment and Transparency said they had been raped in the past year. More than 25 % of South African men questioned in a survey published by the Medical Research Council (MRC) in June 2009 admitted to rape; of those, nearly half said they had raped more than one person. Three out of four of those who had admitted rape indicated that they had attacked for the first time during their teenage years. South Africa has amongst the highest incidences of child and baby rape in the world.
South Africa has a high record of carjacking when compared with other industrialised countries. Insurance company Hollard Insurance stated in 2007 that they would no longer insure Volkswagen Citi Golfs, as they were one of the country 's most frequently carjacked vehicles. Certain high - risk areas are marked with road signs indicating a high incidence of carjackings within the locality.
Crime against white commercial farmers is particularly high, and the issue continues to attract significant media attention.
Kidnapping in South Africa is a common in the country with over 4,100 occurring in the 2013 / 2014 period, and a child going missing every five hours.
PricewaterhouseCoopers 's fourth biennial Global Economic Crime Survey reported a 110 % increase in fraud reports from South African companies in 2005. 83 % of South African companies reported being affected by white collar crime in 2005, and 72 % of South African companies reported being affected in 2007. 64 % of the South African companies surveyed stated that they pressed forward with criminal charges upon detection of fraud. 3 % of companies said that they each lost more than 10,000,000 South African rand in two years due to fraud.
Louis Strydom, the head of PricewaterhouseCooper 's forensic auditing division, said that the increase in fraud reports originates from "an increased focus on fraud risk management and embedding a culture of whistle - blowing. '' According to the survey 45 % of cases involved a perpetrator between the ages of 31 and 40: 64 % of con men held a high school education or less.
Advance fee fraud scammers based in South Africa have in past years reportedly conned people from various parts of the world out of millions of rands. South African police sources stated that Nigerians living in Johannesburg suburbs operate advance fee fraud (419) schemes.
In 2002, the South African Minister of Finance, Trevor Manuel, wanted to make a call centre for businesses to check reputations of businesses due to proliferation of scams such as advance fee fraud, pyramid schemes and fly - by - night operators. In response, the South African Police Service has established a project which has identified 419 scams, closing websites and bank accounts where possible.
Gated communities are popular with the South African middle - class, Black as much as White. Gated communities are usually protected by high perimeter walls topped with electric fencing, guard dogs, barred doors and windows and alarm systems linked to private security forces. The Gauteng Rationalisation of Local Government Affairs Act 10 of 1998, allows communities to "restrict '' access to public roads under the supervision of the municipalities. The law requires that entry control measures within these communities should not deny anyone access. The Tshwane municipality failed to process many of the applications it has received, leaving many suburbs exposed to high levels of crime. Several communities successfully sued, won and are now legally restricting access. These measures are generally considered effective in reducing crime (within those areas). Consequently, the number of enclosed neighbourhoods (existing neighbourhoods that have controlled access across existing roads) in Gauteng has continued to grow.
To protect themselves and their assets, many businesses and middle - to - high - income households make use of privately owned security companies with armed security guards. The South African Police Service employ private security companies to patrol and safeguard certain police stations, thereby freeing fully trained police officers to perform their core function of preventing and combating crime. A December 2008 BBC documentary, Law and Disorder in Johannesburg, examined such firms in the Johannesburg area, including the Bad Boyz security company.
It is argued that the police response is generally too slow and unreliable, thus private security companies offer a popular form of protection. Private security firms promise response times of two to three minutes. Many levels of protection are offered, from suburban foot patrols to complete security checkpoints at the entry points to homes.
The government has been criticised for doing too little to stop crime. Provincial legislators have stated that a lack of sufficient equipment has resulted in an ineffective and demoralised South African Police Service. The Government was subject to particular criticism at the time of the Minister of Safety and Security visit to Burundi, for the purpose of promoting peace and democracy, at a time of heightened crime in Gauteng. This spate included the murder of a significant number of people, including members of the South African Police Service, killed while on duty. The criticism was followed by a ministerial announcement that the government would focus its efforts on mitigating the causes for the increase in crime by 30 December 2006. In one province alone, nineteen police officers lost their lives in the first seven months of 2006.
Recently, the government had a widely publicised gun amnesty program to reduce the number of weapons in private hands. In 1996 or 1997, the government has tried and failed to adopt the National Crime Prevention Strategy, which aimed to prevent crime through reinforcing community structures and assisting individuals to get back into work.
A previous Minister of Safety and Security, Charles Nqakula, evoked public outcry among South Africans in June 2006 when he responded to opposition MPs in parliament who were not satisfied that enough was being done to counter crime, suggesting that MPs who complain about the country 's crime rate should stop complaining and leave the country.
|
which parts of the national government share the power in the feild of foreign affairs | Government of Meiji Japan - wikipedia
The Government of Meiji Japan (明治 政府, Meiji seifu) was the government that was formed by politicians of the Satsuma Domain and Chōshū Domain in the 1860s. The Meiji government was the early government of the Empire of Japan.
Politicians of the Meiji government were known as the Meiji oligarchy, who overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate.
After the Meiji Restoration, the leaders of the samurai who overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate had no clear agenda or pre-developed plan on how to run Japan. They did have a number of things in common --, according to Andrew Gordon, "It was precisely their intermediate status and their insecure salaried position, coupled with their sense of frustrated ambition and entitlement to rule, that account for the revolutionary energy of the Meiji insurgents and their far - reaching program of reform ''. most were in their mid-40s, and most were from the four tozama domains of western Japan (Chōshū, Satsuma, Tosa and Hizen). Although from lower - ranked samurai families, they had risen to military leadership roles in their respective domains, and came from a Confucian - based educational background which stressed loyalty and service to society. Finally, most either had first - hand experience in travel overseas, or second - hand experience through contacts with foreign advisors in Japan. As a result, they knew of the military superiority of the western nations and of the need for Japan to unify, and to strengthen itself to avoid the colonial fate of its neighbors on the Asian continent.
However, immediately after the resignation of Tokugawa Yoshinobu in 1867, with no official centralized government, the country was a collection of largely semi-independent daimyōs controlled feudal domains, held together by the military strength of the Satchō Alliance, and by the prestige of the Imperial Court.
In early March 1868, with the outcome of the Boshin War still uncertain, the new Meiji government summoned delegates from all of the domains to Kyoto to establish a provisional consultative national assembly. In April 1868, the Charter Oath was promulgated, in which Emperor Meiji set out the broad general outlines for Japan 's development and modernization.
Two months later, in June 1868, the Seitaisho was promulgated to establish the new administrative basis for the Meiji government. This administrative code was drafted by Fukuoka Takachika and Soejima Taneomi (both of whom had studied abroad and who had a liberal political outlook), and was a mixture of western concepts such as division of powers, and a revival of ancient structures of bureaucracy dating back to Nara period. A central governmental structure, or Daijōkan, was established.
The Daijōkan had seven departments:
A separate Justice Ministry was established to create a form of separation of powers in imitation of the western countries.
The government instigated Fuhanken Sanchisei, dividing territory into urban prefectures or municipalities (fu) and rural prefectures (ken). Local government in Japan consisted of area confiscated from the Tokugawa, administered from the Department of Civil Affairs, and 273 semi-independent domains. Agents from the central government were sent to each of the domains to work towards administrative uniformity and conformation to the directives of the central government.
In early 1869, the national capital was transferred from Kyoto to Edo, which was renamed Tokyo (Eastern Capital).
In March 1869, the central government led by Ōkubo Toshimichi of Satsuma felt strong enough to effect further centralization. After merging the armies of Satsuma and Chōshū into a combined force, Ōkubo and Kido Takayoshi convinced the daimyō of Satsuma, Chōshū, Hizen and Tosa to surrender their domains to the emperor. Other daimyō were forced to do the same, and all were reappointed as "governors '' to their respective domains, which were now treated as sub-divisions of the central government.
In the spring of 1871, Ōkubo, Kido, Inoue Kaoru, Yamagata Aritomo, Saigō Takamori, Ōyama Iwao, Sanjō Sanetomi and Iwakura held a secret meeting during which it was decided to proceed with abolition of the han domains entirely. Later that year, all of the ex-daimyō were summoned to the Emperor, and he issued a decree converting the domains to prefectures headed by a bureaucratic appointee from the central government. The daimyō were generously pensioned off into retirement, and their castles became the local administrative centers for the central government. This decree resulted in 305 units of local administration, which were reduced to 72 prefectures and 3 municipalities by the end of the year through various mergers, so that by the end of 1871, Japan had become a fully centralized state. The transition was made gradually, so that there was no disruption to the lives of the common people, and no outbreaks of resistance or violence. The central government absorbed all of the debts and obligations of the domains, and many former officials in the domains found new employment with the central government.
In 1871, the central government supported the creation of consultative assembles at the lowest levels of government, at the town, village and county level. The membership of the prefectural assemblies was drawn from these local assemblies. As the local assemblies only had the power of debate, and not legislation, they provided an important safety valve, without the ability to challenge the authority of the central government.
While then domains were being abolished and local administrative boundaries were being moved around, in August 1869, the central government itself underwent some restructuring to reinforce centralized authority. The idea of division of powers was abandoned. The new government was based on a national assembly (which met only once), an appointive Council of Advisors (Sangi), and eight Ministries:
Decision - making in the government was restricted to a closed oligarchy of perhaps 20 individuals (from Satsuma, Chōshū, Tosa, Hizen and from the Imperial Court). The Home Ministry, as it appointed all prefectural governors, and controlled police apparatus was the most powerful ministry in the government, and it is noteworthy that Ōkubo left the Ministry of Finance to head the Home Ministry when it was established.
One of the pressures on the early Meiji government was the division between those members of the oligarchy who favored some form of representative government, based on overseas models, and the more conservative faction who favored centralized, authoritarian rule.
A major proponent of representative government was Itagaki Taisuke, a powerful leader of Tosa forces who had resigned from his Council of State position over the Korean affair in 1873. Itagaki sought peaceful rather than rebellious means to gain a voice in government. Such movements were called The Freedom and People 's Rights Movement. He started a movement aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy and a national assembly. Itagaki and others wrote the Tosa Memorial in 1874 criticizing the unbridled power of the oligarchy and calling for the immediate establishment of representative government. Dissatisfied with the pace of reform after having rejoined the Council of State in 1875, Itagaki organized his followers and other democratic proponents into the nationwide Aikokusha (Society of Patriots) to push for representative government in 1878. In 1881, in an action for which he is best known, Itagaki helped found the Jiyūtō (Liberal Party), which favored French political doctrines. In 1882 Ōkuma Shigenobu established the Rikken Kaishintō (Constitutional Progressive Party), which called for a British - style constitutional democracy. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials, and other conservatives established the Rikken Teiseitō (Imperial Rule Party), a pro-government party, in 1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, some of them violent, resulting in further government political restrictions. The restrictions hindered the political parties and led to divisiveness within and among them. The Jiyūtō, which had opposed the Kaishintō, was disbanded in 1884, and Ōkuma resigned as Kaishintō president.
Government leaders, long preoccupied with violent threats to stability and the serious leadership split over the Korean affair, generally agreed that constitutional government should someday be established. Kido Takayoshi had favored a constitutional form of government since before 1874, and several proposals that provided for constitutional guarantees had been drafted. The oligarchy, however, while acknowledging the realities of political pressure, was determined to keep control. The Osaka Conference of 1875 resulted in the reorganization of government with an independent judiciary and an appointed Council of Elders tasked with reviewing proposals for a constitution. The emperor declared that "constitutional government shall be established in gradual stages '' as he ordered the Genrōin to draft a constitution. In 1880, delegates from twenty - four prefectures held a national convention to establish the Kokkai Kisei Dōmei (League for Establishing a National Assembly).
Although the government was not opposed to parliamentary rule, confronted with the drive for "people 's rights, '' it continued to try to control the political situation. New laws in 1875 prohibited press criticism of the government or discussion of national laws. The Public Assembly Law (1880) severely limited public gatherings by disallowing attendance by civil servants and requiring police permission for all meetings. Within the ruling circle, however, and despite the conservative approach of the leadership, Ōkuma continued as a lone advocate of British - style government, a government with political parties and a cabinet organized by the majority party, answerable to the national assembly. He called for elections to be held by 1882 and for a national assembly to be convened by 1883; in doing so, he precipitated a political crisis that ended with an 1881 imperial rescript declaring the establishment of a national assembly in 1890 and his dismissal from government.
Rejecting the British model, Iwakura Tomomi and other conservatives borrowed heavily from the Prussian constitutional system. Itō Hirobumi, one of the Meiji oligarchy and a Chōshū native long involved in government affairs, was charged with drafting Japan 's constitution. He led a Constitutional Study Mission abroad in 1882, spending most of his time in Germany. He rejected the United States Constitution as "too liberal '' and the British system as too unwieldy and having a parliament with too much control over the monarchy; the French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism.
On Itō 's return, one of the first acts of the government was to establish the kazoku peerage system with new ranks for the nobility. Five hundred persons from the old court nobility, former daimyō, samurai and commoners who had provided valuable service to the government were organized in five ranks: prince, marquis, count, viscount, and baron.
Itō was put in charge of the new Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Systems in 1884, and the Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Itō as prime minister. The positions of chancellor, minister of the left, and minister of the right, which had existed since the seventh century as advisory positions to the emperor, were all abolished. In their place, the Privy Council was established in 1888 to evaluate the forthcoming constitution and to advise the emperor. To further strengthen the authority of the state, the Supreme War Council was established under the leadership of Yamagata Aritomo a Chōshū native who has been credited with the founding of the modern Imperial Japanese Army and was to become the first constitutional Prime Minister. The Supreme War Council developed a German - style general staff system with a chief of staff who had direct access to the emperor and who could operate independently of the army minister and civilian officials.
When finally granted by the Emperor as a sign of his sharing his authority and giving rights and liberties to his subjects, the 1889 Constitution of the Empire of Japan (the Meiji Constitution) provided for the Imperial Diet (Teikoku Gikai), composed of a House of Representatives and a House of Peers. The House of Representatives was popularly elected with a very limited franchise of male citizens who paid 15 yen in national taxes (about 1 percent of the population) being eligible candidates. The House of Peers was composed of nobility and imperial appointees. There was also the provision for the creation of a Cabinet composed of ministers of State directly responsible to the Emperor and independent of the legislature. Functionally, the Diet was able to approve government legislation and initiate laws, make representations to the government, and submit petitions to the Emperor.
Nevertheless, in spite of these institutional changes, sovereignty still resided in the Emperor on the basis of his divine ancestry. The new constitution specified a form of government that was still authoritarian in character, with the Emperor holding the ultimate power and only minimal concessions made to popular rights and parliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part of the political process. The Meiji Constitution was to last as the fundamental law until 1947.
The first national election was held in 1890, and 300 members were elected to the lower house. Voting was restricted to males over twenty - five who paid income tax of minimally fifteen yen, a qualification to be lowered in 1900 and 1919 with universal male suffrage passed after much debate in 1925. Women never obtained the franchise until after World War II when a new constitution was introduced.
The Jiyūtō and Kaishintō parties had been revived in anticipation of the election and together won more than half of the seats. The House of Representatives soon became the arena for disputes between the politicians and the government bureaucracy over large issues, such as the budget, the ambiguity of the constitution on the Diet 's authority, and the desire of the Diet to interpret the "will of the Emperor '' versus the oligarchy 's position that the cabinet and administration should "transcend '' all conflicting political forces. The main leverage the Diet had was in its approval or disapproval of the budget, and it successfully wielded its authority henceforth.
In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and Chōshū elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extraconstitutional body of genrō (elder statesmen). Collectively, the genrō made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the genrō, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically. Throughout the period, however, political problems were usually solved through compromise, and political parties gradually increased their power over the government and held an ever larger role in the political process as a result.
After the bitter political rivalries between the inception of the Diet in 1890 and 1894, when the nation was unified for the war effort against China, there followed five years of unity, unusual cooperation, and coalition cabinets. From 1900 to 1912, the Diet and the cabinet cooperated even more directly, with political parties playing larger roles. Throughout the entire period, the old Meiji oligarchy retained ultimate control but steadily yielded power to the opposition parties. The two major figures of the period were Yamagata Aritomo, whose long tenure (1868 -- 1922) as a military and civil leader, including two terms as prime minister, was characterized by his intimidation of rivals and resistance to democratic procedures, and Itō Hirobumi, who was a compromiser and, although overruled by the genrō, wanted to establish a government party to control the House during his first term. When Itō returned as prime minister in 1898, he again pushed for a government party, but when Yamagata and others refused, Itō resigned. With no willing successor among the genrō, the Kenseitō (Constitutional Party) was invited to form a cabinet under the leadership of Ōkuma and Itagaki, a major achievement in the opposition parties ' competition with the genrō. This success was short - lived: the Kenseitō split into two parties, the Kenseitō led by Itagaki and the Kensei Hontō (Real Constitutional Party) led by Ōkuma, and the cabinet ended after only four months. Yamagata then returned as prime minister with the backing of the military and the bureaucracy. Despite broad support of his views on limiting constitutional government, Yamagata formed an alliance with Kenseitō. Reforms of electoral laws, an expansion of the House to 369 members, and provisions for secret ballots won Diet support for Yamagata 's budgets and tax increases. He continued to use imperial ordinances, however, to keep the parties from fully participating in the bureaucracy and to strengthen the already independent position of the military. When Yamagata failed to offer more compromises to the Kenseitō, the alliance ended in 1900, beginning a new phase of political development.
Itō and his protégé, Saionji Kinmochi finally succeeded in forming a progovernment party -- the Rikken Seiyūkai (Constitutional Association of Political Friendship) -- in September 1900, and a month later Itō became prime minister of the first Seiyūkai cabinet. The Seiyūkai held the majority of seats in the House, but Yamagata 's conservative allies had the greatest influence in the House of Peers, forcing Itō to seek imperial intervention. Tiring of political infighting, Itō resigned in 1901. Thereafter, the prime ministership alternated between Yamagata 's protégé, Katsura Tarō and Saionji. The alternating of political power was an indication of the two sides ' ability to cooperate and share power and helped foster the continued development of party politics.
In 1911, Japan ended all unequal treaties. The Meiji period ended with the death of the Emperor Meiji in 1912 and the beginning of the Taishō period (1912 -- 1926) as Crown Prince Yoshito became the new emperor (Emperor Taishō). The end of the Meiji period was marked by huge government domestic and overseas investments and military programs, nearly exhausted credit, and a lack of foreign exchange to pay debts. But, the "Meiji regime '' lasted until the end of the World War II in 1945.
The beginning of the Taishō period was marked by a political crisis that interrupted the earlier politics of compromise. When Prime Minister Saionji attempted to cut the military budget, the army minister resigned, bringing down the Seiyūkai cabinet. Both Yamagata and Saionji refused to resume office, and the genrō were unable to find a solution. Public outrage over the military manipulation of the cabinet and the recall of Katsura for a third term led to still more demands for an end to genrō politics. Despite old guard opposition, the conservative forces formed a party of their own in 1913, the Rikken Dōshikai (Constitutional Association of Allies), a party that won a majority in the House over the Seiyūkai in late 1914.
|
where do the stargate movies fit in the timeline | Stargate - wikipedia
Stargate is a military science fiction and media franchise based on the film written by Dean Devlin and Roland Emmerich. The franchise is based on the idea of an alien Einstein -- Rosen bridge device (the Stargate) that enables nearly instantaneous travel across the cosmos. The franchise began with the film Stargate, released on October 28, 1994, by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Carolco, which grossed US $ 197 million worldwide. In 1997, Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner created a television series titled Stargate SG - 1 as a sequel to the film. This show was joined by Stargate Atlantis in 2004, Stargate Universe in 2009, and a prequel web series, Stargate: Origins, in 2017. Also consistent with the same story are a variety of books, video games and comic books, as well as the direct - to - DVD movies Stargate: The Ark of Truth and Stargate: Continuum, which concluded the first television show after 10 seasons.
In 2011, Stargate Universe, the last Stargate program on television, ended its run. Brad Wright announced that there were no more plans to continue the same story in further productions. In 2016, comic publisher American Mythology acquired the rights to publish new Stargate Atlantis stories set within the established franchise canon. This was expanded in 2017 to include new Stargate Universe comics as well, resolving the cliffhanger that ended the show. The predominant story arc thus ran on television for 15 years, including 17 seasons (354 episodes) of programming, and 8 comic book issues as of July 2017. However, a variety of other media either ignore this main continuity or resets it, while maintaining essential elements that define the franchise (mainly, the inclusion of a Stargate device). These include the 2002 animated series Stargate Infinity.
In 2017, the franchise was revived with the announcement of a new prequel web series, Stargate: Origins. Episodes will premiere on a central "fan hub '' for the franchise called Stargate Command, with a first season of ten 10 - minute episodes announced for premiere in Fall 2017 with further possible depending on fan response.
Stargate productions center on the premise of a "Stargate, '' a ring - shaped portal that enables rapid transportation to other stargates located up to cosmic distances away. The story begins when one such device is discovered on Earth. The 1994 film and subsequent television series depict how the device is kept under the control of the United States government, who use it to conduct interplanetary missions by dialing the thousands of stargates located in the galaxy, which are the legacy of an ancient civilization. The expeditions originally had the goal of acquiring new technology and detecting threats, but often face humanitarian issues and the dilemmas of interacting with different societies. Finally they resulted in a constant need to continue the program to defend Earth from invading aliens.
Combined with the notion that the Stargate is a secret, Stargate productions are notable for presenting no contradiction with reality, being set in the present day on an otherwise normal Earth, and being dominated by human interaction in the galaxy. In the story of the 1994 film, this is explained as being the result of deportations by aliens, with the suggestion that ancient mythologies are the result of aliens posing as gods in the distant past (as in the unproven ancient astronaut hypothesis).
The longest - running series, Stargate SG - 1 sets the context having the galaxy as a failed state in which Goa'uld System Lords war against each other. They also use superior technology to pose as gods to the human populations who had been deported from Earth to everywhere in the galaxy and who are kept in ignorance and slavery. The US Stargate Command represents simultaneously a higher level of civilization and a lower level of technology during conflicts. Only a small portion of stargate dial numbers do not lead to planets dominated by the Goa'uld.
Due to multiple developers working separately and independently on the franchise over the years, the various Stargate productions are not entirely consistent with each other; and while no set of works forms an official canon, the largest following exists for the three live - action series. Through the work of various authors and developers, at least six separate story cycles can be discerned, some of which are continuations of the other ones (either endorsed or unendorsed by their predecessor).
In 1994, the military science fiction feature film Stargate was released, directed by Roland Emmerich and co-written by Emmerich and Dean Devlin. The film lays the foundation for all the Stargate productions that come after it, by explaining the notion, function, and history of the Stargate.
The film begins with the unearthing of the Stargate in Giza in 1928. In a present day, i.e., 1994, military base in Creek Mountain, Colorado, discredited Egyptologist Daniel Jackson (James Spader) enables use of the Stargate when he recognizes that symbols on the cover stones of the Stargate are asterisms used in a three dimensional coordinate system. A team led by Colonel Jack O'Neil (Kurt Russell) is ordered to step through the Stargate and identify potential military threats on the other side. Jackson accompanies them to operate the other Stargate with his knowledge of the coordinate system. The team discovers a slave civilization serving an alien who is posing as the Egyptian god Ra (Jaye Davidson). Ra and his minions have taken human form, dominating the slaves with brute force. With the help of the locals, O'Neil's team is eventually able to instigate a slave rebellion, overwhelming Ra 's forces. Ra escapes in his mothership, but O'Neil is able to teleport a nuclear warhead on - board Ra 's ship in orbit and detonate it. With Ra dead, the civilization can live in peace; O'Neil and his team return home through the Stargate, but Daniel Jackson stays on the planet with a young local woman named Sha'uri.
After Bill McCay had written a series of five novels continuing the story the original creators had envisioned, and despite the success of the Stargate television series, Dean Devlin stated in 2006 that "he has struck a production deal with MGM and is developing the long - delayed sequel feature films that will pick up the story from the 1994 original '' According to Devlin, two movie sequels would have picked up the story from the 1994 original, but not the mythology of the SG - 1 and Atlantis series, with the original stars Kurt Russell and James Spader. Devlin regretted giving MGM control over the franchise. The first movie already tapped into Egyptian mythology; the second one would have moved into other mythologies; and the third would tie all the mythologies together. Stargate SG - 1 and Stargate Atlantis producer Brad Wright said in 2002 that "Devlin can wish to do a sequel to Stargate all he wants. MGM owns the rights, and I doubt very much that they 'll ask him to do it. He knows better. ''
Plans for producing two sequels of the original film were announced by the original film 's creator Dean Devlin at the 2006 San Diego Comic - Con. He was in talks with MGM to produce four films and he wanted two of them to be the final two films in his envisioned Stargate trilogy. In an interview with Sci Fi Wire, Devlin said that should the sequels be made, he hoped to enlist Kurt Russell and James Spader in the two sequels. Both Russell and Spader expressed interest, Devlin revealed. "They 've always said they wanted to do it. The irony is actually because it was 12 years ago that we made Stargate, (and) part two was actually supposed to take place about 12 years later. We were just going to kind of age them up as actors. So it actually works out really nicely. '' These sequels would bypass the 12 years of mythology created by SG - 1 and Atlantis if they are ever produced.
Dean Devlin spoke out again on July 4, 2011 stating that he had n't given up on the idea of sequels to his 1994 feature film. He talked about the idea again in a new interview with Collider. Devlin actually wrote it as a trilogy of movies, but was never able to do parts two and three. His hope was, as the series started to wind down, that perhaps it would be time to actually get to do parts two and three.
Devlin has said "I think it 'll change a little bit from our original idea since so many years have passed, '' he said. "We wanted to explore the idea of how the Stargates were built originally, and where else in the universe they exist, and why they exist -- and where else they exist on Earth. We had really planned out, as a trilogy of films, to allow this mythology to grow bigger and bigger. '' "It was announced that MGM and Warner Bros. are partnering with both Emmerich and Devlin for a reboot of Stargate as a trilogy with Emmerich directing and Devlin producing. On November 17, 2016, Devlin told Empire Online that the plans to make a reboot of a potential new series are stalled.
In 1997, Jonathan Glassner and Brad Wright co-developed Stargate SG - 1, a television series intended to continue the story laid down by the original film. Although new actors were cast, several roles from the film were reprised, including the main characters Daniel Jackson and Jack O'Neill (which was re-spelled to include an extra "L ''). The Stargate Command setting was transferred from a fictional military facility located in Creek Mountain, to the Cheyenne Mountain Complex. Other variations and differences between the original film and SG - 1 mostly concern the location of the planet Abydos, the alien Ra, the race of Ra 's underlings (Jaffa), and Stargate travel.
The series debuted on Showtime on July 27, 1997, and moved to the Sci - Fi Channel after its fifth season. It starred Richard Dean Anderson (as O'Neill) and Michael Shanks (as Jackson), alongside Amanda Tapping, Christopher Judge and Don S. Davis respectively playing the new characters Samantha Carter, Teal'c and George Hammond. The cast remained fairly regular for most of SG - 1 's run, but experienced some changes. Michael Shanks left the show at the end of Season 5 and was replaced by Corin Nemec as Jonas Quinn. Shanks returned at the beginning of Season 7 and Nemec was written out. At the end of Season 7 Davis left the show and Anderson filled the gap he left in the story. Season 9 saw the departure of Anderson, but added new regulars Beau Bridges and Ben Browder. After a debut episode in Season 8, followed by appearances in eight episodes of Season 9, Claudia Black 's popular reception earned her a position in the regular cast in Season 10.
MGM put an average of $1,400,000 into each episode of the show, and regards it as one of its most important franchises. SG - 1 was taken off air in 2007; however, two direct - to - DVD movies entitled The Ark of Truth and Stargate Continuum were made to tie up loose ends.
In June 2009, "Children of the Gods '', Stargate SG - 1 's pilot episode, was re-cut into a Stargate SG - 1 direct - to - DVD movie with brand new visual effects and scenes not previously included in the television version.
The Stargate Atlantis series follows the adventures of the "Atlantis expedition '', a combination of military forces and civilian scientists that travel to the Pegasus galaxy in search of the Lost City of Atlantis, left behind by the most powerful race known to ever have lived, referred to as the Ancients, also known as Lanteans and Alterans. The finding of the city had been a plot arc for most of SG - 1 's Season 7, and the Ancients themselves had been a long - running facet of the SG - 1 setting. Arriving at the City, the expedition discover that the Pegasus galaxy is dominated by a terrible enemy known as the "Wraith '', against whom they must defend themselves, despite being vastly outnumbered.
Stargate Atlantis was a spin - off television series from Stargate SG - 1. A new feature film was originally intended to transition the two series after the sixth season of SG - 1. Later, SG - 1 was renewed for a seventh season, and the feature film was then planned to transition that season. Finally, when SG - 1 was renewed for an eighth season, the intended film instead became the two - part season finale episode "Lost City '', and the setting of Stargate Atlantis was moved to the Pegasus galaxy. This allowed the two shows to exist side - by - side within the same fictional universe, and later the two shows even become interconnected. Atlantis was developed by most of the same people and in the same studios as SG - 1.
Atlantis debuted on the Sci - Fi Channel on July 16, 2004, starring Joe Flanigan and Torri Higginson in the lead roles, with Rainbow Sun Francks, David Hewlett, and Rachel Luttrell alongside. Hewlett and Higginson 's characters had previously appeared in SG - 1 (though Higginson inherited the role from actress Jessica Steen). In Atlantis ' second season, Paul McGillion and Jason Momoa (replacing Francks) were added as regulars. At the end of the third season, Higginson and McGillion were removed as regulars, both serving recurring roles in the 4th season. Season 4 brought in Amanda Tapping, reprising her role as Samantha Carter from SG - 1, and Jewel Staite in a recurring role. Tapping left the show for season five to concentrate on Sanctuary, and was replaced by Robert Picardo, who reprised his role as Richard Woolsey from both SG - 1 and Atlantis. However, in late summer 2008 it was announced that SciFi would not renew Atlantis. The final episode aired on January 9, 2009.
Stargate Universe is the third live - action Stargate series, and premiered on October 2, 2009. The series was pitched to the Sci Fi Channel in the fall of 2007, just before the writer 's strike -- which put a hold on the project. "The pitch was received very well, '' according to Stargate Atlantis co-creator Brad Wright. Sci Fi Channel ordered Universe after announcing the cancellation of Stargate Atlantis. Syfy announced on December 16, 2010 that they would not pick the show up for a third season. The final episode aired May 9, 2011.
After the events of Stargate Atlantis, research into the Stargate 's 9th and final chevron leads to an expedition being stranded several billion light years from earth on board an Ancient ship called "Destiny '' which has been traveling through the universe unmanned for millions of years. The show follows the crew as they struggle to survive on board Destiny with no apparent way home. The show was intended to have a darker tone than its predecessors and delve more into the humanity of the characters and their relationships with each other.
Stargate: The Ark of Truth is a direct - to - DVD movie written and directed by Robert C. Cooper. The film is the conclusion of Stargate SG - 1 's Ori arc, and picks up after the SG - 1 series finale, but takes place before the fourth season of Stargate Atlantis. The Ark of Truth was released as a Region 1 DVD release on March 11, 2008. Sky One has broadcast the film on March 24, 2008, to be followed by the Region 2 DVD release on April 28, 2008, with the Region 4 DVD release on April 9, 2008.
Stargate: Continuum is a direct - to - DVD movie written by Brad Wright and directed by Martin Wood. Some scenes for this movie were already shot at the end of March 2007, but the original start date was set for May 22 at Vancouver 's Bridge Studios. The production budget was $7 million. The movie was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on July 29, 2008. The Region 4 DVD was released on August 6, 2008 with the Region 2 DVD released on August 18, 2008; followed by possible TV broadcasts. The film is a time - travel adventure and is the second sequel to Stargate SG - 1, after Stargate: The Ark of Truth.
In April 2009, MGM confirmed a third SG - 1 film that Brad Wright had first announced in May 2008. Wright was set to co-write the film with former Stargate Atlantis executive producer Carl Binder, with Martin Wood serving as director. According to Wright, the film would center on the Jack O'Neill character and reunite as many of the SG - 1 cast as possible, depending on the cost of the film and actor availability. Michael Shanks (Daniel Jackson) had confirmed his and Richard Dean Anderson 's participation. Amanda Tapping confirmed her appearance in the third SG - 1 film and the first Atlantis movie. According to Wright, the character of Vala Mal Doran would not appear in this film. The working title for the film, Stargate: Revolution was revealed by Joseph Mallozzi in his blog.
According to Sci - Fi and Joseph Mallozzi, a Stargate Atlantis two - hour direct - to - DVD movie was given the go ahead after the series was cancelled at the end of its fifth season. More movies were expected to follow in the Atlantis series if the first movie was successful. The rumored working title for the film was Stargate Extinction. By May 2009 the script for the film was finished.
On April 17, 2011, Stargate writer and executive producer Brad Wright announced that the SGU movie is not going to happen. He also confirmed that the proposed Stargate SG - 1 and Atlantis movies have been permanently shelved, along with another movie idea he had been trying to get a greenlight on that would have involved cast members of all three series. Still, Wright did not rule out future Stargate films, saying; "It 's a franchise. Stargate is not over. Somebody smart from MGM is going to figure it out, and something will happen. ''
In May 2014, MGM announced a re-imagined version of the original 1994 film to be produced as a trilogy with Warner Bros. Pictures. Emmerich will direct and Devlin will produce. This set of two sequel films to the original Stargate starring Kurt Russell and James Spader will take a dramatically different course than the SG - 1 and Atlantis universe created in the following 15 years. On November 17, 2016, Devlin told Empire Online that the plans to make a reboot a potential new series are stalled.
In July 2017, a new web series called Stargate: Origins was announced at a San Diego Comic Con Panel celebrating the franchise 's 20th anniversary. It will focus on the character of Catherine Langford and thus be a prequel to both the television continuity and the original feature film. Shooting is set to begin in August 2017, with a premiere online at Stargate Command in Fall 2017.
Stargate Infinity is an American animated science fiction television series created by Eric Lewald and Michael Maliani as a spin - off from its sister show, Stargate SG - 1. The story arc in Infinity is set 30 years into the future and follows Gus Bonner and his team. Bonner 's team was created after he was framed for a crime he did not commit. He escaped from Stargate Command (SGC) after the hostile alien race Tlak'kahn attacked the SGC to find the chrysalis. Together with his team he escapes through the Stargate with the chrysalis. From that point forward they go from planet to planet until they find the evidence to clear their names while learning about the unique cultures in the galaxy, so that they can one day return to Earth. The story arc was never resolved because of low viewership ratings, the show was cancelled in 2003.
Stargate Infinity premiered in September 2002 as part of 4Kids Entertainment 's FOX BOX Saturday morning line - up on FOX and went off the air in June 2003. Due to its lack of popularity the show is almost completely unrecognized. The series was cancelled before any of its story arcs could be resolved. The show was of low budget, which was constantly noted by the media. DIC Entertainment released a 4 - episode DVD on October 7, 2003 in Region 1. MGM Home Entertainment released a five disc season box set on August 13, 2007 in region 2. Shout! Factory, a company known for releasing cult animated series, acquired the rights to the show and released the entire series to DVD on May 13, 2008 in Region 1. As of 2009, there is yet to come a release of Stargate Infinity package in Region 4, namely Oceania and Latin America.
The writers and producers of Stargate SG - 1, Stargate Atlantis and Stargate Universe and the main canon of the Stargate franchise were not involved with Infinity, and neither MGM, the production teams nor the fans of Stargate consider Infinity to be an official part of the Stargate universe. According to Stargate SG - 1 co-creator Brad Wright, the animated series should not be considered official Stargate canon. Commenting on it, he stated, "I do n't have a problem with it. I 'm just not involved. ''
Stargate took in $16.7 million on its opening weekend, and received mixed reactions from critics; while it was panned by some critics such as Roger Ebert, several positive reviews counterbalanced this leading to a score of 46 % on Rotten Tomatoes. Although the film was originally intended as the first of a trilogy of films, Emmerich and Devlin ultimately moved on to produce Independence Day, and it was not until 2006 that Devlin showed renewed interest in developing sequels. In the intervening time, copyright - holder MGM succeeded the film with the television series Stargate SG - 1 without the input of Emmerich and Devlin.
Stargate SG - 1 has won the Saturn Award for Best Syndicated Television Series on numerous occasions, and its cast has won similar awards for acting. More recently it has received acclaim for its visual effects, which increased in quality and realism as the show gained a larger budget. On August 21, 2006, the Sci Fi Channel announced that it would not be renewing Stargate SG - 1 for an eleventh season after a series of poor performances in the Nielsen ratings. Many fans were enraged at the news, even creating websites in reaction to exhibit their commitment to the series. Spokesmen for the production have said all options for the continuation of SG - 1 are being considered, including complete digital broadcasting. Executive producer Robert C. Cooper told the fansite GateWorld exclusively that he was working to continue SG - 1. Currently, no network or company has ordered new episodes of SG - 1, so the show is on hold until a new buyer can be found. However, SciFi has attempted to block other networks from taking up the show, citing its original exclusive contract with MGM. Atlantis proved to be equally as successful as SG - 1, with Nielsen ratings and viewership. The Stargate franchise in 2009 won a Constellation Award in the category of Outstanding Canadian Contribution to Science Fiction Film or Television in 2008.
The average viewership to Stargate SG - 1 and Atlantis was around 10 million a week worldwide. According to Stargate SG - 1 and Atlantis co-creator Brad Wright, the show is popular in Great Britain, Germany, France and Australia, but with a steadily declining viewership in homeland Canada. It was estimated that around 30 million Stargate DVDs were sold worldwide in 2006.
The DVD release of Stargate: The Ark of Truth in the US earned MGM / Fox US $1.59 million in rentals in the first week after the release, and another US $1.38 million in rentals in the second week. In its third week it earned US $1.19 million in rentals totaling US $4.16 million. The DVD has also earned US $9.0 million in sales. Stargate: Continuum would go on to gross over $8 million United States dollars in the United States. The film sparked mostly positive reviews with movie critics. A third Stargate SG - 1 movie was planned to follow Continuum, but the third movie was put on hold with any other future Stargate movies; the film would have centered around the character of Jack O'Neill.
There are three series of novels based on the Stargate franchise, one based on the original Stargate film and two based in the Stargate SG - 1 and Stargate Atlantis television shows. A series of books written by Bill McCay were published from 1995 to 1999 that were unofficial sequels to the film. These were produced by consulting the original notes made by Dean Devlin and Roland Emmerich, in an attempt to envision where the film "would have gone ''. Neither party has commented on whether McCay 's interpretation was correct. Despite attempting to remain close to the original vision, the subsequent television series Stargate SG - 1 (which began under an entirely independent development) developed the story along different lines, making no attempt to reconcile the plot lines of the books. This marked the first major branching of the franchise.
Later, from 1999 to 2001, ROC published four novels based in Stargate SG - 1 written by Ashley McConnell. In 2004, UK - based Fandemonium Press started a new series of licensed tie - in novels based on Stargate SG - 1. Due to the conflict with ROC 's license, these books were available in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and the UK, but not in the US. Fandemonium books became available in the US in 2006. The official Stargate Magazine, produced by Titan Publishing, began publishing short stories written by Fandemonium authors in their 8th issue. The stories alternate between both SG - 1 and Atlantis.
A series of comic books, based on Stargate SG - 1 and Stargate Atlantis, began to be published by Avatar Press in 2003. Five have been published to date, with stories by James Anthony and artwork by Jorge Correa. In February 2008 it was announced that Big Finish Productions would release officially - licensed audiobooks featuring members of the cast reading new stories. The first two stories, available on CD and digital download, are Gift of the Gods read by Michael Shanks and A Necessary Evil read by Torri Higginson.
|
what was the name of the german government after ww1 | Weimar Republic - wikipedia
Weimar Republic (German: Weimarer Republik (ˈvaɪmaʁɐ ʁepuˈbliːk) (listen)) was an unofficial, historical designation for the German state between 1919 and 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich; it had remained unchanged since 1871. In English the country was usually known simply as Germany. A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written, and adopted on 11 August 1919. In its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism (with paramilitaries -- both left - and right - wing), as well as contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their wartime leaders for the country 's defeat and for the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Weimar Germany fulfilled most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles although it never completely met its disarmament requirements, and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations (by twice restructuring its debt through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan). Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the western borders of the republic, but continued to dispute the Eastern border.
From 1930 onwards President Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen and General Kurt von Schleicher. The Great Depression, exacerbated by Brüning 's policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment. In 1933, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor with the Nazi Party being part of a coalition government. The Nazis held two out of the remaining ten cabinet seats. Von Papen as Vice Chancellor was intended to be the "éminence grise '' who would keep Hitler under control, using his close personal connection to Hindenburg. Within months the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had brought about a state of emergency: it wiped out constitutional governance and civil liberties. Hitler 's seizure of power (Machtergreifung) was permissive of government by decree without legislative participation. These events brought the republic to an end: as democracy collapsed, a single - party state founded the Nazi era.
The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar, Germany from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933. Between 1919 and 1933 there was no single name for the new state that gained widespread acceptance, which is precisely why the old name "Deutsches Reich '' continued in existence even though hardly anyone used it during the Weimar period. To the right of the spectrum the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model and cringed to see the honour of the traditional word "Reich '' associated with it. The Catholic Centre party, Zentrum favoured the term "Deutscher Volksstaat '' ("German People 's State '') while on the moderate left the Chancellor 's SPD preferred "Deutsche Republik '' ("German Republic ''). By 1925 "Deutsche Republik '' was used by most Germans, but for the anti-democratic right the word "Republik '' was, along with the relocation of the seat of power to Weimar, a painful reminder of a government structure that had been imposed by foreign statesmen, along with the expulsion of Kaiser Wilhelm in the wake of massive national humiliation. The first recorded mention of the term "Republik von Weimar '' ("Republic of Weimar '') came during a speech delivered by Adolf Hitler at a National Socialist German Worker 's Party rally in Munich on 24 February 1929; it was a few weeks later that the term "Weimar Republik '' was first used (again by Hitler) in a newspaper article. Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany.
After the introduction of the republic, the flag and coat of arms of Germany were officially altered to reflect the political changes. The Weimar Republic retained the Reichsadler, but without the symbols of the former Monarchy (Crown, Collar, Breast shield with the Prussian Arms). This left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting.
By reason of a decision of the Reich 's Government I hereby announce, that the Imperial coat of arms on a gold - yellow shield shows the one headed black eagle, the head turned to the right, the wings open but with closed feathering, beak, tongue and claws in red color. If the Reich 's Eagle is shown without a frame, the same charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Reich 's coat of arms are to be used, but the tops of the feathers are directed outside. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are decisive for the heraldic design. The artistic design may be varied for each special purpose.
The republican tricolour is based on the flag that the Paulskirche Constitution of 1849 introduced, which was decided upon by the German National Assembly in Frankfurt am Main, at the peak of the German civic movement that demanded parliamentary participation and unification of the German states.
The achievements and signs of this movement were mostly done away with after its downfall and the political reaction. Only the tiny German Principality of Waldeck - Pyrmont upheld the tradition and continued to use the German colours called Schwarz - Rot - Gold in German (English: Black - Red - Gold).
These signs had remained symbols of the Paulskirche movement. Weimar wanted to express its origins in that political movement between 1849 and 1858; while anti-republicans opposed this flag. The first German Confederal Navy (Reichsflotte) (1848 -- 1852) had proudly deployed a naval ensign based on Schwarz - Rot - Gold, the Weimar republic navy, or Reichsmarine (1918 -- 1933) insisted on using the pre-1918 colours of the previous Kaiserliche Marine (1871 -- 1918), which were Black - White - Red, as did the German merchant marine.
The republicans took up the idea of the German Coat of Arms established by the Paulskirche movement, using the same charge animal, an eagle, in the same colours (black, red and gold), but modernising its form, including a reduction of the heads from two to one. Friedrich Ebert initially declared the official German coat of arms to be a design by Emil Doepler (shown in the infobox above) as of 12 November 1919, following a decision of the German government.
In 1928, however, the Reichswappen (Reich coat of arms) designed by Tobias Schwab (1887 -- 1967) in 1926 (or 1924) replaced it as the official emblem for the German Olympic team. The Reichswehr adopted the new Reichswappen in 1927. Doepler 's design then became the Reichsschild (Reich 's escutcheon) with restricted use such as pennant for government vehicles. In 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) adopted all three signs of Weimar Republic, Reichswappen, Reichsschild and Reichsflagge as Bundeswappen, Bundesschild and Bundesflagge.
After the dissolution of the Imperial army, the Reichswehr, in 1918, Germany 's military forces consisted of irregular paramilitaries, namely the various right - wing Freikorps groups composed of veterans from the war. The Freikorps units were formally disbanded in 1920 (although continued to exist in underground groups), and on 1 January 1921, a new Reichswehr (figuratively; Defence of the realm) was created.
The Treaty of Versailles limited the size of the Reichswehr to 100,000 soldiers (consisting of seven infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions), 10 armoured cars and a navy (the Reichsmarine) restricted to 36 ships in active service. No aircraft of any kind was allowed. The main advantage of this limitation, however, was that the Reichswehr could afford to pick the best recruits for service. However, with inefficient armour and no air support, the Reichswehr would have had limited combat abilities. Privates were mainly recruited from the countryside, as it was believed that young men from cities were prone to socialist behaviour, which would fray the loyalty of the privates to their conservative officers.
Although technically in service of the republic, the army was predominantly officered by conservative reactionaries who were sympathetic to right - wing organisations. Hans von Seeckt, the head of the Reichswehr, declared that the army was not loyal to the democratic republic, and would only defend it if it were in their interests. During the Kapp Putsch for example, the army refused to fire upon the rebels. However, as right wing as the army was, it hesitated to assist the Nazis, whom they mostly viewed as thugs. The SA was the Reichswehr 's main opponent throughout its existence, as they saw them as a threat to their existence, and the army fired at them during the Beerhall Putsch. Upon the establishment of the SS, the Reichswehr took a softer look upon the Nazis since the SS seemed more respectable, and openly favoured order over anarchy. In 1935, two years after Hitler came to power, the Reichswehr was renamed the Wehrmacht.
In October 1918, the constitution of the German Empire was reformed to give more powers to the elected parliament. On 29 October, rebellion broke out in Kiel among sailors. There, sailors, soldiers, and workers began electing workers ' and soldiers ' councils (Arbeiter und Soldatenräte) modeled after the Soviets of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The revolution spread throughout Germany, and participants seized military and civil powers in individual cities. The power takeover was achieved everywhere without loss of life.
At the time, the Socialist movement which represented mostly laborers was split among two major left - wing parties: the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), which called for immediate peace negotiations and favored a soviet - style command economy, and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) also known as "Majority '' Social Democratic Party of Germany (MSPD), which supported the war effort and favoured a parliamentary system. The rebellion caused great fear in the establishment and in the middle classes because of the Soviet - style aspirations of the councils. To centrist and conservative citizens, the country looked to be on the verge of a communist revolution.
By 7 November the revolution had reached Munich, resulting in King Ludwig III of Bavaria fleeing. The MSPD decided to make use of their support at the grassroots and put themselves at the front of the movement, demanding that Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicate. When he refused, Prince Max of Baden simply announced that he had done so and frantically attempted to establish a regency under another member of the House of Hohenzollern. Gustav Noske, a self - appointed military expert in the MSPD, was sent to Kiel to prevent any further unrest and took on the task of controlling the mutinous sailors and their supporters in the Kiel barracks. The sailors and soldiers, inexperienced in matters of revolutionary combat, welcomed him as an experienced politician and allowed him to negotiate a settlement, thus defusing the initial anger of the revolutionaries in uniform.
On 9 November 1918 the "German Republic '' was proclaimed by MSPD member Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building in Berlin, to the fury of Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the MSPD, who thought that the question of monarchy or republic should be answered by a national assembly. Two hours later, a "Free Socialist Republic '' was proclaimed, 2 km (1.2 mi) away, at the Berliner Stadtschloss. The proclamation was issued by Karl Liebknecht, co-leader (with Rosa Luxemburg) of the communist Spartakusbund (Spartacist League), a group of a few hundred supporters of the Russian revolution that had allied itself with the USPD in 1917. In a legally questionable act, Reichskanzler Prince Max of Baden transferred his powers to Friedrich Ebert, who, shattered by the monarchy 's fall, reluctantly accepted. In view of the mass support for more radical reforms among the workers ' councils, a coalition government called "Council of the People 's Deputies '' (Rat der Volksbeauftragten) was established, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members. Led by Ebert for the MSPD and Hugo Haase for the USPD it sought to act as a provisional cabinet of ministers. But the power question was unanswered. Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin worker and soldier council, it was opposed by the Spartacist League.
The Executive Council of the Workers ' and Soldiers ' Councils, a coalition that included Majority Socialists, Independent Socialists, workers, and soldiers, implemented a programme of progressive social change, introducing reforms such as the eight - hour workday, the releasing of political prisoners, the abolition of press censorship, increases in workers ' old - age, sick and unemployment benefits, and the bestowing upon labour the unrestricted right to organise into unions.
A number of other reforms were carried out in Germany during the revolutionary period. It was made harder for estates to sack workers and prevent them from leaving when they wanted to; under the Provisional Act for Agricultural Labour of 23 November 1918 the normal period of notice for management, and for most resident labourers, was set at six weeks. In addition, a supplementary directive of December 1918 specified that female (and child) workers were entitled to a fifteen - minute break if they worked between four and six hours, thirty minutes for workdays lasting six to eight hours, and one hour for longer days. A decree on 23 December 1918 established committees (composed of workers ' representatives "in their relation to the employer '') to safeguard the rights of workers. The right to bargain collectively was also established, while it was made obligatory "to elect workers ' committees on estates and establish conciliation committees. '' A decree on 3 February 1919 removed the right of employers to acquire exemption for domestic servants and agricultural workers.
With the Verordnung of 3 February 1919, the Ebert government reintroduced the original structure of the health insurance boards according to an 1883 law, with one - third employers and two - thirds members (i.e. workers). From 28 June 1919 health insurance committees became elected by workers themselves. The Provisional Order of January 1919 concerning agricultural labour conditions fixed 2,900 hours as a maximum per year, distributed as eight, ten, and eleven hours per day in four - monthly periods. A code of January 1919 bestowed upon land - labourers the same legal rights that industrial workers enjoyed, while a bill ratified that same year obliged the States to set up agricultural settlement associations which, as noted by Volker Berghahn, "were endowed with the priority right of purchase of farms beyond a specified size. '' In addition, undemocratic public institutions were abolished, involving, as noted by one writer, the disappearance "of the Prussian Upper House, the former Prussian Lower House that had been elected in accordance with the three - class suffrage, and the municipal councils that were also elected on the class vote. ''
On 11 November an armistice was signed at Compiègne by German representatives. It effectively ended military operations between the Allies and Germany. It amounted to German capitulation, without any concessions by the Allies; the naval blockade would continue until complete peace terms were agreed.
A rift developed between the MSPD and USPD after Ebert called upon the OHL (supreme army command) for troops to put down a mutiny by a leftist military unit on 23 / 24 December 1918, in which members of the Volksmarinedivision had captured the city 's garrison commander Otto Wels and occupied the Reichskanzlei where the "Council of the People 's Deputies '' was situated. The ensuing street fighting left several dead and injured on both sides. The USPD leaders were outraged by what they believed was treachery by the MSPD, which, in their view, had joined with the anti-communist military to suppress the revolution. Thus, the USPD left the "Council of the People 's Deputies '' after only seven weeks. On 30 December, the split deepened when the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was formed out of a number of radical left - wing groups, including the left wing of the USPD and the "Spartacist League '' group.
From November 1918 to January 1919, Germany was governed by the "Council of the People 's Deputies '', under the leadership of Ebert and Haase. The Council issued a large number of decrees that radically shifted German policies. It introduced the eight - hour workday, domestic labour reform, works councils, agricultural labour reform, right of civil - service associations, local municipality social welfare relief (split between Reich and States) and important national health insurance, re-instatement of demobilised workers, protection from arbitrary dismissal with appeal as a right, regulated wage agreement, and universal suffrage from 20 years of age in all types of elections -- local and national. Ebert called for a "National Congress of Councils '' (Reichsrätekongress), which took place from 16 to 20 December 1918, and in which the MSPD had the majority. Thus, Ebert was able to institute elections for a provisional National Assembly that would be given the task of writing a democratic constitution for parliamentary government, marginalizing the movement that called for a socialist republic.
To ensure his fledgling government maintained control over the country, Ebert made an agreement with the OHL, now led by Ludendorff 's successor General Wilhelm Groener. The ' Ebert -- Groener pact ' stipulated that the government would not attempt to reform the army so long as the army swore to protect the state. On the one hand, this agreement symbolised the acceptance of the new government by the military, assuaging concern among the middle classes; on the other hand, it was thought contrary to working - class interests by left wing social democrats and communists, and was also opposed by the far right who believed democracy would make Germany weaker. The new Reichswehr armed forces, limited by the Treaty of Versailles to 100,000 army soldiers and 15,000 sailors, remained fully under the control of the German officer class, despite their nominal re-organisation.
In January, the Spartacist League and others in the streets of Berlin made more armed attempts to establish communism, known as the Spartacist uprising. Those attempts were put down by paramilitary Freikorps units consisting of volunteer soldiers. Bloody street fights culminated in the beating and shooting deaths of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht after their arrests on 15 January. With the affirmation of Ebert, those responsible were not tried before a court martial, leading to lenient sentences, which made Ebert unpopular among radical leftists.
The National Assembly elections took place on 19 January 1919. In this time, the radical left - wing parties, including the USPD and KPD, were barely able to get themselves organised, leading to a solid majority of seats for the MSPD moderate forces. To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of Weimar, giving the future Republic its unofficial name. The Weimar Constitution created a republic under a parliamentary republic system with the Reichstag elected by proportional representation. The democratic parties obtained a solid 80 % of the vote.
During the debates in Weimar, fighting continued. A Soviet republic was declared in Munich, but was quickly put down by Freikorps and remnants of the regular army. The fall of the Munich Soviet Republic to these units, many of which were situated on the extreme right, resulted in the growth of far - right movements and organisations in Bavaria, including Organisation Consul, the Nazi Party, and societies of exiled Russian Monarchists. Sporadic fighting continued to flare up around the country. In eastern provinces, forces loyal to Germany 's fallen Monarchy fought the republic, while militias of Polish nationalists fought for independence: Great Poland Uprising in Provinz Posen and three Silesian Uprisings in Upper Silesia.
Germany lost the war because the country ran out of allies and its economic resources were running out; support among the population began to crumble in 1916 and by mid-1918 there was support for the war only among the die - hard monarchists and conservatives. The decisive blow came with the entry of the United States into the conflict, which made its vast industrial resources available to the beleaguered Allies. By late summer 1918 the German reserves were exhausted while fresh American troops arrived in France at the rate of 10,000 a day. Retreat and defeat were at hand, and the Army told the Kaiser to abdicate for it could no longer support him. Although in retreat, the German armies were still on French and Belgian territory when the war ended on 11 November. Ludendorf and Hindenburg soon proclaimed that it was the defeatism of the civilian population that had made defeat inevitable. The die - hard nationalists then blamed the civilians for betraying the army and the surrender. This was the "Stab - in - the - back myth '' that was unceasingly propagated by the right in the 1920s and ensured that many monarchists and conservatives would refuse to support the government of what they called the "November criminals ''.
The growing post-war economic crisis was a result of lost pre-war industrial exports, the loss of supplies in raw materials and foodstuffs due to the continental blocus, and the loss of the colonies, along with worsening debt balances, but above all, the result of an exorbitant issue of promissory notes raising money to pay for the war. Military - industrial activity had almost ceased, although controlled demobilisation kept unemployment at around one million. In part, the economic losses can also be attributed to the Allied blockade of Germany until the Treaty of Versailles.
The Allies permitted only low import levels of goods that most Germans could not afford. After four years of war and famine, many German workers were exhausted, physically impaired and discouraged. Millions were disenchanted with capitalism and hoping for a new era. Meanwhile, the currency depreciated. The currency would continue to depreciate following the French invasion of the Ruhr.
The German peace delegation in France signed the Treaty of Versailles, accepting mass reductions of the German military, the prospect of substantial war reparations payments to the victorious allies, and the controversial "War Guilt Clause ''. Explaining the rise of extreme nationalist movements in Germany shortly after the war, British historian Ian Kershaw points to the "national disgrace '' that was "felt throughout Germany at the humiliating terms imposed by the victorious Allies and reflected in the Versailles Treaty... with its confiscation of territory on the eastern border and even more so its ' guilt clause. ' '' Adolf Hitler repeatedly blamed the republic and its democracy for accepting the oppressive terms of this treaty. The Republic 's first Reichspräsident ("Reich President ''), Friedrich Ebert of the SPD, signed the new German constitution into law on 11 August 1919.
The new post-World War I Germany, stripped of all colonies, became 13.3 % smaller in its European territory than its imperial predecessor. Of these losses, a large proportion consisted of provinces that were originally Polish, and Alsace - Lorraine, seized by Germany in 1870, where Germans constituted only part or a minority of local populations despite nationalist outrage at the fragmentation of Germany.
The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the Armistice with Germany of 11 November 1918. The occupying armies consisted of American, Belgian, British and French forces.
In 1920, under massive French pressure, the Saar was separated from the Rhine Province and administered by the League of Nations until a plebiscite in 1935, when the region was returned to the Deutsches Reich. At the same time, in 1920, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy were transferred to Belgium (see German - Speaking Community of Belgium). Shortly after, France completely occupied the Rhineland, strictly controlling all important industrial areas.
The actual amount of reparations that Germany was obliged to pay out was not the 132 billion marks decided in the London Schedule of 1921 but rather the 50 billion marks stipulated in the A and B Bonds. Historian Sally Marks says the 112 billion marks in "C bonds '' were entirely chimerical -- a device to fool the public into thinking Germany would pay much more. The actual total payout from 1920 to 1931 (when payments were suspended indefinitely) was 20 billion German gold marks, worth about $5 billion US dollars or £ 1 billion British pounds. 12.5 billion was cash that came mostly from loans from New York bankers. The rest was goods such as coal and chemicals, or from assets like railway equipment. The reparations bill was fixed in 1921 on the basis of a German capacity to pay, not on the basis of Allied claims. The highly publicised rhetoric of 1919 about paying for all the damages and all the veterans ' benefits was irrelevant for the total, but it did determine how the recipients spent their share. Germany owed reparations chiefly to France, Britain, Italy and Belgium; the US Treasury received $100 million.
In the early post-war years, inflation was growing at an alarming rate, but the government simply printed more currency to pay debts. By 1923, the Republic claimed it could no longer afford the reparations payments required by the Versailles Treaty, and the government defaulted on some payments. In response, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr region, Germany 's most productive industrial region at the time, taking control of most mining and manufacturing companies in January 1923. Strikes were called, and passive resistance was encouraged. These strikes lasted eight months, further damaging the economy and the social life.
The strike prevented some goods from being produced, but one industrialist, Hugo Stinnes, was able to create a vast empire out of bankrupt companies. Because the production costs in Germany were falling almost hourly, the prices for German products were unbeatable. Stinnes made sure that he was paid in dollars, which meant that by mid-1923, his industrial empire was worth more than the entire German economy. By the end of the year, over two hundred factories were working full - time to produce paper for the spiralling bank note production. Stinnes ' empire collapsed when the government - sponsored inflation was stopped in November 1923.
In 1919, one loaf of bread cost 1 mark; by 1923, the same loaf of bread cost 100 billion marks.
Since striking workers were paid benefits by the state, much additional currency was printed, fuelling a period of hyperinflation. The 1920s German inflation started when Germany had no goods to trade. The government printed money to deal with the crisis; this meant payments within Germany were made with worthless paper money, and helped formerly great industrialists to pay back their own loans. This also led to pay raises for workers and for businessmen who wanted to profit from it. Circulation of money rocketed, and soon banknotes were being overprinted to a thousand times their nominal value and every town produced its own promissory notes; many banks & industrial firms did the same.
The value of the Papiermark had declined from 4.2 Marks per U.S. dollar in 1914 to one million per dollar by August 1923. This led to further criticism of the Republic. On 15 November 1923, a new currency, the Rentenmark, was introduced at the rate of one trillion (1,000,000,000,000) Papiermark for one Rentenmark, an action known as redenomination. At that time, one U.S. dollar was equal to 4.2 Rentenmark. Reparation payments were resumed, and the Ruhr was returned to Germany under the Locarno Treaties, which defined the borders between Germany, France, and Belgium.
The Republic was soon under attack from both left - and right - wing sources. The radical left accused the ruling Social Democrats of having betrayed the ideals of the workers ' movement by preventing a communist revolution and sought to overthrow the Republic and do so themselves. Various right - wing sources opposed any democratic system, preferring an authoritarian, autocratic state like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine the Republic 's credibility, some right - wingers (especially certain members of the former officer corps) also blamed an alleged conspiracy of Socialists and Jews for Germany 's defeat in World War I.
In the next five years, the central government, assured of the support of the Reichswehr, dealt severely with the occasional outbreaks of violence in Germany 's large cities. The left claimed that the Social Democrats had betrayed the ideals of the revolution, while the army and the government - financed Freikorps committed hundreds of acts of gratuitous violence against striking workers.
The first challenge to the Weimar Republic came when a group of communists and anarchists took over the Bavarian government in Munich and declared the creation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic. The uprising was brutally attacked by Freikorps, which consisted mainly of ex-soldiers dismissed from the army and who were well - paid to put down forces of the Far Left. The Freikorps was an army outside the control of the government, but they were in close contact with their allies in the Reichswehr.
On 13 March 1920, 12,000 Freikorps soldiers occupied Berlin and installed Wolfgang Kapp (a right - wing journalist) as chancellor (Kapp Putsch). The national government fled to Stuttgart and called for a general strike against the putsch. The strike meant that no "official '' pronouncements could be published, and with the civil service out on strike, the Kapp government collapsed after only four days on 17 March.
Inspired by the general strikes, a workers ' uprising began in the Ruhr region when 50,000 people formed a "Red Army '' and took control of the province. The regular army and the Freikorps ended the uprising on their own authority. The rebels were campaigning for an extension of the plans to nationalise major industries and supported the national government, but the SPD leaders did not want to lend support to the growing USPD, who favoured the establishment of a socialist regime. The repression of an uprising of SPD supporters by the reactionary forces in the Freikorps on the instructions of the SPD ministers was to become a major source of conflict within the socialist movement and thus contributed to the weakening of the only group that could have withstood the National Socialist movement. Other rebellions were put down in March 1921 in Saxony and Hamburg.
In 1922, Germany signed the Treaty of Rapallo with the Soviet Union, which allowed Germany to train military personnel in exchange for giving Russia military technology. This was against the Treaty of Versailles, which limited Germany to 100,000 soldiers and no conscription, naval forces of 15,000 men, twelve destroyers, six battleships, and six cruisers, no submarines or aircraft. However, Russia had pulled out of World War I against the Germans as a result of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and was excluded from the League of Nations. Thus, Germany seized the chance to make an ally. Walther Rathenau, the Jewish Foreign Minister who signed the treaty, was assassinated two months later by two ultra-nationalist army officers.
Further pressure from the political right came in 1923 with the Beer Hall Putsch, also called the Munich Putsch, staged by the Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler in Munich. In 1920, the German Workers ' Party had become the National Socialist German Workers ' Party (NSDAP), or Nazi party, and would become a driving force in the collapse of Weimar. Hitler named himself as chairman of the party in July 1921. On 8 November 1923, the Kampfbund, in a pact with Erich Ludendorff, took over a meeting by Bavarian prime minister Gustav von Kahr at a beer hall in Munich.
Ludendorff and Hitler declared that the Weimar government was deposed and that they were planning to take control of Munich the following day. The 3,000 rebels were thwarted by the Bavarian authorities. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison for high treason, a minimum sentence for the charge. Hitler served less than eight months in a comfortable cell, receiving a daily stream of visitors before his release on 20 December 1924. While in jail, Hitler dictated Mein Kampf, which laid out his ideas and future policies. Hitler now decided to focus on legal methods of gaining power.
Gustav Stresemann was Reichskanzler for 100 days in 1923, and served as foreign minister from 1923 -- 1929, a period of relative stability for the Weimar Republic, known in Germany as Goldene Zwanziger ("Golden Twenties ''). Prominent features of this period were a growing economy and a consequent decrease in civil unrest.
Once civil stability had been restored, Stresemann began stabilising the German currency, which promoted confidence in the German economy and helped the recovery that was so ardently needed for the German nation to keep up with their reparation repayments, while at the same time feeding and supplying the nation.
Once the economic situation had stabilised, Stresemann could begin putting a permanent currency in place, called the Rentenmark (October 1923), which again contributed to the growing level of international confidence in the German economy.
To help Germany meet reparation obligations, the Dawes Plan (1924) was created. This was an agreement between American banks and the German government in which the American banks lent money to German banks with German assets as collateral to help it pay reparations. The German railways, the National Bank and many industries were therefore mortgaged as securities for the stable currency and the loans. Shortly after the Locarno Treaties were signed. The British, French, and Germans agreed that the borders between their countries would not be changed by force, thus the new borders acted by the Treaty of Versailles were being reinforced by the signing countries, but weakened the 1919 treaty regarding the eastern borders. Germany also agreed to sign arbitration conventions with France and Belgium and arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, undertaking to refer any future disputes to an arbitration tribunal or to the Permanent Court of International Justice. Other foreign achievements were the evacuation of the Ruhr in 1925 and the 1926 Treaty of Berlin, which reinforced the Treaty of Rapallo in 1922 and improved relations between the Soviet Union and Germany. In 1926, Germany was admitted to the League of Nations as a permanent member, improving her international standing and conceding her the ability to vote League of Nations legislation. However, this progress was funded by overseas loans, increasing the nation 's debts, while overall trade increased and unemployment fell. Stresemann 's reforms did not relieve the underlying weaknesses of Weimar but gave the appearance of a stable democracy. The major weakness in constitutional terms was the inherent instability of the coalitions. The growing dependence on American finance was to prove dangerous, and Germany was one of the worst hit nations in the Wall Street Crash of 1929.
The 1920s saw a remarkable cultural renaissance in Germany. During the worst phase of hyperinflation in 1923, the clubs and bars were full of speculators who spent their daily profits so they would not lose the value the following day. Berlin intellectuals responded by condemning the excesses of capitalism, and demanding revolutionary changes on the cultural scenery. Influenced by the brief cultural explosion in the Soviet Union, German literature, cinema, theatre and musical works entered a phase of great creativity. Innovative street theatre brought plays to the public, and the cabaret scene and jazz band became very popular. According to the cliché, modern young women were Americanised, wearing makeup, short hair, smoking and breaking with traditional mores. The euphoria surrounding Josephine Baker in the metropolis of Berlin for instance, where she was declared an "erotic goddess '' and in many ways admired and respected, kindled further "ultramodern '' sensations in the minds of the German public. Art and a new type of architecture taught at "Bauhaus '' schools reflected the new ideas of the time, with artists such as George Grosz being fined for defaming the military and for blasphemy.
Artists in Berlin were influenced by other contemporary progressive cultural movements, such as the Impressionist and Expressionist painters in Paris, as well as the Cubists. Likewise, American progressive architects were admired. Many of the new buildings built during this era followed a straight - lined, geometrical style. Examples of the new architecture include the Bauhaus Building by Gropius, Grosses Schauspielhaus, and the Einstein Tower.
Not everyone, however, was happy with the changes taking place in Weimar culture. Conservatives and reactionaries feared that Germany was betraying its traditional values by adopting popular styles from abroad, particularly those Hollywood was popularizing in American films, while New York became the global capital of fashion. Germany was more susceptible to Americanisation, because of the close economic links brought about by the Dawes plan.
In 1929, three years after receiving the 1926 Nobel Peace Prize, Stresemann died of a heart attack at age 51. When stocks on the New York Stock Exchange crashed in October, the inevitable knock - on effects on the German economy brought the "Golden Twenties '' to an abrupt end.
A wide range of progressive social reforms were carried out during and after the revolutionary period. In 1919, legislation provided for a maximum working 48 - hour workweek, restrictions on night work, a half - holiday on Saturday, and a break of thirty - six hours of continuous rest during the week. That same year, health insurance was extended to wives and daughters without own income, people only partially capable of gainful employment, people employed in private cooperatives, and people employed in public cooperatives. A series of progressive tax reforms were introduced under the auspices of Matthias Erzberger, including increases in taxes on capital and an increase in the highest income tax rate from 4 % to 60 %. Under a governmental decree of 3 February 1919, the German government met the demand of the veterans ' associations that all aid for the disabled and their dependents be taken over by the central government (thus assuming responsibility for this assistance) and extended into peacetime the nationwide network of state and district welfare bureaus that had been set up during the war to coordinate social services for war widows and orphans.
The Imperial Youth Welfare Act of 1922 obliged all municipalities and states to set up youth offices in charge of child protection, and also codified a right to education for all children, while laws were passed to regulate rents and increase protection for tenants in 1922 and 1923. Health insurance coverage was extended to other categories of the population during the existence of the Weimar Republic, including seamen, people employed in the educational and social welfare sectors, and all primary dependents. Various improvements were also made in unemployment benefits, although in June 1920 the maximum amount of unemployment benefit that a family of four could receive in Berlin, 90 marks, was well below the minimum cost of subsistence of 304 marks.
In 1923, unemployment relief was consolidated into a regular programme of assistance following economic problems that year. In 1924, a modern public assistance programme was introduced, and in 1925 the accident insurance programme was reformed, allowing diseases that were linked to certain kinds of work to become insurable risks. In addition, a national unemployment insurance programme was introduced in 1927. Housing construction was also greatly accelerated during the Weimar period, with over 2 million new homes constructed between 1924 and 1931 and a further 195,000 modernised.
In 1929, the onset of the depression in the United States of America produced a severe shockwave in Germany. The economy was supported by the granting of loans through the Dawes Plan (1924) and the Young Plan (1929). When American banks withdrew their loans to German companies, the onset of severe unemployment could not be stopped by conventional economic measures. Unemployment grew rapidly, at 4 million in 1930, and in September 1930 a political earthquake shook the republic to its foundations. The Nazi Party (NSDAP) entered the Reichstag with 19 % of the popular vote and made the fragile coalition system by which every chancellor had governed unworkable. The last years of the Weimar Republic were stamped by even more political instability than in the previous years. The administrations of Chancellors Brüning, Papen, Schleicher and, from 30 January to 23 March 1933, Hitler governed through presidential decree rather than through parliamentary consultation.
On 29 March 1930, after months of lobbying by General Kurt von Schleicher on behalf of the military, the finance expert Heinrich Brüning was appointed as Müller 's successor by Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg. The new government was expected to lead a political shift towards conservatism.
As Brüning had no majority support in the Reichstag, he became, through the use of the emergency powers granted to the Reichspräsident (Article 48) by the constitution, the first Weimar chancellor to operate independently of parliament. This made him dependent on the Reichspräsident, Hindenburg. After a bill to reform the Reich 's finances was opposed by the Reichstag, it was made an emergency decree by Hindenburg. On 18 July, as a result of opposition from the SPD, KPD, DNVP and the small contingent of NSDAP members, the Reichstag again rejected the bill by a slim margin. Immediately afterward, Brüning submitted the president 's decree that the Reichstag be dissolved. The consequent general election on 14 September resulted in an enormous political shift within the Reichstag: 18.3 % of the vote went to the NSDAP, five times the percentage won in 1928. As a result, it was no longer possible to form a pro-republican majority, not even with a grand coalition that excluded the KPD, DNVP and NSDAP. This encouraged an escalation in the number of public demonstrations and instances of paramilitary violence organised by the NSDAP.
Between 1930 and 1932, Brüning tried to reform the Weimar Republic without a parliamentary majority, governing, when necessary, through the President 's emergency decrees. In line with the contemporary economic theory (subsequently termed "leave - it - alone liquidationism ''), he enacted a draconian policy of deflation and drastically cutting state expenditure. Among other measures, he completely halted all public grants to the obligatory unemployment insurance introduced in 1927, resulting in workers making higher contributions and fewer benefits for the unemployed. Benefits for the sick, invalid and pensioners were also reduced sharply. Additional difficulties were caused by the different deflationary policies pursued by Brüning and the Reichsbank, Germany 's central bank. In mid-1931, the United Kingdom abandoned the gold standard and about 30 countries (the sterling bloc) devalued their currencies, making their goods around 20 % cheaper than those produced by Germany. As the Young Plan did not allow a devaluation of the Reichsmark, Brüning triggered a deflationary internal devaluation by forcing the economy to reduce prices, rents, salaries and wages by 20 %. Debate continues as to whether this policy was without alternative: some argue that the Allies would not in any circumstances have allowed a devaluation of the Reichsmark, while others point to the Hoover Moratorium as a sign that the Allies understood that the situation had changed fundamentally and further German reparation payments were impossible. Brüning expected that the policy of deflation would temporarily worsen the economic situation before it began to improve, quickly increasing the German economy 's competitiveness and then restoring its creditworthiness. His long - term view was that deflation would, in any case, be the best way to help the economy. His primary goal was to remove Germany 's reparation payments by convincing the Allies that they could no longer be paid. Anton Erkelenz, chairman of the German Democratic Party and a contemporary critic of Brüning, famously said that the policy of deflation is:
A rightful attempt to release Germany from the grip of reparation payments, but in reality it meant nothing else than committing suicide because of fearing death. The deflation policy causes much more damage than the reparation payments of 20 years... Fighting against Hitler is fighting against deflation, the enormous destruction of production factors.
In 1933, the American economist Irving Fisher developed the theory of debt deflation. He explained that a deflation causes a decline of profits, asset prices and a still greater decline in the net worth of businesses. Even healthy companies, therefore, may appear over-indebted and facing bankruptcy. The consensus today is that Brüning 's policies exacerbated the German economic crisis and the population 's growing frustration with democracy, contributing enormously to the increase in support for Hitler 's NSDAP.
Most German capitalists and landowners originally supported the conservative experiment more from the belief that conservatives would best serve their interests rather than any particular liking for Brüning. As more of the working and middle classes turned against Brüning, however, more of the capitalists and landowners declared themselves in favour of his opponents Hitler and Hugenberg. By late 1931, the conservative movement was dead and Hindenburg and the Reichswehr had begun to contemplate dropping Brüning in favour of accommodating Hugenberg and Hitler. Although Hindenburg disliked Hugenberg and despised Hitler, he was no less a supporter of the sort of anti-democratic counter-revolution that the DNVP and NSDAP represented. In April 1932, Brüning had actively supported Hindenburg 's successful campaign against Hitler for re-election as Reichspräsident; five weeks later, on 20 May 1932, he had lost Hindenburg 's support and duly resigned as Reichskanzler.
Hindenburg then appointed Franz von Papen as new Reichskanzler. Papen lifted the ban on the NSDAP 's SA paramilitary, imposed after the street riots, in an unsuccessful attempt to secure the backing of Hitler.
Papen was closely associated with the industrialist and land - owning classes and pursued an extreme Conservative policy along Hindenburg 's lines. He appointed as Reichswehr Minister Kurt von Schleicher, and all the members of the new cabinet were of the same political opinion as Hindenburg. This government was expected to assure itself of the co-operation of Hitler. Since the Republicans were not yet ready to take action, the Communists did not want to support the republic, and the Conservatives had shot their political bolt, Hitler and Hugenberg were certain to achieve power.
Because most parties opposed the new government, Papen had the Reichstag dissolved and called for new elections. The general elections on 31 July 1932 yielded major gains for the Communists, and for the Nazis, who won 37.3 % of the vote -- their high - water mark in a free election. The Nazi party then supplanted the Social Democrats as the largest party in the Reichstag, although it did not gain a majority.
The immediate question was what part the now large Nazi Party would play in the Government of the country. The party owed its huge increase to growing support from middle - class people, whose traditional parties were swallowed up by the Nazi Party. The millions of radical adherents at first forced the Party towards the Left. They wanted a renewed Germany and a new organisation of German society. The left of the Nazi party strove desperately against any drift into the train of such capitalist and feudal reactionaries. Therefore, Hitler refused ministry under Papen, and demanded the chancellorship for himself, but was rejected by Hindenburg on 13 August 1932. There was still no majority in the Reichstag for any government; as a result, the Reichstag was dissolved and elections took place once more in the hope that a stable majority would result.
The 6 November 1932 elections yielded 33.1 % for the Nazis, two million voters fewer than in the previous election. Franz von Papen stepped down and was succeeded as Chancellor (Reichskanzler) by General Kurt von Schleicher on 3 December. Schleicher, a retired army officer, had developed in an atmosphere of semi-obscurity and intrigue that encompassed the Republican military policy. He had for years been in the camp of those supporting the Conservative counter-revolution. Schleicher 's bold and unsuccessful plan was to build a majority in the Reichstag by uniting the trade unionist left wings of the various parties, including that of the Nazis led by Gregor Strasser. This policy did not prove successful either.
In this brief Presidential Dictatorship intermission, Schleicher assumed the role of "Socialist General '' and entered into relations with the Christian Trade Unions, the left - wing members of the Nazi party, and even with the Social Democrats. Schleicher planned for a sort of labour government under his Generalship. But the Reichswehr officers were not prepared for this, the working class had a natural distrust of their future allies, and the great capitalists and landowners also did not like the plans.
Hitler learned from Papen that the general had not received from Hindenburg the authority to abolish the Reichstag parliament, whereas any majority of seats did. The cabinet (under a previous interpretation of Article 48) ruled without a sitting Reichstag, which could vote only for its own dissolution. Hitler also learned that all past crippling Nazi debts were to be relieved by German big business.
On 22 January, Hitler 's efforts to persuade Oskar von Hindenburg, the President 's son and confidant, included threats to bring criminal charges over estate taxation irregularities at the President 's Neudeck estate; although 5,000 acres (20 km) extra were soon allotted to Hindenburg 's property. Outmaneuvered by Papen and Hitler on plans for the new cabinet, and having lost Hindenburg 's confidence, Schleicher asked for new elections. On 28 January, Papen described Hitler to Paul von Hindenburg as only a minority part of an alternative, Papen - arranged government. The four great political movements, the SPD, Communists, Centre, and the Nazis were in opposition.
On 29 January, Hitler and Papen thwarted a last - minute threat of an officially sanctioned Reichswehr takeover, and on 30 January 1933 Hindenburg accepted the new Papen - Nationalist - Hitler coalition, with the Nazis holding only three of eleven Cabinet seats: Hitler as Chancellor, Wilhelm Frick as Minister of the Interior and Hermann Göring as Minister Without Portfolio. Later that day, the first cabinet meeting was attended by only two political parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the German National People 's Party (DNVP), led by Alfred Hugenberg, with 196 and 52 seats respectively. Eyeing the Catholic Centre Party 's 70 (plus 20 BVP) seats, Hitler refused their leader 's demands for constitutional "concessions '' (amounting to protection) and planned for dissolution of the Reichstag.
Hindenburg, despite his misgivings about the Nazis ' goals and about Hitler as a personality, reluctantly agreed to Papen 's theory that, with Nazi popular support on the wane, Hitler could now be controlled as Chancellor. This date, dubbed by the Nazis as the Machtergreifung (seizure of power), is commonly seen as the beginning of Nazi Germany.
Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor on the morning of 30 January 1933 in what some observers later described as a brief and indifferent ceremony. By early February, a mere week after Hitler 's assumption of the chancellorship, the government had begun to clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the left - wing parties were banned and even some of the moderate parties found their members threatened and assaulted. Measures with an appearance of legality suppressed the Communist Party in mid-February and included the plainly illegal arrests of Reichstag deputies.
The Reichstag fire on 27 February was blamed by Hitler 's government on the Communists. Hitler used the ensuing state of emergency to obtain the presidential assent of Hindenburg to issue the Reichstag Fire Decree the following day. The decree invoked Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution and "indefinitely suspended '' a number of constitutional protections of civil liberties, allowing the Nazi government to take swift action against political meetings, arresting and killing the Communists.
Hitler and the Nazis exploited the German state 's broadcasting and aviation facilities in a massive attempt to sway the electorate, but this election yielded a scant majority of 16 seats for the coalition. At the Reichstag elections, which took place on 5 March 1933, the NSDAP obtained 17 million votes. The Communist, Social Democrat and Catholic Centre votes stood firm. This was the last multi-party election of the Weimar Republic and the last multi-party all - German election for 57 years.
Hitler addressed disparate interest groups, stressing the necessity for a definitive solution to the perpetual instability of the Weimar Republic. He now blamed Germany 's problems on the Communists, even threatening their lives on 3 March. Former Chancellor Heinrich Brüning proclaimed that his Centre Party would resist any constitutional change and appealed to the President for an investigation of the Reichstag fire. Hitler 's successful plan was to induce what remained of the now Communist - depleted Reichstag to grant him, and the Government, the authority to issue decrees with the force of law. The hitherto Presidential Dictatorship hereby was to give itself a new legal form.
On 15 March, the first cabinet meeting was attended by the two coalition parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the DNVP led by Alfred Hugenberg (288 + 52 seats). According to the Nuremberg Trials, this cabinet meeting 's first order of business was how at last to achieve the complete counter-revolution by means of the constitutionally allowed Enabling Act, requiring a 66 % parliamentary majority. This Act would, and did, lead Hitler and the NSDAP toward his goal of unfettered dictatorial powers.
At the cabinet meeting on 15 March, Hitler introduced the Enabling Act, which would have authorised the cabinet to enact legislation without the approval of the Reichstag. Meanwhile, the only remaining question for the Nazis was whether the Catholic Centre Party (Zentrum) would support the Enabling Act in the Reichstag, thereby providing the 2⁄3 majority required to ratify a law that amended the constitution. Hitler expressed his confidence to win over the Centre 's votes. Hitler is recorded at the Nuremberg Trials as being sure of eventual Centre Party Germany capitulation and thus rejecting of the DNVP 's suggestions to "balance '' the majority through further arrests, this time of Social Democrats. Hitler, however, assured his coalition partners that arrests would resume after the elections and, in fact, some 26 SPD Social Democrats were physically removed. After meeting with Centre leader Monsignor Ludwig Kaas and other Centre Trade Union leaders daily and denying them a substantial participation in the government, negotiation succeeded in respect of guarantees towards Catholic civil - servants and education issues.
At the last internal Centre meeting prior to the debate on the Enabling Act, Kaas expressed no preference or suggestion on the vote, but as a way of mollifying opposition by Centre members to the granting of further powers to Hitler, Kaas somehow arranged for a letter of constitutional guarantee from Hitler himself prior to his voting with the centre en bloc in favour of the Enabling Act. This guarantee was not ultimately given. Kaas, the party 's chairman since 1928, had strong connections to the Vatican Secretary of State, later Pope Pius XII. In return for pledging his support for the act, Kaas would use his connections with the Vatican to set in train and draft the Holy See 's long desired Reichskonkordat with Germany (only possible with the co-operation of the Nazis).
Ludwig Kaas is considered along with Papen as being one of the two most important political figures in the creation of a National Socialist dictatorship.
On 20 March, negotiation began between Hitler and Frick on one side and the Catholic Centre Party (Zentrum) leaders -- Kaas, Stegerwald and Hackelsburger on the other. The aim was to settle on conditions under which Centre would vote in favour of the Enabling Act. Because of the Nazis ' narrow majority in the Reichstag, Centre 's support was necessary to receive the required two - thirds majority vote. On 22 March, the negotiations concluded; Hitler promised to continue the existence of the German states, agreed not to use the new grant of power to change the constitution, and promised to retain Zentrum members in the civil service. Hitler also pledged to protect the Catholic confessional schools and to respect the concordats signed between the Holy See and Bavaria (1924), Prussia (1929) and Baden (1931). Hitler also agreed to mention these promises in his speech to the Reichstag before the vote on the Enabling Act.
The ceremonial opening of the Reichstag on 21 March was held at the Garrison Church in Potsdam, a shrine of Prussianism, in the presence of many Junker landowners and representatives of the imperial military caste. This impressive and often emotional spectacle -- orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels -- aimed to link Hitler 's government with Germany 's imperial past and portray National Socialism as a guarantor of the nation 's future. The ceremony helped convince the "old guard '' Prussian military elite of Hitler 's homage to their long tradition and, in turn, produced the relatively convincing view that Hitler 's government had the support of Germany 's traditional protector -- the Army. Such support would publicly signal a return to conservatism to curb the problems affecting the Weimar Republic, and that stability might be at hand. In a cynical and politically adroit move, Hitler bowed in apparently respectful humility before President and Field Marshal Hindenburg.
The Reichstag convened on 23 March 1933, and in the midday opening, Hitler made a historic speech, appearing outwardly calm and conciliatory. Hitler presented an appealing prospect of respect towards Christianity by paying tribute to the Christian faiths as "essential elements for safeguarding the soul of the German people ''. He promised to respect their rights and declared his government 's "ambition is a peaceful accord between Church and State '' and that he hoped "to improve our friendly relations with the Holy See. '' This speech aimed especially at the future recognition by the named Holy See and therefore to the votes of the Centre Party addressing many concerns Kaas had voiced during the previous talks. Kaas is considered to have had a hand therefore in the drafting of the speech. Kaas is also reported as voicing the Holy See 's desire for Hitler as bulwark against atheistic Russian nihilism previously as early as May 1932.
Hitler promised that the Act did not threaten the existence of either the Reichstag or the Reichsrat, that the authority of the President remained untouched and that the Länder would not be abolished. During an adjournment, the other parties (notably the Centre) met to discuss their intentions.
In the debate prior to the vote on the Enabling Act, Hitler orchestrated the full political menace of his paramilitary forces like the storm division in the streets to intimidate reluctant Reichstag deputies into approving the Enabling Act. The Communists ' 81 seats had been empty since the Reichstag Fire Decree and other lesser known procedural measures, thus excluding their anticipated "No '' votes from the balloting. Otto Wels, the leader of the Social Democrats, whose seats were similarly depleted from 120 to below 100, was the only speaker to defend democracy and in a futile but brave effort to deny Hitler the 2⁄3 majority, he made a speech critical of the abandonment of democracy to dictatorship. At this, Hitler could no longer restrain his wrath.
In his retort to Wels, Hitler abandoned earlier pretence at calm statesmanship and delivered a characteristic screaming diatribe, promising to exterminate all Communists in Germany and threatening Wels ' Social Democrats as well. He did not even want their support for the bill. "Germany will become free, but not through you, '' he shouted. Meanwhile, Hitler 's promised written guarantee to Monsignor Kaas was being typed up, it was asserted to Kaas, and thereby Kaas was persuaded to silently deliver the Centre bloc 's votes for the Enabling Act anyway. The Act -- formally titled the "Act for the Removal of Distress from People and Reich '' -- was passed by a vote of 441 to 94. Only the SPD had voted against the Act. Every other member of the Reichstag, whether from the largest or the smallest party, voted in favour of the Act. It went into effect the following day, 24 March.
The passage of the Enabling Act of 1933 is widely considered to mark the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of the Nazi era. It empowered the cabinet to legislate without the approval of Reichstag or the President, and to enact laws that were contrary to the constitution. Before the March 1933 elections, Hitler had persuaded Hindenburg to promulgate the Reichstag Fire Decree using Article 48, which empowered the government to restrict "the rights of habeas corpus (...) freedom of the press, the freedom to organise and assemble, the privacy of postal, telegraphic and telephonic communications '' and legalised search warrants and confiscation "beyond legal limits otherwise prescribed ''. This was intended to forestall any action against the government by the Communists. Hitler used the provisions of the Enabling Act to pre-empt possible opposition to his dictatorship from other sources, in which he was mostly successful.
The process of bringing all major organisations into line with Nazi principles and into the service of the state was called Gleichschaltung. Gleichschaltung is usually translated as "coordination '', but sometimes as "forcible coordination ''. It is a compound word, consisting of gleich, meaning alike, and schaltung, which means switching. The NSDAP meant to imply a particular mechanical meaning of the word: a certain means of wiring an electrical generator and electric motors, so that when the generator is made to turn at a given speed or turned to a certain angle, each motor connected to it will also turn at that speed, or to the same angle -- in other words, synchronisation. The NSDAP was thought of as the generator, and other civil groups as motors wired to it.
Hitler 's cabinet issued many decrees for the purpose of Gleichschaltung in the weeks following the passage of the Act. It removed Jews from the civil service (at Hindenburg 's request, an exception was made for Jews who had served at the front during World War I). It banned all trade unions and eventually outlawed all other political parties. After the exiled SPD published its new weekly Neuer Vorwarts in Prague, Hitler banned the party, confiscating its assets and abolishing its parliamentary representation, by decree of 22 June.
However, opposition was frequently not addressed by legislation at all. The process of Gleichschaltung was often voluntary, or in any event not mandated by a formal decree. Most other parties had dissolved before being officially banned: the Nazi Party 's coalition partner, the DNVP, was dissolved on 27 June, one day after Hugenberg 's resignation from the cabinet. The Staatspartei (formerly the DDP) dissolved itself on 28 June, and the DVP on 29 June. On 4 -- 5 July, the Catholic parties (the BVP and the Centre) were also wound up. By the time the formal decree banned the creation of new parties, there were none left except the Nazis.
... many organisations showed themselves only too willing to anticipate the (Gleichschaltung) process and to "coordinate '' themselves in accordance with the expectations of the new era. By the autumn, the Nazi dictatorship... had been enormously strengthened. What is striking is not how much, but how little, Hitler needed to do to bring this about... Hitler took remarkably few initiatives.
Willing Gleichschaltung was termed Selbstgleichschaltung or "self - coordination ''. There was a rush to join the NSDAP, overrunning the party 's ability to process applications: on 1 May, the party announced that it was suspending the admission of new members. The party 's membership had increased to 2.5 million, from about 900,000 at the end of January. Many prominent intellectuals allied themselves with the new government: the country 's most famous philosopher, Martin Heidegger and its most prominent constitutional scholar, Carl Schmitt, spoke in favour of it, and Heidegger became the sponsor of a manifesto of German professors pledging allegiance to "Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist State ''. Lists were prepared of writers whose works were unacceptable in the "New Order '', including Freud, Einstein and Brecht. On the evening of 10 May, under the leadership of the German Students ' Association and without substantial protest by the university faculties, some 20,000 volumes were burned at Berlin 's Opernplatz.
The Reichswehr had, however, remained mostly untouched by Gleichschaltung. It was not until Hindenburg 's death in August 1934 that all military personnel swore an oath of loyalty directly to Hitler, instead of to the constitution. Thereafter, the military came under gradually increasing pressure to align itself with NSDAP ideology, but it never entirely capitulated. Likewise, the holdings of industrialists and aristocratic "Junker '' landowners remained for the most part untouched, whilst the administrative and judicial machinery was only very slightly tampered with. The Nazi efforts to "co-ordinate '' the Christian churches (both Roman Catholic and Protestant) were mostly unsuccessful, and were largely abandoned. However, the churches as a whole did not present any serious opposition to Hitler.
The constitution of 1919 was never formally repealed, but the Enabling Act meant that it was a dead letter. The Enabling Act itself was breached by Hitler on three occasions in 1934: Article 2 of the act stated that
' Laws enacted by the government of the Reich may deviate from the constitution as long as they do not affect the institutions of the Reichstag and the Reichsrat. The rights of the President remain undisturbed. '
The powers of the Länder (states) were transferred to the central government, rendering the Reichsrat obsolete. A month later, the Reichsrat itself was dissolved. President von Hindenburg died in August, and Hitler appropriated the president 's powers for himself. The Enabling Act did not specify any recourse that could be taken if the chancellor violated Article 2, and no judicial challenge ensued.
Following the death of Hindenburg in 1934, the constitution was largely forgotten, with some minor exceptions. In The Political Testament of Adolf Hitler, written shortly before his suicide, he appointed Admiral Karl Doenitz to succeed him but as President rather than Fuehrer, thereby re-establishing a constitutional office dormant since Hindenburg 's death eleven years earlier. On 30 April 1945, Doenitz formed what became known as the Flensburg government, which de facto controlled only a tiny area of Germany near the Danish border and the town of Flensburg. It was dissolved by the Allies on 23 May.
On 5 June, the Allied Berlin Declaration stated in its preamble that the Allies assumed "supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government... and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. '' It also declared that there was "no central Government or authority in Germany capable of accepting responsibility for the maintenance of order, the administration of the country and compliance with the requirements of the victorious Powers. '' Article 13 of the declaration read:
(T) he four Allied Governments will take such steps, including the complete disarmament and demilitarisation of Germany, as they deem requisite for future peace and security. The Allied Representatives will impose on Germany additional political, administrative, economic, financial, military and other requirements arising from the complete defeat of Germany... All German authorities and the German people shall carry out unconditionally the requirements of the Allied Representatives, and shall fully comply with all such proclamations, orders, ordinances and instructions.
These provisions, not legally challenged by either of the subsequent German governments, meant that neither any NSDAP decree nor the 1919 constitution held any legal force over the Allies ' administration of Germany.
The 1949 Constitution of East Germany (officially, the German Democratic Republic) contained many passages that were originally part of the 1919 constitution. It was intended to be the constitution of a united Germany and was thus a compromise between liberal - democratic and Leninist ideologies. It was replaced by a new, explicitly Leninist constitution in 1968, which was substantially amended in 1974. In 1990, the GDR was dissolved and incorporated into West Germany.
The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany (commonly referred to as West Germany), enacted in 1949, stated: "The provisions of Articles 136, 137, 138, 139 and 141 of the German Constitution of 11 August 1919 shall be an integral part of this Basic Law. ''
These articles of the Weimar constitution (which dealt with the state 's relationship to various Christian churches) remain part of the German Basic Law.
The reasons for the Weimar Republic 's collapse are the subject of continuing debate. It may have been doomed from the beginning since even moderates disliked it and extremists on both the left and right loathed it, a situation often referred to as a "democracy without democrats ''. Germany had limited democratic traditions, and Weimar democracy was widely seen as chaotic. Since Weimar politicians had been blamed for the Dolchstoßlegende ("Stab - in - the - back myth ''), a widely believed theory that Germany 's surrender in World War I had been the unnecessary act of traitors, the popular legitimacy of the government was on shaky ground. As normal parliamentary lawmaking broke down and was replaced around 1930 by a series of emergency decrees, the decreasing popular legitimacy of the government further drove voters to extremist parties.
No single reason can explain the failure of the Weimar Republic. The most commonly asserted causes can be grouped into three categories: economic problems, institutional problems and the roles of specific individuals.
The Weimar Republic had some of the most serious economic problems ever experienced by any Western democracy in history. Rampant hyperinflation, massive unemployment, and a large drop in living standards were primary factors. From 1923 to 1929, there was a short period of economic recovery, but the Great Depression of the 1930s led to a worldwide recession. Germany was particularly affected because it depended heavily on American loans. In 1926, about 2 million Germans were unemployed, which rose to around 6 million in 1932. Many blamed the Weimar Republic. That was made apparent when political parties on both right and left wanting to disband the Republic altogether made any democratic majority in Parliament impossible.
The Weimar Republic was severely affected by the Great Depression. The economic stagnation led to increased demands on Germany to repay the debts owed to the United States. As the Weimar Republic was very fragile in all its existence, the depression was devastating, and played a major role in the NSDAP 's takeover.
Most Germans thought the Treaty of Versailles was a punishing and degrading document because it forced them to surrender resource - rich areas and pay massive amounts of compensation. The punitive reparations caused consternation and resentment, but the actual economic damage resulting from the Treaty of Versailles is difficult to determine. While the official reparations were considerable, Germany ended up paying only a fraction of them. However, the reparations damaged Germany 's economy by discouraging market loans, which forced the Weimar government to finance its deficit by printing more currency, causing rampant hyperinflation. In addition, the rapid disintegration of Germany in 1919 by the return of a disillusioned army, the rapid change from possible victory in 1918 to defeat in 1919, and the political chaos may have caused a psychological imprint on Germans that could lead to extreme nationalism, later epitomised and exploited by Hitler.
Most historians agree that many industrial leaders identified the Weimar Republic with labour unions and the Social Democrats, who had established the Versailles concessions. Although some saw Hitler as a means to abolish the latter, the Republic was already unstable before any industry leaders were supporting Hitler. Even those who supported Hitler 's appointment often did not support all of Nazism and considered Hitler a temporary solution in their efforts to abolish the Republic. Industry support alone can not explain Hitler 's enthusiastic support by large segments of the population, including many workers who had turned away from the left.
Princeton historian Harold James argues that there was a clear link between economic decline and people turning to extremist politics.
It is widely believed that the 1919 constitution had several weaknesses, making the eventual establishment of a dictatorship likely, but it is unknown whether a different constitution could have prevented the rise of the Nazi party. However, the 1949 West German constitution (the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany) is generally viewed as a strong response to these flaws.
Brüning 's economic policy from 1930 to 1932 has been the subject of much debate. It caused many Germans to identify the Republic with cuts in social spending and extremely liberal economics. Whether there were alternatives to this policy during the Great Depression is an open question.
Paul von Hindenburg became Reichspräsident in 1925. As he was an old style monarchist conservative, he had little love lost for the Republic, but for the most part, he formally acted within the bounds of the constitution; however, he ultimately - on the advice of his son and others close to him - appointed Hitler chancellor thereby effectively ending the Republic.
Prior to World War I, the constituent states of the German Empire were 22 smaller monarchies, three republican city - states and the Imperial territory of Alsace - Lorraine. After the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles and the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919, the remaining states continued as republics. The former Ernestine duchies continued briefly as republics before merging to form the state of Thuringia in 1920, except for Saxe - Coburg, which became part of Bavaria.
These states were gradually de facto abolished under the Nazi regime via the Gleichschaltung process, as the states were largely re-organised into Gaue. However, the city - state of Lübeck was formally incorporated into Prussia in 1937 following the Greater Hamburg Act, apparently motivated by Hitler 's personal dislike for the city. Most of the remaining states were formally dissolved by the Allies at the end of World War II and ultimately reorganised into the modern states of Germany.
Coordinates: 52 ° 31 ′ N 13 ° 24 ′ E / 52.517 ° N 13.400 ° E / 52.517; 13.400
|
case 8/74 procureur du roi v. dassonville 1974 ecr 837 | Procureur du Roi v Benoît and Gustave Dassonville - wikipedia
Procureur du Roi v Benoît and Gustave Dassonville (1974) Case 8 / 74 is an EU law case of the European Court of Justice, in which a ' distinctly applicable measure of equivalent effect ' to a quantitative restriction of trade in the European Union was held to exist on a Scotch whisky imported from France.
Benoit and Dassonville claimed that their prosecution for selling Scotch whisky without a certificate was contrary to the TEEC article 30 (now TFEU art 34). A Belgian law said Scotch whisky and other products that had a designation of origin could only be sold if accompanied with a certificate of origin. Competitors had exclusive dealing arrangements with UK exporters, and so they had acquired the whisky from France. However, in France, it was impossible to obtain a certificate because French law did not require certificates. Benoit and Dassonville were accused of forging a certificate and prosecuted. In response, they challenged the legality of the certificate law, based on the rule in article 30 that there should be no quantitative restrictions on trade, or measures of equivalent effect. The Belgian authorities, the Procureur du Roi contended that because the purpose was to protect consumers, not regulate trade, the measure fell outside TEEC article 30.
The Belgian court referred the case to the European Court of Justice, as is permitted under TEEC article 234 (now TFEU art 267).
The Court of Justice held that the requirement for a certificate in Belgian law was contrary to article 30.
5. All trading rules enacted by Member States which are capable of hindering, directly or indirectly, actually or potentially, intra-Community trade are to be considered as measures having an effect equivalent to quantitative restrictions.
6. In the absence of a Community system guaranteeing for consumers the authenticity of a product 's designation of origin, if a Member State takes measures to prevent unfair practices in this connexion, it is however subject to the condition that these measures should be reasonable and that the means of proof required should not act as a hindrance to trade between Member States and should, in consequence, be accessible to all Community nationals.
7. Even without having to examine whether or not such measures are covered by Article 36, they must not, in any case, by virtue of the principle expressed in the second sentence of that Article, constitute a means of arbitrary discrimination or a disguised restriction on trade between Member States.
8. That may be the case with formalities, required by a Member State for the purpose of proving the origin of a product, which only direct importers are really in a position to satisfy without facing serious difficulties.
9. Consequently, the requirement by a Member State of a certificate of authenticity which is less easily obtainable by importers of an authentic product which has been put into free circulation in a regular manner in another Member State than by importers of the same product coming directly from the country of origin constitutes a measure having an effect equivalent to a quantitative restriction as prohibited by the Treaty.
10. By the second question it is asked whether an agreement the effect of which is to restrict competition and adversely to affect trade between member states when taken in conjunction with a national rule with regard to certificates of origin is void when that agreement merely authorizes the exclusive importer to exploit that rule for the purpose of preventing parallel imports or does not prohibit him from doing so.
11. An exclusive dealing agreement falls within the prohibition of Article 85 when it impedes, in law or in fact, the importation of the products in question from other member states into the protected territory by persons other than the exclusive importer.
12. More particularly, an exclusive dealing agreement may adversely affect trade between member states and can have the effect of hindering competition if the concessionaire is able to prevent parallel imports from other member states into the territory covered by the concession by means of the combined effects of the agreement and a national law requiring the exclusive use of a certain means of proof of authenticity.
13. For the purpose of judging whether this is the case, account must be taken not only of the rights and obligations flowing from the provisions of the agreement, but also of the legal and economic context in which it is situated and, in particular, the possible existence of similar agreements concluded between the same producer and concessionaires established in other member states.
14. In this connexion, the maintenance within a member state of prices appreciably higher than those in force in another member state may prompt an examination as to whether the exclusive dealing agreement is being used for the purpose of preventing importers from obtaining the means of proof of authenticity of the product in question, required by national rules of the type envisaged by the question.
15. However, the fact that an agreement merely authorizes the concessionaire to exploit such a national rule or does not prohibit him from doing so, does not suffice, in itself, to render the agreement null and void.
Horspool and Humphreys note that this decision could include a "huge '' range of restrictions and that the court has sought to limit the scope of the Dassonville decision, in cases such as Cassis de Dijon, which was decided a few years later.
|
what is mcdonald's special sauce on the big mac | Big Mac - wikipedia
The Big Mac is a hamburger sold by international fast food restaurant chain McDonald 's. It was introduced in the Greater Pittsburgh area, United States, in 1967 and nationwide in 1968. It is one of the company 's signature products.
The Big Mac was created by Jim Delligatti, an early Ray Kroc franchisee, who was operating several restaurants in the Pittsburgh area. It was invented in the kitchen of Delligatti 's first McDonald 's franchise, located on McKnight Road in suburban Ross Township. The Big Mac had two previous names, both of which failed in the marketplace: the Aristocrat, which consumers found difficult to pronounce and understand, and Blue Ribbon Burger. The third name, Big Mac, was created by Esther Glickstein Rose, a 21 - year - old advertising secretary who worked at McDonald 's corporate headquarters in Oak Brook, Illinois. The Big Mac debuted at Delligatti 's Uniontown, Pennsylvania restaurant in 1967, selling for 45 cents. It was designed to compete with Big Boy Restaurants ' Big Boy hamburger; Eat'n Park was the Pittsburgh area 's Big Boy franchisee at the time. The Big Mac proved popular, and it was added to the menu of all U.S. restaurants in 1968.
The Big Mac consists of two 1.6 oz (45.4 g) beef patties, "special sauce '' (a variant of Thousand Island dressing), iceberg lettuce, American cheese, pickles, and onions, served in a three - part sesame seed bun.
The Big Mac is known worldwide and is often used as a symbol of American capitalism. The Economist has used it as a reference point for comparing the cost of living in different countries -- the Big Mac Index -- as it is so widely available and is comparable across markets. This index is sometimes referred to as Burgernomics.
The name was popularized by a 1974 advertising campaign featuring a list of the ingredients in a Big Mac: "Two all - beef patties, special sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onions -- on a sesame seed bun. ''
Big Mac Sauce is delivered to McDonald 's restaurants in sealed canisters designed by Sealright, from which it is meant to be directly dispensed using a special calibrated "sauce gun '' that dispenses a specified amount of the sauce for each pull of the trigger. Its design is similar to a caulking gun.
In 2012, McDonald 's admitted that "the special sauce ingredients were not really a secret '' because the recipe had been available online "for years ''. It consists of store - bought mayonnaise, sweet pickle relish and yellow mustard whisked together with vinegar, garlic powder, onion powder and paprika.
The Big Mac, along with many other McDonald 's products, was first served in a "clamshell '' styrofoam container that was phased out beginning in 1990 due to environmental concerns. The product is now sold in a collapsible cardboard box.
The earliest instances of McDonald 's utilizing advertising for the burger were mainly print ads, and a TV ad in which Hoyt Axton sings "The Ballad of Big Mac '' which aired in 1969.
The Two all - beef patties, special sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onions -- on a sesame seed bun concept for the jingle was created by Keith Reinhard, Chairman Emeritus of DDB Worldwide, and his creative group at Needham Harper and Steers. Originally, the ingredients appeared as a one - word heading for a McDonald 's ad developed for college newspapers. The words were then set to music created by Mark Vieha, who performed the original jingle. The first run of commercials ran only a year and a half, going off the air in 1976, but its popularity remained beyond its TV life. Subsequent to the jingle, McDonald 's followed up with a promotion based on its customers spontaneously having a "Big Mac Attack ''.
Many franchises in the United States ran promotions during the original campaign that awarded a free burger to customers who could recite the slogan within a specified time (usually two or three seconds). One example of its success was that the McDonald 's operators in New York City ran out of Big Mac buns. McDonald 's Australia emulated this promotion in the mid-1980s, and some Brazilian McDonald 's around the same time (only offering a free glass of Coca - Cola instead), in the Portuguese - language version, which is "Dois hambúrgueres, alface, queijo, molho especial, cebola e picles num pão com gergelim ''.
In 2003, McDonald 's revived the phrase. In an English - language ad from McDonald 's international "i 'm lovin ' it '' campaign, a rapper rapidly spouts off the trademark in the background music. Also in 2003, American Greetings and Carlton Cards released a Christmas ornament of a Big Mac, on which the slogan was both printed and played aloud by pulling on a string. Roy Bergold, National Advertising Manager at McDonald 's, has a big hand in championing the original campaign and helping to bring it back.
In 2008, the phrase was revived by McDonald 's Malaysia. The revival includes the original prize of a free Big Mac if the customer is able to recite the phrase in under four seconds. This was released in May, along with the promotional Mega Mac, which has four beef patties rather than the standard two.
In the early 1980s, as a promotion, McDonald 's staged an in - house rivalry between their two most popular products. Consumers were invited to decide "Which one will be number one? Chicken McNuggets or Big Mac sandwiches? '' For each of either item that a customer bought, they received another of the same at half price. Later in the ad campaign, the second was offered for free. It was eventually announced that the Big Mac was "number one ''.
In 2005, McDonald 's began offering product placement rewards to hip hop artists who namechecked the Big Mac in their music, giving US $5 to the artist for every time a song mentioning the hamburger was played on the radio. This offer quickly spawned a satirical reference from hip hop artist Mad Skillz, who references the marketing ploy in his track "2005 Wrap Up '' by stating "And I 'm beefin ' wit ' Mickey D 's man, y'all dead wrong, Talkin ' ' bout payin ' rappers to mention Big Macs in their song, We do rap from the heart, y'all better have some respect, Alright, Big Mac! Big Mac! Big Mac! Now where 's my check? ''
In addition to the McDonald 's signature hamburger, Big Mac was the name of a character, Officer Big Mac, in McDonaldland, the fictional world created as an advertising campaign for McDonald 's. Officer Big Mac was similar to Mayor McCheese, except he was the chief of police, wearing a constable uniform and sporting a large Big Mac for a head.
On August 22, 2007, McDonald 's opened the Big Mac Museum in North Huntingdon, Pennsylvania to celebrate the Big Mac 's 40th anniversary. The museum features the world 's largest Big Mac statue (measuring 14 feet high and 12 feet wide) and has hundreds of historic artifacts and exhibits that celebrate the Big Mac.
Some Uniontown residents were unhappy with the selected location; a McDonald 's spokesperson said that the decision was based on ease of highway access.
The Big Mac is a geographically localized product. In the United States, the Big Mac has 550 kcal (2,300 kJ), 29 grams of fat and 25 grams of protein. In Australia, the burger is slightly smaller with 493 kcal (2,060 kJ) and 26.9 grams of fat, but similar amounts of protein with 25.2 grams, while the Japanese burger tops out the scales at 557 kcal and 30.5 grams of fat. Several Mcdonald 's subsidiaries adapt the standard features of the Big Mac (from the USA) to regional requirements.
Similar products by other restaurant chains:
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.