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in smps the input voltage of the circuit is 6 volts and the output voltage is | Switched - mode power supply - wikipedia
A switched - mode power supply (switching - mode power supply, switch - mode power supply, switched power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a DC or AC source (often mains power) to DC loads, such as a personal computer, while converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching - mode supply continually switches between low - dissipation, full - on and full - off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. Ideally, a switched - mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on - to - off time. In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched - mode power supply. Switched - mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are, however, more complicated; their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor.
A linear regulator provides the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power in ohmic losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collector -- emitter region of a pass transistor in its active mode). A linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the excess electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltage - out / voltage - in since the volt difference is wasted.
In contrast, a switched - mode power supply regulates either output voltage or current by switching ideal storage elements, like inductors and capacitors, into and out of different electrical configurations. Ideal switching elements (e.g., transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance when "closed '' and carry no current when "open '', and so the converters can theoretically operate with 100 % efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted as dissipated heat).
For example, if a DC source, an inductor, a switch, and the corresponding electrical ground are placed in series and the switch is driven by a square wave, the peak - to - peak voltage of the waveform measured across the switch can exceed the input voltage from the DC source. This is because the inductor responds to changes in current by inducing its own voltage to counter the change in current, and this voltage adds to the source voltage while the switch is open. If a diode - and - capacitor combination is placed in parallel to the switch, the peak voltage can be stored in the capacitor, and the capacitor can be used as a DC source with an output voltage greater than the DC voltage driving the circuit. This boost converter acts like a step - up transformer for DC signals. A buck -- boost converter works in a similar manner, but yields an output voltage which is opposite in polarity to the input voltage. Other buck circuits exist to boost the average output current with a reduction of voltage.
In a SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used (e.g., pulse - width modulation with an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the switching elements. The spectral density of these switching waveforms has energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies. As such, switching transients and ripple introduced onto the output waveforms can be filtered with a small LC filter.
The main advantage of the switching power supply is greater efficiency than linear regulators because the switching transistor dissipates little power when acting as a switch.
Other advantages include smaller size and lighter weight from the elimination of heavy line - frequency transformers, and comparable heat generation. Standby power loss is often much less than transformers.
Disadvantages include greater complexity, the generation of high - amplitude, high - frequency energy that the low - pass filter must block to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI), a ripple voltage at the switching frequency and the harmonic frequencies thereof.
Very low cost SMPSs may couple electrical switching noise back onto the mains power line, causing interference with A / V equipment connected to the same phase. Non-power - factor - corrected SMPSs also cause harmonic distortion.
There are two main types of regulated power supplies available: SMPS and linear. The following table compares linear regulated and unregulated AC - to - DC supplies with switching regulators in general:
If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This is called rectification. A SMPS with a DC input does not require this stage. In some power supplies (mostly computer ATX power supplies), the rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by the addition of a switch operated either manually or automatically. This feature permits operation from power sources that are normally at 115 V or at 230 V. The rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses have significant high frequency energy which reduces the power factor. To correct for this, many newer SMPS will use a special PFC circuit to make the input current follow the sinusoidal shape of the AC input voltage, correcting the power factor. Power supplies that use active PFC usually are auto - ranging, supporting input voltages from ~ 100 VAC -- 250 VAC, with no input voltage selector switch.
An SMPS designed for AC input can usually be run from a DC supply, because the DC would pass through the rectifier unchanged. If the power supply is designed for 115 VAC and has no voltage selector switch, the required DC voltage would be 163 VDC (115 × √ 2). This type of use may be harmful to the rectifier stage, however, as it will only use half of diodes in the rectifier for the full load. This could possibly result in overheating of these components, causing them to fail prematurely. On the other hand, if the power supply has a voltage selector switch, based on the Delon circuit, for 115 / 230V (computer ATX power supplies typically are in this category), the selector switch would have to be put in the 230 V position, and the required voltage would be 325 VDC (230 × √ 2). The diodes in this type of power supply will handle the DC current just fine because they are rated to handle double the nominal input current when operated in the 115 V mode, due to the operation of the voltage doubler. This is because the doubler, when in operation, uses only half of the bridge rectifier and runs twice as much current through it. It is uncertain how an Auto - ranging / Active - PFC type power supply would react to being powered by DC.
The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the rectifier stage described above, to AC by running it through a power oscillator, whose output transformer is very small with few windings at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz. The frequency is usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The switching is implemented as a multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier. MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low on - resistance and a high current - handling capacity.
If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case in mains power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary winding of a high - frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The output transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.
If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. For output voltages above ten volts or so, ordinary silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower voltages, Schottky diodes are commonly used as the rectifier elements; they have the advantages of faster recovery times than silicon diodes (allowing low - loss operation at higher frequencies) and a lower voltage drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages, MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to Schottky diodes, these have even lower conducting state voltage drops.
The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching frequencies, components with lower capacitance and inductance are needed.
Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a transformer. This type includes boost converters, buck converters, and the buck - boost converters. These belong to the simplest class of single input, single output converters which use one inductor and one active switch. The buck converter reduces the input voltage in direct proportion to the ratio of conductive time to the total switching period, called the duty cycle. For example an ideal buck converter with a 10 V input operating at a 50 % duty cycle will produce an average output voltage of 5 V. A feedback control loop is employed to regulate the output voltage by varying the duty cycle to compensate for variations in input voltage. The output voltage of a boost converter is always greater than the input voltage and the buck - boost output voltage is inverted but can be greater than, equal to, or less than the magnitude of its input voltage. There are many variations and extensions to this class of converters but these three form the basis of almost all isolated and non-isolated DC to DC converters. By adding a second inductor the Ćuk and SEPIC converters can be implemented, or, by adding additional active switches, various bridge converters can be realized.
Other types of SMPSs use a capacitor - diode voltage multiplier instead of inductors and transformers. These are mostly used for generating high voltages at low currents (Cockcroft - Walton generator). The low voltage variant is called charge pump.
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a reference voltage, as shown in the block diagram above. Depending on design and safety requirements, the controller may contain an isolation mechanism (such as an opto - coupler) to isolate it from the DC output. Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these opto - couplers to tightly control the output voltage.
Open - loop regulators do not have a feedback circuit. Instead, they rely on feeding a constant voltage to the input of the transformer or inductor, and assume that the output will be correct. Regulated designs compensate for the impedance of the transformer or coil. Monopolar designs also compensate for the magnetic hysteresis of the core.
The feedback circuit needs power to run before it can generate power, so an additional non-switching power - supply for stand - by is added.
Any switched - mode power supply that gets its power from an AC power line (called an "off - line '' converter) requires a transformer for galvanic isolation. Some DC - to - DC converters may also include a transformer, although isolation may not be critical in these cases. SMPS transformers run at high frequency. Most of the cost savings (and space savings) in off - line power supplies result from the smaller size of the high frequency transformer compared to the 50 / 60 Hz transformers formerly used. There are additional design tradeoffs.
The terminal voltage of a transformer is proportional to the product of the core area, magnetic flux, and frequency. By using a much higher frequency, the core area (and so the mass of the core) can be greatly reduced. However, core losses increase at higher frequencies. Cores generally use ferrite material which has a low loss at the high frequencies and high flux densities used. The laminated iron cores of lower - frequency (< 400 Hz) transformers would be unacceptably lossy at switching frequencies of a few kilohertz. Also, more energy is lost during transitions of the switching semiconductor at higher frequencies. Furthermore, more attention to the physical layout of the circuit board is required as parasitics become more significant, and the amount of electromagnetic interference will be more pronounced.
At low frequencies (such as the line frequency of 50 or 60 Hz), designers can usually ignore the skin effect. For these frequencies, the skin effect is only significant when the conductors are large, more than 0.3 inches (7.6 mm) in diameter.
Switching power supplies must pay more attention to the skin effect because it is a source of power loss. At 500 kHz, the skin depth in copper is about 0.003 inches (0.076 mm) -- a dimension smaller than the typical wires used in a power supply. The effective resistance of conductors increases, because current concentrates near the surface of the conductor and the inner portion carries less current than at low frequencies.
The skin effect is exacerbated by the harmonics present in the high speed PWM switching waveforms. The appropriate skin depth is not just the depth at the fundamental, but also the skin depths at the harmonics.
In addition to the skin effect, there is also a proximity effect, which is another source of power loss.
Simple off - line switched mode power supplies incorporate a simple full - wave rectifier connected to a large energy storing capacitor. Such SMPSs draw current from the AC line in short pulses when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeds the voltage across this capacitor. During the remaining portion of the AC cycle the capacitor provides energy to the power supply.
As a result, the input current of such basic switched mode power supplies has high harmonic content and relatively low power factor. This creates extra load on utility lines, increases heating of building wiring, the utility transformers, and standard AC electric motors, and may cause stability problems in some applications such as in emergency generator systems or aircraft generators. Harmonics can be removed by filtering, but the filters are expensive. Unlike displacement power factor created by linear inductive or capacitive loads, this distortion can not be corrected by addition of a single linear component. Additional circuits are required to counteract the effect of the brief current pulses. Putting a current regulated boost chopper stage after the off - line rectifier (to charge the storage capacitor) can correct the power factor, but increases the complexity and cost.
In 2001, the European Union put into effect the standard IEC / EN61000 - 3 - 2 to set limits on the harmonics of the AC input current up to the 40th harmonic for equipment above 75 W. The standard defines four classes of equipment depending on its type and current waveform. The most rigorous limits (class D) are established for personal computers, computer monitors, and TV receivers. To comply with these requirements, modern switched - mode power supplies normally include an additional power factor correction (PFC) stage.
Switched - mode power supplies can be classified according to the circuit topology. The most important distinction is between isolated converters and non-isolated ones.
Non-isolated converters are simplest, with the three basic types using a single inductor for energy storage. In the voltage relation column, D is the duty cycle of the converter, and can vary from 0 to 1. The input voltage (V) is assumed to be greater than zero; if it is negative, for consistency, negate the output voltage (V).
When equipment is human - accessible, voltage and power limits of < = 42.4 V peak / 60 V dc and 250 VA apply for safety certification (UL, CSA, VDE approval).
The buck, boost, and buck - boost topologies are all strongly related. Input, output and ground come together at one point. One of the three passes through an inductor on the way, while the other two pass through switches. One of the two switches must be active (e.g., a transistor), while the other can be a diode. Sometimes, the topology can be changed simply by re-labeling the connections. A 12 V input, 5 V output buck converter can be converted to a 7 V input, − 5 V output buck - boost by grounding the output and taking the output from the ground pin.
Likewise, SEPIC and Zeta converters are both minor rearrangements of the Ćuk converter.
The neutral point clamped (NPC) topology is used in power supplies and active filters and is mentioned here for completeness.
Switchers become less efficient as duty cycles become extremely short. For large voltage changes, a transformer (isolated) topology may be better.
All isolated topologies include a transformer, and thus can produce an output of higher or lower voltage than the input by adjusting the turns ratio. For some topologies, multiple windings can be placed on the transformer to produce multiple output voltages. Some converters use the transformer for energy storage, while others use a separate inductor.
In a quasi-resonant zero - current / zero - voltage switch (ZCS / ZVS) "each switch cycle delivers a quantized ' packet ' of energy to the converter output, and switch turn - on and turn - off occurs at zero current and voltage, resulting in an essentially lossless switch. '' Quasi-resonant switching, also known as valley switching, reduces EMI in the power supply by two methods:
Higher input voltage and synchronous rectification mode makes the conversion process more efficient. The power consumption of the controller also has to be taken into account. Higher switching frequency allows component sizes to be shrunk, but can produce more RFI. A resonant forward converter produces the lowest EMI of any SMPS approach because it uses a soft - switching resonant waveform compared with conventional hard switching.
For failure in switching components, circuit board and so on read the failure modes of electronics article.
Power supplies which use capacitors suffering from the capacitor plague may experience premature failure when the capacitance drops to 4 % of the original value. This usually causes the switching semiconductor to fail in a conductive way. That may expose connected loads to the full input volt and current, and precipitate wild oscillations in output.
Failure of the switching transistor is common. Due to the large switching voltages this transistor must handle (around 325 V for a 230 V mains supply), these transistors often short out, in turn immediately blowing the main internal power fuse.
The main filter capacitor will often store up to 325 volts long after the power cord has been removed from the wall. Not all power supplies contain a small "bleeder '' resistor to slowly discharge this capacitor. Any contact with this capacitor may result in a severe electrical shock.
The primary and secondary sides may be connected with a capacitor to reduce EMI and compensate for various capacitive couplings in the converter circuit, where the transformer is one. This may result in electric shock in some cases. The current flowing from line or neutral through a 2 kΩ resistor to any accessible part must, according to IEC 60950, be less than 250 μA for IT equipment.
Switched - mode power supply units (PSUs) in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal inputs, meaning that they can accept power from mains supplies throughout the world, although a manual voltage range switch may be required. Switch - mode power supplies can tolerate a wide range of power frequencies and voltages.
Due to their high volumes mobile phone chargers have always been particularly cost sensitive. The first chargers were linear power supplies, but they quickly moved to the cost effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology, when new levels of efficiency were required. Recently, the demand for even lower no - load power requirements in the application has meant that flyback topology is being used more widely; primary side sensing flyback controllers are also helping to cut the bill of materials (BOM) by removing secondary - side sensing components such as optocouplers.
Switched - mode power supplies are used for DC to DC conversion as well. In automobiles where heavy vehicles use a nominal 24 V cranking supply, 12V for accessories may be furnished through a DC / DC switch - mode supply. This has the advantage over tapping the battery at the 12V position (using half the cells) that all the 12V load is evenly divided over all cells of the 24V battery. In industrial settings such as telecommunications racks, bulk power may be distributed at a low DC voltage (from a battery back up system, for example) and individual equipment items will have DC / DC switched - mode converters to supply whatever voltages are needed.
A common use for switched - mode power supplies is as extra-low - voltage sources for lighting, and for this application they are often called "electronic transformers ''.
The term switchmode was widely used until Motorola claimed ownership of the trademark SWITCHMODE, for products aimed at the switching - mode power supply market, and started to enforce their trademark. Switching - mode power supply, switching power supply, and switching regulator refer to this type of power supply.
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when did england last qualify for the world cup | England at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The England national football team has competed at the FIFA World Cup since 1950. The FIFA World Cup is the premier competitive international football tournament, first played in 1930, whose finals stage has been held every four years since, except 1942 and 1946, due to the Second World War.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the finals. The current format of the finals involves thirty - two teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 Final.
England did not enter the competition until 1950, but have entered all eighteen subsequent tournaments. They have failed to qualify for the finals on three occasions, 1974 (West Germany), 1978 (Argentina) and 1994 (United States), and have failed to advance from the group stages on three occasions; at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Their best ever performance is winning the Cup in the 1966 tournament held in England, whilst they also finished in fourth place in 1990, in Italy, and in 2018 in Russia. Other than that, the team have reached the quarter - finals on nine occasions, the latest of which were at the 2002 (South Korea / Japan) and the 2006 (Germany).
England are the only team not representing a sovereign state to win the World Cup, which they did in 1966 when they hosted the finals. They defeated West Germany 4 -- 2 after extra time to win the World Cup title. Since then, they have generally reached the knockout stages of almost every competition they have qualified for, including a fourth - place finish in the 1990 and 2018 World Cups. At the world cup, England have had more goalless draws than any other team.
England 's first qualifying campaign for the FIFA World Cup doubled as the 1950 British Home Championship. The series kicked off for England on 15 October 1949 at Ninian Park, Cardiff, against Wales. Stan Mortensen gave England the lead after twenty two minutes, and just seven minutes later, Jackie Milburn doubled the lead. This was the first goal of Milburn 's hat trick, which left England 4 -- 0 up with 20 minutes to play. Mal Griffiths scored a consolation goal for Wales ten minutes from time, but England held on for a comfortable victory.
A month later, England welcomed Ireland to Maine Road, and it began well for the home side as Jack Rowley scored inside six minutes. England were already 6 -- 0 up, thanks to Jack Froggatt, two for Stan Pearson, Stan Mortensen and a second from Rowley, by the time Ireland struck back through Samuel Smyth after 55 minutes. Rowley added a third and a fourth to his tally in the three minutes following Smyth 's goal, however, leaving the score at 8 -- 1 at the hour mark. The frantic scoring rate calmed down after that, with only one apeice before the final whistle, with Stan Pearson completing his brace for England 's ninth, and Bobby Brennan scoring for Ireland.
It was not until May 1950 that England travelled to Hampden Park to face Scotland, who were also undefeated after their games against Ireland and Wales. With the top two from the group qualifying, both teams were guaranteed progression to the finals, and the game was solely for the honour of winning the British Home Championship, and the seeding advantage to be enjoyed upon reaching Brazil. A solitary goal from Roy Bentley gave England the victory, the title and the top spot in the group.
England were seeded in pot one for the finals, which meant they were the favourites to progress from Group 2, which also contained Spain, Chile and the United States. England 's campaign kicked off against Chile in Rio de Janeiro, and, as was expected, England cruised to a 2 -- 0 victory, courtesy of goals from Stan Mortensen and Wilf Mannion.
Their troubles began four days later when they faced the Americans in Belo Horizonte in what has become one of the most famous matches of all time. Joe Gaetjens scored the only goal of the match to give the United States an unlikely victory, which has gone down as one of the World Cup 's greatest upsets. A myth arose that the English newspapers were so confident of an English victory that when the result was telegrammed back, they assumed a misprint and printed the score as 10 -- 1 in England 's favour. However, this has proven to be untrue.
This left England in a sticky situation prior to their final match, against Spain in Rio. They needed to win, and for Chile to beat the United States to stand any chance of going through, and even then they would need the goal averages to fall in their favour. As it turned out, no such calculations were necessary, despite Chile 's victory, as Spain 's Zarra scored the only goal of the game, eliminating England from the competition.
As with their first World Cup, England 's qualifying for the 1954 edition also constituted the 1953 -- 54 British Home Championship. They played Wales at Ninian Park as their first match once again, and the 4 -- 1 result was the same. However, unlike four years earlier, it was the home side that went into the lead, after twenty two minutes through Ivor Allchurch. Despite being 1 -- 0 down at half time, England scored four within eight minutes of the restart; two each for Dennis Wilshaw and Nat Lofthouse.
Goodison Park was the venue for England 's home clash against Ireland, who were newly renamed Northern Ireland. Harold Hassall got England off to a good start with a goal after just ten minutes. Eddie McMorran put the Irish back on terms just before the hour mark, but Hassall completed his brace six minutes later. Lofthouse completed a comfortable 3 -- 1 win for England.
With the top two in the group qualifying for the finals, the final game between England and Scotland, at Hampden Park, settled nothing except the placings within the group, despite Scotland having dropped a point with a 3 -- 3 draw at home to Wales. Allan Brown put the home side ahead after just seven minutes, but it was all square again thanks to Ivor Broadis just four minutes later. Johnny Nicholls gave England the lead for the first time just after half time, and they began to extend a lead after Ronnie Allen 's 68th - minute goal. Jimmy Mullen made the game all but certain seven minutes from time, and although Willie Ormond scored a consolation for Scotland with just 1 minute to play, England topped the competition for the second time in a row.
England were drawn in Group 4 for the finals, with hosts Switzerland, Italy and Belgium. In an odd twist, unique to the 1954 tournament, England and Italy, as the two seeded teams in the group, did not have to play each other.
Equally, Switzerland and Belgium did not have to play each other. England 's first game in Switzerland was against Belgium in Basel, and they suffered a shock as Léopold Anoul put the Belgians into the lead after just five minutes. Ivor Broadis put the favourites back on terms just over twenty minutes later, and although Nat Lofthouse gave England the lead 10 minutes later, it was proving to be tougher than they had expected against the Belgians.
Broadis scored his second just after the hour, but Henri Coppens hit back four minutes later to keep Belgium in the game at only 3 -- 2 down. Anoul completed his brace another four minutes after that to level the scores again. In another oddity peculiar to this World Cup, drawn matches in the group stage would go to extra time, and as such the teams played on with the score at 3 -- 3.
Just one minute into the added period, Lofthouse added a fourth for England and they seemed to have won it, but Jimmy Dickinson scored an own goal three minutes later to put the score back at 4 -- 4. It stayed this way until the extra period was up, and as penalty shoot - outs were yet to be invented and replays were not used in the group, the match was recorded as a draw.
England 's second and final group game was against the hosts in Bern. This proved to be an easier game for the Three Lions, and they scored one goal in each half (from Jimmy Mullen and Dennis Wilshaw respectively) to give them a comfortable win of 2 -- 0. As Switzerland (against England), Italy (against Switzerland) and Belgium (against Italy) had all lost one game, England progressed as group winners, along with Switzerland, who won a play - off against Italy.
England faced the winners of group three and defending champions Uruguay in the quarter - finals. Carlos Borges gave the South Americans the lead inside 5 minutes, but Lofthouse put England back on terms ten minutes later. England were clearly struggling, but held on until just before half time, when Obdulio Varela gave the lead back Uruguay.
Juan Alberto Schiaffino doubled the lead just after the break, but Tom Finney kept England 's foot in the door with his sixty seventh - minute goal. However, it was all over after Javier Ambrois restored the two - goal lead with twelve minutes to play. The score remained at 4 -- 2, and England were eliminated from the cup.
For the first time, England had to play against countries other than the Home Nations to reach the Finals in Sweden. They were drawn against the Republic of Ireland and Denmark. In the qualifying round, England won three out of the four games and drew the other. Four months before the World Cup, Roger Byrne, Duncan Edwards, David Pegg and Tommy Taylor all lost their lives in the Munich air disaster while playing for Manchester United. At the finals, which is the only tournament to have seen all Home Nations take part, the Home Nations were all drawn in different groups.
England were drawn against the Soviet Union (2 -- 2), Brazil (0 -- 0) and Austria (2 -- 2), who finished third in the 1954 World Cup. At the end of the group stage, Soviet Union and England each had three points, and had scored four goals and conceded four goals. This meant there was a play - off to decide the second - placed team in the group, the winner to qualify. England lost the play - off 1 -- 0 and were thus knocked out. The only consolation for England was that they were the only team to play the eventual winners Brazil and not lose.
The third World Cup which took place in South America, saw England qualify by successfully qualifying from the group, which contained Portugal and Luxembourg, defeating Luxembourg on both occasions, and defeating Portugal at home, and drawing in Lisbon.
At the finals, England were drawn in a group with Hungary, Argentina and Bulgaria. England defeated Argentina 3 - 1, thanks to goals from Ron Flowers, Bobby Charlton and Jimmy Greaves, before playing out a goalless draw with Bulgaria, and a 2 -- 1 defeat to Hungary.
England finished in second place behind Hungary and played the winners of group 3, defending champions Brazil, in the quarter - finals. Brazil scored first through Garrincha, before an equaliser for Gerry Hitchens before half time. However, second - half goals from Garrincha and Vavá meant Brazil won the game 3 -- 1, and eliminated England from the competition. This defeat was manager Walter Winterbottom 's last game in charge. Winterbottom had led England to four World Cup Finals. From May 1963, Alf Ramsey became the manager of England.
In the 1966 World Cup Finals, England used their home advantage and, under Ramsey, won their first, and only, World Cup title. England played all their games at Wembley Stadium in London, which became the last time that the hosts were granted this privilege. After drawing 0 -- 0 in the opening game against former champions Uruguay, which started a run of four games all ending goalless. England then beat both France and Mexico 2 -- 0 and qualified for the quarter - finals.
The quarter - finals saw England play Argentina, which ended in a 1 -- 0 win to England. This match saw the start of the rivalry between England and Argentina, when Argentinian Antonio Rattín was dismissed by German referee Rudolf Kreitlein in a very fierce game. A 2 -- 1 win against Portugal in the semi-final then followed. Portugal were the first team to score against England in the tournament. The final saw England play West Germany, with the result finishing in a 4 -- 2 win for England, after extra time.
1970 saw the first World Cup finals take place in North America and England qualified automatically for the tournament by winning the 1966 FIFA World Cup. England were drawn in a group with Romania, former world champions Brazil and Czechoslovakia. Each of the matches only saw one goal, with England defeating Romania and Czechoslovakia, and losing to Brazil. The quarter - final saw a repeat of the 1966 final, with England playing West Germany. England were hampered by the fact that first - choice goalkeeper Gordon Banks was ill, and Peter Bonetti played instead. England led 2 -- 0 with goals by Alan Mullery and Martin Peters, but in the 70th minute, Franz Beckenbauer pulled one goal back for West Germany.
After Beckenbauer 's goal, Ramsey substituted Bobby Charlton, who overtook Billy Wright as England 's most capped player ever, with caps totalling 106. Uwe Seeler equalised for the Germans in the eighty first minute, thereby taking the game into extra time. During extra time, Gerd Müller scored the winning goal for West Germany which saw the German side win 3 -- 2. This turned out to be Charlton 's last game for England.
For the first time, England did not qualify for a World Cup. In a group with Olympic champions Poland and Wales, England could not overtake Poland. After only drawing at home to Wales 1 -- 1 and losing the first leg 2 -- 0 to Poland, meant that England had to beat Poland at home, whilst Poland only needed to draw. Poland managed to withstand England 's attacks in the first half, who had Martin Peters playing for them. Poland took the lead in the 57th minute with a goal from Jan Domarski.
England equalised six minutes later, with a penalty converted by Allan Clarke. England were unable to score any more goals with goalkeeper Jan Tomaszewski keeping England at bay. Brian Clough had previously called Tomaszewski a "clown ''. The commentator of the game then said "it 's all over ''. Poland took this good form to the finals and ended in third place. After failing to qualify, Alf Ramsey resigned from his post and after a time, where Ramsey and his predecessor had lasted a total of 29 years, no manager was able to last in the job for longer than eight years. This ended when Bobby Robson became England manager.
England also did not qualify for the fourth World Cup which took place in South America. This time, England were denied by Italy, who had scored three more goals than England after both teams finished on the same points. Goals scored dictated who qualified after the head - to - head record between the two sides finished the same, following a 2 -- 0 home win for each team. The lower - ranked teams in the group were Finland and Luxembourg, but the size of the wins against them proved to be decisive. Nevertheless, Ron Greenwood was given a second chance in charge of England, after taking the role in 1977.
1982 saw the first time where the European Qualifying Rounds were divided into groups of five teams, where the top two teams qualify for the World Cup. Greenwood used his second chance and took England to Spain by finishing second behind Hungary and above Romania, Switzerland and Norway.
At the finals, England won all three group games, defeating France 3 - 1, with a brace from Bryan Robson, before beating Czechoslovakia 2 -- 0, with a Jozef Barmos own goal, and World Cup newcomers Kuwait 1 -- 0, thanks to a Trevor Francis goal.
The next round saw a second group stage consisting of three teams, a first time event at the World Cup. England drew with West Germany 0 -- 0 and after the Germans beat Spain 2 -- 1, England then had to beat Spain with a two - goal difference to progress to the next round. England, however, only managed a 0 -- 0 draw against the Spanish. England remained unbeaten at the end of the tournament. After the World Cup, Ron Greenwood 's time as England manager ended, and he was replaced by Bobby Robson.
1986 saw the second World Cup to take place in Mexico. England qualified for Mexico 1986 by winning four games and drawing four times against Northern Ireland, who qualified in second place, Romania, Finland and Turkey. In Mexico, England lost their opening game to Portugal 1 -- 0 and could only manage a goalless draw against Morocco. The final group game, however, saw England beat Poland 3 -- 0, which is one of the three highest scores for England at the World Cup, with Gary Lineker scoring a hat - trick.
This result took England to second place and finished behind Morocco. England then also beat Paraguay 3 -- 0 in the Round of 16. In the quarter - finals, England renewed their rivalry with Argentina in a game that has become notorious for the Argentina goals, both scored by Diego Maradona. Maradona 's first goal, known as the Hand of God, was illegal and should not have counted, as he used his hand to punch the ball into the net. However, the referee missed this infringement, and ruled that the goal should stand. Maradona then made the score 2 - 0, famously dribbling from inside Argentina 's half and around several English players before scoring. Gary Lineker pulled back the score to 2 - 1, but England ran out of time to equalise, and were eliminated. Nevertheless, Lineker finished with the Golden Boot by scoring six goals and thereby becoming England 's first Golden Boot winner.
By winning three and drawing three, England qualified for Italia ' 90, the second World Cup to be held in Italy, scoring ten goals and conceding none. England were unbeaten through qualification, winning three games, and drawing the remaining three, but still finished second to Sweden, whom they drew with twice. England profited from Romania 's 3 -- 1 win over Denmark, who, had they won, would have qualified as the third - best second - placed team. West Germany and England were able to qualify for Italia ' 90 as the best second - placed teams in the groups with four teams.
Because a few years previously saw English hooligans at European competition matches, England were forced to play their group games on Sardinia and Sicily. In group F, was the European champions Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt and England. After opening the tournament with a 1 -- 1 draw against Ireland and a 0 -- 0 draw against the Dutch, England then beat Egypt 1 -- 0. This was Egypt 's first appearance since the 1934 World Cup. England won the group with four points.
In the next round, England had to play Belgium. The game went to extra time, and in the hundredth and nineteenth minute, David Platt scored the winning goal. England also had to play extra time against Cameroon in the quarter - finals. Cameroon were the first African team to have reached the quarter - finals. England opened the scoring through David Platt, but Cameroon quickly turned around the game to lead 2 - 1. Lineker subsequently won and scored a penalty in the 83rd minute to ensure the game went to extra time. He then scored a second penalty, to see England reach the semi-finals.
In the semi-finals, England met West Germany. There was no separating the two teams after 90 minutes, which made England the first team to have played extra time in three successive World Cup games. There was also no separating the two teams after extra time, thereby taking the game to penalties.
Although English goalkeeper Peter Shilton dived the right way for every penalty, he was unable to save any. German goalkeeper Bodo Illgner, having failed to save any of England 's first three penalties, saved England 's fourth penalty, taken by Stuart Pearce. Olaf Thon then scored for Germany, meaning that England 's Chris Waddle would have to score his fifth penalty and hope that Shilton saved the Germans ' fifth penalty. However, Waddle 's penalty missed completely, going high over the crossbar, thereby resulting in England 's being knocked out of the competition. The third - place playoff between England and Italy saw England lose their only game of the tournament in normal time. Even though this was England 's best finish since the 1966 World Cup, Bobby Robson 's time as England manager had come to an end.
For the 1994 World Cup in the United States, under the leadership of new manager Graham Taylor, England surprisingly did not qualify for the tournament. In a group with six teams, England lost to Norway and the Netherlands, finishing third above Poland, Turkey and San Marino.
England went into their final game with San Marino knowing they would need a seven - goal victory and for Poland to beat the Netherlands in the other match in order to qualify. In the game against San Marino, Davide Gualtieri scored against England after nine seconds, taking the lead for the outsiders. England went on to win 7 -- 1, which was too small a goal margin. Additionally, despite the half - time score between the Poles and the Dutch being 1 - 1, the Dutch went on to win 3 - 1, meaning that however many goals England scored, they could still not qualify. Taylor 's tenure in charge ended and he was replaced by Terry Venables, who was dismissed after England lost the semi-final of Euro 1996, hosted in England.
After missing out on the World Cup in 1994, England, managed by Glenn Hoddle, qualified for the World Cup in France. England were drawn in Group 2 of UEFA qualifying with Italy, Poland, Georgia and Moldova. England beat Poland, Georgia and Moldova both home and away, but a home defeat to Italy in their fourth match meant they went into the final qualifier at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome just a point ahead of the Azzurri and only needing a draw to qualify automatically; defeat would see them have to navigate a play - off to secure qualification. The match finished as a goalless draw and England finished top of the group.
At the finals in France, England played in Group G. England defeated Tunisia 2 -- 0 in the first game, with goals from Alan Shearer and Paul Scholes. Their second match saw England lose 2 -- 1 to Romania; despite an 81st - minute equaliser from Michael Owen, Dan Petrescu scored a winner shortly before injury time. In their final group game, England defeated Colombia 2 -- 0 in the decisive match, thanks to goals from midfielders Darren Anderton and David Beckham. England finished second in Group G, which saw them qualify for the last 16 phase, and play the winner of 1998 FIFA World Cup Group H, Argentina.
In a fiery game containing six yellow cards and two penalties, David Beckham was controversially sent off in the 47th minute for what many felt was at most a yellow card offence, knocking over Diego Simeone. Gabriel Batistuta opened the scoring from the penalty spot in the fifth minute of the game, before an equaliser also from the spot by Alan Shearer four minutes later. England took the lead through Owen, in the 16th minute. Argentina drew level through Javier Zanetti in injury time of the first half.
The game finished 2 - 2, and, as neither team were able to find a winner in extra time, penalties were needed to decide the team that qualified to the next round. While David Seaman did save one penalty, Argentine goalkeeper Carlos Roa managed to save two, including the vital one from David Batty, thereby knocking England out of the World Cup. Beckham subsequently received death threats and was sent bullets in the post.
In 2002 the World Cup took place in Asia for the first time. England, under its first ever foreign manager in Swedish Sven - Göran Eriksson, were able to qualify for the tournament. England were drawn in Group 9, alongside Germany, Finland, Greece and Albania. In the last ever game in the original Wembley Stadium, (which closed after the match) England played Germany, losing 1 -- 0, the only goal scored by Dietmar Hamann. The match was the last under the management of Kevin Keegan, who resigned at the end of the match, and was replaced by Eriksson. By beating Germany 5 -- 1 in Munich, England 's qualifying campaign was revitalised, and they qualified automatically, by drawing 2 -- 2 with Greece. Germany, who could only draw 0 -- 0 with Finland, had to play a play - off game against Ukraine, with England qualifying ahead winning the group.
In Japan, England had to play against Eriksson 's homeland, Sweden, and both settled out for a 1 -- 1 draw. England and Beckham gained a measure of revenge for their previous 1998 defeat in defeating Argentina 1 - 0, thanks to a Beckham penalty. However, England could only manage a disappointing 0 - 0 draw against Nigeria, meaning that although they were able to qualify for the second round, where they played Denmark, they qualified as runners up, which meant that they would meet favourites Brazil in the quarter - finals if they qualified.
England played Denmark in the round of 16 defeating Denmark 3 -- 0, thanks to goals from Micheal Owen, Rio Ferdinand, and Emile Heskey. England played four - time World Cup winners and 1998 runners - up Brazil in the quarter - finals. Despite leading through a Michael Owen goal, a mistake by David Seaman saw England lose 2 -- 1, and Brazil won their fourth World Cup match against England, and went on to win the tournament.
England were drawn into Group 6 of European qualifying for the 2006 World Cup. The group featured other home nations in Wales, and Northern Ireland, as well as Poland (who had eliminated England the last time the World Cup took place in Germany), Azerbaijan and Austria. England won eight of the 10 games, and qualified as group winners, in front of Portugal, despite drawing to Austria in Vienna, and losing to Northern Ireland in Belfast.
In Germany, however, England were less convincing. England played in Group B, alongside Paraguay, Trinidad and Tobago, and Sweden. England started with a 1 -- 0 win against Paraguay; which was won due to a 3rd minute own goal. The second game against first time qualifiers Trinidad and Tobago saw England have to wait until the 83rd minute for England to take the lead, with Peter Crouch opened the scoring with a goal many felt was illegal, and the second goal of the game coming in added time from Steven Gerrard. The last group game saw England play against Sweden, where an eventual 2 - 2 draw saw them qualify for the next round as group winners, thereby avoiding playing hosts Germany.
In the last 16 stage, a free kick from David Beckham saw England win 1 -- 0 against Ecuador and reach the quarter - finals, where they faced Portugal. The game finished goalless, and England once again were knocked out on penalties and Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo became the first goalkeeper to save three penalties in a penalty shoot - out. Ricardo saved from Frank Lampard, Steven Gerrard, and Jamie Carragher; the only England player who successfully converted his penalty was Owen Hargreaves. Portugal won the shoot - out 3 - 1, despite misses from Petit and Hugo Viana. This game was also Erickson 's final match as England manager.
Qualification for the first African World Cup went successfully for new England manager Fabio Capello, after previous manager Steve McClaren was unable to secure qualification to the Euro 2008. By winning nine times and only losing to Ukraine, England qualified ahead of Croatia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Andorra. England 's group was seen as a favourable one, containing comparatively much weaker teams. However, England opened up their campaign with a 1 -- 1 draw against the United States, thanks to a major error by goalkeeper Robert Green. They then drew 0 -- 0 against Algeria and were booed off the field by their own fans, drawing the ire of striker Wayne Rooney. England eventually qualified for the next round by beating Slovenia 1 -- 0, but only qualified as runners up to the United States, thereby meaning they would draw favourites Germany.
In the second round match, Germany took the lead after 20 minutes after goalkeeper Manuel Neuer played the ball down the pitch to Miroslav Klose, who opened the scoring. The score became 2 -- 0 to Germany after 32 minutes. Shortly after, England defender Matthew Upson scored a header. Later, Frank Lampard had a shot at goal which was disallowed despite crossing the line; which was confirmed on replays. German goalkeeper Manuel Neuer admitted subsequently he knew the ball had crossed the line, but decided to deceive the referee. The German media reported it was "revenge for Wembley '', while the English media criticised FIFA 's refusal to implement goal - line technology. Ironically, despite his earlier opposition to goal - line technology, Sepp Blatter said that it should be introduced after a Ukrainian goal against England at Euro 2012 was ruled out. As England tried to equalise, Germany used this to their advantage and scored two more goals. This became Germany 's biggest win against England in a World Cup, winning 4 - 1.
Under Roy Hodgson, who replaced Fabio Capello after Euro 2012 after a disagreement between Capello and The FA, England qualified for the second World Cup to be held in Brazil. Ukraine were again one of the opponents in the qualifying rounds. The other opponents included Montenegro, Poland, Moldova and San Marino. After winning six games and drawing four, England qualified unbeaten.
The draw for the finals saw England have to play against Italy and Uruguay, both former world champions, which meant that it was the first ever time three World Champions were drawn in the same group, along with Costa Rica. England lost to Italy and Uruguay, and were thus knocked out after two games. The final match against Costa Rica finished as a goalless draw. This performance was statistically their worst ever performance at a World Cup, ending up with just one point after two losses to Uruguay and Italy and a goalless draw with Costa Rica in the dead rubber match, their lowest points total in the group stage of a world cup.
England played in UEFA Group F in qualification for the 2018 World Cup, in a group of six with Slovakia, Slovenia, Scotland, Lithuania and Malta, with only the winner of the group guaranteed qualification. England went into the qualification process under manager Sam Allardyce, only for Allardyce to leave the post after just one game due to controversy regarding discussing breaking FIFA rules.
Under Allardyce 's replacement, Gareth Southgate, England went undefeated throughout qualification, winning eight matches out of 10, drawing with Slovenia 0 -- 0 in Ljubljana, and drawing 2 -- 2 with Scotland in Glasgow thanks to a 90th - minute equaliser from Harry Kane. This was the third successive major tournament that England were undefeated, having been undefeated in 2014 World Cup, and Euro 2016 qualifying.
Under Gareth Southgate, the England team began their tournament in group G against Tunisia. The game started well for England with a goal from Harry Kane in the 11th minute. Tunisia equalised through Sassi from the penalty spot in the 35th minute following a foul by Kyle Walker. Some controversy followed as various potential offences against Harry Kane, inside the penalty area were ignored by the referee and no VAR checks were carried out. England persevered and scored a second goal in the 91st minute, again by Harry Kane, resulting in a 2 -- 1 victory.
In the second group stage match, England surpassed their record for goals scored in a World Cup match by beating Panama 6 - 1. Jesse Lingard scored the third goal, John Stones scored the first and fourth goals and Harry Kane scored a hat - trick with the second, fifth and sixth goals.
In the final group stage match, England narrowly lost 1 - 0 to Belgium. Adnan Januzaj scored the sole goal of the game; but with both teams having fielded reserve teams, with England specificially making 9 changes. Before the game media outlets stating that a loss could potentially become beneficial, as the winner would be in the half of the draw with four of the top seven sides in the world. The result that meant Belgium topped the group and England finished second, setting up a last 16 clash with Group H winners Colombia.
England played their last 16 match in the Otkritie Arena, Moscow, with the same team as against Tunisia. Harry Kane scored his sixth goal of the tournament, and the third penalty, after once again being fouled in the box from a corner, similarly as against Panama. The score remained at 1 - 0, until stoppage time, where a header from Yerry Mina beat Jordan Pickford in goal to bring the game to extra time. Neither team managed to score in extra time, and the match went to penalties, which England won 4 - 3. As well as being the first knockout match England had won at a major tournament since 2006 (last defeating Ecuador in the last 16); it was the first time England won a World Cup penalty shoot - out. The match was notable for the heated atmosphere the game was played in, with a total of eight yellow cards being shown in the match.
England played against Sweden in their quarter - final at Cosmos Arena, Samara on 7 July 2018. They won the match 2 -- 0, with defender Harry Maguire scoring his first England goal, a header scored from a corner, and Dele Alli a second header from close range. This would send them through to their third World Cup semi-final and their first since 1990, and third overall. The team played Croatia in the semi-final, resulting in a 2 -- 1 loss after extra time. England would later finish fourth in the competition, the best result since 1990. England would lose again to Belgium in the 3rd place playoff, thanks to goals from Thomas Meunier and Eden Hazard, despite a Eric Dier shot being cleared off the line by Toby Alderweireld.
The tournament would see England score nine goals from set - pieces -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Last update: 14 July 2018
Current as of 3 July 2018 after the match against Colombia
Historically, very few English World Cup squad members were playing for a club in a foreign league at the time of their selection to the national squad.
Team Awards
Individual Awards
Team Records
Individual Records
Four FIFA World Cup finals were officiated by English referees, more than by any other football association. The first Englishman to officiate a final, George Reader, is also the oldest World Cup referee to date, as he was 53 years and 236 days old at the 1950 decisive match between Uruguay and Brazil. The other final referees are William Ling (1954), Jack Taylor (1974) and Howard Webb (2010).
Arthur Ellis, who was a linesman at the 1950 final, is part of an elite group of referees who has been called up for three consecutive World Cups (1950 -- 1958).
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which is the us english term for thermal energy | Thermal energy - wikipedia
Thermal energy is a term used loosely as a synonym for more rigorously - defined thermodynamic quantities such as the internal energy of a system; heat or sensible heat, which are defined as types of transfer of energy (as is work); or for the characteristic energy of a degree of freedom in a thermal system k T (\ displaystyle kT), where T (\ displaystyle T) is temperature and k (\ displaystyle k) is the Boltzmann constant.
Heat is energy transferred spontaneously from a hotter to a colder system or body. Heat is energy in transfer, not a property of the system; it is not ' contained ' within the boundary of the system. On the other hand, internal energy is a property of a system. In an ideal gas, the internal energy is the statistical mean of the kinetic energy of the gas particles, and it is this kinetic motion that is the source and the effect of the transfer of heat across a system boundary. For this reason, the term "thermal energy '' is sometimes used synonymously with internal energy. (Heat and work depend on the way in which an energy transfer occurred, whereas internal energy is a property of the state of a system and can thus be understood even without knowing how the energy got there.) The term "thermal energy '' is also applied to the energy carried by a heat flow,, although this quantity can also simply be called heat or amount of heat.
In many statistical physics texts, "thermal energy '' refers to the product of Boltzmann 's constant and the absolute temperature, typically written k T (\ displaystyle kT) or k B T (\ displaystyle k_ (B) T). See the article kT (energy) for more details.
In an 1847 lecture entitled "On Matter, Living Force, and Heat, '' James Prescott Joule characterised various terms that are closely related to thermal energy and heat. He identified the terms latent heat and sensible heat as forms of heat each affecting distinct physical phenomena, namely the potential and kinetic energy of particles, respectively. He described latent energy as the energy of interaction in a given configuration of particles, i.e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible heat as an energy affecting temperature measured by the thermometer due to the thermal energy, which he called the living force.
If the minimum temperature of a system 's environment is T e (\ displaystyle T_ (e)) and the system 's entropy is S (\ displaystyle S), then a part of the system 's internal energy amounting to S ⋅ T e (\ displaystyle S \ cdot T_ (e)) can not be converted into useful work. This is the difference between the internal energy and the Helmholtz free energy.
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who are the girl dancers in blurred lines | Blurred Lines - wikipedia
"Blurred Lines '' is a single written and performed by American recording artists Robin Thicke, T.I., and Pharrell Williams. Produced by Pharrell, it serves as the lead single from Thicke 's album of the same name. It was released on March 26, 2013 through Pharrell 's label Star Trak Recordings. Recorded in 2012, the song 's percussion ideas were primarily inspired by the Marvin Gaye song "Got to Give It Up '', and apart from T.I. 's rap, was entirely the work of Williams. However, Thicke clearly laid claim to writing credits on the track according to a Reuters article. The song became the subject of a bitter legal dispute with the family of Gaye and Bridgeport Music as to whether the song infringed copyrights to "Got to Give It Up ''. Thicke and Williams were found liable for copyright infringement by a federal jury in March 2015, and Gaye was awarded posthumous songwriting credit based on the royalties pledged to his estate.
The song 's music video was released in two versions, with one featuring models Emily Ratajkowski, Jessi M'Bengue, and Elle Evans being topless, while the other censored nudity. The uncut version of the video was at one time removed from YouTube for violating the site 's terms of service regarding nudity; it was later restored, but with an age restriction. The song 's lyrics and music video have proven controversial with some groups, with claims that it is misogynistic and promotes date rape. This has led to the song being banned at some students ' unions in universities and other institutions in the United Kingdom and prompted a rebuttal from Thicke.
"Blurred Lines '' peaked at number one in at least 25 countries and became the number one song of 2013 in several of them. It became Thicke 's first, T.I. 's fourth, and Pharrell 's third number - one single in the US, where it was also the longest running number one single of 2013. The song subsequently became one of the best - selling singles of all time, with sales of 14.8 million, simultaneously breaking the record for the largest radio audience in history. The single was nominated for two Grammys at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, including Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance. The song has been parodied and covered numerous times.
"Blurred Lines '' was produced by Thicke and Pharrell with an intention of creating a sound similar to Marvin Gaye 's "Got to Give It Up '' (1977). The song was completed in less than an hour. In an interview with GQ 's Stelios Phili, Thicke explained:
Pharrell and I were in the studio and (...) I was like, "Damn, we should make something like that (' Got to Give It Up '), something with that groove. '' Then he started playing a little something and we literally wrote the song in about half an hour and recorded it. He and I would go back and forth where I 'd sing a line and he 'd be like, "Hey, hey, hey! '' We started acting like we were two old men on a porch hollering at girls like, "Hey, where you going, girl? Come over here! ''
In a separate interview, Thicke clarified the meaning of the song 's title, saying it referred to "the good - girl / bad - girl thing and what 's appropriate ''.
Thicke and manager Jordan Feldstein decided the song would not have much impact through radio and would need an innovative approach to become a hit. Feldstein told HitQuarters: "We had an artist that had never had a hit on radio. It was a non-traditional song; it did n't sound like a Timbaland or Benny Blanco record. So we had to approach the market in an interesting way. '' Feldstein came up with the idea of creating a video designed to go viral and brought in experienced music video director Diane Martel to shoot it. Its controversial nature was designed to attract attention with Feldstein saying: "I knew it would get it banned quickly... Getting something banned actually helps you. ''
The music video, directed by Diane Martel, was released on March 20, 2013. The video features Thicke, T.I., and Pharrell casually standing in front of light - pink backdrop as they flirt with models (Emily Ratajkowski, Elle Evans, and Jessi M'Bengue) who pose and dance. At various points, the hashtag "# THICKE '' flashes, whilst towards the end, "ROBIN THICKE HAS A BIG DICK '' is spelled out in silver balloons. In the unrated version of the video, the models wear just thongs. In the edited version, they are scantily clad and the hashtag "# BLURREDLINES '' is seen at various points. This is the second time that director Diane Martel and Pharrell join together for a music video project involving two differently rated versions. The 2001 video for the N.E.R.D single "Lapdance '' also featured models in two variant editions, one of which, like "Blurred Lines '', is a topless version. The video was filmed at Mack Sennett Studios in Silver Lake.
After being on the site for just under one week, the unrated version of the video was removed from YouTube on March 30, 2013, citing violations of the site 's terms of service that restricts the uploading of videos containing nudity, particularly if used in a sexual context. However it was later restored on July 12, 2013. The unrated video remains available on Vevo, while the edited version is available on both Vevo and YouTube. The unrated version of "Blurred Lines '' generated more than 1 million views in the days following its release on Vevo. As of February 2018, the unrated version of "Blurred Lines '' is available on YouTube and has gathered more than 55 million views.
-- Diane Martel Q&A with Eric Ducker, Grantland, June 26, 2013.
During a Q&A for Grantland Diane Martel explained that her desire was "to make videos that sell records '' and "not to make videos that express my own obsessions, but to make videos that move units. '' Martel at first turned down the offer to direct the video after being told there could be no nudity but agreed to direct when it was decided to shoot two versions. The video was shot as a white cyclorama. Martel favorably referred to the large hashtags that flash throughout the video as "awkward '' and noted she enjoyed their obstructive quality. The fashion in which the women in the video are dressed was in part inspired by the work of photographer Helmut Newton. When asked about what references she drew from for the video, Martel cited the ballets of George Balanchine as performed by the New York City Ballet, noting their minimalism, as well as the work of Richard Avedon. The manner in which Martel directed the action and interaction of those in the video was intended to convey playfulness while also presenting the women "in the power position. '' Martel also sought out intentionally "gross '' and "oversized '' props to utilize in the video.
Critical reactions to Blurred Lines were mostly positive. The Michigan Daily 's Jackson Howard graded it an "A '' and praised it as "one of Pharrell 's best beats in years... by the time the multilayered and carnal harmonies of the chorus come in, the song is completely on fire. '' Writing for Billboard, Chris Payne compared it with Justin Timberlake 's "Suit & Tie '' and called it a "bubbly bit of disco - shuffling R&B '', while also noting its racy content. Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner, who gave the song three out of five stars, was more wary of the single and remarked: "It 's a subject that when in the right hands can be smooth and soulful, but in the wrong, crass and chauvinistic... you need the right balance of charm and swagger to pull it off. '' The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll ranked "Blurred Lines '' at number four to find the best music of 2013, tied with Kanye West 's "New Slaves ''.
On the other hand, Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone named the song "The Worst Song of This or Any Other Year. ''
Music fans voted "Blurred Lines '' second in a 2014 Time Out Sydney poll of the worst songs ever recorded.
"Blurred Lines '' peaked at number one in 25 countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia, Republic of Ireland, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Poland, Canada, New Zealand and the United States, becoming Thicke 's highest charting song in all of these countries. In Australia, the song was certified quadruple platinum for shipments of 280,000 and triple platinum in New Zealand for sales of 45,000. "Blurred Lines '' peaked within the top five of 14 countries including France and Switzerland. The song is currently the longest - running number - one single of 2013 in Australia and New Zealand, having topped the ARIA Singles Chart for eight consecutive weeks in Australia, and the RIANZ Singles Chart for 11 non-consecutive weeks in New Zealand. For the Latin American market, a version featuring Colombian rapper J Balvin was released on Spanish - language radio stations. This version peaked at number 7 in Colombia.
In the United States, the song debuted at number 94 on the Billboard Hot 100, the following week the song rose to number 89, then to number 70, then to number 54. The single 's progress appeared to stabilize in middle of the U.S. charts when, in mid-May, Robin Thicke and Pharrell performed it live on NBC 's The Voice. Immediately afterwards the song flew up to number 12 on the Hot 100. Not long thereafter it peaked at number one, becoming Thicke 's highest peaking song on the chart in his recording history. It also became Thicke 's first chart entry since "Sex Therapy '' and his second top 20 ever, after "Lost Without U ''. The track is also Pharrell 's third Billboard Hot 100 number one single and T.I. 's fourth. As of June 12, 2013, "Blurred Lines '' has sold 1 million copies in the United States since its release, becoming Thicke 's first single to do so. As of the chart issue dated September 7, 2013, the song is the longest - running number - one single of 2013 with 12 weeks at the top. The song is also the first to claim the top "Digital Gainer '', top "Airplay Gainer '' and the top "Streaming Gainer '' simultaneously, and to be awarded the top "Airplay Gainer '' for 9 (and afterwards 10) weeks. As of August 8, it also broke the record for the all - time highest number of radio impressions during a single week in the US, with 219.8 million impressions (which it later extended to 228.9 million impressions the week after), surpassing the eight - year - old record of 212.2 million impressions, set by Mariah Carey 's "We Belong Together '', and is the first song to have four or more weeks of downloads of over 400,000 in the US. On week ending September 14, 2013 it was knocked off number one by Katy Perry with her single "Roar ''. Blurred Lines was also the No. 1 song of the year on iHeart Radio 's Top 100 Countdown for 2013. It became the best - selling song of 2013 in the US, selling 6,498,000 downloads in 2013. By April 2014, the single had reached its 7 million mark in sales, taking 56 weeks to reach this mark.
In Canada, the song reached number one for 13 consecutive weeks, becoming the longest - running number - one single of 2013. Since the launch of the Canadian Hot 100 in 2007, the song has become third with most weeks at number one, tying "Apologize '' by Timbaland featuring OneRepublic, and just behind "Uptown Funk '' by Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars and "I Gotta Feeling '' by The Black Eyed Peas, with 15 and 16 weeks on top of the charts respectively. It was Canada 's best - selling song of 2013 with 692,000 copies sold (706,000 for all versions combined).
In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on June 2, 2013 ― for the week ending date June 8, 2013 ― selling 190,000 copies in its first week and becoming Britain 's fastest - selling single of the year, though it was later passed by Avicii 's "Wake Me Up '' on July 21, 2013. "Blurred Lines '' then remained at number one the following week, selling even more than it did in its first with 199,000 copies sold. On its fifth week in the charts, the single dropped a place to number two although it shifted a further 100,000 copies, having the fastest one - week sales at number two of 2013 so far. After a two - week break from the top spot, the song returned to number one on July 14, 2013 ― for the week ending date July 20, 2013 ― to claim its fifth week at the top, becoming the first song to spend two weeks off the top - spot before reclaiming the position, since Rihanna 's single "We Found Love '' in 2011. "Blurred Lines '' was confirmed to have sold 1 million copies on its 50th day of release, becoming Pharrell 's second song in only a month to achieve that feat in Britain (the other being Daft Punk collaboration "Get Lucky ''). According to the Official Charts Company, the single became Britain 's best - selling single of 2013 with sales of 1,472,681 copies.
On April 21, 2014, it was announced that "Blurred Lines '' was the most downloaded song of all time in the UK, with digital sales of more than 1.54 million, a total since surpassed by Pharrell Williams ' own single "Happy ''. Its current UK sales stand at 1,630,000.
On July 28, 2013, "Blurred Lines '' broke the record for radio audience previously held by Mariah Carey 's "We Belong Together '' in 2005. A press release from Interscope said as of the last week in July 2013, the track reached more than 242.65 million listeners.
Blurred Lines is Thicke 's most successful song, being his first to reach number one on the Hot 100 (he previously peaked at number 14 in 2007 with "Lost Without U ''). It also marks Pharrell 's third Hot 100 number one, after "Drop It Like It 's Hot '' with Snoop Dogg in 2004 and "Money Maker '' with Ludacris in 2006, and T.I. 's fourth Hot 100 number one after "My Love '' with Justin Timberlake in 2006, and his own singles "Whatever You Like '' and "Live Your Life '' in 2008.
In the United States, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 for twelve consecutive weeks, becoming the longest running number one single of 2013 and of the 2010s decade, surpassing Rihanna 's "We Found Love '' (2011), but was later replaced by Mark Ronson 's "Uptown Funk '' in 2015. This feat also gave him the eighth lead male solo artist in Billboard history to rack ten or more weeks at the number one spot for a single. It sold over 5 million copies in just 22 weeks in the US, and 6 million in 29 weeks, faster than any other song in digital history.
According to the IFPI, by the end of 2013, the song had sold 14.8 million copies, becoming the best selling song of the year worldwide.
As of August 2016, it is currently the seventh best - selling digital single of all time. It was the second best - selling song of 2013 in the US and the best - selling song of 2013 in the UK.
Critics such as Tricia Romano of The Daily Beast wrote that the song and the music video trivialize sexual consent. She asserts that many fans were uncomfortable with both the song and the video. Her article quoted many critics who believe that the song promotes rape culture because the title "Blurred Lines '' and lyrics like "I know you want it '' encourage the idea "no does n't always mean no '' and that some women who are raped are asking for it. Criticism was also leveled at the song 's video, which has been labelled "eye - poppingly misogynist ''. In the United Kingdom, more than 20 universities banned the song from use at student events. At the University of Edinburgh, students ' association officials stated that the song violates its policy against "rape culture and lad banter '' and promotes an unhealthy attitude towards sex and consent. It was also banned at other British institutions, including Plymouth University, Leeds University, University of Derby, Queen Mary University of London, Kingston University, University of Bolton, Queen 's University Belfast, University of Birmingham, University of East Anglia, University of the West of Scotland, and a number of Oxford and Durham colleges. Students at the University of Exeter voted for a condemnation of the lyrics to be issued by the Students ' Guild. In Marshfield, Wisconsin, Lisa Joling, head coach of the Marshfield High School dance team, was fired in August 2013, three days after a halftime performance by her dance class to the song.
Jennifer Lai of Slate, while noting that the video "undoubtedly objectifies women '', countered criticism that the song itself connotes rape by citing lyrics such as "go ahead / get at me '' and "So I 'm just watchin ' and waitin ' / for you to salute the truly pimpin ' '', among others, in which Robin and T.I. invite the woman 's own sexual agency and are "putting the ball in her court ''. Lai also states:
Someone who says "I know you want it '' is probably overly cocky and presumptuous as hell by assuming you / she wants "it, '' but nothing about "I know you want it '' is saying "I know you want it, and I 'm going to force you to have it '' or "I had sex with you and you did n't consent, but I know you wanted it. '' Yes, "I know you want it '' could be said by a rapist -- but so could "Do you want to go to a movie tonight? ''
Thicke, noting that all three male singers are married and have children, said that the Diane Martel - directed video was tongue - in - cheek. When defending the song on NBC 's The Today Show, the 36 - year - old singer explained that encouraging conversation about the song 's content was his intention, saying "It 's actually a feminist movement within itself. It 's saying that women and men are equals as animals and as power ''. After its banning at University College London, Thicke declared the song was about his wife, and that after 20 years together, he indeed knew she wanted it from him. In 2013 and 2014, Thicke and his wife Paula Patton 's separation and divorce were covered extensively by the tabloid press including Thicke 's efforts to reconcile with Patton.
During an interview with NPR, "Blurred Lines '' producer and co-writer Pharrell defended the song, highlighting the lyric "that man is not your maker '', saying, "I do n't know anything that could be more clear about our position in the song '' and "... if you 're looking at the lyrics, the power is right there in the woman 's hand. That man -- me as a human being, me as a man, I 'm not your maker, I ca n't tell you what to do. '' Pharrell reiterated and expounded on his defense during an interview with Pitchfork Media, in response to the idea of the song being "sexually predatory '', saying:
What would be controversial about it? In "Blurred Lines '', the Robin Thicke lyrics are: "You do n't need no papers, '' meaning, "You are not a possession. '' "That man is not your maker, '' meaning he is not God -- nor can he produce children or women, for that matter. He 's a man, so he definitely did not make you... What I was trying to say was: "That man is trying to domesticate you, but you do n't need no papers -- let me liberate you. '' But it was misconstrued. When you pull back and look at the entire song, the point is: She 's a good girl, and even good girls want to do things, and that 's where you have the blurred lines. She expresses it in dancing because she 's a good girl. People who are agitated just want to be mad, and I accept their opinion... We got a kick out of making people dance, and that was the intention.
In a Q&A for Grantland.com, video director Diane Martel had this to say about the music video:
I wanted to deal with the misogynist, funny lyrics in a way where the girls were going to overpower the men. Look at Emily Ratajkowski 's performance; it 's very, very funny and subtly ridiculing. That 's what is fresh to me. It also forces the men to feel playful and not at all like predators. I directed the girls to look into the camera, this is very intentional and they do it most of the time; they are in the power position. I do n't think the video is sexist. The lyrics are ridiculous, the guys are silly as fuck. That said, I respect women who are watching out for negative images in pop culture and who find the nudity offensive, but I find (the video) meta and playful.
Thicke at first appears to contradict his claims that the song is about women empowerment in an interview given to GQ in May 2013, stating:
We tried to do everything that was taboo. Bestiality, drug injections, and everything that is completely derogatory towards women. Because all three of us are happily married with children, we were like, "We 're the perfect guys to make fun of this. '' People say, "Hey, do you think this is degrading to women? '' I 'm like, "Of course it is. What a pleasure it is to degrade a woman. I 've never gotten to do that before. I 've always respected women. ''
When asked about this, Diane Martel denied that there was any such intention calling the idea that it was ever discussed and Thicke 's GQ statement "crazy ''. Thicke later clarified his comment during an interview for Oprah 's Next Chapter, describing it as a "bad joke '', noting that the GQ interview that was published did not mention that he had been joking back and forth with the interviewer and doing an impersonation of Will Ferrell 's Ron Burgundy character while making the remark, thus not providing the facetious context.
In an interview for CBC Radio 's Q, Thicke dismissed the idea that the song is about a man forcing himself sexually onto a woman as "an impossible reality ''. Thicke continues, "For them to take that lyric (I know you want it) and not take the lyrics that man is not your maker, you 're an animal, and we 're equals, and all of the other lyrics that are in the song and only to take I know you want it from a guy like Ron Burgundy who 's standing there going, (does impression of Ron Burgundy) ' I know you want it, baby '. It 's a joke. If they ca n't get the joke, I feel bad for them, but I 'm not going to change the joke. ''
In the interview, Thicke noted that part of video director Diane Martel 's intention was to generate attention, but Thicke defended the song, saying: "The song and the video are two completely different things. The song has nothing to do with belittling a woman or misogyny or anything. Obviously, when a guy 's standing there fully clothed and the girls are naked, I totally welcome the conversation of what does this video say about men and women, but the song itself, the title, ' Blurred Lines ', is about men and woman are equals. ''
In August 2013, Thicke, Williams, and Harris (T.I.) sued the family of Marvin Gaye and Bridgeport Music for a declaratory judgment that "Blurred Lines '' did not infringe copyrights of the defendants. Gaye 's family accused the song 's authors of copying the "feel '' and "sound '' of "Got to Give It Up '' (the song that Thicke personally claimed was an influence on "Blurred Lines ''), while Bridgeport claimed that the song illegally sampled Funkadelic 's song "Sexy Ways ''. The litigation over the songs drew comparisons to that of the 1970s case between George Harrison and Bright Tunes Music over the song "My Sweet Lord '', which a judge ruled had similarly plagiarized the earlier "He 's So Fine '' by The Chiffons; Harrison later bought the rights to "He 's So Fine ''. Ultimately, Thicke and Williams (but not T.I.) were found to have infringed the Gaye estate 's copyright, and in 2018 the Ninth Circuit affirmed liability for millions of dollars in damages.
In the lawsuit, Gaye 's family was accused of making an invalid copyright claim since only expressions, not individual ideas can be protected. Pharrell Williams responded to the lawsuit by calling the two songs "completely different '', further stating: "Just simply go to the piano and play the two. One 's minor and one 's major. And not even in the same key. '' In an interview, Questlove also echoed Williams ' statement, saying:
Look, technically it 's not plagiarized. It 's not the same chord progression. It 's a feeling. Because there 's a cowbell in it and a Fender Rhodes as the main instrumentation -- that still does n't make it plagiarized. We all know it 's derivative. That 's how Pharrell works. Everything that Pharrell produces is derivative of another song -- but it 's a homage.
In September 2014, The Hollywood Reporter released files relating to a deposition from the case. Within the deposition Thicke stated that, he was "high on Vicodin and alcohol when (he) showed up at the studio '', and that as a result, "Pharrell had the beat and he wrote almost every single part of the song ''. Within Williams ' respective deposition file, the producer noted that he was "in the driver 's seat '' during the song 's creation and agreed that Thicke, in past interviews, "embellished '' his contributions to the songwriting process.
On October 30, 2014, United States District Court for the Central District of California Judge John A. Kronstadt ruled the Gaye family 's lawsuit against Thicke and Williams could proceed, stating the plaintiffs "have made a sufficient showing that elements of ' Blurred Lines ' may be substantially similar to protected, original elements of ' Got to Give It Up '. '' The trial began on February 10, 2015. Williams and Thicke filed a successful motion in limine to prevent a recording of "Got to Give it Up '' from being played during the trial. The motion was granted because the family 's copyright covered the sheet music and not necessarily other musical elements from Gaye 's recording of the song. Judge Kronstad remarked: "I do n't expect Marvin Gaye 's voice to be part of this case. ''
On March 10, 2015, a jury found Thicke and Williams, but not T.I., liable for copyright infringement. The unanimous jury awarded Gaye 's family US $ 7.4 million in damages for copyright infringement. The response among some observers regarding the decision was that it was incorrect; bassist and entertainment law attorney Joe Escalante stated that the jury 's verdict "must have been based on emotions because it is not based on any notions of what is protectable under copyright law today. '' Singer - songwriter Keith Urban said: "My initial reaction from it, I was shocked, honestly. Seems more like a sound and a feel and a style and a genre and an era, none of which can be copyrighted. '' Comedian and music parody artist "Weird Al '' Yankovic (who made a parody of the song with his 2014 "Word Crimes '') described the ruling as "a raw deal '', calling the song "Marvin Gaye pastiche. '' The verdict was also questioned by recording artists and musicians John Legend, Nile Rodgers, and Bill Withers. Classical music critic Mark Swed of the Los Angeles Times pointed out that many classical composers used material from previous composers saying that "John Williams all but lifted the core idea of his Star Wars soundtrack score from the Scherzo of Erich Korngold 's Symphony in F - sharp Major, written 25 years earlier. '' However, Motown legend Smokey Robinson stated that it was a mistake to use the same melody, and that he thought it was "absolutely a rip off. ''
In August 2016, Thicke, Williams, and T.I. appealed the judgment to the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals. Later that same month, more than 200 musicians -- including among others Rivers Cuomo of Weezer, John Oates of Hall & Oates, R. Kelly, Hans Zimmer, Jennifer Hudson as well as members of Train, Linkin Park, Earth, Wind & Fire, The Black Crowes, Fall Out Boy, The Go - Go 's and Tears for Fears -- filed an amicus curiae brief, authored by attorney Ed McPherson, in support of the appeal, stating that "the verdict in this case threatens to punish songwriters for creating new music that is inspired by prior works. '' In March 2018, the Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court 's finding of infringement against Pharell Williams and Thicke.
On May 14, 2013, Thicke performed the song for the first time live on NBC 's The Voice alongside Pharrell and T.I. The website of Rap - Up magazine described Thicke as looking "dapper '' in "black suit '', and that the trio were joined on stage by "sexy ladies during the steamy set ''. Thicke also performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on May 16 with Pharrell and three models doing backup. Thicke performed the song live at the finale of Germany 's Next Topmodel, Cycle 8 on May 30, 2013, at SAP Arena in Mannheim. The performance featured the top 20 contestants of the cycle who danced to the song on chairs. The four finalists walked the runway during the performance, as well as performing a burlesque - like dance on different items of furniture. On June 7, 2013, Thicke performed the song alongside Pharrell on the British television chat show The Graham Norton Show. He also performed the song (with recorded T.I. and Pharrell backing vocals) on The Voice Australia season 2 finale on June 17, 2013. Thicke performed the song on the 2013 BET Awards on June 30, 2013. Thicke also performed the track solo on British morning TV show Lorraine on July 8, 2013, as well as This Morning on July 10, 2013. Thicke also performed the song complete with dancers in studio on The Howard Stern Show on Sirius XM Radio July 29, 2013. He also performed the song on The Colbert Report on August 6, 2013. On September 20, he performed Blurred Lines at the 2013 iHeartRadio Music Festival. On November 10, Thicke performed the song with Iggy Azalea at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards. In December, he performed the song at Jingle Ball 2013 concerts. In May 2014, Williams performed the song as part of a medley at the iHeartRadio Awards where he received the iHeartRadio Innovator Award. In May 2017, He performed the song at 4th Indonesian Choice Awards.
Thicke performed Blurred Lines as a duet with Miley Cyrus at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards, medleyed with Cyrus ' "We Ca n't Stop '' and "Give It 2 U '', featuring 2 Chainz. The performance began with Cyrus performing "We Ca n't Stop '' in bear - themed attire. Following this, Thicke entered the stage and Cyrus stripped down to a small skin - colored two - piece outfit. Cyrus subsequently touched Thicke 's crotch area with a giant foam finger and twerked against his crotch. The performance drew extensive reactions and became the most tweeted about event in history, with Twitter users generating 360,000 tweets about the event per minute; breaking the previous record held by Beyoncé 's Super Bowl XLVII halftime show performance six months earlier.
An ad was created for Radio Shack to market the Beats Pill, a small stereo, that showed Thicke, Pharrell, and the models repeating the look of the (clothed) music video, but with the models holding up the Beats Pill.
A cover featuring Thicke himself with classroom instruments was performed by Jimmy Fallon and The Roots, with Black Thought filling in for T.I. 's verse.
On June 12, 2013 episode of Jimmy Kimmel Live!, in which Thicke and Pharrell were both guests, they aired a parody version of the "Blurred Lines '' video in which host Jimmy Kimmel and his sidekick Guillermo attempt to join Thicke, Pharrell, and the dancers but keep getting rebuffed. The parody video was also placed on YouTube, and received over 2 million views in less than a month.
On June 30, 2013 Remy Munasifi released a parody on his GoRemy YouTube channel entitled "Blurred Lines: The Anthony Weiner version '' mocking Anthony Weiner 's entry into the 2013 New York City mayoral elections.
On July 30, 2013 A gender swapped parody video was created for the Nikki and Sara Live show airing during the season two premiere, featuring the hostesses of the show being increasingly weirded out by naked male dancers and the unusual barnyard theme.
On August 2, 2013 Bart Baker released a parody of "Blurred Lines '' on his YouTube channel. It currently has over 45 million views.
On August 31, 2013, The University of Auckland 's Law Revue produced a feminist inspired parody called "Defined Lines ''. The video received over 290,000 views in its first weekend on YouTube before being temporarily removed due to sexual content. It was subsequently reinstated a couple of days later, with YouTube owner Google admitting it ' made a mistake '.
On September 11, 2013, the drag queen group DWV (Detox, Willam Belli, and Vicky Vox), released a parody called "Blurred Bynes. '' The song is about Amanda Bynes and her behavior in the previous months.
On September 26, 2013, Yuko Oshima and Haruna Kojima of Japanese idol group AKB48 were featured in a parody video, together with Thicke and some of the original video 's members to raise the profile of AKB48 in America while raising Thicke 's profile in Japan.
On November 5, 2013, Dave Callan, as part of his review of Just Dance 2014 on the ABC show Good Game performed a parody of the music video in response to the incorrect choreography of the song in the game.
On December 19, 2013, the Canadian sketch comedy group Royal Canadian Air Farce released a parody of the music video called "Rob Ford 's Blurred Lines '' highlighting the recent admissions by Toronto mayor Rob Ford of public drunkenness and using crack cocaine.
In their reunion show transmitted on 26 May 2014, the cast of Goodness Gracious Me Special 2014 performed a parody of the song and video entitled "No Blurred Lines ''. The video begins with the three male leads being shown under on - screen labels of "# Thicke '', "# Thicker '' and "# Thickest '' (' thick ' being British slang for ' stupid '). The lyrics make fun of the stereotype of the rowdy male Asian - Indian teenage boy. As pointed to by its title, the lyrics also mock and refute the sexist attitudes of the original song.
Rucka Rucka Ali has created his own parody, entitled "Obama Been Watching '' which satirizes, among other things, the NSA and Edward Snowden.
On July 15, 2014, "Weird Al '' Yankovic released a parody of the song entitled "Word Crimes '' from his album Mandatory Fun. The music video was released online the same day.
On September 24, 2014, Glove and Boots, a production of Bento Box Entertainment, published a comedic recap of the legal dispute in the form of a music video parody entitled "A Brief History of Robin Thicke 's 2013 Summer Hit ''.
Cledus T. Judd, who is primarily a country music parodist, released a parody in November 2014 titled "Luke Bryan '', which features guest vocals from Colt Ford.
In Chile, the song was used on Via X 's TV show Super Bueno and Zona Latina 's No eres tu soy yo; it was also included in the soundtrack of TV soap opera Somos Los Carmona, and was featured on TV adverts from Chilean department store chain La Polar.
The song appears in the video games NBA 2K14 and Just Dance 2014.
On July 23, 2013, the YouTube channel Barack 's Dubs uploaded a mashup video of former U.S. President Bill Clinton singing the song.
The song was featured in both the TV ads and theatrical trailer for the 2013 film The Best Man Holiday.
The song was featured in an episode of the 11th season of the hit CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men, sang by the character Walden Schmidt (played by Ashton Kutcher).
It has been used as the first song on several radio stations flipping to CHR or similar formats, most recently on March 31, 2014, when CKZZ - FM in Vancouver, BC, Canada, rebranded from Virgin Radio 95.3 back to their original name as Z95. 3.
In Poland, the song was used on Taniec z Gwiazdami (Polish version of Strictly Come Dancing format) 15th season 's trailer in 2014.
The song was played before the end of the special episode of Eat Bulaga! entitled Sa Tamang Panahon performed by Jose Manalo as Frankie with thanking the sponsors in October 24, 2015 at the Philippine Arena.
In Albania contestant Kastro imitated Robin on the Albanian version of Your Face Sounds Familiar (Albanian TV Series)
The bands Queens of the Stone Age, Vampire Weekend and The Mend have performed cover versions of the song.
The song was covered in the Glee episode "The End of Twerk '' which aired on November 14, 2013 by the show 's main characters Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) and the members of New Directions.
The song was also performed by the Tusker Project Fame season 6 Contestants in their eighth week.
Rockabye Baby! released a lullaby cover of the song.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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average life expectancy of a man in england | List of countries by life expectancy - wikipedia
This is a collection of lists of countries by average life expectancy at birth.
Life expectancy equals the average number of years a person born in a given country is expected to live if mortality rates at each age were to remain steady in the future. The life expectancy is shown separately for males and females, as well as a combined figure. Several non-sovereign entities are also included in this list.
The figures reflect the quality of healthcare in the countries listed as well as other factors including ongoing wars, obesity, and HIV infections.
Worldwide, the average life expectancy at birth was 70.5 years (68 years and 4 months for males and 72 years and 8 months for females) over the period 2010 -- 2015 according to United Nations World Population Prospects 2015 Revision, or 69 years (67 years for males and 71.1 years for females) for 2016 according to The World Factbook. According to the 2015 World Health Organization (WHO) data, women on average live longer than men in all major regions and in all individual countries except for Mali and Swaziland.
The countries with the lowest overall life expectancies per the WHO are Sierra Leone, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea - Bissau, Lesotho, Somalia, Swaziland, Angola, Chad, Mali, Burundi, Cameroon, and Mozambique. Of those countries, only Lesotho, Swaziland, and Mozambique in 2011 were suffering from an HIV prevalence rate of greater than 10 percent in the 15 -- 49 age group.
Comparing life expectancies from birth across countries can be problematic. There are differing definitions of live birth vs stillbirth even among more developed countries and less developed countries often have poor reporting.
Republic of China (Taiwan) 's data is not included in the following WHO statistics since it is not regarded as a sovereign nation but rather a province of the People 's Republic of China under One - China Policy. According to the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of China, the life expectancy of the 23.5 - million Taiwanese people reached 80.2 years in 2015, up from 79.84 years in 2014. The life expectancy of Taiwanese males averaged 77.01, while that of females reached 83.62, both of which were record highs.
Hong Kong is a territory with the world 's highest life expectancy according to the Hong Kong Department of Health, whose life expectancy reached 84.0 years in 2015 (with men at 81.2 years and women at 87.3 years) surpassing Japan 's 83.7 years. The data is not included in the following WHO statistics as a separate entity since Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of China, and is not itself a member of the WHO.
2015 data published in May 2016.
HALE: Health - adjusted life expectancy
On July 2015, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), released World Population Prospects, The 2015 Revision. The following table shows the life expectancy at birth for the period 2010 to 2015.
The Global Burden of Disease 2010 study published updated figures in 2012, including recalculations of life expectancies which differ substantially in places from the UN estimates for 2010 (reasons for this are discussed in the freely available appendix to the paper, pages 25 -- 27, currently not available). Although no estimate is given for the sexes combined, for the first time life expectancy estimates have included uncertainty intervals.
The US CIA published the following life expectancy data in its World Factbook.
Figures are from the CIA World Factbook 2009 and from the 2010 revision of the United Nations World Population Prospects report, for 2005 -- 2010, (data viewable at http://esa.un.org/wpp/Sorting-Tables/tab-sorting_mortality.htm, with equivalent spreadsheets here, here, and here).
Only countries / territories with a population of 100,000 or more in 2010 are included in the United Nations list. WHO database 2013 http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/EN_WHS2013_Full.pdf
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the minister of the federal capital territory of nigeria is | List of ministers of the Federal Capital Territory (Nigeria) - wikipedia
This is a list of ministers of the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria. The Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, Nigeria was formed in 1976 from parts of former Nasarawa, Niger, and Kogi States.
Chigudu Theophilus Tanko: A historical study of the emergence of FCT in Abuja
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how many pirates of caribbean movies are there | Pirates of the Caribbean (film series) - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean is a series of fantasy swashbuckler films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and based on Walt Disney 's theme park ride of the same name.
Directors of the series include Gore Verbinski (1 -- 3), Rob Marshall (4) and Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg (5). The series is primarily written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio (1 -- 4); other writers include Stuart Beattie (1), Jay Wolpert (1) and Jeff Nathanson (5). The stories follow the adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp), Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) and Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley). Characters such as Hector Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush) and Joshamee Gibbs (Kevin McNally) follow Jack, Will and Elizabeth in the course of the films. The fourth film features Blackbeard (Ian McShane) and Angelica (Penélope Cruz), while the fifth film features Armando Salazar (Javier Bardem), Henry Turner (Brenton Thwaites) and Carina Smyth (Kaya Scodelario). The films take place in a fictionalized historical setting; a world ruled by the British Empire, the East India Trading Company (based on the real East India Company) and the Spanish Empire, with pirates representing freedom from the ruling powers.
The film series started in 2003 with Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, which received positive reviews from critics and grossed US $ 654 million worldwide. After the first film 's success, Walt Disney Pictures revealed that a trilogy was in the works. The franchise 's second film, subtitled Dead Man 's Chest, was released three years later in 2006; the sequel proved successful, breaking financial records worldwide the day of its premiere. Dead Man 's Chest ended up being the number one film of the year upon earning almost $1.1 billion at the worldwide box office. The third film in the series, subtitled At World 's End, followed in 2007 earning $960 million, and Disney released a fourth film, subtitled On Stranger Tides, in 2011 in conventional 2D, Digital 3 - D and IMAX 3D. On Stranger Tides succeeded in also grossing more than $1 billion, becoming the second film in the franchise and only the eighth film in history to achieve this.
The franchise has grossed over $4.5 billion worldwide; it is the twelfth - highest - grossing film series of all time and it was the first franchise where more than one film grossed $1 billion worldwide.
Blacksmith Will Turner teams up with eccentric pirate Captain Jack Sparrow to save Turner 's love, Elizabeth Swann, from cursed pirates led by Jack 's mutinous former first mate, Captain Barbossa. Jack wants revenge against Barbossa, who left him stranded on an island before stealing his ship, the Black Pearl, along with 882 pieces of cursed Aztec Gold.
Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company arrests Will and Elizabeth for aiding Captain Jack Sparrow in the previous film. Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack 's compass in a bid to find the Dead Man 's Chest -- and inside, the heart of villainous Davy Jones -- which would give Beckett control of the seas. However, Jack wants the Chest to escape from an unpaid debt with Jones, who made Jack captain of the Black Pearl for 13 years in exchange for 100 years of service aboard Jones ' ship, the Flying Dutchman.
Lord Beckett gains power over Davy Jones and, with the help of the Flying Dutchman, he is now executing his plans to extinguish piracy forever. To stand against the East India Trading Co., Will, Elizabeth, Barbossa, and the crew of the Black Pearl set out to rescue Captain Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones ' Locker. As one of the Nine Pirate Lords, Jack is needed in order to release an ancient goddess with the power to defeat Beckett 's forces.
Captain Jack Sparrow is on a quest to find the fabled Fountain of Youth and crosses paths with a former lover, Angelica. She forces Jack aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge, a ship captained by the infamous pirate Blackbeard, Angelica 's father. Both are also in search of the Fountain; Angelica to save her father 's soul, Blackbeard to escape a prophecy of his demise at the hands of a one - legged man. Joining the hunt is former pirate captain Barbossa, now a privateer in King George II 's Navy, who is in a race against the Spanish for the Fountain of Youth.
Ghost Spanish Royal Navy soldiers led by Jack Sparrow 's old nemesis, Captain Armando Salazar, escape from the Devil 's Triangle, with the goal of killing every pirate at sea, including him. To survive, Jack seeks out the legendary Trident of Poseidon, a powerful artifact whose owner can control the seas and break curses.
Shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides, it was reported that Disney was planning to shoot the fifth and the sixth films back - to - back, although it was later revealed that only the fifth film was in development. On March 4, 2017, director Joachim Rønning stated that Dead Men Tell No Tales was only the beginning of the final adventure, implying that it would not be the last film of the franchise and that a sixth film could be released.
In September 2017, producer Jerry Bruckheimer indicated that another Pirates of the Caribbean sequel is still possible if Dead Men Tell No Tales does well in its home release. In October 2017, Kaya Scodelario said that she was contracted to return for a sixth film. Shortly after, it was announced that Joachim Rønning is being eyed to direct the film.
Wenches Scarlett (Lauren Maher) and Giselle (Vanessa Branch) fix each other up for their wedding, in which they would each marry their groom. Upon realizing that both their grooms were the same man -- Jack Sparrow -- the two wenches find themselves in an auction led by the Auctioneer. The short film serves as a prequel to The Curse of the Black Pearl, explaining just why Jack Sparrow 's boat, the Jolly Mon, was seen sinking at the beginning of the whole story, and explaining why wenches Scarlett and Giselle were so upset with him, and it also implies how Cotton lost his tongue. The plot took inspiration from the "Auction scene '' from the original ride.
The short was directed by James Ward Byrkit, and was only included as a special feature in the US 15 - disc 3D Blu - ray / 2D Blu - ray / DVD + Digital Copy box set that includes films 1 -- 4; and in the similar UK five - disc set.
Byrkit conceived the idea for the project while on sets Rick Heinrichs production designed for Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest (2006) and Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End (2007). As the pirate cove sets from the feature films -- where the short film takes place -- were set to be demolished, the short project was prepped in a matter of days and shot over three days. Byrkit based the short film on the Pirate Code Book as it was a device that could tie into other stories later.
In the early 1990s screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio conceived a supernatural spin on the pirate genre after completing work on Aladdin, but there was no interest from any studio. Undeterred, the writing team refused to give up the dream, waiting for a studio to pick up their take on a pirate tale. Disney had Jay Wolpert write a script based on the Pirates of the Caribbean, which producer Jerry Bruckheimer rejected, feeling it was "a straight pirate movie ''. Bruckheimer brought Stuart Beattie in to rewrite the script in March 2002, due to his knowledge of piracy, and later that month Elliott and Rossio were brought in. Elliott and Rossio, inspired by the opening narration of the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, decided to give the film a supernatural edge. As the budget rose, Michael Eisner and Robert Iger threatened to cancel the film, though Bruckheimer changed their minds when he showed them concept art and animatics.
In June 2002 Gore Verbinski signed on to direct The Curse of the Black Pearl, and Johnny Depp and Geoffrey Rush signed on the following month to star. Verbinski was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre, one that had disappeared after the Golden Age of Hollywood, and recalled his childhood memories of the ride, feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the "scary and funny '' tone of it. Depp was attracted to the story as he found it quirky: rather than trying to find treasure, the crew of the Black Pearl were trying to return it in order to lift their curse; also, the traditional mutiny had already taken place. Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa, as he knew he would not play it with attempts at complexity, but with a simple villainy that would suit the story 's tone. Orlando Bloom read the script after Rush, with whom he was working on Ned Kelly, suggested it to him. Keira Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski: he had not seen her performance in Bend It Like Beckham and was impressed by her audition. Tom Wilkinson was negotiated with to play Governor Swann, but the role went to Jonathan Pryce, whom Depp idolized.
Shooting for The Curse of the Black Pearl began on October 9, 2002 and wrapped by March 7, 2003. Before its release, many executives and journalists had expected the film to flop, as the pirate genre had not been successful for years, the film was based on a theme - park ride, and Depp rarely made a big film. However, The Curse of the Black Pearl became both a critical and commercial success.
After seeing how well the first film was made, the cast and crew signed for two sequels to be shot back - to - back, a practical decision on Disney 's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew. Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio knew that with an ensemble cast, they were n't free to invent totally different situations and characters, as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series, and so had to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy. They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann 's embrace at the end of the first film, and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device. They settled on introducing Davy Jones, the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken, a mythology mentioned twice in the first film. They introduced the historical East India Trading Company (also mentioned in the first film), which for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates.
Filming for the sequels began on February 28, 2005, with Dead Man 's Chest finishing on March 1, 2006, and At World 's End on January 10, 2007. The second film was also the first Disney theatrical feature film with the computer - generated Walt Disney Pictures logo.
Rossio and Elliot discovered the novel On Stranger Tides during production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End and decided to use it as the basis for a fourth film. As Gore Verbinski was unavailable, Bruckheimer invited Rob Marshall to direct the film. Elliott and Rossio decided to do a stand - alone film, with a story that would support new characters, and incorporate elements from the novel, such as Blackbeard, the Fountain of Youth and mermaids -- the latter two having been already alluded to in the previous films. Depp, Rush, Greg Ellis and Kevin McNally returned to their roles, and the cast saw the additions of Ian McShane as Blackbeard and Penélope Cruz as Angelica, Blackbeard 's daughter and Jack Sparrow 's love interest. A further addition was Richard Griffiths as King George II of Great Britain. After the costly production of two simultaneous films, Disney tried to scale down the fourth installment, giving a lower budget, which led to cheaper locations and fewer scenes with special effects. It was also filmed in 3D, with cameras similar to the ones used in Avatar.
Filming for On Stranger Tides began June 14, 2010 and ended on November 19, 2010. It was released in the United States on May 20, 2011. With a budget of $378.5 million, On Stranger Tides holds the record for most expensive film ever made.
On January 14, 2011, it was confirmed that Terry Rossio would write the screenplay for the fifth installment, without his co-writer Ted Elliott. On January 11, 2013, Jeff Nathanson signed on to write the script for the film. On May 29, 2013, it was announced that Norwegian directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg were selected to direct. On August 22, 2013, the two revealed that the title of the fifth film would be Dead Men Tell No Tales, alluding to the line well - known from the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park attractions. Although, the film was given an alternative title, Salazar 's Revenge, in selected European, South American and Asian countries for marketing purposes. They also confirmed that they were working on the film, speaking highly of Jeff Nathanson 's "funny and touching '' script and that they are inspired by the first film, The Curse of the Black Pearl. On September 10, 2013, Disney pushed back the film 's initial 2015 release, with sources indicating that a Summer 2016 release is likely. Producer Jerry Bruckheimer revealed that script issues were behind the delay, and that Jeff Nathanson was at work on a second attempt based on a well - received outline. While Disney originally announced a release on July 7, 2017, Dead Men Tell No Tales was released on May 26, 2017.
A spokesman for the Australian Arts Minister confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot in Australia after the government agreed to repurpose $20 million of tax incentives originally intended for the remake of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. According to Australian film industry sources, pre-production started in late September 2014 with filming expected to commence in February 2015. This was officially confirmed by Disney and Ian Walker the Queensland Arts Minister on October 2, 2014, stating that filming will take place exclusively in Australia, being the largest production to ever shoot in the country. Village Roadshow Studios and Port Douglas were officially confirmed as filming locations. Production began in Australia on February 17, 2015 and wrapped on July 9, 2015.
The Pirates of the Caribbean film series was successful at the box office, with each film grossing over $650 million, and all but Dead Men Tell No Tales at some point ranking among the fifty highest - grossing films of all time. It also became the first ever series to have multiple films passing the billion dollar mark in box office revenues with Dead Man 's Chest and On Stranger Tides, since followed by other film franchises.
The Curse of the Black Pearl was the third - highest - grossing 2003 film in North America (behind The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King and Finding Nemo) and fourth worldwide (behind The Return of the King, Finding Nemo and The Matrix Reloaded). Dead Man 's Chest was the most successful film of 2006 worldwide, and At World 's End led the worldwide grosses in 2007, though being only fourth in North America (behind Spider - Man 3, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Shrek the Third). On Stranger Tides was the third - highest - grossing film of 2011 worldwide (behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 and Transformers: Dark of the Moon) and the fifth in North America. The first three sequels broke box office records upon release, of which the most notable are the opening - weekend record in North America (Dead Man 's Chest), the Memorial - Day weekend record in North America (At World 's End) and the opening - weekend record outside North America (On Stranger Tides).
The series is noted for its high quality of acting talent, and is one of the aspects of the films that is always praised. The visual and practical effects are considered some of the best ever done on film, so much so that audiences believed certain CGI elements of the films were real and done practically. However, the plots of the four sequels have received mixed reviews, with the general consensus that they are too bloated and convoluted to follow. Pirates of the Caribbean is noted for reinvigorating the pirate genre of film after decades of either no pirate films or failed pirate films. The success of the series saw Disney and Jerry Bruckheimer try to replicate the franchise 's success by launching films such as Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time and The Lone Ranger, the latter of which directed by Gore Verbinski. Both movies failed critically and commercially.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 11 Academy Awards, of which a single award was won.
Together, all the four films were nominated for a total of 2 Golden Globe Awards, of which neither were won.
Together, all the first three films were nominated for a total of 13 MTV Movie Awards, of which 4 were won.
Together, the first four films were nominated for a total of 32 Teen Choice Awards, of which 17 were won.
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similarities between the book of matthew and luke | Synoptic gospels - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are referred to as the Synoptic Gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in a similar sequence and in similar or sometimes identical wording. They stand in contrast to John, whose content is comparatively distinct. The term synoptic (Latin: synopticus; Greek: συνοπτικός, translit. synoptikós) comes via Latin from the Greek σύνοψις, synopsis, i.e. "(a) seeing all together, synopsis ''; the sense of the word in English, the one specifically applied to these three gospels, of "giving an account of the events from the same point of view or under the same general aspect '' is a modern one.
This strong parallelism among the three gospels in content, arrangement, and specific language is widely attributed to literary interdependence. The question of the precise nature of their literary relationship -- the synoptic problem -- has been a topic of lively debate for centuries and has been described as "the most fascinating literary enigma of all time ''. The longstanding majority view favors Marcan priority, in which both Matthew and Luke have made direct use of the Gospel of Mark as a source, and further holds that Matthew and Luke also drew from an additional hypothetical document, called Q.
Broadly speaking, the synoptic gospels are similar to John: all are composed in Koine Greek, have a similar length, and were completed within a century of Jesus ' death. They also differ from non-canonical sources, such as the Gospel of Thomas, in that they belong to the ancient genre of biography, collecting not only Jesus ' teachings, but recounting in an orderly way his origins, his ministry and miracles, and his passion and resurrection.
In content and in wording, though, the synoptics diverge widely from John but have a great deal in common with each other. Though each gospel includes some unique material, the majority of Mark and roughly half of Matthew and Luke coincide in content, in much the same sequence, often nearly verbatim. This common material is termed the triple tradition.
The triple tradition, the material included by all three synoptic gospels, includes many stories and teachings:
Furthermore, the triple tradition 's pericopae (passages) tend to be arranged in much the same order in all three gospels. This stands in contrast to the material found in only two of the gospels, which is much more variable in order.
The classification of text as belonging to the triple tradition (or for that matter, double tradition) is not always definitive, depending rather on the degree of similarity demanded. For example, Matthew and Mark report the cursing of the fig tree, clearly a single incident, despite some substantial differences of wording and content. Searching Luke, however, we find only the parable of the barren fig tree, in a different point of the narrative. Some would say that Luke has extensively adapted an element of the triple tradition, while others would regard it as a distinct pericope.
An illustrative example of the three texts in parallel is the healing of the leper:
Καὶ ἰδοὺ, λεπρὸς προσελθὼν προσεκύνει αὐτῷ λέγων Κύριε, ἐὰν θέλῃς δύνασαί με καθαρίσαι. καὶ ἐκτείνας τὴν χεῖρα ἥψατο αὐτοῦ λέγων Θέλω, καθαρίσθητι καὶ εὐθέως ἐκαθαρίσθη αὐτοῦ ἡ λέπρα.
Καὶ ἔρχεται πρὸς αὐτὸν λεπρὸς παρακαλῶν αὐτὸν καὶ γονυπετῶν καὶ λέγων αὐτῷ ὅτι, Ἐὰν θέλῃς δύνασαί με καθαρίσαι. καὶ σπλαγχνισθεὶς ἐκτείνας τὴν χεῖρα αὐτοῦ ἥψατο καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ Θέλω, καθαρίσθητι καὶ εὐθὺς ἀπῆλθεν ἀπ _̓ αὐτοῦ ἡ λέπρα, καὶ ἐκαθαρίσθη.
Καὶ ἰδοὺ, ἀνὴρ πλήρης λέπρας ἰδὼν δὲ τὸν Ἰησοῦν πεσὼν ἐπὶ πρόσωπον ἐδεήθη αὐτοῦ λέγων Κύριε, ἐὰν θέλῃς δύνασαί με καθαρίσαι. καὶ ἐκτείνας τὴν χεῖρα ἥψατο αὐτοῦ λέγων Θέλω, καθαρίσθητι καὶ εὐθέως ἡ λέπρα ἀπῆλθεν ἀπ _̓ αὐτοῦ.
And behold, a leper came and worships him, saying: Lord, if you wish, I can be cleansed. And he stretched out his hand and touched him, saying: I wish it; be cleansed. And immediately his leprosy was cleansed.
And, calling out to him, there comes to him a leper and kneeling and saying to him: If you wish, I can be cleansed. And, moved with compassion, he stretched out his hand and touched him and says to him: I wish it; be cleansed. And immediately the leprosy left him, and he was cleansed.
And behold, a man full of leprosy. But, upon seeing Jesus, he fell upon his face and requested him, saying: Lord, if you wish, I can be cleansed. And he stretched out his hand and touched him, saying: I wish it; be cleansed. And immediately the leprosy left him.
More than half the wording in this passage is identical. Just as interesting, though, is that each gospel includes words absent in the other two and omits something included by the other two.
It has been observed that the triple tradition itself constitutes a complete gospel quite similar to the shortest gospel, Mark.
Mark, unlike Matthew and Luke, adds relatively little to the triple tradition. Pericopae unique to Mark are scarce, notably two healings involving saliva and the naked runaway. Mark 's additions within the triple tradition tend to be explanatory elaborations (e.g., "the stone was rolled back, for it was very large '') or Aramaisms (e.g., "Talitha kum! ''). The pericopae Mark shares with only Luke are also quite few: the Capernaum exorcism and departure from Capernaum, the strange exorcist, and the widow 's mites. A greater number, but still not many, are shared with only Matthew, most notably the so - called "Great Omission '' from Luke of Mk 6: 45 -- 8: 26.
Most scholars take these observations as a strong clue to the literary relationship among the synoptics and Mark 's special place in that relationship. The hypothesis favored by most experts is Marcan priority, that Mark was composed first and that Matthew and Luke each used Mark and incorporated most of it, with adaptations, into their own gospels. A leading alternative hypothesis is Marcan posteriority, that Mark was formed primarily by extracting what Matthew and Luke shared in common.
An extensive set of material -- some two hundred verses or roughly half the length of the triple tradition -- are the pericopae shared between Matthew and Luke but absent in Mark. This is termed the double tradition. Parables and other sayings predominate in the double tradition, but it also includes narrative elements:
Unlike triple - tradition material, double - tradition material is very differently arranged in the two gospels. Matthew 's lengthy Sermon on the Mount, for example, is paralleled by Luke 's shorter Sermon on the Plain, with the remainder of its content scattered throughout Luke. This is consistent with the general pattern of Matthew collecting sayings into large blocks, while Luke does the opposite and intersperses them with narrative.
Besides the double - tradition proper, Matthew and Luke often agree against Mark within the triple tradition to varying extents, sometimes including several additional verses, sometimes differing by a single word. These are termed the major and minor agreements (the distinction is imprecise). One example is in the passion narrative, where Mark has simply, "Prophesy! '' while Matthew and Luke both add, "Who is it that struck you? ''
The double - tradition 's origin, with its major and minor agreements, is a key facet of the synoptic problem. The simplest hypothesis is that Luke relied on Matthew 's work or vice versa. But many experts, on various grounds, maintain that neither Matthew nor Luke used the other 's work. If this is the case, they must have drawn from some common source, distinct from Mark, that provided the double - tradition material and overlapped with Mark 's content where major agreements occur. This hypothetical document is termed Q, for the German Quelle, meaning "source ''.
Matthew and Luke contain a large amount of material found in no other gospel. These materials are sometimes called Special Matthew or M and Special Luke or L.
Both Special Matthew and Special Luke include distinct opening infancy narratives and distinct post-resurrection conclusions (with Luke continuing the story in his second book Acts). In between, Special Matthew includes mostly parables, while Special Luke includes both parables and healings.
Special Luke is notable for containing a greater concentration of Semitisms than any other gospel material.
Luke gives some indication of how he composed his gospel in his prologue:
Since many have undertaken to set down an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed on to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, I too decided, after investigating everything carefully from the very first, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, so that you may know the truth concerning the things about which you have been instructed.
The "synoptic problem '' is the question of the specific literary relationship among the three synoptic gospels -- that is, the question as to the source upon which gospel depended when it was written.
The texts of the three synoptic gospels often agree very closely in wording and order, both in quotations and in narration. Most scholars ascribe this to documentary dependence, direct or indirect, meaning the close agreements among synoptic gospels are due to one gospel 's drawing from the text of another, or from some written source that gospel also drew from.
The synoptic problem hinges on several interrelated points of controversy:
Furthermore, some theories try to explain the relation of the synoptic gospels to John; to non-canonical gospels such as Thomas, Peter, and Egerton; to the Didache; and to lost documents such as the Hebrew logia mentioned by Papias, the Jewish -- Christian gospels, and the Gospel of Marcion.
Ancient sources are virtually unanimous in ascribing the synoptic gospels to the apostle Matthew, Peter 's interpreter Mark, and Paul 's companion Luke, hence their respective canonical names. A remark by Augustine at the turn of the fifth century presents the gospels as composed in their canonical order (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John), with each evangelist thoughtfully building upon and supplementing the work of his predecessors -- the Augustinian hypothesis (Matthew -- Mark).
This view (when any model of dependence was considered at all) was seldom questioned until the late eighteenth century, when Johann Jakob Griesbach published a synopsis of the gospels. Instead of harmonizing them, he displayed them side by side, making both similarities and divergences apparent. Griesbach, noticing the special place of Mark in the synopsis, hypothesized Marcan posteriority and advanced (as Henry Owen had a few years earlier) the two - gospel hypothesis (Matthew -- Luke).
In the nineteenth century, the tools of literary criticism were applied to the synoptic problem in earnest, especially in German scholarship. Early work revolved around a hypothetical proto - gospel (Ur - Gospel), possibly in Aramaic, underlying the synoptics. From this line of inquiry, however, a consensus emerged that Mark itself was the principal source for the other two gospels -- Marcan priority.
In a theory first proposed by Weisse in 1838, the double tradition was explained by Matthew and Luke independently using two sources -- thus, the two - source (Mark - Q) theory -- which were Mark and another hypothetical source consisting mostly of sayings. This additional source was at first seen as the logia (sayings) spoken of by Papias and thus called "Λ '', but later it became more generally known as "Q '', from the German Quelle, meaning source. This two - source theory eventually won wide acceptance and was seldom questioned until the late twentieth century; most scholars simply took this new orthodoxy for granted and directed their efforts toward Q itself, and this is still largely the case.
The theory is also well known in a more elaborate form set forth by Streeter in 1924, which additionally hypothesized written sources "M '' and "L '' for Special Matthew and Special Luke, respectively -- hence, the influential four - document hypothesis. This exemplifies the prevailing scholarship of the time, in which the canonical gospels were seen as late products, from well into the second century, composed by unsophisticated cut - and - paste redactors out of a progression of written sources, derived in turn from oral traditions and folklore that had evolved in various communities. More recently, however, as this view has gradually fallen into disfavor, so too has the centrality of documentary interdependence and hypothetical documentary sources as an explanation for all aspects of the synoptic problem.
In recent decades, weaknesses of the two - source theory have been more widely recognized, and debate has reignited. Many have independently argued that Luke did make some use of Matthew after all -- the Common Sayings Source. British scholars went further and dispensed with Q entirely, ascribing the double tradition to Luke 's direct use of Matthew -- the Farrer hypothesis. New attention is also being given to the Wilke hypothesis which, like Farrer, dispenses with Q but ascribes the double tradition to Matthew 's direct use of Luke. Meanwhile, the Augustinian hypothesis has also made a comeback, especially in American scholarship. The Jerusalem school hypothesis has also attracted fresh advocates, as has the Independence hypothesis, which denies documentary relationships altogether.
On this collapse of consensus, Wenham observed: "I found myself in the Synoptic Problem Seminar of the Society for New Testament Studies, whose members were in disagreement over every aspect of the subject. When this international group disbanded in 1982 they had sadly to confess that after twelve years ' work they had not reached a common mind on a single issue. ''
Nearly every conceivable theory has been advanced as a solution to the synoptic problem. The most notable theories are listed here:
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who was the viceroy of india during quit india movement | Quit India Movement - Wikipedia
The Quit India Movement or the India August Movement, was a movement launched at the Bombay session of the All - India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end to British Rule of India.
The Cripps Mission had failed, and on August 1942, Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in Bombay at the Gowalia Tank Maidan. The All - India Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called "An Orderly British Withdrawal '' from India. Even though it was wartime, the British were prepared to act. Almost the entire leadership of the Indian National Congress was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi 's speech. Most spent the rest of the war in prison and out of contact with the masses. The British had the support of the Viceroy 's Council (which had a majority of Indians), of the All India Muslim League, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army and the Indian Civil Service. Many Indian businessmen profiting from heavy wartime spending did not support the Quit India Movement. Many students paid more attention to Subhas Chandra Bose, who was in exile and supporting the Axis Powers. The only outside support came from the Americans, as President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands. The Quit India campaign was effectively crushed. The British refused to grant immediate independence, saying it could happen only after the war had ended.
Sporadic small - scale violence took place around the country and the British arrested tens of thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until 1945. In terms of immediate objectives, Quit India failed because of heavy - handed suppression, weak co-ordination and the lack of a clear - cut programme of action. However, the British government realized that India was ungovernable in the long run due to the cost of World War II, and the question for postwar became how to exit gracefully and peacefully.
In 1992 Reserve Bank of India issued a 1 rupee commemorative coin to mark the Golden Jubilee of the Quit India Movement.
In 1939, Indian nationalists were angry that British Governor - General of India, Lord Linlithgow, had brought India into the war without consultation with them. The Muslim League supported the war, but Congress was divided.
At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had passed a resolution during the Wardha meeting of the working - committee in September 1939, conditionally supporting the fight against fascism, but were rebuffed when they asked for independence in return. Gandhi had not supported this initiative, as he could not reconcile an endorsement for war (he was a committed believer in non-violent resistance, used in the Indian Independence Movement and proposed even against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Hideki Tojo). However, at the height of the Battle of Britain, Gandhi had stated his support for the fight against racism and of the British war effort, stating he did not seek to raise an independent India from the ashes of Britain. However, opinions remained divided. The long - term British policy of limiting investment in India and using the country as a market and source of revenue had left the Indian Army relatively weak and poorly armed and trained and forced the British to become net contributors to India 's budget, while taxes were sharply increased and the general level of prices of doubled: although many Indian businesses benefitted from increased war production, in general business "felt rebuffed by the government '' and in particular the refusal of the British Raj to give Indians a greater role in organising and mobilising the economy for war time production.
After the onset of the war, only a group led by Subhas Chandra Bose took any decisive action. Bose organised the Indian Legion in Germany, reorganised the Indian National Army with Japanese assistance, and soliciting help from the Axis Powers, conducted a guerrilla war against the British authorities.
In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly participating in the war and deterioration in the war situation in Europe and with growing dissatisfaction among Indian troops -- especially in Africa -- and among the civilian population in the sub-continent, the British government sent a delegation to India under Stafford Cripps, the Leader of the House of Commons, in what came to be known as the Cripps mission. The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in return for progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the Viceroy to an elected Indian legislature. The talks failed, as they did not address the key demand of a timetable of self - government and of definition of the powers to be relinquished, essentially making an offer of limited dominion - status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement.
In 1939, with the outbreak of war between Germany and Britain, India became a party to the war by being a constituent component of the British Empire. Following this declaration, the Congress Working Committee at its meeting on 10 October 1939, passed a resolution condemning the aggressive activities of the Germans. At the same time the resolution also stated that India could not associate herself with war unless it was consulted first. Responding to this declaration, the Viceroy issued a statement on 17 October wherein he claimed that Britain is waging a war driven with the intention of strengthening peace in the world. He also stated that after the war, the government would initiate modifications in the Act of 1935, in accordance to the desires of the Indians.
Gandhi 's reaction to this statement was; "the old policy of divide and rule is to continue. The Congress has asked for bread and it has got stone. '' According to the instructions issued by High Command, the Congress ministers were directed to resign immediately. Congress ministers from eight provinces resigned following the instructions. The resignation of the ministers was an occasion of great joy and rejoicing for leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah. He called the day of 22 December 1939 ' The Day of Deliverance '. Gandhi urged Jinnah against the celebration of this day, however, it was futile. At the Muslim League Lahore Session held in March 1940, Jinnah declared in his presidential address that the Muslims of the country wanted a separate homeland, Pakistan.
In the meanwhile, crucial political events took place in England. Chamberlain was succeeded by Churchill as prime minister and the Conservatives, who assumed power in England, did not have a sympathetic stance towards the claims made by the Congress. In order to pacify the Indians in the circumstance of worsening war situation, the Conservatives were forced to concede some of the demands made by the Indians. On 8 August, the Viceroy issued a statement that has come to be referred as the "August Offer ''. However, the Congress rejected the offer followed by the Muslim League.
In the context of widespread dissatisfaction that prevailed over the rejection of the demands made by the Congress, at the meeting of the Congress Working Committee in Wardha, Gandhi revealed his plan to launch individual civil oisobedience. Once again, the weapon of satyagraha found popular acceptance as the best means to wage a crusade against the British. It was widely used as a mark of protest against the unwavering stance assumed by the British. Vinoba Bhave, a follower of Gandhi, was selected by him to initiate the movement. Anti war speeches ricocheted in all corners of the country, with the satyagrahis earnestly appealing to the people of the nation not to support the government in its war endeavors. The consequence of this satyagrahi campaign was the arrest of almost fourteen thousand satyagrahis. On 3 December 1941, the Viceroy ordered the acquittal of all the satyagrahis. In Europe the war situation became more critical with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the Congress realised the necessity for appraising their program. Subsequently, the movement was withdrawn.
The Cripps ' Mission and its failure also played an important role in Gandhi 's call for The Quit India Movement. In order to end the deadlock on 22 March 1942, the British government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to talk terms with the Indian political parties and secure their support in Britain 's war efforts. A draft declaration of the British Government was presented, which included terms like establishment of Dominion, establishment of a Constituent Assembly and right of the provinces to make separate constitutions. However, these were to be only after the cessation of the Second World War. According to the Congress, this declaration offered India a only promise that was to be fulfilled in the future. Commenting on this Gandhi said, "It is a post dated cheque on a crashing bank. '' Other factors that contributed were the threat of Japanese invasion of India and realisation of the national leaders of the incapacity of the British to defend India.
The Congress Working Committee meeting at Wardha (14 July 1942) passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British government. The draft proposed massive civil disobedience if the British did not accede to the demands.
However, it proved to be controversial within the party. A prominent Congress national leader, Chakravarti Rajgopalachari, quit the Congress over this decision, and so did some local and regional level organisers. Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad were apprehensive and critical of the call, but backed it and stuck with Gandhi 's leadership until the end. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad and Anugrah Narayan Sinha openly and enthusiastically supported such a disobedience movement, as did many veteran Gandhians and socialists like Asoka Mehta and Jayaprakash Narayan.
Allama Mashriqi (head of the Khaksar Tehrik) was called by Jawaharlal Nehru to join the Quit India Movement. Mashriqi was apprehensive of its outcome and did not agree with the Congress Working Committee 's resolution. On 28 July 1942, Allama Mashriqi sent the following telegram to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Mahatma Gandhi, C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. He also sent a copy to Bulusu Sambamurti (former Speaker of the Madras Assembly). The telegram was published in the press, and stated:
I am in receipt of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru 's letter of 8 July. My honest opinion is that Civil Disobedience Movement is a little pre-mature. The Congress should first concede openheartedly and with handshake to Muslim League the theoretical Pakistan, and thereafter all parties unitedly make demand of Quit India. If the British refuse, start total disobedience.
The resolution said:
The committee, therefore, resolves to sanction for the vindication of India 's inalienable right to freedom and independence, the starting of a mass struggle on non-violent lines on the widest possible scale, so that the country might utilise all the non-violent strength it has gathered during the last 22 years of peaceful struggle... they (the people) must remember that non-violence is the basis of the movement.
Several political groups active during the Indian Independence Movement were opposed to the Quit India Movement. These included the Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, the Communist Party of India and the princely states as below:
The Muslim League opposed the Quit India Movement as it was of the view that if the British left India in its current state, Muslims as a minority would be oppressed by the Hindu majority. Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's opposition to Gandhi 's call led to large numbers of Muslims cooperating with the British, and enlisting in the army. The Muslim League gained large numbers of new members. Congress members heeding Gandhi 's call resigned from provincial legislatures, enabling the Muslim League, in alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, to take control in Sindh, Bengal and Northwest Frontier.
Hindu nationalist parties like the Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call for the Quit India Movement and boycotted it officially. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, the president of the Hindu Mahasabha at that time, even went to the extent of writing a letter titled "Stick to your Posts '', in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be "members of municipalities, local bodies, legislatures or those serving in the army... to stick to their posts '' across the country, and not to join the Quit India Movement at any cost.
Following the Hindu Mahasabha 's official decision to boycott the Quit India movement, Syama Prasad Mukherjee, leader of the Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal, (which was a part of the ruling coalition in Bengal led by Krishak Praja Party of Fazlul Haq), wrote a letter to the British Government as to how they should respond, if the Congress gave a call to the British rulers to quit India. In this letter, dated July 26, 1942 he wrote:
"Let me now refer to the situation that may be created in the province as a result of any widespread movement launched by the Congress. Anybody, who during the war, plans to stir up mass feeling, resulting internal disturbances or insecurity, must be resisted by any Government that may function for the time being ''
Mukherjee reiterated that the Fazlul Haq led Bengal Government, along with its alliance partner Hindu Mahasabha, would make every possible effort to defeat the Quit India Movement in the province of Bengal and made a concrete proposal as regards this:
"The question is how to combat this movement (Quit India) in Bengal? The administration of the province should be carried on in such a manner that in spite of the best efforts of the Congress, this movement will fail to take root in the province. It should be possible for us, especially responsible Ministers, to be able to tell the public that the freedom for which the Congress has started the movement, already belongs to the representatives of the people. In some spheres it might be limited during the emergency. Indian have to trust the British, not for the sake for Britain, not for any advantage that the British might gain, but for the maintenance of the defense and freedom of the province itself. You, as Governor, will function as the constitutional head of the province and will be guided entirely on the advice of your Minister.
Even the Indian historian R.C. Majumdar noted this fact and states:
"Shyam Prasad ended the letter with a discussion of the mass movement organised by the Congress. He expressed the apprehension that the movement would create internal disorder and will endanger internal security during the war by exciting popular feeling and he opined that any government in power has to suppress it, but that according to him could not be done only by persecution... In that letter he mentioned item wise the steps to be taken for dealing with the situation... ''
The Communist Party of India was banned at that time by the British government. In order to get the ban lifted, as well as to assist the Soviet Union in its war against Nazi Germany, it supported the British war effort, despite support for Quit India by many industrial workers. In response the British lifted the ban on the party.
The movement had less support in the princely states, as the princes were strongly opposed and funded the opposition.
The Indian nationalists had very little international support. They knew that the United States strongly supported Indian independence, in principle, and believed the U.S. was an ally. However, after Churchill threatened to resign if pushed too hard, the U.S. quietly supported him while bombarding Indians with propaganda designed to strengthen public support of the war effort. The poorly run American operation annoyed both the British and the Indians.
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had kept aloof from the Congress - led anti-British Indian independence movement since its founding by K.B. Hedgewar in 1925. In 1942, under M.S. Golwalkar, it refused to join in the Quit India Movement. The Bombay government appreciated the RSS position by noting that,
"the Sangh has scrupulously kept itself within the law, and in particular, has refrained from taking part in the disturbances that broke out in August 1942 ''. ".
The British Government also asserted that at Sangh meetings organized during the times of anti-British movements started and fought by the Indian National Congress,
"speakers urged the Sangh members to keep aloof from the congress movement and these instructions were generally observed ''.
The RSS head (sarsanghchalak) during that time, M.S. Golwalkar later stated that the RSS did not support the Quit India Movement. Such a non-committal attitude during the Indian freedom movement also led to the Sangh being viewed with distrust and anger, both by the general Indian public, as well as certain members of the organization itself. In Golwalkar 's words,
"In 1942 also, there was a strong sentiment in the hearts of many. At that time too, the routine work of the Sangh continued. Sangh decided not to do anything directly. ' Sangh is the organization of inactive people, their talks have no substance ' was the opinion uttered not only by outsiders but also our own swayamsevaks. ' ''
The British Government stated that the RSS was not at all supporting any civil disobedience against them, and as such their other political activities could be overlooked. The Home Department was thereby of the opinion that the RSS did not constitute a menace to law and order in British India. The Bombay government reported that the RSS had not, in any way, infringed upon government orders and had always shown a willingness to comply with the law. The same Bombay Government report further noted that in December 1940, orders had been issued to the provincial RSS leaders to desist from any activities that the British Government considered objectionable, and the RSS, in turn, had assured the British authorities that "it had no intentions of offending against the orders of the Government ''.
According to John F. Riddick, from 9 August 1942 to 21 September 1942, the Quit India Movement:
At the national level the lack of leadership meant the ability to galvanise rebellion was limited. The movement had a local impact in some areas. especially at Satara in Maharashtra, Talcher in Odisha, and Midnapore. In Tamluk and Contai subdivisions of Midnapore, the local populace were successful in establishing parallel governments, which continued to function, until Gandhi personally requested the leaders to disband in 1944. A minor uprising took place in Ballia, now the easternmost district of Uttar Pradesh. People overthrew the district administration, broke open the jail, released the arrested Congress leaders and established their own independent rule. It took weeks before the British could reestablish their writ in the district. Of special importance in Saurashtra (in western Gujarat) was the role of the region 's ' baharvatiya ' tradition (i.e. going outside the law) which abetted the sabotage activities of the movement there. In rural west Bengal, the Quit India Movement was fueled by peasants ' resentment against the new war taxes and the forced rice exports. There was open resistance to the point of rebellion in 1942 until the great famine of 1943 suspended the movement.
One of the important achievements of the movement was keeping the Congress party united through all the trials and tribulations that followed. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India - Burma border, responded by imprisoning Gandhi. All the members of the Party 's Working Committee (national leadership) were imprisoned as well. Due to the arrest of major leaders, a young and until then relatively unknown Aruna Asaf Ali presided over the AICC session on 9 August and hoisted the flag; later the Congress party was banned. These actions only created sympathy for the cause among the population. Despite lack of direct leadership, large protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. Not all demonstrations were peaceful, at some places bombs exploded, government buildings were set on fire, electricity was cut and transport and communication lines were severed.
The British swiftly responded with mass detentions. Over 100,000 arrests were made, mass fines were levied and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging. Hundreds of civilians were killed in violence many shot by the police army. Many national leaders went underground and continued their struggle by broadcasting messages over clandestine radio stations, distributing pamphlets and establishing parallel governments. The British sense of crisis was strong enough that a battleship was specifically set aside to take Gandhi and the Congress leaders out of India, possibly to South Africa or Yemen but ultimately did not take that step out of fear of intensifying the revolt.
The Congress leadership was cut off from the rest of the world for over three years. Gandhi 's wife Kasturbai Gandhi and his personal secretary Mahadev Desai died in months and Gandhi 's health was failing, despite this Gandhi went on a 21 - day fast and maintained his resolve to continuous resistance. Although the British released Gandhi on account of his health in 1944, he kept up the resistance, demanding the release of the Congress leadership.
By early 1944, India was mostly peaceful again, while the Congress leadership was still incarcerated. A sense that the movement had failed depressed many nationalists, while Jinnah and the Muslim League, as well as Congress opponents like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the Hindu Mahasabha sought to gain political mileage, criticizing Gandhi and the Congress Party.
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what is the cast of big bang theory paid | List of Highest paid American television stars - wikipedia
This is a list of people starring on television that are the highest - paid, based on various sources. This list includes the top - paid TV stars by name and their network primetime salaries per episode, which includes stars from past series like Two and a Half Men and current series like Game of Thrones. It also includes hosts and news presenters with the highest annual salaries, which include Tyra Banks, Maury Povich, Ellen DeGeneres, and some talent from the Today Show and the CBS Evening News.
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where have all the olympic games been held | List of Olympic Games host cities - wikipedia
This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer games have usually -- but not always -- celebrated a four - year period known as an Olympiad. There have been 28 Summer Olympic Games held in 23 cities, and 22 Winter Olympic Games held in 19 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the Games were scheduled to take place but later cancelled due to war: Berlin (summer) in 1916; Tokyo / Helsinki (summer) and Sapporo / Garmisch - Partenkirchen (winter) in 1940; and London (summer) and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy (winter) in 1944. The 1906 Summer Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens. However, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games. Five cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games: Pyeongchang for the 2018 Winter Olympics, Tokyo for the 2020 Summer Olympics, Beijing for the 2022 Winter Olympics, Paris for the 2024 Summer Olympics, and Los Angeles for the 2028 Summer Olympics.
In 2022, Beijing will become the only city that has held both the summer and the winter Olympic Games. Seven cities have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics), Paris (1900, 1924, and 2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908, 1948, and 2012 Summer Olympics), St. Moritz (1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932, 1984, and 2028 Summer Olympics), and Innsbruck (1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics). Tokyo will join this list upon hosting the 2020 Summer Olympics, having previously hosted the summer games of 1964, as well as Beijing upon hosting the 2022 Winter Olympics, having previously hosted the summer games of 2008. In addition, Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris will become the second city to do this with the 2024 Summer Olympics, followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. The United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five editions. Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom have each hosted three Games.
The Games have primarily been hosted in the continents of Europe (36 editions) and North America (12 editions); eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro became South America 's first Olympic host city, while the African continent is yet to hold the Games. Other major geographic regions which have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.
Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance. The selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city. After 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant city will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities to be considered for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of the IOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.
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in who framed roger rabbit what two nineteenth century classical pieces are heard | Who Framed Roger Rabbit - wikipedia
Who Framed Roger Rabbit is a 1988 American live - action / animated fantasy film directed by Robert Zemeckis, produced by Frank Marshall and Robert Watts, and written by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman. The film is based on Gary K. Wolf 's 1981 novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit?. The film stars Bob Hoskins, Christopher Lloyd, Charles Fleischer, Stubby Kaye, and Joanna Cassidy. Combining live - action and animation, the film is set in Hollywood during the late 1940s, where animated characters and people co-exist. The story follows Eddie Valiant, a private detective who must exonerate "Toon '' (i.e. cartoon character) Roger Rabbit, who is accused of murdering a wealthy businessman.
Walt Disney Pictures purchased the film rights for Who Framed Roger Rabbit 's story in 1981. Price and Seaman wrote two drafts of the script before Disney brought in executive producer Steven Spielberg, and his production company, Amblin Entertainment. Zemeckis was brought on to direct the film, and Canadian animator Richard Williams was hired to supervise the animation sequences. Production was moved from Los Angeles to Elstree Studios in England to accommodate Williams and his group of animators. While filming, the production budget began to rapidly expand and the shooting schedule ran longer than expected.
Disney released the film through its Touchstone Pictures division on June 22, 1988, to critical and commercial success, becoming a blockbuster. The film brought a renewed interest in the Golden Age of American animation, spearheading modern American animation and the Disney Renaissance.
In 2016, the film was selected for the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.
In 1947 Los Angeles, "toons '' act in theatrical cartoon shorts as with live - action films; they regularly interact with real people and animals and reside in Toontown, a fictional place where animated cartoon characters (toons) reside. Private detective Eddie Valiant and his brother, Teddy, once worked closely with the toons on several famous cases, but after Teddy was killed by a toon, Eddie lapsed into alcoholism and vowed never to work for toons again.
R.K. Maroon, head of Maroon Cartoon Studios, is concerned about the recent poor performances of one of his biggest stars, Roger Rabbit. Maroon hires Valiant to investigate rumors about Roger 's voluptuous toon wife Jessica being romantically involved with businessman and gadget inventor Marvin Acme, owner of both Acme Corporation and Toontown. After watching Jessica perform at the underground Ink and Paint Club, Valiant secretly photographs her and Acme playing patty - cake in her dressing room, which he shows to Roger. Maroon suggests to Roger that he should leave Jessica, but a drunken Roger refuses and flees.
The next morning, Acme is discovered dead at his factory by the Los Angeles Police Department with a safe dropped on his head, and evidence points to Roger being responsible. While investigating, Valiant meets Judge Doom, Toontown 's superior court judge, who has created a substance capable of killing a toon: a toxic "dip '' made of turpentine, acetone, and benzene. Valiant runs into Roger 's toon co-star, Baby Herman, who believes Roger is innocent and that Acme 's missing will, which will give the toons ownership of Toontown, may be the key to his murder. Valiant finds Roger, who begs him to help exonerate him, hiding in his office. Valiant reluctantly hides Roger in a local bar, where his ex-girlfriend, Dolores, works. Jessica approaches Valiant and says that Maroon forced her to pose for the photographs so he could blackmail Acme.
Doom and his toon weasel henchmen discover Roger, but he and Valiant escape with Benny, an anthropomorphic taxicab. They flee to a theater, where Valiant tells Roger that a toon killed Teddy when they were investigating a bank robbery by dropping a piano on his head. As they leave with Dolores, Valiant sees a newsreel detailing the sale of Maroon Cartoons to Cloverleaf, a mysterious corporation that bought the city 's trolley network shortly before Acme 's murder. Valiant goes to the studio to confront Maroon, leaving Roger to guard outside, but Jessica knocks Roger out and puts him in the trunk. Maroon tells Valiant that he blackmailed Acme into selling his company so he could sell the studio, then tearfully admits he only did so out of fear for the safety of the toons and is killed before he can explain the consequences of the missing will. Valiant spots Jessica fleeing the scene, and assuming she is the culprit, follows her into Toontown. Jessica reveals that Doom killed Acme and Maroon and gave her his will for safekeeping, but she discovered that the will was blank. She and Valiant are captured by Doom and the weasels.
At the Acme factory, Doom reveals his plot to destroy Toontown with a machine loaded with dip to build a freeway, the only way past Toontown since Cloverleaf (which Doom owns) has bought out Los Angeles ' Pacific Electric Railway. Roger unsuccessfully attempts to save Jessica, and the couple is tied onto a hook in front of the machine 's hose. Valiant performs a comedic vaudeville act, causing the weasels to die of laughter; Valiant kicks their leader into the machine 's dip vat, killing him. Valiant fights Doom, who is flattened by a steamroller, but survives, revealing him as a toon. Doom reveals that he killed Teddy. Valiant uses a toon mallet with a spring - loaded boxing glove and fires it at a switch that causes the machine to empty its dip onto Doom, dissolving him.
The empty machine crashes through the wall into Toontown, where it is destroyed by a train. Toons run in to regard Doom 's remains, and Roger discovers that he inadvertently wrote his love letter for Jessica on Acme 's will, which was written in disappearing / reappearing ink. Roger shocks Valiant with a joy buzzer, and Valiant gives him a kiss, having regained his sense of humor. Valiant happily enters Toontown with Dolores, and Roger with Jessica, followed by the other toons. The film ends with Porky saying his signature line "Th - th - th - that 's all folks! ''
Mel Blanc voiced Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Tweety, and Sylvester (Roger Rabbit was one of the final productions in which Blanc voiced his Looney Tunes characters before his death the following year). Joe Alaskey voiced Yosemite Sam and Foghorn Leghorn (in place of the elderly Blanc), Wayne Allwine voiced Mickey Mouse, Tony Anselmo voiced Donald Duck (with an archival recording of Clarence Nash, the original voice of Donald, used at the beginning of the scene), Tony Pope voiced Goofy (also partially voiced by Bill Farmer) and the Big Bad Wolf, Mae Questel reprised her role of Betty Boop, Russi Taylor voiced Minnie Mouse and some birds, Pat Buttram, Jim Cummings, and Jim Gallant voiced Valiant 's animated bullets, Les Perkins voiced Mr. Toad, Mary Radford voiced Hyacinth Hippo from Fantasia, Nancy Cartwright voiced the dipped shoe, Cherry Davis voiced Woody Woodpecker, Peter Westy voiced Pinocchio, and Frank Welker voiced Dumbo. Animation director Richard Williams voiced Droopy. April Winchell provides the voice of Mrs. Herman and the "baby noises ''. David Lander voices Smart Ass, the leader of the weasels, Fred Newman voices Stupid, and June Foray voices Wheezy and Lena Hyena, a toon who resembles Jessica Rabbit and provides a comical role which shows her falling for Eddie and pursuing him.
The main characters of the film are Roger Rabbit, a cartoon rabbit, his cartoon - human wife Jessica Rabbit, and human detective Eddie Valiant and Judge Doom.
Other characters in the film include:
Baby Herman is Roger 's major co-star in the animated shorts in which they appear. He is Roger 's best friend. Baby Herman 's "mother '', Mrs. Herman (voiced by April Winchell), makes an appearance at the beginning of Who Framed Roger Rabbit and its spin - off short films, but she is only shown from the waist down.
Baby Herman and Roger Rabbit comprised an Abbott and Costello - like comedy team for the fictitious Maroon Cartoons studio in the 1940s. A typical Roger / Baby Herman cartoon consists of Roger being given responsibility for Baby Herman 's well - being; Herman immediately begins crawling through a number of dangerous situations from which Roger must rescue him. In the process, Roger suffers extravagant injuries and humiliations reminiscent of those in classic Tex Avery cartoons, while Baby Herman remains unscathed. For both book adaptations, Baby Herman was murdered, leaving behind a doppelganger for Eddie Valiant to help solve the crime.
In the film, Baby Herman 's role was downplayed. In one scene, he tells Eddie that Roger did not murder Marvin Acme and tips off that Acme had a will that promised to leave Toontown to the Toons, which is the reason why Acme was killed. Baby Herman later appears at the end of the film, expressing his annoyance that Acme did not leave his will where it could easily be found.
Despite his name and appearance, "Baby '' Herman is actually a middle - aged, cigar - smoking Toon who looks like an infant. While filming "in character '', he speaks baby talk in a typical baby boy 's voice provided by Winchell; off - camera, he has a loud, gravelly voice provided by Lou Hirsch. Animation director Richard Williams loved the character of "adult '' Baby Herman so much that he personally animated all of the scenes of the character in the film. When he loses his cigar and finds himself unable to reach it, he starts crying like a baby (albeit with his voice still sounding like a middle - aged man).
Benny the Cab is a taxicab that services the Los Angeles area in the film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. He is voiced in all appearances by Charles Fleischer. His license plate reads Looney. In the original story, Who Censored Roger Rabbit?, Benny was a thug and had a minor role as a trader in second - hand items. The character was expanded for the movie, as an anthropomorphized colorful yellow Volkswagen Beetle - style taxi cab that takes Roger where he needs to go.
The Toon Patrol is a group of five anthropomorphic animated tailless weasels who serve as henchmen to Judge Doom in Who Framed Roger Rabbit. They serve as the secondary antagonists of the film. In the film, the Toon Patrol comprises the "police officers '' of Toontown, but they behave less like law enforcers and more like gangsters and crooks. Judge Doom hires them to capture Roger Rabbit for the murder of Marvin Acme. The Toon Patrol drives around in a black Dodge Humpback paddy wagon labeled with the Los Angeles city seal like with cruisers of the Los Angeles Police Department.
The weasels enjoy laughing at the misery of others, including each other. Like all the other Toons in the movie, they are invincible to physical body harm except for the dip. However, prolonged laughter is also shown to be lethal to them. Eddie Valiant jokes around in front of them during the climax of the movie, causing all but Smartass to "die '' from laughing at him, after which their Toon souls rise to heaven in angel forms. According to Judge Doom, they once had hyena cousins that died in the same manner.
While being designed, the weasels and their fondness of weapons were modeled after the weasels in the 1949 Disney cartoon The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad. The weasels make an appearance in the Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin attraction located at Disneyland and Tokyo Disneyland.
Dolores (Joanna Cassidy) is Eddie Valiant 's girlfriend who works as a waitress in a bar. She is involved in helping Eddie solve the case against Judge Doom.
R.K. Maroon (Alan Tilvern) is the owner of Maroon Cartoons. He paid Eddie $100 to photograph Jessica and Marvin Acme, which eventually led to Acme 's murder. Maroon later admitted that he was trying to blackmail Acme into selling Toontown to Cloverleaf Industries so that he could sell his studio as well, since Cloverleaf wanted to buy both properties at once. Before he could reveal who was behind the plot, he was shot and killed by Judge Doom.
Marvin Acme (Stubby Kaye) is the owner of Acme Products and Toontown. He is known around Hollywood as "the gag king '' for the prank items he makes his living selling. Among his top sellers are Disappearing / Reappearing Ink and a hand buzzer. In a blackmail scheme by R.K. Maroon, he has an "affair '' with Toon Jessica Rabbit which Eddie Valiant (who briefly meets Acme) photographs. Acme is murdered later that night by Judge Doom, who drops a safe on his head and frames Jessica 's husband, Roger.
Lt. Santino (Richard LeParmentier) is a lieutenant with the LAPD, and friend of Eddie. He accompanies Eddie to the Acme factory, where Marvin Acme has been murdered and everyone suspects Roger. Here they are introduced to Judge Doom who explains the ingredients of the Dip. When Doom demonstrates the Dip on a defenceless Toon shoe, Santino turns away in distress, unable to watch the Toon die. Santino is present with several officers when Eddie discovers that it was Doom who killed Acme along with Maroon and Teddy.
Theodore "Teddy '' J. Valiant is the deceased brother of Eddie. Teddy was killed by a piano dropped onto him by a Toon later revealed to be Judge Doom while investigating a robbery in Toontown. Due to his brother 's death, Eddie, with whom Teddy had cracked many a case and helped Toons who were in trouble, vowed never to work for a Toon again and would n't for many years. To honor his brother, Eddie left Teddy 's desk the way it was the day he died and refuses to allow anyone to sit at it. Eddie avenged his brother 's death when he destroyed Doom with Doom 's Dip.
Angelo (Richard Ridings) is a client of Dolores 's bar. Eddie is not particularly fond of Angelo, as he makes fun of Eddie for his detective work. Eddie regards Angelo as the kind of guy who would sell someone out at the first opportunity, but Angelo helps Roger avoid Judge Doom 's search after Roger makes him laugh. When asked by Doom if he has seen a rabbit, Angelo mocks him by gesturing to a patch of empty space and saying, "Say hello to the Judge, Harvey. '' - a reference to the 1944 play of that name by Mary Coyle Chase.
Bongo (voiced by Morgan Deare, Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin voiced by Jeff Bergman) is a cartoon gorilla bouncer of The Ink and Paint Club. The password that Eddie uses to get in was "Walt sent me '' and Bongo lets him in. He also tosses Eddie out of the club when he catches Eddie spying on Jessica Rabbit and Marvin P. Acme in Jessica 's dressing room.
Lena Hyena is a Toon Hag that resembles Jessica Rabbit. When Eddie was looking for Jessica Rabbit, he saw what appeared to be her in an apartment building. When Eddie entered the room, he encountered Lena Hyena who developed a crush on Eddie and chased him around parts of Toon Town. Eddie was able to get rid of her by tricking her into running into the wall of a building.
The Toon Bullets are a group of six bullets with personalities similar to those of characters in Western movies. They were a present from Yosemite Sam, thanking Eddie for "springing him from the hoosegow. ''
When Eddie Valiant decides to enter Toontown in pursuit of Judge Doom, he discards his pistol in favor of an oversized Toon revolver and loads the bullets into it. He fires at Doom, but the bullets become confused as to where he went and turn in the wrong direction. "Dum - dums, '' Eddie says sourly. (This is a wordplay insofar as dum - dums are a type of bullet, specifically ones which are hollow - nosed or soft - nosed.)
Walt Disney Productions purchased the film rights to Gary K. Wolf 's novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit? shortly after its publication in 1981. Ron W. Miller, then president of Disney, saw it as a perfect opportunity to produce a blockbuster. Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman were hired to write the script, penning two drafts. Robert Zemeckis offered his services as director in 1982, but Disney declined as his two previous films (I Wanna Hold Your Hand and Used Cars) had been box - office bombs. Between 1981 and 1983 Disney developed test footage with Darrell Van Citters as animation director, Paul Reubens voicing Roger Rabbit, Peter Renaday as Eddie Valiant, and Russi Taylor as Jessica Rabbit. The project was revamped in 1985 by Michael Eisner, the then - new CEO of Disney. Amblin Entertainment, which consisted of Steven Spielberg, Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy, were approached to produce Who Framed Roger Rabbit alongside Disney. The original budget was projected at $50 million, which Disney felt was too expensive.
Roger Rabbit was finally green - lit when the budget decreased to $30 million, which at the time still made it the most expensive animated film ever green - lit. Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg argued that the hybrid of live action and animation would "save '' Disney 's animation department. Spielberg 's contract included an extensive amount of creative control and a large percentage of the box - office profits. Disney kept all merchandising rights. Spielberg convinced Warner Bros., Fleischer Studios, King Features Syndicate, Felix the Cat Productions, Turner Entertainment, and Universal Pictures / Walter Lantz Productions to "lend '' their characters to appear in the film with (in some cases) stipulations on how those characters were portrayed; for example, Disney 's Donald Duck and Warner 's Daffy Duck appear as equally talented dueling pianists, and Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny also share a scene. Apart from this agreement, Warner Bros. and the various other companies were not involved in the production of Roger Rabbit. Additionally, the producers were unable to acquire the rights to use Popeye, Tom and Jerry, Little Lulu, Casper the Friendly Ghost, or the Terrytoons for appearances from their respective owners (King Features, Turner, Western Publishing, Harvey Comics, and Viacom).
Terry Gilliam was offered the chance to direct, but he found the project too technically challenging. ("Pure laziness on my part, '' he later admitted, "I completely regret that decision. '') Robert Zemeckis was hired to direct in 1985, based on the success of Romancing the Stone and Back to the Future. Disney executives were continuing to suggest Darrell Van Citters to direct the animated sequences, but Spielberg and Zemeckis decided against it. Richard Williams was eventually hired to direct the animation. Zemeckis wanted the film to imbue "Disney 's high quality of animation, Warner Bros. ' characterization, and Tex Avery humor ''.
Harrison Ford was Spielberg 's original choice to play Eddie Valiant, but Ford 's price was too high. Bill Murray was also considered for the part, but due to his idiosyncratic method of receiving offers for roles, Murray missed out on it. Eddie Murphy reportedly turned down the role of Eddie, which he later came to regret. Several other actors were also considered for the role of Eddie Valiant, including Chevy Chase, Robert Redford, Jack Nicholson, Sylvester Stallone, Wallace Shawn, Ed Harris, Charles Grodin, and Don Lane. To facilitate Hoskins ' performance, Charles Fleischer dressed in a Roger bunny suit and "stood in '' behind camera for most scenes. Animation director Williams explained Roger Rabbit was a combination of "Tex Avery 's cashew nut - shaped head, the swatch of red hair... like Droopy 's, Goofy 's overalls, Porky Pig 's bow tie, Mickey Mouse 's gloves, and Bugs Bunny - like cheeks and ears. ''
Kathleen Turner provided the uncredited voice of Jessica Rabbit, Roger Rabbit 's Toon wife.
Christopher Lloyd was cast because he previously worked with Zemeckis and Amblin Entertainment on Back to the Future. Lloyd compared his part as Doom to his previous role as the Klingon commander Kruge in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, both being overly evil characters which he considered being "fun to play ''. Lloyd avoided blinking his eyes while on camera to perfectly portray the character. Tim Curry originally auditioned for the role of Judge Doom, but after his audition, the producers found him too terrifying for the role. Christopher Lee was also considered for the role, but turned it down. Several other actors were also considered for the role of Judge Doom, including John Cleese, Roddy McDowall, Eddie Deezen, and Sting.
Fleischer also voiced Benny the Cab and two members of Doom 's weasel gang, Psycho and Greasy. Lou Hirsch, who supplied the voice for Baby Herman, was the original choice for Benny the Cab, but was replaced by Fleischer.
Price and Seaman were brought aboard to continue writing the script once Spielberg and Zemeckis were hired. For inspiration, the two writers studied the work of Walt Disney and Warner Bros. Cartoons from the Golden Age of American animation, especially Tex Avery and Bob Clampett cartoons. The Cloverleaf streetcar subplot was inspired by Chinatown. Price and Seaman said that "the Red Car plot, suburb expansion, urban and political corruption really did happen, '' Price stated. "In Los Angeles, during the 1940s, car and tire companies teamed up against the Pacific Electric Railway system and bought them out of business. Where the freeway runs in Los Angeles is where the Red Car used to be. '' In Wolf 's novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit?, the toons were comic - strip characters rather than movie stars.
During the writing process, Price and Seaman were unsure of whom to include as the villain in the plot. They wrote scripts that had either Jessica Rabbit or Baby Herman as the villain, but they made their final decision with newly created character Judge Doom. Doom was supposed to have an animated vulture sit on his shoulder, but this was deleted due to the technical challenges this posed. Doom would also have a suitcase of 12 small animated kangaroos that act as a jury, by having their joeys pop out of their pouches, each with letters, when put together would spell YOU ARE GUILTY. This was also cut for budget and technical reasons. Doom 's five - man weasel gang (Stupid, Smart Ass, Greasy, Wheezy, and Psycho) satirizes the Seven Dwarfs (Doc, Grumpy, Happy, Sleepy, Bashful, Sneezy, and Dopey), who appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Originally, seven weasels were to mimic the dwarf 's complement, but eventually, two of them, Slimey and Slezey, were written out of the script. Further references included The "Ink and Paint Club '' resembling the Harlem Cotton Club, while Zemeckis compared Judge Doom 's invention of "the dip '' to eliminate all the toons as Hitler 's Final Solution. Doom was originally the hunter who killed Bambi 's mother. Benny the Cab was first conceived to be a Volkswagen Beetle before being changed to a taxicab. Ideas originally conceived for the story also included a sequence set at Marvin Acme 's funeral, whose attendees included Eddie, Foghorn Leghorn, Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Tom and Jerry, Heckle and Jeckle, Chip n ' Dale, Mighty Mouse, Superman, Popeye, Olive Oyl, Bluto, Clarabelle Cow, and the Seven Dwarfs in cameo appearances. However, the scene was cut for pacing reasons and never made it past the storyboard stage. Before finally agreeing on Who Framed Roger Rabbit as the film 's title, working titles included Murder in Toontown, Toons, Dead Toons Do n't Pay Bills, The Toontown Trial, Trouble in Toontown, and Eddie Goes to Toontown.
Animation director Richard Williams admitted he was "openly disdainful of the Disney bureaucracy '' and refused to work in Los Angeles. To accommodate him and his animators, production was moved to Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England. Disney and Spielberg also told Williams that in return for doing Roger Rabbit, they would help distribute his uncompleted film The Thief and the Cobbler. Supervising animators included Dale Baer, James Baxter, David Bowers, Andreas Deja, Chris Jenkins, Phil Nibbelink, Nik Ranieri, and Simon Wells. The animation production, headed by associate producer Don Hahn, was split between Richard Williams ' London studio and a specialized unit in Los Angeles, set up by Walt Disney Feature Animation and supervised by Dale Baer. The production budget continued to escalate, while the shooting schedule lapsed longer than expected. When the budget reached $40 million, Disney president Michael Eisner seriously considered shutting down production, but Jeffrey Katzenberg talked him out of it. Despite the budget escalating to over $50 million, Disney moved forward on production because they were enthusiastic to work with Spielberg.
VistaVision cameras installed with motion - control technology were used for the photography of the live - action scenes which would be composited with animation. Rubber mannequins of Roger Rabbit, Baby Herman, and the weasels would portray the animated characters during rehearsals to teach the actors where to look when acting with "open air and imaginative cartoon characters ''. Many of the live - action props held by cartoon characters were shot on set with either robotic arms holding the props or the props were manipulated by strings, similar to a marionette. The actor who played the voice of Roger, Charles Fleischer, insisted on wearing a Roger Rabbit costume while on the set, to get into character. Filming began on December 2, 1986, and lasted for seven months at Elstree Studios, with an additional month in Los Angeles and at Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) for blue screen effects of Toontown. The entrance of Desilu Studios served as the fictional Maroon Cartoon Studio lot.
Post-production lasted for 14 months. Because the film was made before computer animation and digital compositing were widely used, all the animation was done using cels and optical compositing. First, the animators and lay - out artists were given black - and - white printouts of the live - action scenes (known as "photo stats ''), and they placed their animation paper on top of them. The artists then drew the animated characters in relationship to the live - action footage. Due to Zemeckis ' dynamic camera moves, the animators had to confront the challenge of ensuring the characters were not "slipping and slipping all over the place. '' After rough animation was complete, it was run through the normal process of traditional animation until the cels were shot on the rostrum camera with no background. The animated footage was then sent to ILM for compositing, where technicians animated three lighting layers (shadows, highlights, and tone mattes) separately, to make the cartoon characters look three - dimensional and give the illusion of the characters being affected by the lighting on set. Finally, the lighting effects were optically composited on to the cartoon characters, who were, in turn, composited into the live - action footage. One of the most difficult effects in the film was Jessica 's dress in the nightclub scene, because it had flashing sequins, an effect accomplished by filtering light through a plastic bag scratched with steel wool.
Regular Zemeckis collaborator Alan Silvestri composed the film score, performed by the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) under the direction of Silvestri. Zemeckis joked that "the British (musicians) could not keep up with Silvestri 's jazz tempo ''. The performances of the music themes written for Jessica Rabbit were entirely improvised by the LSO. The work of American composer Carl Stalling heavily influenced Silvestri 's work on Who Framed Roger Rabbit. The film 's soundtrack was originally released by Buena Vista Records on June 22, 1988, and reissued by Walt Disney Records on CD on April 16, 2002.
On January 23, 2018 Intrada Records released a 3 - CD set with complete score, alternates, remastered version of original 1988 album plus music from 3 Roger Rabbit short films, composed & conducted by Bruce Broughton and James Horner.
Michael Eisner, then CEO, and Roy E. Disney, Vice Chairman of the Walt Disney Company, felt Who Framed Roger Rabbit was too risqué with sexual references. Eisner and Zemeckis disagreed over various elements of the film, but since Zemeckis had final cut privilege, he refused to make alterations. Roy E. Disney, head of Feature Animation along with studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg, felt it was appropriate to release the film under their Touchstone Pictures banner instead of the traditional Walt Disney Pictures banner.
Who Framed Roger Rabbit opened in the United States on June 22, 1988, grossing $11,226,239 in 1,045 theaters during its opening weekend, ranking first place in the domestic box office. The film went on to gross $156,452,370 in North America and $173,351,588 internationally, coming to a worldwide total of $329,803,958. At the time of release, Roger Rabbit was the 20th - highest - grossing film of all time. The film was also the second - highest - grossing film of 1988, behind only Rain Man.
Zemeckis has revealed a three - dimensional reissue could be possible.
Who Framed Roger Rabbit was first released on VHS on October 12, 1989. A Laserdisc edition was also released. A DVD version was first available on September 28, 1999.
On March 25, 2003, Buena Vista Home Entertainment released it as a part of the "Vista Series '' line in a two - disc collection with many extra features including a documentary, Behind the Ears: The True Story of Roger Rabbit; a deleted scene in which a pig 's head is "tooned '' onto Eddie 's own; the three Roger Rabbit shorts, "Tummy Trouble '', "Roller Coaster Rabbit '', and "Trail Mix - Up ''; as well as a booklet and interactive games. The only short on the 2003 VHS release was "Tummy Trouble ''.
On March 12, 2013, Who Framed Roger Rabbit was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu - ray Disc and DVD combo pack special edition for the film 's 25th anniversary. The film was also digitally restored by Disney for its 25th Anniversary. Frame - by - frame digital restoration was done by Prasad Studios removing dirt, tears, scratches, and other defects.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 97 % based on 62 reviews and an average score of 8.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Who Framed Roger Rabbit is an innovative and entertaining film that features a groundbreaking mix of live action and animation, with a touching and original story to boot. '' Aggregator Metacritic calculated a score of 83 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four stars out of four, predicting it would carry "the type of word of mouth that money ca n't buy. This movie is not only great entertainment, but (also) a breakthrough in craftsmanship. '' Ebert and his colleague Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune spent a considerable amount of time in the Siskel & Ebert episode in which they reviewed the film analyzing the film 's painstaking filmmaking. Siskel also praised the film, and ranked it number two on his top - ten films list for 1988, while Ebert ranked it as number eight on a similar list. Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented, "although this is n't the first time that cartoon characters have shared the screen with live actors, it 's the first time they 've done it on their own terms and make it look real ''. Desson Thomson of The Washington Post considered Roger Rabbit to be "a definitive collaboration of pure talent. Zemeckis had Walt Disney Pictures ' enthusiastic backing, producer Steven Spielberg 's pull, Warner Bros. 's blessing, Canadian animator Richard Williams ' ink and paint, Mel Blanc 's voice, Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman 's witty, frenetic screenplay, George Lucas ' Industrial Light and Magic, and Bob Hoskins ' comical performance as the burliest, shaggiest private eye. '' Gene Shalit on the Today Show also praised the film, calling it "one of the most extraordinary movies ever made ''. Filmsite.org called it "a technically - marvelous film '' and a "landmark '' that resulted from "unprecedented cooperation '' between Warner Bros. and Disney.
Richard Corliss, writing for Time, gave a mixed review. "The opening cartoon works just fine but too fine. The opening scene upstages the movie that emerges from it, '' he said. Corliss was mainly annoyed by the homages to the Golden Age of American animation. Animation legend Chuck Jones made a rather scathing attack on the film in his book Chuck Jones Conversations. Among his complaints, Jones accused Robert Zemeckis of robbing Richard Williams of any creative input and ruining the piano duel that both Williams and he storyboarded.
Who Framed Roger Rabbit won three competitive Academy Awards and a Special Achievement Award. It became the first live - action / animation hybrid film to win multiple Academy Awards since Mary Poppins in 1964. It won Academy Awards for Best Sound Effects Editing (Charles L. Campbell and Louis Edemann), Best Visual Effects and Best Film Editing. Other nominations included Best Art Direction (Art Direction: Elliot Scott; Set Decoration: Peter Howitt), Best Cinematography and Best Sound (Robert Knudson, John Boyd, Don Digirolamo and Tony Dawe). Richard Williams received a Special Achievement Academy Award "for animation direction and creation of the cartoon characters ''. Roger Rabbit won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, as well as Best Direction for Zemeckis and Special Visual Effects. Hoskins, Lloyd, and Cassidy were nominated for their performances, while Alan Silvestri and the screenwriters received nominations. The film was nominated for four categories at the 42nd British Academy Film Awards and won for Best Visual Effects. Roger Rabbit was nominated the Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy), while Hoskins was also nominated for his performance. The film also won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and the Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Movie.
The success of Who Framed Roger Rabbit rekindled an interest in the Golden Age of American animation, and sparked the modern animation scene. In 1991, Walt Disney Imagineering began to develop Mickey 's Toontown for Disneyland, based on the Toontown that appeared in the film. The attraction also features a ride called Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin. Three theatrical animated shorts were also produced: Tummy Trouble, played in front of Honey, I Shrunk the Kids; Roller Coaster Rabbit was shown with Dick Tracy; and Trail Mix - Up was included with A Far Off Place. The film also inspired a short - lived comic - book and video - game spin - offs, including two PC games, the Japanese version of The Bugs Bunny Crazy Castle (which features Roger instead of Bugs), a 1989 game released on the Nintendo Entertainment System, and a 1991 game released on the Game Boy.
In December 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
With the film 's LaserDisc release, Variety first reported in March 1994 that observers uncovered several scenes of antics from the animators that supposedly featured brief nudity of the Jessica Rabbit character. While undetectable when played at the usual rate of 24 film frames per second, the Laserdisc player allowed the viewer to advance frame - by - frame to uncover these visuals. Whether or not they were actually intended to depict the nudity of the character remains unknown. Many retailers said that within minutes of the Laserdisc debut, their entire inventory was sold out. The run was fueled by media reports about the controversy, including stories on CNN and various newspapers.
Another frequently debated scene includes one in which Baby Herman extends his middle finger as he passes under a woman 's dress and re-emerges with drool on his lip. Also, controversy exists over the scene where Daffy Duck and Donald Duck are playing a piano duel, and during his trademark ranting gibberish, it is claimed that Donald calls Daffy a "goddamn stupid nigger ''; however, this is a misinterpretation, with the line from the script being "doggone stubborn little --. ''
Gary K. Wolf, author of the novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit?, filed a lawsuit in 2001 against the Walt Disney Company. Wolf claimed he was owed royalties based on the value of "gross receipts '' and merchandising sales. In 2002, the trial court in the case ruled that these only referred to actual cash receipts Disney collected and denied Wolf 's claim. In its January 2004 ruling, the California Court of Appeal disagreed, finding that expert testimony introduced by Wolf regarding the customary use of "gross receipts '' in the entertainment business could support a broader reading of the term. The ruling vacated the trial court 's order in favor of Disney and remanded the case for further proceedings. In a March 2005 hearing, Wolf estimated he was owed $7 million. Disney 's attorneys not only disputed the claim, but also said Wolf actually owed Disney $500,000 -- $1 million because of an accounting error discovered in preparing for the lawsuit. Wolf won the decision in 2005, receiving between $180,000 and $400,000 in damages.
Spielberg discussed a sequel in 1989 with J.J. Abrams as writer and Zemeckis as producer. Abrams 's outline was eventually abandoned. Nat Mauldin was hired to write a prequel titled Roger Rabbit: The Toon Platoon, set in 1941. Similar to the previous film, Toon Platoon featured many cameo appearances by characters from the Golden Age of American animation. It began with Roger Rabbit 's early years, living on a farm in the midwestern United States. With human Ritchie Davenport, Roger travels west to seek his mother, in the process meeting Jessica Krupnick (his future wife), a struggling Hollywood actress. While Roger and Ritchie are enlisting in the Army, Jessica is kidnapped and forced to make pro-Nazi Germany broadcasts. Roger and Ritchie must save her by going into Nazi - occupied Europe accompanied by several other Toons in their Army platoon. After their triumph, Roger and Ritchie are given a Hollywood Boulevard parade, and Roger is finally reunited with his mother, and father: Bugs Bunny.
Mauldin later retitled his script Who Discovered Roger Rabbit. Spielberg left the project when deciding he could not satirize Nazis after directing Schindler 's List. Eisner commissioned a rewrite in 1997 with Sherri Stoner and Deanna Oliver. Although they kept Roger 's search for his mother, Stoner and Oliver replaced the WWII subplot with Roger 's inadvertent rise to stardom on Broadway and Hollywood. Disney was impressed and Alan Menken was hired to write five songs for the film and offered his services as executive producer. One of the songs, "This Only Happens in the Movies '', was recorded in 2008 on the debut album of Broadway actress Kerry Butler. Eric Goldberg was set to be the new animation director, and began to redesign Roger 's new character appearance.
Spielberg became busy establishing DreamWorks, while Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy decided to remain as producers. Test footage for Who Discovered Roger Rabbit was shot sometime in 1998 at the Disney animation unit in Lake Buena Vista, Florida; the results were a mix of CGI, traditional animation, and live - action that did not please Disney. A second test had the Toons completely converted to CGI; but this was dropped as the film 's projected budget would escalate past $100 million. Eisner felt it was best to cancel the film. In March 2003, producer Don Hahn was doubtful about a sequel being made, arguing that public tastes had changed since the 1990s with the rise of computer animation. "There was something very special about that time when animation was not as much in the forefront as it is now. ''
In December 2007, Marshall stated that he was still "open '' to the idea, and in April 2009, Zemeckis revealed he was still interested. According to a 2009 MTV News story, Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman were writing a new script for the project, and the animated characters would be in traditional two - dimensional, while the rest would be in motion capture. However, in 2010, Zemeckis said that the sequel would remain hand - drawn animated and live - action sequences will be filmed, just like in the original film, but the lighting effects on the cartoon characters and some of the props that the Toons handle will be done digitally. Also in 2010, Don Hahn, who was the film 's original associate producer, confirmed the sequel 's development in an interview with Empire. He stated, "Yeah, I could n't possibly comment. I deny completely, but yeah... if you 're a fan, pretty soon you 're going to be very, very, very happy. '' In 2010, Bob Hoskins stated he was interested in the project, reprising his role as Eddie Valiant. However, he retired from acting in 2012 after being diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease a year earlier, and died from complications in 2014. Marshall has confirmed that the film is a prequel, similar to earlier drafts, and that the writing was almost complete. During an interview at the premiere of Flight, Zemeckis stated that the sequel was still possible, despite Hoskins ' absence, and the script for the sequel was sent to Disney for approval from studio executives.
In February 2013, Gary K. Wolf, writer of the original novel, said Erik Von Wodtke and he were working on a development proposal for an animated Disney buddy comedy starring Mickey Mouse and Roger Rabbit called The Stooge, based on the 1952 film of the same name. The proposed film is set to a prequel, taking place five years before Who Framed Roger Rabbit and part of the story is about how Roger met Jessica, his future wife. Wolf has stated the film is currently wending its way through Disney.
In November 2016, while promoting his latest film, Allied, in England, Zemeckis stated that the sequel "moves the story of Roger and Jessica Rabbit into the next few years of period film, moving on from film noir to the world of the 1950s ''. He also stated that the sequel would feature a "digital Bob Hoskins '', as Eddie Valiant would return in "ghost form ''. While the director went on to state that the script is "terrific '' and the film would still use hand - drawn animation, Zemeckis thinks that the chances of Disney green - lighting the sequel are "slim ''. As he explained more in detail, "The current corporate Disney culture (the current studio management of The Walt Disney Company) has no interest in Roger, and they certainly do n't like Jessica at all. ''
Roger Rabbit was the inspiration for a popular dance move in America in the early 1990s, called "the Roger Rabbit '' due to the floppy movements of the character in the film.
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the lovesong of j. alfred prufrock intro translation | The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock - wikipedia
"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '', commonly known as "Prufrock '', is the first professionally published poem by American - British poet T.S. Eliot (1888 -- 1965). Eliot began writing "Prufrock '' in February 1910, and it was first published in the June 1915 issue of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse at the instigation of Ezra Pound (1885 -- 1972). It was later printed as part of a twelve - poem pamphlet (or chapbook) titled Prufrock and Other Observations in 1917. At the time of its publication, Prufrock was considered outlandish, but is now seen as heralding a paradigmatic cultural shift from late 19th - century Romantic verse and Georgian lyrics to Modernism.
The poem 's structure was heavily influenced by Eliot 's extensive reading of Dante Alighieri and makes several references to the Bible and other literary works -- including William Shakespeare 's plays Henry IV Part II, Twelfth Night, and Hamlet, the poetry of seventeenth - century metaphysical poet John Donne, and the nineteenth - century French Symbolists. Eliot narrates the experience of Prufrock using the stream of consciousness technique developed by his fellow Modernist writers. The poem, described as a "drama of literary anguish '', is a dramatic interior monologue of an urban man, stricken with feelings of isolation and an incapability for decisive action that is said "to epitomize frustration and impotence of the modern individual '' and "represent thwarted desires and modern disillusionment ''.
Prufrock laments his physical and intellectual inertia, the lost opportunities in his life and lack of spiritual progress, and he is haunted by reminders of unattained carnal love. With visceral feelings of weariness, regret, embarrassment, longing, emasculation, sexual frustration, a sense of decay, and an awareness of mortality, "Prufrock '' has become one of the most recognised voices in modern literature.
Eliot wrote "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '' between February 1910 and July or August 1911. Shortly after arriving in England to attend Merton College, Oxford, Eliot was introduced to American expatriate poet Ezra Pound, who instantly deemed Eliot "worth watching '' and aided the start of Eliot 's career. Pound served as the overseas editor of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse and recommended to the magazine 's founder, Harriet Monroe, that Poetry publish "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '', extolling that Eliot and his work embodied a new and unique phenomenon among contemporary writers. Pound claimed that Eliot "has actually trained himself AND modernized himself ON HIS OWN. The rest of the promising young have done one or the other, but never both. '' The poem was first published by the magazine in its June 1915 issue.
In November 1915 "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '' -- along with Eliot 's poems "Portrait of a Lady, '' "The Boston Evening Transcript, '' "Hysteria, '' and "Miss Helen Slingsby '' -- was included in Catholic Anthology 1914 -- 1915 edited by Ezra Pound and printed by Elkin Mathews in London. In June 1917 The Egoist, a small publishing firm run by Dora Marsden, published a pamphlet entitled Prufrock and Other Observations (London), containing twelve poems by Eliot. "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '' was the first in the volume. Also Eliot was appointed assistant editor of the Egoist in June 1917.
According to Eliot biographer Lyndall Gordon, when Eliot was writing the first drafts of Prufrock in his notebook in 1910 -- 1911, he intentionally kept four pages blank in the middle section of the poem. According to the notebooks, now in the collection of the New York Public Library, Eliot finished the poem that was originally published sometime in July and August 1911 -- when he was 22 years old. In 1912, Eliot revised the poem and included a 38 - line section now called "Prufrock 's Pervigilium '' which was inserted on those blank pages, and intended as a middle section for the poem. However, Eliot removed this section soon after seeking the advice of his fellow Harvard acquaintance and poet Conrad Aiken. This section would not be included in the original publication of Eliot 's poem but was included when published posthumously in the 1996 collection of Eliot 's early, unpublished drafts in Inventions of the March Hare: Poems 1909 -- 1917. This Pervigilium section describes the "vigil '' of Prufrock through an evening and night described by one reviewer as an "erotic foray into the narrow streets of a social and emotional underworld '' that portray "in clammy detail Prufrock 's tramping ' through certain half - deserted streets ' and the context of his ' muttering retreats / Of restless nights in one - night cheap hotels. ' ''
Its reception in London can be gauged from an unsigned review in The Times Literary Supplement on 21 June 1917. "The fact that these things occurred to the mind of Mr. Eliot is surely of the very smallest importance to anyone, even to himself. They certainly have no relation to poetry. ''
The Harvard Vocarium at Harvard College recorded Eliot 's reading of Prufrock and other poems in 1947, as part of their ongoing series of poetry readings by their authors.
In his early drafts, Eliot gave the poem the subtitle "Prufrock among the Women. '' This subtitle was apparently discarded before publication. Eliot called the poem a "love song '' in reference to Rudyard Kipling 's poem "The Love Song of Har Dyal, '' first published in Kipling 's collection Plain Tales from the Hills (1888). In 1959, Eliot addressed a meeting of the Kipling Society and discussed the influence of Kipling upon his own poetry:
"Traces of Kipling appear in my own mature verse where no diligent scholarly sleuth has yet observed them, but which I am myself prepared to disclose. I once wrote a poem called "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '': I am convinced that it would never have been called "Love Song '' but for a title of Kipling 's that stuck obstinately in my head: "The Love Song of Har Dyal. ''
However, the origin of the name Prufrock is not certain, and Eliot never remarked on its origin other than to claim he was unsure of how he came upon the name. Many scholars and indeed Eliot himself have pointed towards the autobiographical elements in the character of Prufrock, and Eliot at the time of writing the poem was in the habit of rendering his name as "T. Stearns Eliot, '' very similar in form to that of J. Alfred Prufrock. It is suggested that the name "Prufrock '' came from Eliot 's youth in St. Louis, Missouri, where the Prufrock - Litton Company, a large furniture store, occupied one city block downtown at 420 -- 422 North Fourth Street. In a 1950 letter, Eliot said, "I did not have, at the time of writing the poem, and have not yet recovered, any recollection of having acquired this name in any way, but I think that it must be assumed that I did, and that the memory has been obliterated. ''
The draft version of the poem 's epigraph comes from Dante 's Purgatorio (XXVI, 147 -- 148):
He finally decided not to use this, but eventually used the quotation in the closing lines of his 1922 poem The Waste Land. The quotation that Eliot did choose comes from Dante also. Inferno (XXVII, 61 -- 66) reads:
In context, the epigraph refers to a meeting between Dante and Guido da Montefeltro, who was condemned to the eighth circle of Hell for providing counsel to Pope Boniface VIII, who wished to use Guido 's advice for a nefarious undertaking. This encounter follows Dante 's meeting with Ulysses, who himself is also condemned to the circle of the Fraudulent. According to Ron Banerjee, the epigraph serves to cast ironic light on Prufrock 's intent. Like Guido, Prufrock had never intended his story to be told, and so by quoting Guido, Eliot reveals his view of Prufrock 's love song.
Frederick Locke contends that Prufrock himself is suffering from multiple personalities of sorts, and that he embodies both Guido and Dante in the Inferno analogy. One is the storyteller; the other the listener who later reveals the story to the world. He posits, alternatively, that the role of Guido in the analogy is indeed filled by Prufrock, but that the role of Dante is filled by you, the reader, as in "Let us go then, you and I, '' (1). In that, the reader is granted the power to do as he pleases with Prufrock 's love song.
Because the poem is concerned primarily with the irregular musings of the narrator, it can be difficult to interpret. Laurence Perrine wrote, "(the poem) presents the apparently random thoughts going through a person 's head within a certain time interval, in which the transitional links are psychological rather than logical ''. This stylistic choice makes it difficult to determine exactly what is literal and what is symbolic. On the surface, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '' relays the thoughts of a sexually frustrated middle - aged man who wants to say something but is afraid to do so, and ultimately does not. The dispute, however, lies in to whom Prufrock is speaking, whether he is actually going anywhere, what he wants to say, and to what the various images refer.
The intended audience is not evident. Some believe that Prufrock is talking to another person or directly to the reader, while others believe Prufrock 's monologue is internal. Perrine writes "The ' you and I ' of the first line are divided parts of Prufrock 's own nature '', while Mutlu Konuk Blasing suggests that the "you and I '' refers to the relationship between the dilemmas of the character and the author. Similarly, critics dispute whether Prufrock is going somewhere during the course of the poem. In the first half of the poem, Prufrock uses various outdoor images (the sky, streets, cheap restaurants and hotels, fog), and talks about how there will be time for various things before "the taking of a toast and tea '', and "time to turn back and descend the stair. '' This has led many to believe that Prufrock is on his way to an afternoon tea, where he is preparing to ask this "overwhelming question ''. Others, however, believe that Prufrock is not physically going anywhere, but rather, is playing through it in his mind.
Perhaps the most significant dispute lies over the "overwhelming question '' that Prufrock is trying to ask. Many believe that Prufrock is trying to tell a woman of his romantic interest in her, pointing to the various images of women 's arms and clothing and the final few lines in which Prufrock laments that the mermaids will not sing to him. Others, however, believe that Prufrock is trying to express some deeper philosophical insight or disillusionment with society, but fears rejection, pointing to statements that express a disillusionment with society, such as "I have measured out my life with coffee spoons '' (line 51). Many believe that the poem is a criticism of Edwardian society and Prufrock 's dilemma represents the inability to live a meaningful existence in the modern world. McCoy and Harlan wrote "For many readers in the 1920s, Prufrock seemed to epitomize the frustration and impotence of the modern individual. He seemed to represent thwarted desires and modern disillusionment. ''
In general, Eliot uses imagery which is indicative of Prufrock 's character, representing ageing and decay. For example, "When the evening is spread out against the sky / Like a patient etherized upon a table '' (lines 2 -- 3), the "sawdust restaurants '' and "cheap hotels, '' the yellow fog, and the afternoon "Asleep... tired... or it malingers '' (line 77), are reminiscent of languor and decay, while Prufrock 's various concerns about his hair and teeth, as well as the mermaids "Combing the white hair of the waves blown back / When the wind blows the water white and black, '' show his concern over aging.
Like many of Eliot 's poems, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '' makes numerous allusions to other works, which are often symbolic themselves.
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where did the song humpty dumpty come from | Humpty Dumpty - wikipedia
Humpty Dumpty is a character in an English nursery rhyme, probably originally a riddle and one of the best known in the English - speaking world. He is typically portrayed as a personified egg, though he is not explicitly described as such. The first recorded versions of the rhyme date from late eighteenth - century England and the tune from 1870 in James William Elliott 's National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs. Its origins are obscure and several theories have been advanced to suggest original meanings.
The character of Humpty Dumpty was popularised in the United States by actor George L. Fox (1825 -- 77). As a character and literary allusion, he has appeared or been referred to in a large number of works of literature and popular culture, particularly English author Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking - Glass (1872), in which he was described as an egg. The rhyme is listed in the Roud Folk Song Index as No. 13026.
The rhyme is one of the best known in the English language. The common text from 1954 is:
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall. All the king 's horses and all the king 's men Could n't put Humpty together again.
It is a single quatrain with external rhymes that follow the pattern of AABB and with a trochaic metre, which is common in nursery rhymes. The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs (London, 1870), as outlined below:
The earliest known version was published in Samuel Arnold 's Juvenile Amusements in 1797 with the lyrics:
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall. Four - score Men and Four - score more, Could not make Humpty Dumpty where he was before.
William Carey Richards (1818 -- 1892) quoted the poem in 1843, commenting, "when we were five years old... the following parallel lines... were propounded as a riddle... Humpty - dumpty, reader, is the Dutch or something else for an egg ''.
A manuscript addition to a copy of Mother Goose 's Melody published in 1803 has the modern version with a different last line: "Could not set Humpty Dumpty up again ''. It was published in 1810 in a version of Gammer Gurton 's Garland as:
Humpty Dumpty sate (sic) on a wall, Humpti Dumpti (sic) had a great fall; Threescore men and threescore more, Cannot place Humpty dumpty as he was before.
In 1842, James Orchard Halliwell published a collected version as:
Humpty Dumpty lay in a beck. With all his sinews around his neck; Forty Doctors and forty wrights Could n't put Humpty Dumpty to rights!
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, in the 17th century the term "humpty dumpty '' referred to a drink of brandy boiled with ale. The riddle probably exploited, for misdirection, the fact that "humpty dumpty '' was also eighteenth - century reduplicative slang for a short and clumsy person. The riddle may depend upon the assumption that a clumsy person falling off a wall might not be irreparably damaged, whereas an egg would be. The rhyme is no longer posed as a riddle, since the answer is now so well known. Similar riddles have been recorded by folklorists in other languages, such as "Boule Boule '' in French, "Lille Trille '' in Swedish and Norwegian, and "Runtzelken - Puntzelken '' or "Humpelken - Pumpelken '' in different parts of Germany -- although none is as widely known as Humpty Dumpty is in English.
The rhyme does not explicitly state that the subject is an egg, possibly because it may have been originally posed as a riddle. There are also various theories of an original "Humpty Dumpty ''. One, advanced by Katherine Elwes Thomas in 1930 and adopted by Robert Ripley, posits that Humpty Dumpty is King Richard III of England, depicted as humpbacked in Tudor histories and particularly in Shakespeare 's play, and who was defeated, despite his armies, at Bosworth Field in 1485.
Punch in 1842 suggested jocularly that the rhyme was a metaphor for the downfall of Cardinal Wolsey; just as Wolsey was not buried in his intended tomb, so Humpty Dumpty was not buried in his shell.
Professor David Daube suggested in The Oxford Magazine of 16 February 1956 that Humpty Dumpty was a "tortoise '' siege engine, an armoured frame, used unsuccessfully to approach the walls of the Parliamentary held city of Gloucester in 1643 during the Siege of Gloucester in the English Civil War. This was on the basis of a contemporary account of the attack, but without evidence that the rhyme was connected. The theory was part of an anonymous series of articles on the origin of nursery rhymes and was widely acclaimed in academia, but it was derided by others as "ingenuity for ingenuity 's sake '' and declared to be a spoof. The link was nevertheless popularised by a children 's opera All the King 's Men by Richard Rodney Bennett, first performed in 1969.
From 1996, the website of the Colchester tourist board attributed the origin of the rhyme to a cannon recorded as used from the church of St Mary - at - the - Wall by the Royalist defenders in the siege of 1648. In 1648, Colchester was a walled town with a castle and several churches and was protected by the city wall. The story given was that a large cannon, which the website claimed was colloquially called Humpty Dumpty, was strategically placed on the wall. A shot from a Parliamentary cannon succeeded in damaging the wall beneath Humpty Dumpty which caused the cannon to tumble to the ground. The Royalists (or Cavaliers, "all the King 's men '') attempted to raise Humpty Dumpty on to another part of the wall, but the cannon was so heavy that "All the King 's horses and all the King 's men could n't put Humpty together again ''. Author Albert Jack claimed in his 2008 book Pop Goes the Weasel: The Secret Meanings of Nursery Rhymes that there were two other verses supporting this claim. Elsewhere, he claimed to have found them in an "old dusty library, (in) an even older book '', but did not state what the book was or where it was found. It has been pointed out that the two additional verses are not in the style of the seventeenth century or of the existing rhyme, and that they do not fit with the earliest printed versions of the rhyme, which do not mention horses and men.
Humpty Dumpty appears in Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking - Glass (1872). Alice 's remark that he is "exactly like an egg '' he finds "very provoking ''; Alice clarifies that she said he looks like an egg, not that he is one. They discuss semantics and pragmatics: Humpty Dumpty says, "my name means the shape I am ''; and later:
"I do n't know what you mean by ' glory, ' '' Alice said. Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. "Of course you do n't -- till I tell you. I meant ' there 's a nice knock - down argument for you! ' '' "But ' glory ' does n't mean ' a nice knock - down argument ', '' Alice objected. "When I use a word, '' Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone, "it means just what I choose it to mean -- neither more nor less. '' "The question is, '' said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many different things. '' "The question is, '' said Humpty Dumpty, "which is to be master -- that 's all. ''
Alice was too much puzzled to say anything, so after a minute Humpty Dumpty began again. "They 've a temper, some of them -- particularly verbs, they 're the proudest -- adjectives you can do anything with, but not verbs -- however, I can manage the whole lot! Impenetrability! That 's what I say! ''
This passage was used in Britain by Lord Atkin in his dissenting judgement in the seminal case Liversidge v. Anderson (1942), where he protested about the distortion of a statute by the majority of the House of Lords. It also became a popular citation in United States legal opinions, appearing in 250 judicial decisions in the Westlaw database as of 19 April 2008, including two Supreme Court cases (TVA v. Hill and Zschernig v. Miller).
It has been suggested by A.J. Larner that Carroll 's Humpty Dumpty had prosopagnosia on the basis of his description of his finding faces hard to recognise.
"The face is what one goes by, generally, '' Alice remarked in a thoughtful tone. "That 's just what I complain of, '' said Humpty Dumpty. "Your face is the same as everybody has -- the two eyes, -- '' (marking their places in the air with his thumb) "nose in the middle, mouth under. It 's always the same. Now if you had the two eyes on the same side of the nose, for instance -- or the mouth at the top -- that would be some help. ''
Humpty Dumpty has become a highly popular nursery rhyme character. American actor George L. Fox (1825 -- 77) helped to popularise the character in nineteenth - century stage productions of pantomime versions, music, and rhyme. The character is also a common literary allusion, particularly to refer to a person in an insecure position, something that would be difficult to reconstruct once broken, or a short and fat person. Humpty Dumpty has been used in a large range of literary works in addition to his appearance as a character in Through the Looking - Glass, including L. Frank Baum 's Mother Goose in Prose (1901), where the rhyming riddle is devised by the daughter of the king, having witnessed Humpty 's "death '' and her father 's soldiers ' efforts to save him. In Neil Gaiman 's early short story The Case of the Four and Twenty Blackbirds, the Humpty Dumpty story is turned into a film noir - style hardboiled crime story, involving other characters from popular nursery rhymes. Robert Rankin used Humpty Dumpty as one victim of a serial fairy - tale character murderer in The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse (2002). Jasper Fforde included Humpty Dumpty in his novels The Well of Lost Plots (2003) and The Big Over Easy (2005), which use him respectively as a ringleader of dissatisfied nursery rhyme characters threatening to strike and as the victim of a murder. Humpty Dumpty appears as a lead villain in the DreamWorks animation Puss in Boots (2011).
The 1925 song "I 'm Sitting on Top of the World '', most notably sung by Dean Martin, Doris Day and Bobby Darin, mentions Humpty Dumpty twice in its lyrics, saying "just like Humpty Dumpty, I 'm gon na fall ''.
The rhyme has also been used as a reference in more serious literary works, including as a recurring motif of the Fall of Man in James Joyce 's 1939 novel Finnegans Wake. Robert Penn Warren 's 1946 American novel All the King 's Men is the story of populist politician Willie Stark 's rise to the position of governor and eventual fall, based on the career of the corrupt Louisiana Senator Huey Long. It won the 1947 Pulitzer Prize and was twice made into a film in 1949 and 2006, the former winning the Academy Award for best motion picture. This was echoed in Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward 's book All the President 's Men, about the Watergate scandal, referring to the failure of the President 's staff to repair the damage once the scandal had leaked out. It was filmed as All the President 's Men in 1976, starring Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman. Similarly, Humpty Dumpty is referred to in Paul Auster 's 1985 novel City of Glass, when two characters discuss him as "the purest embodiment of the human condition '' and quote extensively from Through the Looking Glass. Luis d'Antin van Rooten 's 1967 book Mots d'Heures, a collection of homophonically translated poetry, includes a version of the rhyme in nonsensical French text, beginning "Un petit d'un petit, S'étonne aux Halles... ''.
It has also been used as a common motif in popular music, including Hank Thompson 's "Humpty Dumpty Heart '' (1948), The Monkees ' "All the King 's Horses '' (1966), Aretha Franklin 's "All the King 's Horses '' (1972), Tori Amos 's "Humpty Dumpty '' (1992), and Travis 's "The Humpty Dumpty Love Song '' (2001). In jazz, Ornette Coleman and Chick Corea wrote different compositions, both titled Humpty Dumpty. (In Corea 's case, however, it is a part of a concept album inspired by Lewis Carroll called The Mad Hatter, 1978).
In the Dolly Parton song Starting Over Again, it 's all the king 's horses and all the king 's men who ca n't put the divorced couple back together again. In an extra verse in one version of ABBA 's On and On and On, Humpty Dumpty is mentioned as being afraid of falling off the wall.
The Australian children 's television programme Play School, in the song Oomba Baroomba, says:
Humpty Dumpty sat up in bed, Eating yellow bananas. Where do you think he put the skins? Down his striped pyjamas!
TurboTax, a U.S. tax preparation software firm owned by Intuit, ran a Humpty Dumpty - inspired television commercial during Super Bowl LI. The ad depicted Humpty Dumpty in a hospital using a smartphone application to ask whether he could claim a tax deduction for medical expenses.
Humpty Dumpty has been used to demonstrate the second law of thermodynamics. The law describes a process known as entropy, a measure of the number of specific ways in which a system may be arranged, often taken to be a measure of "disorder ''. The higher the entropy, the higher the disorder. After his fall and subsequent shattering, the inability to put him together again is representative of this principle, as it would be highly unlikely (though not impossible) to return him to his earlier state of lower entropy, as the entropy of an isolated system never decreases.
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who determines whether the two organisms of a species will be exactly similar or not | Species problem - wikipedia
The species problem is the set of questions that arises when biologists attempt to define what a species is. Such a definition is called a species concept; there are at least 26 recognized species concepts. A species concept that works well for sexually reproducing organisms such as birds is useless for species that reproduce asexually, such as bacteria. The scientific study of the species problem has been called microtaxonomy.
One common, but sometimes difficult, question is how best to decide which species an organism belongs to, because reproductively isolated groups may not be readily recognizable, and cryptic species may be present. There is a continuum from reproductive isolation with no interbreeding, to panmixis, unlimited interbreeding. Populations can move forward or backwards along this continuum, at any point meeting the criteria for one or another species concept, and failing others.
Many of the debates on species touch on philosophical issues, such as nominalism and realism, and on issues of language and cognition.
The current meaning of the phrase "species problem '' is quite different from what Charles Darwin and others meant by it during the 19th and early 20th centuries. For Darwin, the species problem was the question of how new species arose. Darwin was however one of the first people to question how well - defined species are, given that they constantly change.
... I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species
The idea that one organism reproduces by giving birth to a similar organism, or producing seeds that grow to a similar organism, goes back to the earliest days of farming. While people tended to think of this as a relatively stable process, many thought that change was possible. The term species was just used as a term for a sort or kind of organism, until in 1686 John Ray introduced the biological concept that species were distinguished by always producing the same species, and this was fixed and permanent, though considerable variation was possible within a species. Carolus Linnaeus (1707 -- 1778) formalized the taxonomic rank of species, and devised the two part naming system of binomial nomenclature that we use today. However, this did not prevent disagreements on the best way to identify species.
The history of definitions of the term "species '' reveal that the seeds of the modern species debate were alive and growing long before Darwin.
"The traditional view, which was developed by Cain, Mayr and Hull in the mid-twentieth century, claims that until the ' Origin of species ' by Charles Darwin both philosophy and biology considered species as invariable natural kinds with essential features. This ' essentialism story ' was adopted by many authors, but questioned from the beginning by a minority... when Aristotle and the early naturalists wrote about the essences of species, they meant essential ' functions ', not essential ' properties '. Richards pointed out (Richard A. Richards, The Species Problem: A Philosophical Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 2010) that Linnaeus saw species as eternally fixed in his very first publication from 1735, but only a few years later he discovered hybridization as a modus for speciation.
Charles Darwin 's famous book On the Origin of Species (1859) offered an explanation as to how species evolve, given enough time. Although Darwin did not provide details on how species can split into two, he viewed speciation as a gradual process. If Darwin was correct, then, when new incipient species are forming, there must be a period of time when they are not yet distinct enough to be recognized as species. Darwin 's theory suggested that there was often not going to be an objective fact of the matter, on whether there were one or two species.
Darwin 's book triggered a crisis of uncertainty for some biologists over the objectivity of species, and some came to wonder whether individual species could be objectively real -- i.e. have an existence that is independent of the human observer.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Mendel 's theory of inheritance and Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection were joined in what was called the modern synthesis. This conjunction of theories also had a large impact on how biologists think about species. Edward Poulton anticipated many ideas on species that today are well accepted, and that were later more fully developed by Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr, two of the architects of the modern synthesis. Dobzhansky 's 1937 book articulated the genetic processes that occur when incipient species are beginning to diverge. In particular, Dobzhansky described the critical role, for the formation of new species, of the evolution of reproductive isolation.
Ernst Mayr 's 1942 book was a turning point for the species problem. In it, he wrote about how different investigators approach species identification, and he characterized their approaches as species concepts. He argued for what came to be called the Biological Species Concept (BSC), that a species consists of populations of organisms that can reproduce with one another and that are reproductively isolated from other populations, though he was not the first to define "species '' on the basis of reproductive compatibility. For example, Mayr discusses how Buffon proposed this kind of definition of "species '' in 1753. Theodosius Dobzhansky was a contemporary of Mayr and the author of a classic book about the evolutionary origins of reproductive barriers between species, published a few years before Mayr 's. Many biologists credit Dobzhansky and Mayr jointly for emphasizing reproductive isolation.
After Mayr 's book, some two dozen species concepts were introduced. Some, such as the Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC), were designed to be more useful than the BSC for describing species. Many authors have professed to "solve '' or "dissolve '' the species problem. Some have argued that the species problem is too multidimensional to be "solved '' by any one concept. Since the 1990s, others have argued that concepts intended to help describe species have not helped to resolve the species problem. Although Mayr promoted the BSC for use in systematics, some systematists have criticized it as not operational. For others, the BSC is the preferred definition of species. Many geneticists who work on speciation prefer the BSC because it emphasizes the role of reproductive isolation. It has been argued that the BSC is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection.
Realism is the philosophical position that species are real mind - independent entities, natural kinds. Mayr, a proponent of realism, attempted to demonstrate species exist as natural, extra-mental categories. He showed for example that the New Guinean tribesman classify 136 species of birds, which Western ornithologists came to independently recognize:
"I have always thought that there is no more devastating refutation of the nominalistic claims than the above mentioned fact that primitive natives in New Guinea, with a Stone Age culture, recognize as species exactly the same entities of nature as western taxonomists. If species were something purely arbitrary, it would be totally improbable for representatives of two drastically different cultures to arrive at the identical species delimitations. ''
Mayr 's argument however has been criticized:
"The fact that independently observing humans see much the same species in nature does not show that species are real rather than nominal categories. The most it shows is that all human brains are wired up with a similar perceptual cluster statistic (Ridley, 1993). On this view we (humans) might have been ' wired ' differently and different species might now be wired differently from us, so that no one wiring can be said to be ' true ' or veridical. ''
Another position of realism is that natural kinds are demarcated by the world itself by having a unique property that is shared by all the members of a species, and none outside the group. In other words, a natural kind possesses an essential or intrinsic feature ("essence '') that is self - individuating and non-arbitrary. This notion has been heavily criticized as essentialist, but modern realists have argued that while biological natural kinds have essences, these need not be fixed and are prone to change through speciation. According to Mayr (1957) reproductive isolation or interbreeding "supplies an objective yardstick, a completely non-arbitrary criterion '' and "describing a presence or absence relationship makes this species concept non-arbitrary ''. The BSC defines species as "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups ''. From this perspective, each species is based on a property (reproductive isolation) that is shared by all the organisms in the species that objectively distinguishes them.
Some philosophical variants of nominalism propose that species are just names that people have assigned to groups of creatures but where the lines between species get drawn does not reflect any fundamental underlying biological cut - off point. In this view, the kinds of things that people have given names to, do not reflect any underlying reality. It then follows that species do not exist outside the mind, because species are just named abstractions. If species are not real, then it would not be sensible to talk about "the origin of a species '' or the "evolution of a species ''. As recently at least as the 1950s, some authors adopted this view and wrote of species as not being real.
A counterpoint to the nominalist views in regard to species, was raised by Michael Ghiselin who argued that an individual species is not a type, but rather an actual individual, an actual entity. This idea comes from thinking of a species as an evolving dynamic population. If viewed as an entity, a species would exist regardless of whether or not people have observed it and whether or not it has been given a name.
A popular alternative view, pragmatism, espoused by philosophers such as Philip Kitcher and John Dupre states while species do not exist in the sense of natural kinds, they are conceptually real and exist for convenience and for practical applications. For example, regardless of which definition of species one uses, one can still quantitatively compare species diversity across regions or decades, as long as the definition is held constant within a study. This has practical importance in advancing biodiversity science and environmental science.
The nominalist critique of the view that kinds of things exist, raises for consideration the role that humans play in the species problem. For example, Haldane suggested that species are just mental abstractions.
Several authors have noted the similarity between "species '', as a word of ambiguous meaning, and points made by Wittgenstein on family resemblance concepts and the indeterminacy of language.
Jody Hey described the species problem as a result of two conflicting motivations by biologists:
Under the first view, species appear to us as typical natural kinds, but when biologists turn to understand species evolutionarily they are revealed as changeable and without sharp boundaries. Hey argued that it is unrealistic to expect that one definition of "species '' is going to serve the need for categorization and still reflect the changeable realities of evolving species.
Many approaches to the species problem have attempted to develop one single common conception of what species are and of how they should be identified. It is thought that, if such a monistic description of species could be developed and agreed upon, then the species problem would be solved. In contrast, some authors have argued for pluralism, claiming that biologists can not have just one shared concept of species, and that they should accept multiple, seemingly incompatible ideas about species. David Hull however argued that pluralist proposals were unlikely to actually solve the species problem.
"No term is more difficult to define than "species, '' and on no point are zoologists more divided than as to what should be understood by this word. '' Nicholson (1872).
"Of late, the futility of attempts to find a universally valid criterion for distinguishing species has come to be fairly generally, if reluctantly, recognized '' Dobzhansky (1937).
"The concept of a species is a concession to our linguistic habits and neurological mechanisms '' Haldane (1956).
"The species problem is the long - standing failure of biologists to agree on how we should identify species and how we should define the word ' species '. '' Hey (2001).
"First, the species problem is not primarily an empirical one, but it is rather fraught with philosophical questions that require -- but can not be settled by -- empirical evidence. '' Pigliucci (2003).
"An important aspect of any species definition whether in neontology or palaeontology is that any statement that particular individuals (or fragmentary specimens) belong to a certain species is an hypothesis (not a fact) '' Bonde (1977).
"We show that although discrete phenotypic clusters exist in most (plant) genera (> 80 %), the correspondence of taxonomic species to these clusters is poor (< 60 %) and no different between plants and animals... Contrary to conventional wisdom, plant species are more likely than animal species to represent reproductively independent lineages. '' Rieseberg et al. (2006).
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how many games have chelsea got left this season | 2014 -- 15 Chelsea FC. Season - wikipedia
The 2014 -- 15 season was Chelsea Football Club 's 101st competitive season, 26th consecutive season in the top flight of English football, 23rd consecutive season in the Premier League, and 109th year in existence as a football club. Chelsea also participated in the UEFA Champions League this season after qualified directly for the group stage by finishing third in the last season. The club secured its fourth Premier League title by beating Crystal Palace on 3 May 2015.
Midfielder and all - time top scorer Frank Lampard left the Blues after 13 trophy - laden years, having played 648 games and scoring 211 goals. During his Chelsea career, he won 13 trophies, including three Premier Leagues, four FA Cups, two League Cups, one Europa League and one Champions League.
Chelsea announced the signing of former Arsenal midfielder Cesc Fàbregas from Barcelona for £ 27 million. He was given the number 4 shirt vacated after the departure of David Luiz to Paris Saint - Germain on a five - year contract. David Luiz 's transfer was completed just a day after the signing of Fàbregas and the Brazilian left the Blues having played 143 games and scoring 12 goals.
On 1 July, Ashley Cole departed Chelsea after eight years with the club. He left after winning one Premier League, four FA Cups, one League Cup and one Champions League. Along with Cole leaving Stamford Bridge, Samuel Eto'o, Henrique Hilário and Sam Hutchinson all left as well.
On the same day, Mark Schwarzer signed a new one - year extension. Chelsea also announced that they agreed a fee with Atlético Madrid for striker Diego Costa, thought to be in the region of £ 32 million, and eventually signed him on 15 July.
On 16 July, Chelsea announced that they had agreed a fee with Atlético Madrid for left - back Filipe Luís, thought to be for about £ 16 million, subject to a medical and agreeing personal terms, whilst Beşiktaş announced that they had agreed a deal to sign Demba Ba from the Blues for a reported £ 4.7 million. Ba left the Blues having played 51 games and scoring 14 goals. The same day, a youthful Chelsea team comfortably defeated League 2 side Wycombe Wanderers 5 -- 0 in their first pre-season friendly at Adams Park in Buckinghamshire.
On 18 July, Filipe Luís officially became a Chelsea player, being given the shirt number 5, vacated by Michael Essien who had worn the number from 2005 until his departure in January 2014. It was also confirmed that his teammate at Atlético Madrid and now Chelsea, Diego Costa, would take the number 19 shirt, vacated by Demba Ba, who had held the number since Paulo Ferreira left the club in the summer of 2013. Also that day, another very youthful Chelsea team narrowly defeated another League 2 side Wimbledon in their second pre-season friendly at Kingsmeadow in southwest London, winning the match 3 -- 2 after being two goals down at half - time; the comeback aided by a few senior players brought on for the second - half. The next day, Chelsea announced that Filipe Luís will get the shirt number 3 while the shirt number 5 will be given to 19 - year - old French defender Kurt Zouma.
Chelsea Didier Drogba re-signed for Chelsea from Galatasaray for free on a one - year deal. Drogba 's last kick for the Blues was the final penalty in the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final, which won the Champions League for Chelsea for the first time. In the new season, Drogba will wear the number 15 shirt; his former number 11 shirt had been given to Oscar. Drogba, however, reclaimed his former number 11 after Oscar was handed number 8, last worn by Frank Lampard.
Romelu Lukaku departs the Blues for £ 28 million to Everton, leaving after playing 12 games for Chelsea and scoring zero goals, while Ryan Bertrand was sent on a season - long loan to Southampton, his sixth loan spell for the Blues.
Defensive midfielder Oriol Romeu signed on a season long loan for Bundesliga club VfB Stuttgart. Chelsea travelled to Istanbul to take on Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş in a small three - team tournament. Chelsea beat Fenerbahçe 2 -- 0 with goals from Diego Costa and Branislav Ivanović. The Blues, however, then lost to Beşiktaş 1 -- 0, also opposing former Blue, Demba Ba.
Chelsea began their 2014 -- 15 Premier League campaign with a 1 -- 3 victory against Burnley on 18 August at Turf Moor. Chelsea surrendered the first goal in the 13th minute, but three minutes later, Diego Costa smashed home a close - range shot to level the score. A pass from Cesc Fàbregas then set up an André Schürrle goal to break the deadlock, and Branislav Ivanović provided the final goal of the match from a corner in the 34th minute. This match marked the first competitive action for new signings Costa, Fàbregas and Thibaut Courtois, who started in goal after a three - year loan spell at Atlético Madrid. Didier Drogba also made his return appearance to the Chelsea squad, coming off the bench in the second - half.
Chelsea won their first competitive home match with a 2 -- 0 victory against Leicester City on 24 August at Stamford Bridge. Diego Costa scored his second goal in two matches followed by Eden Hazard 's first goal of the season. Courtois claimed his first clean sheet of his Chelsea career.
On 29 August, Fernando Torres signed a two - year loan deal with Milan. Chelsea 's next game was a nine - goal thriller away against Everton, a game which Chelsea won 3 -- 6, with Diego Costa scoring a brace.
On 31 August, Loïc Rémy transferred to Chelsea from Queens Park Rangers for £ 10.5 million on a four - year deal.
Position at the end of August
On transfer deadline day, Chelsea sent three players on loan -- Jamal Blackman joined Patrick Bamford on loan at Middlesbrough, Marco van Ginkel signed on a year - long loan at Milan and Nathaniel Chalobah joined Premier League club Burnley on a four - year contract. Chelsea have currently sent 26 players out on loan, the most in the Premier League. After the international break, Diego Costa was named Player of the Month for August after scoring four goals in three games and sending Chelsea to the top of the table.
On 13 September, Chelsea played their second game of the season at Stamford Bridge against Swansea City. Chelsea won the game 4 -- 2 with Costa scoring his first hat - trick for Chelsea and Loïc Rémy scoring on his debut.
Chelsea began their 2014 -- 15 Champions League with a 1 -- 1 draw at home to Schalke 04. Fàbregas grabbed his first Chelsea goal but it was cancelled out by Klaas - Jan Huntelaar, who scored with 28 minutes left to secure a point for Schalke. Chelsea dropped their first points of the season. Chelsea dropped their first points of the 2014 -- 15 Premier League season as they drew 1 -- 1 to reigning champions Manchester City at the Etihad Stadium. In a close fought - encounter, Pablo Zabaleta was sent off after 66 minutes, giving Chelsea the advantage and allowing André Schürrle to giving the Blues the lead. With only five minutes to go, Chelsea looked like they were going to stretch their winning run to five games, however former Blues vice-captain Frank Lampard scored. Despite the draw, Chelsea still remain three points clear at the top of the table on 13 points.
In Chelsea 's next match, they knocked Bolton Wanderers out of the League Cup Third Round after winning 2 -- 1 thanks to a debut goal from defender Kurt Zouma and a strike from Oscar. The result means Chelsea will face Shrewsbury Town in the League Cup Fourth Round. Chelsea 's last game in the league for September came against Aston Villa, a game which was won 3 -- 0, meaning they finished September top of the table. It was announced that Chelsea had enquired about temporarily relocating to Twickenham Stadium whilst redeveloping Stamford Bridge. The final game of the month was in the Champions League against Sporting CP in Portugal. Nemanja Matić scored the only goal of the game, giving Chelsea a 0 -- 1 win and leaving them top of their group
Position at the end of September
Chelsea began October with a derby match and a 2 -- 0 victory over local rivals Arsenal. A first half penalty by Eden Hazard and the ninth goal of the season for Diego Costa sent the Blues five points clear at the top of the table ahead of the international break.
Chelsea preserved their five - point lead at the top as they defeated Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park, 1 -- 2. Three days later, they continued their good form into the Champions League defeating Maribor 6 -- 0 at Stamford Bridge. Goals from Loïc Rémy, Didier Drogba, John Terry an own goal and two from Eden Hazard sent Chelsea on their way to secure a record Champions League win, which also maintains their unbeaten start in all competitions this season. On 22 October, Chelsea 's chief executive Ron Gourlay left the club, having held the position since 2009.
Chelsea drew for the second time in the league season away to Manchester United. Didier Drogba 's powerful header gave the Blues the lead, but a last minute equaliser from Robin van Persie meant the sides shared the points. The result renders Chelsea four points clear of second - placed Southampton at the end of October.
Diego Costa, Thibaut Courtois and Eden Hazard are among the nominees for the 2014 FIFA Ballon d'Or, while José Mourinho is nominated for the 2014 FIFA World Coach of the Year.
In the Blues final game in October, they edged past League Two side Shrewsbury Town in the Football League Cup thanks to a third goal in three games from Didier Drogba and an own goal. In the next round, they will face Derby Couty away.
Position at the end of October
Chelsea 's first game of the month came against local rivals Queens Park Rangers, a brilliant first half goal from Oscar and a second - half penalty from Eden Hazard gave Chelsea a 2 -- 1 win. Four days later, Chelsea had to come from behind to draw away to Maribor, with Nemanja Matić scoring 20 minutes from full - time to keep Chelsea top of the group.
Chelsea 's unbeaten start continued as they defeated Liverpool 1 -- 2 at Anfield. Emre Can gave the Reds the lead before goals from Gary Cahill and Diego Costa sent the Blues seven points clear before the international break.
A dominating performance against West Bromwich Albion sent kept Chelsea seven points clear at the top of the table, thanks to goals from Diego Costa and Eden Hazard. The Blues secured qualification for the Second Round of the Champions League after hammering Schalke 04 0 -- 5 at the Veltins - Arena. Chelsea 's final game in November was a 0 -- 0 stalemate away at Sunderland. Despite Chelsea failing to score for the first time in the season, they went six points clear of defending champions Manchester City at November 's end.
Position at the end of November
Chelsea bounced back from their 0 -- 0 draw to Sunderland to defeat London rivals Tottenham Hotspur 3 -- 0 at Stamford Bridge. Goals from Eden Hazard and Didier Drogba, in for the suspended Diego Costa, gave Chelsea a first half lead, before a goal from Loïc Rémy settled the game.
Chelsea suffered their first defeat of the 2014 -- 15 season after losing 2 -- 1 to Newcastle United at St James ' Park. The Blues fell behind to two Papiss Cissé goals and Didier Drogba pulled one back, but Mourinho 's side failed to secure the equaliser as Manchester City closed the gap at the top to three points.
With the defeat to Newcastle behind them, the Blues defeated Sporting CP 3 -- 1 at Stamford Bridge. Goals from Cesc Fàbregas, André Schürrle and John Obi Mikel sent Chelsea through to the next round as group winners. The Blues bounced back in the Premier League to regain a three - point advantage over Manchester City after dispatching Hull City 2 -- 0 at Stamford Bridge with goals from Eden Hazard and Diego Costa.
Paris Saint - Germain will face Chelsea in the Champions League Round of 16. The first leg will be held in Paris on Tuesday 17 February, and the second leg will be at Stamford Bridge on Wednesday 11 March. They faced each other in the 2013 -- 14 Quarter Finals, where the Blues went through on away goals thanks to an 87th - minute goal from Demba Ba.
In the League Cup Quarter Finals Chelsea progressed by beating Derby County 3 -- 1 at the iPro Stadium, where they will face 2012 winners Liverpool. A superb victory against Stoke City means the Blues will be top at Christmas, goals from captain John Terry and Cesc Fàbregas gave José Mourinho a win against adversary Mark Hughes.
John Terry scored for the second successive game as the Blues continued their good form as they defeated West Ham United 2 -- 0 at Stamford Bridge. The Blues finish 2014 with a 1 -- 1 draw away to Southampton, Sadio Mané 's early goal was cancelled out by Eden Hazard and despite the Blues persistence they could n't break down a resilient Saints. Yet despite the draw Chelsea regain a four - point lead over Manchester City as they slip up at home to Burnley.
Position at the end of December
Chelsea started 2015 in disappointing fashion, falling to a 5 -- 3 away defeat to Tottenham Hotspur. Five goals was the most José Mourinho has conceded as a manager in the Premier League, but despite the loss, the Blues remain top of the league on alphabetical order.
Loanees Patrick Bamford and Alex Davey have their loan deals extended to the end of the season, to Middlesbrough and Scunthorpe United respectively, while John Swift returns from his unsuccessful loan spell to Rotherham United and subsequently sent to Swindon Town. Striker Alex Kiwomya was also sent to Barnsley on a one - month loan.
Chelsea got their FA Cup campaign to a great start with a 3 -- 0 victory over Watford, with goals from Willian, Loïc Rémy and Kurt Zouma. Despite a superb first - half performance from Newcastle United and in particular Rémy Cabella, the Blues ran out 2 -- 0 winners after goals from Oscar and Diego Costa.
José Mourinho recorded his biggest Premier League away win as Chelsea manager as the Blues hammered Swansea City 5 -- 0, thanks to two doubles from Diego Costa, Oscar and a goal from André Schürrle. A week later, Chelsea threw away a two - goal lead to lose to League One side Bradford City in the FA Cup Fourth Round.
Chelsea progressed to the League Cup Final after defeating Liverpool on aggregate 2 -- 1 in the Semi-finals. An early penalty from Eden Hazard was cancelled out by a Raheem Sterling goal in the first leg, leaving the game 1 -- 1 heading into the second leg at Stamford Bridge. The second leg finished 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes before a Branislav Ivanović header after 94 minutes sent the Blues to the League Cup Final at Wembley, where they will face Tottenham.
Striker Diego Costa is banned for a stamp on Liverpool midfielder Emre Can, meaning he will miss games against Manchester City, Aston Villa and Everton.
Chelsea finished January with a 1 -- 1 draw at Stamford Bridge with second place Manchester City. The Blues took the lead through Loïc Rémy before David Silva equalised to prevent the lead at the top increasing to eight points.
Position at the end of January
Fiorentina winger Juan Cuadrado signs for Chelsea for an initial fee of £ 23.3 million. Cuadrado played a vital role in Colombia 's run to the World Cup Quarter - finals. André Schürrle moves to Wolfsburg on a £ 22 million deal, having played 65 games for Chelsea and scoring 14 goals, including vital goals against Paris Saint - Germain and Manchester City. Additionally, left back Ryan Bertrand made the permanent move to Southampton for £ 10 million after having spent the first half of the season on loan at the club.
Chelsea moved seven points clear of second - placed Manchester City after a hard - fought win over Aston Villa at Villa Park. The Blues then won 0 -- 1 for the first time in all competitions after a late goal from Willian gave Chelsea a victory over Everton to keep the lead their lead at the top of the table at seven points.
Eden Hazard signed a new five - and - a-half - year deal with Chelsea, keeping him at the club until 2020. He has played 147 games a scored 44 goals while also winning the 2012 -- 13 UEFA Europa League with the Blues.
Edinson Cavani 's equaliser in the 54th minute denied Chelsea victory against PSG in the first leg of the Champions League round of 16. Branislav Ivanović gave the Blues the lead and looked set to give them victory at the Parc des Princes, but Edinson Cavani equalised, and it could have been worse for Chelsea yet Thibaut Courtois made a series of top saves to keep the Blues in the tie for the second leg at Stamford Bridge.
The Blues ' final game in February was mired in controversy, as official Martin Atkinson had a poor game at Stamford Bridge. Branislav Ivanović gave Chelsea the lead, but two stonewall penalties were not given in Chelsea 's favour, one for a handball and another for a blatant two - handed push on Diego Costa. Nemanja Matić was then sent off for retaliating to a challenge from Burnley 's Ashley Barnes before Ben Mee equalised in the 81st minute. Chelsea appealed the Matić 's red card, and The Football Association reduced the ban from three games to two.
Two Chelsea players left the club -- Lewis Baker leaves on loan to Milton Keynes Dons until the end of the season, while Eden Hazard 's younger brother Thorgan Hazard moves permanently to Borussia Mönchengladbach, signing a deal to keep him at the German club until 2020.
Position at the end of February
Chelsea 's first game in March won José Mourinho his first trophy on his return to Chelsea after the Blues defeated Spurs 2 -- 0 in the 2015 League Cup Final. Kurt Zouma replaced the suspended Nemanja Matić in defensive midfield, and Petr Čech replaced Thibaut Courtois in goal. A goal from captain John Terry just before half - time sent Chelsea on their way and a Diego Costa deflected effort, originally credited as a Kyle Walker own goal, gave the Blues the win. Credit to Costa was later confirmed on the official match scorecard on the Capital One Cup 's website. Mourinho 's win was his third Football League Cup and Chelsea 's fifth overall; this win was also Petr Čech, Didier Drogba and John Terry 's third win as well. It was Chelsea 's first domestic cup since the 2011 -- 12 FA Cup and Chelsea 's first major trophy in two years. The win also means that Chelsea will qualify for the 2015 - 16 UEFA Europa League Third qualifying round.
An Eden Hazard header in the first - half gave the Blues victory over London rivals West Ham. The win keeps the gap at the top at five points over Manchester City, with Chelsea having a game in hand.
Chelsea produced their worst performance of the season in arguably their most important game of the season. Ten - man PSG knocked out the Blues on away goals, and despite the fact that star forward Zlatan Ibrahimović was sent off after only 30 minutes, and Chelsea could not find a breakthrough with over 60 minutes with the man advantage. Goals from Gary Cahill and Eden Hazard looked to send the disappointing Blues through, but former Chelsea defender David Luiz scored in normal time and Thiago Silva scored in extra time to condemn Chelsea to defeat.
The Blues disappointing form continued as they drew 1 -- 1 to Southampton at Stamford Bridge. Despite the draw, Chelsea extended their lead at the top to six points due to Manchester City 's slip at Burnley. Chelsea rounded off March with a hard fought 3 -- 2 win over Hull City, early goals from Costa and Hazard sent the Blues on their way before two goals in the space of a minute sent Hull City level at the break. Costa went off with an injury after 75 minutes and his replacement Loïc Rémy scored moments later to send Chelsea six points clear with a game in hand.
Club captain John Terry signed a new, one - year deal with the Blues, keeping him at the club until June 2016. Playing 650 times scoring 59 goals while also lifting a record 15 trophies, he is the most successful captain in the club 's history.
Position at the end of March
The Blues started April with a hard fought 2 -- 1 home win against Stoke City. A first half penalty from Eden Hazard sent Chelsea on their way before Charlie Adam scored from 65 yards to equalise, yet for the second game, Loïc Rémy netted a second - half winner. A week later, Chelsea battled to a 0 -- 1 win at QPR, Fàbregas scoring with the Blues ' only shot on target in the 88th minute to send them seven points clear of second - place Arsenal.
The Chelsea youth team win the second - ever 2014 -- 15 UEFA Youth League, defeating Shakhtar Donetsk 3 -- 2 in the final. Dominic Solanke finished as the competitions top scorer with 12 goals.
Hazard and Costa were then nominated for the PFA Players ' Player of the Year, while Thibaut Courtois and Hazard are also nominated for the PFA Young Player of the Year, an accolade which Hazard received in the previous season; he has now been nominated in the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year for the past three seasons.
A 1 -- 0 home win over Manchester United extended the Blues lead at the top of the table to ten points. Hazard notched the only goal of the game in the 38th minute, after good work from Fàbregas and Oscar. Despite Manchester United having 70 percent of the ball 's possession, they rarely troubled Courtois ' goal and the Blues held resolute to record a 13th win in 16 games at Stamford Bridge.
Chelsea have a club - record six players named in the 2014 -- 15 PFA Team of the Year. Defenders Branislav Ivanović, John Terry and Gary Cahill, and Eden Hazard, Nemanja Matić and Diego Costa were all included, the latter two both for the first time. Ivanović and Cahill have both been named once before, Terry receives the honour for the fourth time and Hazard has his third consecutive nomination. Later that evening, the Belgian also won the PFA Player of the Year award.
Arsenal faced Chelsea in a match at the top of the table on 26 April. The match finished a 0 -- 0 draw Chelsea and the Blues regained their ten - point lead at the top of the table.
Following their victory in the 2014 -- 15 UEFA Youth League, Chelsea Youth Team record a 5 -- 2 aggregate victory over the Manchester City Elite Development Squad in the 2014 -- 15 FA Youth Cup Final. The young Blues win the FA Youth Cup for a second consecutive season thanks to goals from Tammy Abraham, Dominic Solanke and Isaiah Brown over two legs.
The Blues round off April with a 3 -- 1 away win over Leicester City. Despite conceding first, goals from Didier Drogba, John Terry and Ramires sent Chelsea 13 points clear at the top of the table, guaranteeing them a spot in 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League group stage.
Position at the end of April
Chelsea secure their fourth Premier League trophy and their fifth top division trophy overall, after a 1 -- 0 victory over Crystal Palace. An Eden Hazard goal was enough to send the Blues 16 points clear and unable to be caught. This was José Mourinho 's third Premier League and eight title overall. The title victory also put him level with Arsène Wenger in the second-most Premier League wins behind Alex Ferguson. Chelsea have spent 253 days at the top of the Premier League table to date this season, and only Chelsea in 2005 -- 06 (257 days) and Manchester United in 1993 -- 94 (262 days) have been at the top of the table for longer in a single campaign. Due to the Blues securing the title against Palace, Chelsea will spend 274 days at the top of the table and break a new record.
Mourinho continued his unbeaten run against Liverpool after drawing 1 -- 1. The Blues goal came from John Terry, who broke the record for the most goals by a defender in Premier League history. The Blues last away game of the year finishes as a 0 -- 3 defeat at West Brom. The game made no difference, however, to either of the teams ' league positions, yet it gave Mourinho the chance to assess youngsters Ruben Loftus - Cheek, Nathan Aké and Isaiah Brown in a league match. The Blues finish their season with a 3 -- 1 victory over Sunderland at Stamford Bridge. Despite falling behind to an early goal, Diego Costa and Loïc Rémy gave Chelsea all three points.
Chelsea finished the season as 2014 -- 15 Premier League champions and winners of the 2014 -- 15 Football League Cup. Mourinho 's side broke numerous records on their way to the title, most significantly remaining top of the Premier League for 274 and recording the fewest losses in all competitions. John Terry became the first player since Gary Pallister to play in every minute of the title - winning campaign. Striker Didier Drogba announces he is leaving the club for a second time. He leaves the Blues having scored a total of 164 goals in 381 appearances, and winning numerous trophies including the Premier League and UEFA Champions League.
Mourinho wins the Premier League Manager of the Season and LMA Manager of the Year awards, while Eden Hazard wins a triple award at the end of the season, winning the PFA Player of the Year, FWA Footballer of the Year and the Premier League Player of the Season award. And at the end of season club awards, Kurt Zouma wins the young player of the year, Oscar wins the goal of the year for his stunner with the outside of the box against QPR. Eden Hazard won a second consecutive Chelsea Player of the Year and also won the Players ' Player of the Year award.
Position at the end of May
Source: Chelsea F.C.
Source: Chelsea F.C.
Supplier: Adidas / Sponsor: Samsung
All of the new set of Chelsea home, away, third and goalkeeper kit was released.
Summer: £ 85,300,000
Winter: £ 23,300,000
Total: £ 108,600,000
Summer: £ 75,200,000
Winter: £ 37,585,000
Total: £ 112,785,000
Summer: £ 10,100,000
Winter: £ 14,285,000
Total: £ 4,185,000
Last updated: 24 May 2015 Source: Competitions
Last updated: 10 May 2015. Source: Premier League
Last updated: 24 May 2015. Source: Statto.com Ground: A = Away; H = Home. Result: D = Draw; L = Loss; W = Win; P = Postponed.
The fixtures for the 2014 -- 15 season were announced on 18 June 2014 at 9am.
Last updated: 30 May 2015. Source: Chelsea F.C.
Last updated: 24 May 2015. Source: BBC Sport
The list is sorted by shirt number when total goals are equal.
Last updated: 24 May 2015. Source: Chelsea F.C.
The list is sorted by shirt number when total appearances are equal.
Last updated: 24 May 2015. Source: Chelsea F.C.
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how many branches of hdfc bank in punjab | HDFC Bank - Wikipedia
HDFC (Housing Development Financial Corporation) Bank Limited is an Indian banking and financial services company headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra. It has 84,325 employees and has a presence in Bahrain, Hong Kong and Dubai. HDFC Bank is India 's largest private sector lender by assets. It is the largest bank in India by market capitalization as of February 2016. It was ranked 69th in 2016 BrandZ Top 100 Most Valuable Global Brands.
In 1994 HDFC Bank was incorporated, with its registered office in Mumbai, India. Its first corporate office and a full service branch at Sandoz House, Worli were inaugurated by the then Union Finance Minister, Manmohan Singh.
As of June 30, 2017, the bank 's distribution network was at 4,715 branches and 12,260 ATMs across 2,657 cities and towns. The bank also installed 4.30 Lacs POS terminals and issued 235.7 Lacs debit cards and 85.4 Lacs credit card in FY 2017.
HDFC Bank provides a number of products and services including wholesale banking, retail banking, treasury, auto loans, two wheeler loans, personal loans, loans against property and credit cards.
The latest entry in the league is ' Project AI ', under which HDFC Bank, over the next few weeks, would deploy robots at select bank branches. These robots will offer options such as cash withdrawal or deposit, forex, fixed deposits and demat services displaying on a screen to customers.
HDFC Bank merged with Times Bank in February 2000. This was the first merger of two private banks in the New Generation private sector banks category. In 2008, Centurion Bank was acquired by HDFC Bank. HDFC Bank Board approved the acquisition of CBoP for 95.1 billion INR in one of the largest mergers in the financial sector in India.
The equity shares of HDFC Bank are listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange and the National Stock Exchange of India. Its American Depository Shares are listed on NYSE and the global depository receipt are listed on the Luxembourg Stock Exchange where two GDRs represent one equity share of HDFC Bank.
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who was president during the annexation of texas | Texas annexation - wikipedia
The Texas Annexation was the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States of America, which was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845.
The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2, 1836. At the time the vast majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States. The leadership of both major U.S. political parties, the Democrats and the Whigs, opposed the introduction of Texas, a vast slave - holding region, into the volatile political climate of the pro - and anti-slavery sectional controversies in Congress. Moreover, they wished to avoid a war with Mexico, whose government refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province. With Texas 's economic fortunes declining by the early 1840s, the President of the Texas Republic, Sam Houston, arranged talks with Mexico to explore the possibility of securing official recognition of independence, with the United Kingdom mediating.
In 1843, U.S. President John Tyler, then unaligned with any political party, decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of popular support for another four years in office. His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas, which would undermine slavery in the United States. Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. When the documents were submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification, the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844. Pro-Texas - annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party 's convention in May 1844. In alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues, they secured the nomination of James K. Polk, who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform.
In June 1844, the Senate, with its Whig majority, soundly rejected the Tyler -- Texas treaty. The pro-annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti-annexation Whig Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election. In December 1844, lame - duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house. The Democratic - dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro-slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty. The Senate narrowly passed a compromise version of the House bill (by the vote of the minority Democrats and several southern Whigs), designed to provide the incoming President - elect Polk the options of immediate annexation of Texas or new talks to revise the annexation terms of the House - amended bill.
On March 1, 1845, President Tyler signed the annexation bill, and on March 3 (his last day in office), he forwarded the House version to Texas, offering immediate annexation (which preempted Polk). When Polk took office the next day, he encouraged Texas to accept the Tyler offer. Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans. The bill was signed by Polk on December 29, 1845, accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union. Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 19, 1846. Following the annexation, relations between the United States and Mexico deteriorated due to an unresolved dispute over the border between Texas and Mexico, and the Mexican - American War broke out only a few months later.
First mapped by Spain in 1519, Texas was part of the vast Spanish empire seized by the Spanish Conquistadors from its indigenous people for over 300 years. When the Louisiana territory was acquired by the United States from France in 1803, many in the U.S. believed the new territory included parts or all of present - day Texas. The US - Spain border along the northern frontier of Texas took shape in the 1817 -- 1819 negotiations between Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and the Spanish ambassador to the United States, Luis de Onís y González - Vara. The boundaries of Texas were determined within the larger geostrategic struggle to demarcate the limits of the United States ' extensive western lands and of Spain 's vast possessions in North America. The Florida Treaty of February 22, 1819 emerged as a compromise that excluded Spain from the lower Columbia River watershed, but established southern boundaries at the Sabine and Red Rivers, "legally extinguish (ing) '' any American claims to Texas. Nonetheless, Texas remained an object of fervent interest to American expansionists, among them Thomas Jefferson, who anticipated the eventual acquisition of its fertile lands.
The Missouri crisis of 1819 -- 1821 sharpened commitments to expansionism among the country 's slaveholding interests, when the so - called Thomas proviso established the 36 ° 30 ' parallel, imposing free - soil and slave - soil futures in the Louisiana Purchase lands. While a majority of southern congressmen acquiesced to the exclusion of slavery from the bulk of the Louisiana Purchase, a significant minority objected. Virginian editor Thomas Ritchie of the Richmond Enquirer predicted that with the proviso restrictions, the South would ultimately require Texas: "If we are cooped up on the north, we must have elbow room to the west. '' Representative John Floyd of Virginia in 1824 accused Secretary of State Adams of conceding Texas to Spain in 1819 in the interests of Northern anti-slavery advocates, and so depriving the South of additional slave states. Then - Representative John Tyler of Virginia invoked the Jeffersonian precepts of territorial and commercial growth as a national goal to counter the rise of sectional differences over slavery. His "diffusion '' theory declared that with Missouri open to slavery, the new state would encourage the transfer of underutilized slaves westward, emptying the eastern states of bondsmen and making emancipation feasible in the old South. This doctrine would be revived during the Texas annexation controversy.
When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, the United States did not contest the new republic 's claims to Texas, and both presidents John Quincy Adams (1825 -- 1829) and Andrew Jackson (1829 -- 1837) persistently sought, through official and unofficial channels, to procure all or portions of provincial Texas from the Mexican government, without success.
Spanish and Indigenous immigrants, primarily from North Eastern provinces of New Spain began to settle Texas in the late 17th century. The Spanish constructed chains of missions and presidios in what is today Louisiana, East Texas and South Texas. The first chain of missions was designed for the Tejas Indians, near Los Adaes. Soon thereafter, the San Antonio Missions were founded along the San Antonio River. The City of San Antonio, then known as San Fernando de Bexar, was founded in 1719. In the early 1760s, Jose de Escandon created five settlements along the Rio Grande River, including Laredo.
Anglo - American immigrants, primarily from the Southern United States, began emigrating to Mexican Texas in the early 1820s at the invitation of the Texas faction of the Coahuila y Texas state government, which sought to populate the sparsely inhabited lands of its northern frontier for cotton production. Colonizing empresario Stephen F. Austin managed the regional affairs of the mostly American - born population -- 20 % of them slaves -- under the terms of the generous government land grants. Mexican authorities were initially content to govern the remote province through salutary neglect, "permitting slavery under the legal fiction of ' permanent indentured servitude ', similar to Mexico 's peonage system.
A general lawlessness prevailed in the vast Texas frontier, and Mexico 's civic laws went largely unenforced among the Anglo - American settlers. In particular, the prohibitions against slavery and forced labor were ignored. The requirement that all settlers be Catholic or convert to Catholicism was also subverted. Mexican authorities, perceiving that they were losing control over Texas and alarmed by the unsuccessful Fredonian Rebellion of 1826, abandoned the policy of benign rule. New restrictions were imposed in 1829 -- 1830, outlawing slavery throughout the nation and terminating further American immigration to Texas. Military occupation followed, sparking local uprisings and a civil war. Texas conventions in 1832 and 1833 submitted petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions, with limited success. In 1835, an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self - government. Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2, 1836. On April 20 -- 21, rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto. In June 1836, Santa Anna agreed to Texas independence, but the Mexican government refused to honor Santa Anna 's pledge. Texans, now de facto independent, recognized that their security and prosperity could never be achieved while Mexico denied the legitimacy of their revolution.
In the years following independence, the migration of white settlers and importation of black slave labor into the vast republic was deterred by Texas 's unresolved international status and the threat of renewed warfare with Mexico. American citizens who considered migrating to the new republic perceived that "life and property were safer within the United States '' than in an independent Texas. The situation led to labor shortages, reduced tax revenue, large national debts and a diminished Texas militia.
The Anglo - American immigrants residing in newly - independent Texas overwhelmingly desired immediate annexation by the United States. But, despite his strong support for Texas independence from Mexico, then - President Andrew Jackson delayed recognizing the new republic until the last day of his presidency to avoid raising the issue during the 1836 general election. Jackson 's political caution was informed by northern concerns that Texas could potentially form several new slave states and undermine the North - South balance in Congress.
Jackson 's successor, President Martin Van Buren, viewed Texas annexation as an immense political liability that would empower the anti-slavery northern Whig opposition -- especially if annexation provoked a war with Mexico. Presented with a formal annexation proposal from Texas minister Memucan Hunt, Jr. in August 1837, Van Buren summarily rejected it. Annexation resolutions presented separately in each house of Congress were either soundly defeated or tabled through filibuster. After the election of 1838, new Texas president Mirabeau B. Lamar withdrew his republic 's offer of annexation due to these failures. Texans were at an annexation impasse when John Tyler entered the White House in 1841.
William Henry Harrison, Whig Party presidential nominee, defeated US President Martin Van Buren in the 1840 general election. Upon Harrison 's death shortly after his inauguration, Vice-President John Tyler assumed the presidency. President Tyler was expelled from the Whig party in 1841 for repeatedly vetoing their domestic finance legislation. Tyler, isolated and outside the two - party mainstream, turned to foreign affairs to salvage his presidency, aligning himself with a southern states ' rights faction that shared his fervent slavery expansionist views.
In his first address to Congress in special session on June 1, 1841, Tyler set the stage for Texas annexation by announcing his intention to pursue an expansionist agenda so as to preserve the balance between state and national authority and to protect American institutions, including slavery, so as to avoid sectional conflict. Tyler 's closest advisors counseled him that obtaining Texas would assure him a second term in the White House, and it became a deeply personal obsession for the president, who viewed the acquisition of Texas as the "primary objective of his administration ''. Tyler delayed direct action on Texas to work closely with his Secretary of State Daniel Webster on other pressing diplomatic initiatives.
With the Webster - Ashburton Treaty ratified in 1843, Tyler was ready to make the annexation of Texas his "top priority ''. Representative Thomas W. Gilmer of Virginia was authorized by the administration to make the case for annexation to the American electorate. In a widely circulated open letter, understood as an announcement of the executive branch 's designs for Texas, Gilmer described Texas as a panacea for North - South conflict and an economic boon to all commercial interests. The slavery issue, however divisive, would be left for the states to decide as per the US Constitution. Domestic tranquility and national security, Tyler argued, would result from an annexed Texas; a Texas left outside American jurisdiction would imperil the Union. Tyler adroitly arranged the resignation of his anti-annexation Secretary of State Daniel Webster, and on June 23, 1843 appointed Abel P. Upshur, a Virginia states ' rights champion and ardent proponent of Texas annexation. This cabinet shift signaled Tyler 's intent to pursue Texas annexation aggressively.
In late September 1843, in an effort to cultivate public support for Texas, Secretary Upshur dispatched a letter to the US Minister to Great Britain, Edward Everett, conveying his displeasure with Britain 's global anti-slavery posture, and warning their government that forays into Texas 's affairs would be regarded as "tantamount to direct interference ' with the established institutions of the United States ' ''. In a breach of diplomatic norms, Upshur leaked the communique to the press to inflame popular Anglophobic sentiments among American citizens.
In the spring of 1843, the Tyler administration had sent executive agent Duff Green to Europe to gather intelligence and arrange territorial treaty talks with Great Britain regarding Oregon; he also worked with American minister to France, Lewis Cass, to thwart efforts by major European powers to suppress the maritime slave trade. Green reported to Secretary Upshur in July 1843 that he had discovered a "loan plot '' by American abolitionists, in league with Lord Aberdeen, British Foreign Secretary, to provide funds to the Texas in exchange for the emancipation of its slaves. Minister Everett was charged with determining the substance of these confidential reports alleging a Texas plot. His investigations, including personal interviews with Lord Aberdeen, concluded that British interest in abolitionist intrigues was weak, contradicting Secretary of State Upshur 's conviction that Great Britain was manipulating Texas. Though unsubstantiated, Green 's unofficial intelligence so alarmed Tyler that he requested verification from the US minister to Mexico, Waddy Thompson.
John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, a pro-slavery extremist counseled Secretary Upshur that British designs on American slavery were real and required immediate action to preempt a takeover of Texas by Great Britain. When Tyler confirmed in September that the British Foreign Secretary Aberdeen had encouraged détente between Mexico and Texas, allegedly pressing Mexico to maneuver Texas towards emancipation of its slaves, Tyler acted at once. On September 18, 1843, in consultation with Secretary Upshur, he ordered secret talks opened with Texas Minister to the United States Isaac Van Zandt to negotiate the annexation of Texas. Face - to - face negotiations commenced on October 16, 1843.
By the summer of 1843 Sam Houston 's Texas administration had returned to negotiations with the Mexican government to consider a rapprochement that would permit Texas self - governance, possibly as a state of Mexico, with Great Britain acting as mediator. Texas officials felt compelled by the fact that the Tyler administration appeared unequipped to mount an effective campaign for Texas annexation. With the 1844 general election in the United States approaching, the leadership in both the Democratic and Whig parties remained unequivocally anti-Texas. Texas - Mexico treaty options under consideration included an autonomous Texas within Mexico 's borders, or an independent republic with the provision that Texas should emancipate its slaves upon recognition.
Van Zandt, though he personally favored annexation by the United States, was not authorized to entertain any overtures from the US government on the subject. Texas officials were at the moment deeply engaged in exploring settlements with Mexican diplomats, facilitated by Great Britain. Texas 's predominant concern was not British interference with the institution of slavery -- English diplomats had not alluded to the issue -- but the avoidance of any resumption of hostilities with Mexico. Still, US Secretary of State Upshur vigorously courted Texas diplomats to begin annexation talks, finally dispatching an appeal to President Sam Houston in January 1844. In it, he assured Houston that, in contrast to previous attempts, the political climate in the United States, including sections of the North, was amenable to Texas statehood, and that a two - thirds majority in Senate could be obtained to ratify a Texas treaty.
Texans were hesitant to pursue a US - Texas treaty without a written commitment of military defense from America, since a full - scale military attack by Mexico seemed likely when the negotiations became public. If ratification of the annexation measure stalled in the US Senate, Texas could face a war alone against Mexico. Because only Congress could declare war, the Tyler administration lacked the constitutional authority to commit the US to support of Texas. But when Secretary Upshur provided a verbal assurance of military defense, President Houston, responding to urgent calls for annexation from the Texas Congress of December 1843, authorized the reopening of annexation negotiations.
As Secretary Upshur accelerated the secret treaty discussions, Mexican diplomats learned that US - Texas talks were taking place. Mexican minister to the U.S. Juan Almonte confronted Upshur with these reports, warning him that if Congress sanctioned a treaty of annexation, Mexico would break diplomatic ties and immediately declare war. Secretary Upshur evaded and dismissed the charges, and pressed forward with the negotiations. In tandem with moving forward with Texas diplomats, Upshur was secretly lobbying US Senators to support annexation, providing lawmakers with persuasive arguments linking Texas acquisition to national security and domestic peace. By early 1844, Upshur was able to assure Texas officials that 40 of the 52 members of the Senate were pledged to ratify the Tyler - Texas treaty, more than the two - thirds majority required for passage. Tyler, in his annual address to Congress in December 1843, maintained his silence on the secret treaty, so as not to damage relations with the wary Texas diplomats. Throughout, Tyler did his utmost to keep the negotiations secret, making no public reference to his administration 's single - minded quest for Texas.
The Tyler - Texas treaty was in its final stages when its chief architects, Secretary Upshur and Secretary of the Navy Thomas W. Gilmer, died in an accident aboard USS Princeton on February 28, 1844, just a day after achieving a preliminary treaty draft agreement with the Texas Republic. The Princeton disaster proved a major setback for Texas annexation, in that Tyler expected Secretary Upshur to elicit critical support from Whig and Democratic Senators during the upcoming treaty ratification process. Tyler selected John C. Calhoun to replace Upshur as Secretary of State and to finalize the treaty with Texas. The choice of Calhoun, a highly regarded but controversial American statesman, risked introducing a politically polarizing element into the Texas debates, but Tyler prized him as a strong advocate of annexation.
With the Tyler - Upshur secret annexation negotiations with Texas near consummation, Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, a key Tyler ally, issued a widely distributed and highly influential letter, reproduced as a pamphlet, making the case for immediate annexation. In it, Walker argued that Texas could be acquired by Congress in a number of ways -- all constitutional -- and that the moral authority to do so was based on the precepts for territorial expansion established by Jefferson and Madison, and promulgated as doctrine by Monroe in 1823. Senator Walker 's polemic offered analysis on the significance of Texas with respect to slavery and race. He envisioned Texas as a corridor through which both free and enslaved African - Americans could be "diffused '' southward in a gradual exodus that would ultimately supply labor to the Central American tropics, and in time, empty the United States of its slave population.
This "safety - valve '' theory "appealed to the racial fears of northern whites '' who dreaded the prospect of absorbing emancipated slaves into their communities in the event that the institution of slavery collapsed in the South. This scheme for racial cleansing was consistent, on a pragmatic level, with proposals for overseas colonization of blacks, which were pursued by a number of American presidents, from Jefferson to Lincoln. Walker bolstered his position by raising national security concerns, warning that in the event annexation failed, imperialist Great Britain would maneuver the Republic of Texas into emancipating its slaves, forecasting a dangerous destabilizing influence on southwestern slaveholding states. The pamphlet characterized abolitionists as traitors who conspired with the British to overthrow the United States.
A variation of the Tyler 's "diffusion '' theory, it played on economic fears in a period when slave - based staple crop markets had not yet recovered from the Panic of 1837. The Texas "escape route '' conceived by Walker promised to increase demand for slaves in fertile cotton - growing regions of Texas, as well as the monetary value of slaves. Cash - poor plantation owners in the older eastern South were promised a market for surplus slaves at a profit. Texas annexation, wrote Walker, would eliminate all these dangers and "fortify the whole Union. ''
Walker 's pamphlet brought forth strident demands for Texas from pro-slavery expansionists in the South; in the North, it allowed anti-slavery expansionists to embrace Texas without appearing to be aligned with pro-slavery extremists. His assumptions and analysis "shaped and framed the debates on annexation but his premises went largely unchallenged among the press and public.
The Tyler - Texas treaty, signed on April 12, 1844, was framed to induct Texas into the Union as a territory, following constitutional protocols. To wit, Texas would cede all its public lands to the United States, and the federal government would assume all its bonded debt, up to $10 million. The boundaries of the Texas territory were left unspecified. Four new states could ultimately be carved from the former republic -- three of them likely to become slave states. Any allusion to slavery was omitted from the document so as not to antagonize anti-slavery sentiments during Senate debates, but it provided for the "preservation of all (Texas) property as secured in our domestic institutions. ''
Upon the signing of the treaty, Tyler complied with the Texans ' demand for military and naval protection, deploying troops to Fort Jesup in Louisiana and a fleet of warships to the Gulf of Mexico. In the event that the Senate failed to pass the treaty, Tyler promised the Texas diplomats that he would officially exhort both houses of Congress to establish Texas as a state of the Union upon provisions authorized in the Constitution. Tyler 's cabinet was split on the administration 's handling of the Texas agreement. Secretary of War William Wilkins praised the terms of annexation publicly, touting the economic and geostrategic benefits with relation to Great Britain. Secretary of the Treasury John C. Spencer was alarmed at the constitutional implications of Tyler 's application of military force without congressional approval, a violation of the separation of powers. Refusing to transfer contingency funds for the naval mobilization, he resigned.
Tyler submitted his treaty for annexation to the Senate, delivered April 22, 1844, where a two - thirds majority was required for ratification. Secretary of State Calhoun (assuming his post March 29, 1844) had sent a letter to British minister Richard Packenham denouncing British anti-slavery interference in Texas. He included the Packenham Letter with the Tyler bill, intending to create a sense of crisis in Southern Democrats. In it, he characterized slavery as a social blessing and the acquisition of Texas as an emergency measure necessary to safeguard the "peculiar institution '' in the United States. In doing so, Tyler and Calhoun sought to unite the South in a crusade that would present the North with an ultimatum: support Texas annexation or lose the South.
President Tyler expected that his treaty would be debated secretly in Senate executive session. However, less than a week after debates opened, the treaty, its associated internal correspondence, and the Packenham letter were leaked to the public. The nature of the Tyler - Texas negotiations caused a national outcry, in that "the documents appeared to verify that the sole objective of Texas annexation was the preservation of slavery. '' A mobilization of anti-annexation forces in the North strengthened both major parties ' hostility toward Tyler 's agenda. The leading presidential hopefuls of both parties, Democrat Martin Van Buren and Whig Henry Clay, publicly denounced the treaty. Texas annexation and the reoccupation of Oregon territory emerged as the central issues in the 1844 general election.
In response, Tyler, already ejected from the Whig party, quickly began to organize a third party in hopes of inducing the Democrats to embrace a pro-expansionist platform. By running as a third - party candidate, Tyler threatened to siphon off pro-annexation Democratic voters; Democratic party disunity would mean the election of Henry Clay, a staunchly anti-Texas Whig. Pro-annexation delegates among southern Democrats, with assistance from a number of northern delegates, blocked anti-expansion candidate Martin Van Buren at the convention, which instead nominated the pro-expansion champion of Manifest Destiny, James K. Polk of Tennessee. Polk unified his party under the banner of Texas and Oregon acquisition.
In August 1844, in the midst of the campaign, Tyler withdrew from the race. The Democratic Party was by then unequivocally committed to Texas annexation, and Tyler, assured by Polk 's envoys that as President he would effect Texas annexation, urged his supporters to vote Democratic. Polk narrowly defeated Whig Henry Clay in the November election. The victorious Democrats were poised to acquire Texas under President - elect Polk 's doctrine of Manifest Destiny, rather than on the pro-slavery agenda of Tyler and Calhoun.
As a treaty document with a foreign nation, the Tyler - Texas annexation treaty required the support of a two - thirds majority in the Senate for passage. But in fact, when the Senate voted on the measure on June 8, 1844, fully two - thirds voted against the treaty (16 -- 35). The vote went largely along party lines: Whigs had opposed it almost unanimously (1 -- 27), while Democrats split, but voted overwhelmingly in favor (15 -- 8). The election campaign had hardened partisan positions on Texas among Democrats. Tyler had anticipated that the measure would fail, due largely to the divisive effects of Secretary Calhoun 's Packenham letter. Undeterred, he formally asked the House of Representatives to consider other constitutional means to authorize passage of the treaty. Congress adjourned before debating the matter.
The same Senate that had rejected the Tyler -- Calhoun treaty by a margin of 2: 1 in June 1844 reassembled in December 1844 in a short lame - duck session. (Though pro-annexation Democrats had made gains in the fall elections, those legislators -- the 29th Congress -- would not assume office until March 1845.) Lame - duck President Tyler, still trying to annex Texas in the final months of his administration, wished to avoid another overwhelming Senate rejection of his treaty. In his annual address to Congress on December 4, he declared the Polk victory a mandate for Texas annexation and proposed that Congress adopt a joint resolution procedure by which simple majorities in each house could secure ratification for the Tyler treaty. This method would avoid the constitutional requirement of a two - thirds majority in the Senate. Bringing the House of Representatives into the equation boded well for Texas annexation, as the pro-annexation Democratic Party possessed nearly a 2: 1 majority in that chamber.
By resubmitting the discredited treaty through a House - sponsored bill, the Tyler administration reignited sectional hostilities over Texas admission. Both northern Democratic and southern Whig Congressmen had been bewildered by local political agitation in their home states during the 1844 presidential campaigns. Now, northern Democrats found themselves vulnerable to charges of appeasement of their southern wing if they capitulated to Tyler 's slavery expansion provisions. On the other hand, Manifest Destiny enthusiasm in the north placed politicians under pressure to admit Texas immediately to the Union.
Constitutional objections were raised in House debates as to whether both houses of Congress could constitutionally authorize admission of territories, rather than states. Moreover, if the Republic of Texas, a nation in its own right, were admitted as a state, its territorial boundaries, property relations (including slave property), debts and public lands would require a Senate - ratified treaty. Democrats were particularly uneasy about burdening the United States with $10 million in Texas debt, resenting the deluge of speculators, who had bought Texas bonds cheap and now lobbied Congress for the Texas House bill. House Democrats, at an impasse, relinquished the legislative initiative to the southern Whigs.
Anti-Texas Whig legislators had lost more than the White House in the general election of 1844. In the southern states of Tennessee and Georgia, Whig strongholds in the 1840 general election, voter support dropped precipitously due to the pro-annexation excitement in the Deep South -- and Clay lost every Deep South state to Polk. Northern Whigs ' uncompromising hostility to slavery expansion increasingly characterized the party, and southern members, by association, had suffered from charges of being "soft on Texas, therefore soft on slavery '' by Southern Democrats. Facing congressional and gubernatorial races in 1845 in their home states, a number of Southern Whigs sought to erase that impression with respect to the Tyler - Texas bill.
Southern Whigs in the Congress, including Representative Milton Brown and Senator Ephraim Foster, both of Tennessee, and Representative Alexander Stephens of Georgia collaborated to introduce a House amendment on January 13, 1845 that was designed to enhance slaveowner gains in Texas beyond those offered by the Democratic - sponsored Tyler - Calhoun treaty bill. The legislation proposed to recognize Texas as a slave state which would retain all its vast public lands, as well as its bonded debt accrued since 1836. Furthermore, the Brown amendment would delegate to the U.S. government responsibility for negotiating the disputed Texas - Mexico boundary. The issue was a critical one, as the size of Texas would be immensely increased if the international border were set at the Rio Grande River, with its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains, rather than the traditionally recognized boundary at the Nueces River, 100 miles to the north. While the Tyler - Calhoun treaty provided for the organization of a total of four states from the Texas lands -- three likely to qualify as slave states -- Brown 's plan would permit Texas state lawmakers to configure a total of five states from its western region, south of the 36 ° 30 ' Missouri Compromise line, each pre-authorized to permit slavery upon statehood, if Texas designated them as such.
Politically, the Brown amendment was designed to portray Southern Whigs as "even more ardent champions of slavery and the South, than southern Democrats. '' The bill also served to distinguish them from their northern Whig colleagues who cast the controversy, as Calhoun did, in strictly pro - versus anti-slavery terms. While almost all Northern Whigs spurned Brown 's amendment, the Democrats quickly co-opted the legislation, providing the votes necessary to attach the proviso to Tyler 's joint resolution, by a 118 -- 101 vote. Southern Democrats supported the bill almost unanimously (59 -- 1), while Northern Democrats split strongly in favor (50 -- 30). Eight of eighteen Southern Whigs cast their votes in favor. Northern Whigs unanimously rejected it. The House proceeded to approve the amended Texas treaty 120 -- 98 on January 25, 1845. The vote in the House had been one in which party affiliation prevailed over sectional allegiance. The bill was forwarded the same day to the Senate for debate.
By early February 1845, when the Senate began to debate the Brown - amended Tyler treaty, its passage seemed unlikely, as support was "perishing ''. The partisan alignments in the Senate were near parity, 28 -- 24, slightly in favor of the Whigs. The Senate Democrats would require undivided support among their colleagues, and three or more Whigs who would be willing to cross party lines to pass the House - amended treaty. The fact that Senator Foster had drafted the House amendment under consideration improved prospects of Senate passage.
Anti-annexation Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri had been the only Southern Democrat to vote against the Tyler - Texas measure in June 1844. His original proposal for an annexed Texas had embodied a national compromise, whereby Texas would be divided in two, half slave - soil and half free - soil. As pro-annexation sentiment grew in his home state, Benton retreated from this compromise offer. By February 5, 1845, in the early debates on the Brown - amended House bill, he advanced an alternative resolution that, unlike the Brown scenario, made no reference whatsoever to the ultimate free - slave apportionment of an annexed Texas and simply called for five bipartisan commissioners to resolve border disputes with Texas and Mexico and set conditions for the Lone Star Republic 's acquisition by the United States.
The Benton proposal was intended to calm northern anti-slavery Democrats (who wished to eliminate the Tyler - Calhoun treaty altogether, as it had been negotiated on behalf of the slavery expansionists), and allow the decision to devolve upon the soon - to - be-inaugurated Democratic President - elect James K. Polk. President - elect Polk had expressed his ardent wish that Texas annexation should be accomplished before he entered Washington in advance of his inauguration on March 4, 1845, the same day Congress would end its session. With his arrival in the capital, he discovered the Benton and Brown factions in the Senate "paralyzed '' over the Texas annexation legislation. On the advice of his soon - to - be Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker, Polk urged Senate Democrats to unite under a dual resolution that would include both the Benton and Brown versions of annexation, leaving enactment of the legislation to Polk 's discretion when he took office. In private and separate talks with supporters of both the Brown and Benton plans, Polk left each side with the "impression he would administer their (respective) policy. Polk meant what he said to Southerners and meant to appear friendly to the Van Burenite faction. '' Polk 's handling of the matter had the effect of uniting Senate northern Democrats in favor of the dual alternative treaty bill.
On February 27, 1845, less than a week before Polk 's inauguration, the Senate voted 27 -- 25 to admit Texas, based on the Tyler protocols of simple majority passage. All twenty - four Democrats voted for the measure, joined by three southern Whigs. Benton and his allies were assured that Polk would act to establish the eastern portion of Texas as a slave state; the western section was to remain unorganized territory, not committed to slavery. On this understanding, the northern Democrats had conceded their votes for the dichotomous bill. The next day, in an almost strict party line vote, the Benton - Milton measure was passed in the Democrat - controlled House of Representatives. President Tyler signed the bill the following day, March 1, 1845 (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J. Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845, 5 Stat. 797).
Senate and house legislators who had favored Benton 's renegotiated version of the Texas annexation bill had been assured that President Tyler would sign the joint house measure, but leave its implementation to the incoming Polk administration. But, during his last day in office, President Tyler, with the urging of his Secretary of State Calhoun, decided to act decisively to improve the odds for the immediate annexation of Texas. On March 3, 1845, with his cabinet 's assent, he dispatched an offer of annexation to the Republic of Texas by courier, exclusively under the terms of the Brown -- Foster option of the joint house measure. Secretary Calhoun apprised President - elect Polk of the action, who demurred without comment. Tyler justified his preemptive move on the grounds that Polk was likely to come under pressure to abandon immediate annexation and reopen negotiations under the Benton alternative.
When President Polk took office on March 4, he was in a position to recall Tyler 's dispatch to Texas and reverse his decision. On March 10, after conferring with his cabinet, Polk upheld Tyler 's action and allowed the courier to proceed with the offer of immediate annexation to Texas. The only modification was to exhort Texans to accept the annexation terms unconditionally. Polk 's decision was based on his concern that a protracted negotiation by US commissioners would expose annexation efforts to foreign intrigue and interference. While Polk kept his annexation endeavors confidential, Senators passed a resolution requesting formal disclosure of the administration 's Texas policy. Polk stalled, and when the Senate special session had adjourned on March 20, 1845, no names for US commissioners to Texas had been submitted by him. Polk denied charges from Senator Benton that he had misled Benton on his intention to support the new negotiations option, declaring "if any such pledges were made, it was in a total misconception of what I said or meant. ''
On May 5, 1845, Texas President Jones called for a convention on July 4, 1845, to consider the annexation and a constitution. On June 23, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress 's joint resolution of March 1, 1845, annexing Texas to the United States, and consented to the convention. On July 4, the Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it. The convention remained in session through August 28, and adopted the Constitution of Texas on August 27, 1845. The citizens of Texas approved the annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845.
President Polk signed the legislation making the former Lone Star Republic a state of the Union on December 29, 1845 (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J. Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845, 9 Stat. 108). Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 14, 1846.
The joint resolution and ordinance of annexation have no language specifying the boundaries of Texas, but only refer in general terms to "the territory properly included within, and rightfully belonging to the Republic of Texas '', and state that the new State of Texas is to be formed "subject to the adjustment by this (U.S.) government of all questions of boundary that may arise with other governments. '' According to George Lockhart Rives, "That treaty had been expressly so framed as to leave the boundaries of Texas undefined, and the joint resolution of the following winter was drawn in the same manner. It was hoped that this might open the way to a negotiation, in the course of which the whole subject of the boundaries of Mexico, from the Gulf to the Pacific, might be reconsidered, but these hopes came to nothing. ''
There was an ongoing border dispute between the Republic of Texas and Mexico prior to annexation. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its border based on the Treaties of Velasco, while Mexico maintained that it was the Nueces River and did not recognize Texan independence. In November 1845, President James K. Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with a monetary offer to the Mexican government for the disputed land and other Mexican territories. Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate due to instability in the government and popular nationalistic sentiment against such a sale. Slidell returned to the United States, and Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to garrison the southern border of Texas, as defined by the former Republic, in 1846. Taylor moved into Texas, ignoring Mexican demands to withdraw, and marched as far south as the Rio Grande, where he began to build a fort near the river 's mouth on the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican government regarded this action as a violation of its sovereignty, and immediately prepared for war. Following a United States victory and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded its claims to Texas and the Rio Grande border was accepted by both nations.
The formal controversy over the legality of the annexation of Texas stems from the fact that Congress approved the annexation of Texas as a state, rather than a territory, with simple majorities in each house, instead of annexing the land by Senate treaty, as was done with Native American lands. Tyler 's extralegal joint resolution maneuver in 1844 exceeded strict constructionist precepts, but was passed by Congress in 1845 as part of a compromise bill. The success of the joint house Texas annexation set a precedent that would be applied to Hawaii 's annexation in 1897.
Republican President Benjamin Harrison (1889 -- 1893) attempted, in 1893, to annex Hawaii through a Senate treaty. When this failed, he was asked to consider the Tyler joint house precedent; he declined. Democratic President Grover Cleveland (1893 -- 1897) did not pursue the annexation of Hawaii. When President William McKinley took office in 1897, he quickly revived expectations among territorial expansionists when he resubmitted legislation to acquire Hawaii. When the two - thirds Senate support was not forthcoming, committees in the House and Senate explicitly invoked the Tyler precedent for the joint house resolution, which was successfully applied to approve the annexation of Hawaii in July 1898.
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what is the catholic church's position on the death penalty | Catholic Church and capital punishment - wikipedia
The Catholic Church 's position on capital punishment has varied throughout the centuries following the Church 's establishment, evolving from somewhat supportive to largely apathetic to mostly anti-capital punishment. In more recent times, the Catholic Church has generally moved away from any explicit condoning or approval of capital punishment and has instead increasingly adopted a more disapproving stance on the issue. Modern Church figures such as Pope John Paul II, Pope Francis, and the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops have in fact actively discouraged the death penalty or advocated for the out - right abolition of the death penalty. Historically, the teaching of the Catholic Church used to categorize capital punishment as a form of "lawful slaying '', a view defended by theological authorities such as Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. Augustine felt that the death penalty was a means of deterring the wicked and protecting the innocent. In the Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas reaffirmed this position. (See also Aquinas on the death penalty). However, after the Second Vatican Council the Catholic Church has been staunchly opposed to the death penalty.
During his papacy, Pope John Paul II appealed for a consensus to end the death penalty on the ground that it was "both cruel and unnecessary. '' Pope Francis also proposed the abolition of the death penalty, as well as life imprisonment, which he felt is just a variation of the death penalty.
According to St. Augustine:
The same divine authority that forbids the killing of a human being establishes certain exceptions, as when God authorizes killing by a general law or when He gives an explicit commission to an individual for a limited time.
The agent who executes the killing does not commit homicide; he is an instrument as is the sword with which he cuts. Therefore, it is in no way contrary to the commandment, ' Thou shalt not kill ' to wage war at God 's bidding, or for the representatives of public authority to put criminals to death, according to the law, that is, the will of the most just reason (from The City of God, Book 1, Chapter 21)
The following is a summary of Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 3, Chapter 146 which was written by Aquinas prior to writing the Summa Theologica. St. Thomas was a vocal supporter of the death penalty. This was based on the theory (found in natural moral law), that the state has not only the right, but the duty to protect its citizens from enemies, both from within, and without.
For those who have been appropriately appointed, there is no sin in administering punishment. For those who refuse to obey God 's laws, it is correct for society to rebuke them with civil and criminal sanctions. No one sins working for justice, within the law. Actions that are necessary to preserve the good of society are not inherently evil. The common good of the whole society is greater and better than the good of any particular person. "The life of certain pestiferous men is an impediment to the common good which is the concord of human society. Therefore, certain men must be removed by death from the society of men. '' This is likened to the physician who must amputate a diseased limb, or a cancer, for the good of the whole person. He based this on I Corinthians 5, 6: "You know that a little leaven corrupts the whole lump of dough? '' and I Corinthians 5, 13: "Put away the evil one from among yourselves ''; Romans 13, 4: "(it is said of earthly power that) he bears not the sword in vain: for he is God 's minister, an avenger to execute wrath upon him that does evil ''; I Peter 2, 13 - 14: "Be subjected therefore to every human creature for God 's sake: whether to be on the king as excelling, or to governors as sent by him for the punishment of evildoers and for the praise of good. '' He believed these passages superseded the text of Exodus 20, 13: "Thou shall not kill. '' This is mentioned again in Matthew 5, 21. Also, it is argued that Matthew 13, 30: "Suffer both the weeds and the wheat to grow until the harvest. '' The harvest was interpreted as meaning the end of the world. This is explained by Matthew 13, 38 - 40.
Aquinas acknowledged these passages could also be interpreted as meaning there should be no use of the death penalty if there was a chance of injuring the innocent. The prohibition "Thou shall not kill '', was superseded by Exodus 22, 18: "Wrongdoers you shall not suffer to live. '' The argument that evildoers should be allowed to live in the hope that they might be redeemed was rejected by Aquinas as frivolous. If they would not repent in the face of death, it was unreasonable to assume they would ever repent. "How many people are we to allow to be murdered while waiting for the repentance of the wrongdoer? '', he asked, rhetorically. Using the death penalty for revenge, or retribution is a violation of natural moral law.
The Council of Trent, an ecumenical council held in Italy between 1545 and 1563 and prompted by the Protestant Reformation, commissioned in the seventh canon ("De Reformatione '') of Session XXIV the first Church - wide catechism of the Catholic Church, later known as the Roman Catechism and also as the Catechism of the Council of Trent. A commission of eminent theologians supervised by three cardinals produced a catechism, which was published in Rome under Papal authority, after the Council had concluded, under the Latin title "Catechismus ex decreto Concilii Tridentini ad parochos Pii V jussu editus, Romae, 1566 '' (in - folio). In its section on the Fifth Commandment, the Roman Catechism teaches that civil authority, having power over life and death as "the legitimate avenger of crime, '' may commit "lawful slaying '' as "an act of paramount obedience to this Commandment which prohibits murder '' by giving "security to life by repressing outrage and violence. ''
Another kind of lawful slaying belongs to the civil authorities, to whom is entrusted power of life and death, by the legal and judicious exercise of which they punish the guilty and protect the innocent. The just use of this power, far from involving the crime of murder, is an act of paramount obedience to this Commandment which prohibits murder. The end of the Commandment - is the preservation and security of human life. Now the punishments inflicted by the civil authority, which is the legitimate avenger of crime, naturally tend to this end, since they give security to life by repressing outrage and violence. Hence these words of David: In the morning I put to death all the wicked of the land, that I might cut off all the workers of iniquity from the city of the Lord.
The 1911 edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia suggested that Catholics should hold that "the infliction of capital punishment is not contrary to the teaching of the Catholic Church, and the power of the State to visit upon culprits the penalty of death derives much authority from revelation and from the writings of theologians '', but that the matter of "the advisability of exercising that power is, of course, an affair to be determined upon other and various considerations. ''
In an address given on September 14, 1952, Pope Pius XII made clear that the Church does not regard the execution of criminals as a violation by the State of the universal right to life, arguing that:
When it is a question of the execution of a condemned man, the State does not dispose of the individual 's right to life. In this case it is reserved to the public power to deprive the condemned person of the enjoyment of life in expiation of his crime when, by his crime, he has already disposed himself of his right to live.
Some Catholic writers, such as the late Cardinal Joseph Bernadin of Chicago, argued against the use of the death penalty in modern times by drawing on a stance labelled the "consistent life ethic ''. Characteristic of this approach is an emphasis on the sanctity of human life, and the responsibility on both a personal and social level to protect and preserve life from "womb to tomb '' (conception to natural death). This position draws on the conviction that God has "boundless love for every person, regardless of human merit or worthiness. ''
Pope John Paul II advocated incarceration in lieu of the death penalty whenever possible. In his 1995 Evangelium Vitae, Pope John Paul II suggested that capital punishment should be avoided unless it is the only way to defend society from the offender in question, opining that punishment "ought not go to the extreme of executing the offender except in cases of absolute necessity: in other words, when it would not be possible otherwise to defend society. Today however, as a result of steady improvements in the organization of the penal system, such cases are very rare, if not practically non-existent. '' The most recent edition of the Catechism of the Catholic Church supported John Paul II 's statement, and further states that:
Assuming that the guilty party 's identity and responsibility have been fully determined, the traditional teaching of the Church does not exclude recourse to the death penalty if this is the only possible way of effectively defending human lives against the unjust aggressor. If, however, non-lethal means are sufficient to defend and protect people 's safety from the aggressor, authority will limit itself to such means, as these are more in keeping with the concrete conditions of the common good and more in conformity to the dignity of the human person.
However, according to Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), the 1995 assessment of the contemporary situation advanced by John Paul II is not binding on the Catholic faithful. In 2004, Ratzinger wrote:
if a Catholic were to be at odds with the Holy Father on the application of capital punishment or on the decision to wage war, he would not for that reason be considered unworthy to present himself to receive Holy Communion. While the Church exhorts civil authorities to seek peace, not war, and to exercise discretion and mercy in imposing punishment on criminals, it may still be permissible to take up arms to repel an aggressor or to have recourse to capital punishment. There may be a legitimate diversity of opinion even among Catholics about waging war and applying the death penalty, but not however with regard to abortion and euthanasia.
Pope Francis has stated that he is against the death penalty. In 2015, Pope Francis addressed the International Commission against the Death Penalty, stating that: "Today the death penalty is inadmissible, no matter how serious the crime committed. '' Francis argued that the death penalty is no longer justifiable by society 's need to defend itself, and the death penalty has lost all legitimacy due to the possibility of judicial error. He stated that capital punishment is an offence "against the inviolability of life and the dignity of the human person, which contradicts God 's plan for man and society '' and "does not render justice to the victims, but rather fosters vengeance. '' In the address, Francis further explained:
In certain circumstances, when hostilities are underway, a measured reaction is necessary in order to prevent the aggressor from causing harm, and the need to neutralize the aggressor may result in his elimination; it is a case of legitimate defence (cf. Evangelium Vitae, n. 55). Nevertheless, the prerequisites of legitimate personal defence are not applicable in the social sphere without the risk of distortion. In fact, when the death penalty is applied, people are killed not for current acts of aggression, but for offences committed in the past. Moreover, it is applied to people whose capacity to cause harm is not current, but has already been neutralized, and who are deprived of their freedom. (...)
For a constitutional State the death penalty represents a failure, because it obliges the State to kill in the name of justice (...) Justice is never reached by killing a human being. (...) The death penalty loses all legitimacy due to the defective selectivity of the criminal justice system and in the face of the possibility of judicial error. Human justice is imperfect, and the failure to recognize its fallibility can transform it into a source of injustice. With the application of capital punishment, the person sentenced is denied the possibility to make amends or to repent of the harm done; the possibility of confession, with which man expresses his inner conversion; and of contrition, the means of repentance and atonement, in order to reach the encounter with the merciful and healing love of God. Furthermore, capital punishment is a frequent practice to which totalitarian regimes and fanatical groups resort, for the extermination of political dissidents, minorities, and every individual labelled as "dangerous '' or who might be perceived as a threat to their power or to the attainment of their objectives. As in the first centuries and also in the current one, the Church suffers from the application of this penalty to her new martyrs.
The death penalty is contrary to the meaning of humanitas and to divine mercy, which must be models for human justice. It entails cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment, as is the anguish before the moment of execution and the terrible suspense between the issuing of the sentence and the execution of the penalty, a form of "torture '' which, in the name of correct procedure, tends to last many years, and which oftentimes leads to illness and insanity on death row.
The Vatican had also officially given support to a 2015 United Nations campaign against the death penalty. During a U.N. Human Rights Council meeting concerning the abolishment of capital punishment, Archbishop Silvano Tomasi declared that "The Holy See Delegation fully supports the efforts to abolish the use of the death penalty. '' The Archbishop stated:
Considering the practical circumstances found in most States... it appears evident nowadays that means other than the death penalty ' are sufficient to defend human lives against an aggressor and to protect public order and the safety of persons (...) We should take into account that no clear positive effect of deterrence results from the application of the death penalty and that the irreversibility of this punishment does not allow for eventual corrections in the case of wrongful convictions.
The Church teaches that the commandment is "Thou shalt not murder '', which permits the death penalty by the civil authority as the administrator of justice in a human society in accordance with the Natural Law. The Church 's teaching is that punishments, including the death penalty, may be levied for four reasons:
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the death penalty is permissible in certain cases if the "guilty party 's identity and responsibility have been fully determined ''. As to defense against the criminal, the Church teaches that if there are other means available to defend people from the "unjust aggressor '', these means are preferred to the death penalty because they are considered to be more respectful of the dignity of the person and in keeping with the common good. Because today 's society makes possible effective means for preventing crime without execution, the Catechism - quoting Pope John Paul II wrote that "the cases in which execution of the offender is an absolute necessity ' are very rare, if not practically nonexistent. ' ''
On March 25, 1995, Pope John Paul II affirmed the church 's stance towards capital punishment in his 1995 encyclical titled Evangelium Vitae (The Gospel of Life).
In January 1999, Pope John Paul II, without changing Catholic teaching, appealed for a consensus to end the death penalty on the ground that it was "both cruel and unnecessary. '' He said that criminal offenders should be offered "an incentive and help to change his or her behaviour and be rehabilitated '' Pope Francis advocated that "capital sentences be commuted to a lesser punishment that allows for time and incentives for the reform of the offender. ''
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops states that "Our fundamental respect for every human life and for God, who created each person in his image, requires that we choose not to end a human life in response to violent crimes if non-lethal options are available. ''
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who is hosting the next world cup in 2022 | 2022 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2022 FIFA World Cup is scheduled to be the 22nd edition of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men 's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. It is scheduled to take place in Qatar in 2022. This will be the first World Cup ever to be held in the Arab world and the first in a Muslim - majority country. This will be the first World Cup held entirely in geographical Asia since the 2002 tournament in South Korea and Japan (the 2018 competition in Russia featured one geographically Asian venue, Yekaterinburg). In addition the tournament will be the last to involve 32 teams, with an increase to 48 teams scheduled for the 2026 tournament. The reigning World Cup champions are France.
This will also mark the first World Cup not to be held in May, June, or July; the tournament is instead scheduled for late November until mid-December. It is to be played in a reduced timeframe of around 28 days, with the final being held on 18 December 2022, which is also Qatar National Day.
Accusations of corruption have been made relating to how Qatar won the right to host the event. A FIFA internal investigation and report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing, but the chief investigator Michael J. Garcia has since described FIFA 's report on his inquiry as "materially incomplete and erroneous ''. On 27 May 2015, Swiss federal prosecutors opened an investigation into corruption and money laundering related to the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. On 6 August 2018, former FIFA president Sepp Blatter claimed that Qatar had used "black ops '', suggesting that the bid committee had cheated to win the hosting rights. Qatar has faced strong criticism due to the treatment of foreign workers involved in preparation for the World Cup, with Amnesty International referring to "forced labour '' and stating that workers have been suffering human rights abuses, despite worker welfare standards being drafted in 2014.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, eleven bids were made for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian Football Association failed to submit a letter of Indonesian government guarantee to support the bid. Indonesian officials had not ruled out a bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, until Qatar took the 2022 cup. During the bidding process, all non-UEFA nations gradually withdrew their 2018 bids, thus making the UEFA nations ineligible for the 2022 bid.
In the end, there were five bids for the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Australia, Japan, Qatar, South Korea and the United States. The twenty - two member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Two FIFA executive committee members were suspended before the vote in relation to allegations of corruption regarding their votes. The decision to host the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, which was graded as having "high operational risk '', generated criticism from media commentators. It has been criticised as many to be part of the FIFA corruption scandals.
The voting patterns were as follows:
There have been allegations of bribery and corruption in the selection process involving members of FIFA 's executive committee. These allegations are being investigated by FIFA. (See § Bidding corruption allegations, below.)
Qatar is the smallest nation by area ever to have been awarded a FIFA World Cup -- the next smallest by area is Switzerland, host of the 1954 FIFA World Cup, which is more than three times as large as Qatar and only needed to host 16 teams instead of the current 32.
On 12 April 2018, CONMEBOL requested that FIFA expand the 2022 FIFA World Cup from 32 to 48 teams, four years before the 2026 FIFA World Cup as initially planned. FIFA President Gianni Infantino expressed willingness to consider the request. However, the FIFA congress rejected the request shortly before the beginning of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Infantino said the global football governing body would not discuss the possibility of having a 48 - team World Cup, and that they would first discuss the matter with the host country.
The qualification process for the 2022 World Cup has not yet been announced. All FIFA member associations, of which there are currently 211, are eligible to enter qualification. Qatar, as hosts, qualified automatically for the tournament. However, Qatar is obliged by the AFC to participate in the Asian qualifying stage as the first two rounds also act as qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. If they reach the final stage, their choice on whether to continue with World Cup qualifying is subject to FIFA approval. If the hosts choose not to compete, the next - ranked team will advance instead. For the first time after the initial two tournaments of 1930 and 1934, the World Cup will be hosted by a country whose national team has never played a finals match before. The reigning World Cup champions France will also go through qualifying stages as normal.
The allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. The committee decided that the same allocation as 2006 would be kept for the 2010, 2014, 2018 and 2022 tournaments:
The qualifying draw is scheduled to take place in July 2019.
The first five proposed venues for the World Cup were unveiled at the beginning of March 2010. The stadiums aim to employ cooling technology capable of reducing temperatures within the stadium by up to 20 ° C (36 ° F), and the upper tiers of the stadiums will be disassembled after the World Cup and donated to countries with less developed sports infrastructure. Qatar aims to build the stadiums with the highest sustainability and environmental standards. The stadiums will be equipped with cooling systems that are environmentally friendly overcoming the challenging environmental nature of the country. The plan is to build Zero Waste stadiums using environmentally friendly materials, harmless equipment, and ecologically sustainable solutions through the implementation of renewable and low energy solutions. Qatar aspires to be compliant and certified by the Global Sustainability Assessment System (GSAS) for all the world cup stadiums. All of the five stadium projects launched have been designed by German architect Albert Speer & Partners. Leading football clubs in Europe wanted the World Cup to take place from 28 April to 29 May rather than the typical June and July staging, due to concerns about the heat.
A report released on 9 December 2010 quoted FIFA President Sepp Blatter as stating that other nations could host some matches during the World Cup. However, no specific countries were named in the report. Blatter added that any such decision must be taken by Qatar first and then endorsed by FIFA 's executive committee. Prince Ali bin Al Hussein of Jordan told the Australian Associated Press that holding games in Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and possibly Saudi Arabia would help to incorporate the people of the region during the tournament.
According to a report released in April 2013 by Merrill Lynch, the investment banking division of Bank of America, the organisers in Qatar have requested FIFA to approve a smaller number of stadiums due to the growing costs. Bloomberg.com said that Qatar wishes to cut the number of venues to eight or nine from the twelve originally planned.
Although as of April 2017, FIFA had yet to finalise the number of stadiums Qatar must have ready in five years ' time, Qatar 's Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy said it expected there would be eight.
The final draw is scheduled to take place in April 2022.
A number of groups and media outlets have expressed concern over the suitability of Qatar to host the event, with regard to interpretations of human rights, particularly worker conditions, the rights of fans in the LGBT community because the status of homosexuality is illegal in Qatar, climatic conditions and accusations of Qatar for supporting terrorism both diplomatically and financially. Hassan Abdulla al Thawadi, chief executive of the Qatar 2022 World Cup bid, said the Muslim state would also permit alcohol consumption during the event, drinking in public is not permitted as Qatar 's legal system is based on Sharia.
The selection of Qatar as the host country has been controversial; FIFA officials were accused of corruption and allowing Qatar to "buy '' the World Cup, the treatment of construction workers was called into question by human rights groups, and the high costs needed to make the plans a reality were criticised. The climate conditions caused some to call hosting the tournament in Qatar infeasible, with initial plans for air - conditioned stadiums giving way to a potential date switch from summer to winter.
In May 2014, Sepp Blatter, who was FIFA President at the time of the selection but later banned for illegal payments, remarked that awarding the World Cup to Qatar was a "mistake '' because of the extreme heat. However, while addressing delegates from African and Asian confederations, Blatter said allegations of corruption and some of the criticism, including those from sponsors, were "very much linked to racism and discrimination ''.
The issue of migrant workers ' rights has also attracted attention, with an investigation by The Guardian newspaper claiming that many workers are denied food and water, have their identity papers taken away from them, and that they are not paid on time or at all, making some of them in effect slaves. The Guardian has estimated that up to 4,000 workers may die due to lax safety and other causes by the time the competition is held. These claims are based upon the fact that 522 Nepalese workers and over 700 Indian workers have died since 2010, when Qatar 's bid as World Cup 's host was won, about 250 Indian workers dying each year. Given that there are half a million Indian workers in Qatar, the Indian government says that is quite a normal number of deaths. In the United Kingdom, in any group of half a million 25 - to 30 - year - old men, an average of 300 die each year, a higher rate than among Indian workers in Qatar.
In 2015, a crew of four journalists from the BBC were arrested and held for two days after they attempted to report on the condition of workers in the country. The reporters had been invited to visit the country as guests of the Government of Qatar.
The Wall Street Journal reported in June 2015 the International Trade Union Confederation 's claim that over 1,200 workers had died while working on infrastructure and real - estate projects related to the World Cup, and the Qatar Government 's counter-claim that none had. The BBC later reported that this often - cited figure of 1,200 workers having died in World Cup construction in Qatar between 2011 and 2013 is not correct, and that the 1,200 number is instead representing deaths from all Indians and Nepalese working in Qatar, not just of those workers involved in the preparation for the World Cup, and not just of construction workers. Most Qatar nationals avoid doing manual work or low - skilled jobs; additionally, they are given preference at the workplace. Michael van Praag, president of Royal Dutch Football Association, requested the FIFA Executive Committee to pressure Qatar over those allegations to ensure better workers ' conditions. He also stated that a new vote on the attribution of the World Cup to Qatar would have to take place if the corruption allegations were to be proved.
In March 2016, Amnesty International accused Qatar of using forced labour and forcing the employees to live in poor conditions and withholding their wages and passports. It accused FIFA of failing to stop the stadium being built on "human right abuses ''. Migrant workers told Amnesty about verbal abuse and threats they received after complaining about not being paid for up to several months. Nepali workers were even denied leave to visit their family after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
In October 2017, the International Trade Union Confederation said that Qatar has signed an agreement to improve the situation of more than 2 million migrant workers in the country. According to the ITUC, the agreement provided for establishing substantial reforms in labour system, including ending the Al - Kafala system. The ITUC also stated that the agreement would positively affect the general situation of workers, especially of those who work on the 2022 FIFA World Cup infrastructure projects. The workers will no longer need their employer 's permission to leave the country or change their jobs.
Owing to the climate in Qatar, concerns were expressed over holding the World Cup in its traditional timeframe of June and July. In October 2013, a task force was commissioned to consider alternative dates and report after the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. On 24 February 2015, the FIFA Task Force proposed that the tournament be played from late November to late December 2022, to avoid the summer heat between May and September and also avoid clashing with the 2022 Winter Olympics in February and Ramadan in April.
The notion of staging the tournament in November is controversial since it would interfere with the regular season schedules of some domestic leagues around the world. Commentators have noted the clash with the Western Christmas season is likely to cause disruption, whilst there is concern about how short the tournament is intended to be. FIFA executive committee member Theo Zwanziger said that awarding the 2022 World Cup to Qatar 's desert state was a "blatant mistake ''. Frank Lowy, chairman of Football Federation Australia, said that if the 2022 World Cup were moved to November and thus upset the schedule of the A-League, they would seek compensation from FIFA. Richard Scudamore, chief executive of the Premier League, stated that they would consider legal action against FIFA because a move would interfere with the Premier League 's popular Christmas and New Year fixture programme. On 19 March 2015, FIFA sources confirmed that the 2022 World Cup final would be played on 18 December.
Qatar has faced growing pressure over its hosting of the World Cup in relation to allegations over the role of former top football official Mohammed bin Hammam played in securing the bid. A former employee of the Qatar bid team alleged that several African officials were paid $1.5 million by Qatar. She retracted her claims, but later said she was coerced to do so by Qatari bid officials. More suspicions emerged in March 2014 when it was discovered that disgraced former CONCACAF president Jack Warner and his family were paid almost $2 million from a firm linked to Qatar 's successful campaign. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is investigating Warner and his alleged links to the Qatari bid.
Five of FIFA 's six primary sponsors, Sony, Adidas, Visa, Hyundai and Coca - Cola, have called upon FIFA to investigate the claims. The Sunday Times published bribery allegations based on a leak of millions of secret documents. Jim Boyce, Vice President of FIFA, has gone on record stating he would support a re-vote to find a new host if the corruption allegations are proven. FIFA completed a lengthy investigation into these allegations and a report cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing. Despite the claims, the Qataris insist that the corruption allegations are being driven by envy and mistrust while Sepp Blatter said it is fueled by racism in the British media.
In the 2015 FIFA corruption case, Swiss officials, operating under information from the United States Department of Justice, arrested many senior FIFA officials in Zurich, Switzerland. They also seized physical and electronic records from FIFA 's main headquarters. The arrests continued in the United States where several FIFA officers were arrested and FIFA buildings raided. The arrests were made on the information of at least a $150 million (USD) corruption and bribery scandal.
On 7 June 2015, Phaedra Almajid, the former media officer for the Qatar bid team, claimed that the allegations would result in Qatar not hosting the World Cup. In an interview published on the same day, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit and Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled. ''
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the principal constituent of the atmospher of the earth | Atmosphere of Earth - wikipedia
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth 's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
By volume, dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen, 20.95 % oxygen, 0.93 % argon, 0.04 % carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1 % at sea level, and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 × 10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.
The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann.
The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earth 's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25 % of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5 % by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, also see volume (thermodynamics) ppmv: parts per million by volume Water vapor is about 0.25 % by mass over full atmosphere Water vapor strongly varies locally
The relative concentration of gasses remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature / altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth 's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free - moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.
The thermosphere is the second - highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500 -- 1000 km (310 -- 620 mi; 1,600,000 -- 3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth 's surface, contains the ionosphere.
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 ° C (2700 ° F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi).
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80 -- 85 km (50 -- 53 mi; 260,000 -- 280,000 ft) above sea level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around − 85 ° C (− 120 ° F; 190 K).
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar - mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES occasionally forms far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet - powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket - powered aircraft.
The stratosphere is the second - lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth 's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1 / 1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth 's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be − 60 ° C (− 76 ° F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 ° C.
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather - producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet - powered aircraft.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from Earth 's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth 's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn ''). The troposphere contains roughly 80 % of the mass of Earth 's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth 's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather - associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller - driven aircraft.
Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth 's surface is 14 ° C (57 ° F; 287 K) or 15 ° C (59 ° F; 288 K), depending on the reference.
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480 × 10 kg (1.135 × 10 lb), about 2.5 % less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth 's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth 's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather.
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1 / e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.
In summary, the mass of Earth 's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:
By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth 's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350 -- 400 km, within the F - layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700 -- 800 km.
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly - named thermosphere above 90 km.
Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg / m (1.2 g / L, 0.0012 g / cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.
The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5 × 10) tonnes or 1 / 1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 × 10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 × 10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 × 10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ± 0.0003 × 10 kg. ''
Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we can not see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.
When light passes through Earth 's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you can not see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun 's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O and O absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows '' of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet - C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400 -- 700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven - meter waves.
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body '' emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 ° C; 10,340 ° F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 ° C; 62 ° F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth 's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO and H O.
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth 's surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.
Atmospheric circulation is the large - scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large - scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth 's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia. As the solar nebula dissipated, these gases escaped, partly driven off by the solar wind.
Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases. A major part of carbon - dioxide emissions soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments.
Researchers have found water - related sediments dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere ''. An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life - forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30 % lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox ''.
The geological record however shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth - with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archean Eon an oxygen - containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago.
Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth 's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long - term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.
Before this time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. O showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15 % by the end of the Precambrian. The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, oxygen - requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30 % around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today 's 21 %. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today 's atmosphere contains 21 % oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid development of animals.
The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone - depleting substances.
On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.
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where do the terms starboard and port come from | Port and starboard - wikipedia
Port and starboard are nautical and aeronautical terms of orientation that deal unambiguously with the structure of vessels and aircraft. Their structures are largely bilaterally symmetrical, meaning they have mirror - image left and right halves if divided long - ways down the middle.
To understand which is which, when a person is facing the bow on a vessel or aircraft, that is, forward towards the direction the vehicle is heading when underway, the port side is the left - hand side and the starboard side is the right - hand side. However, port and starboard never change; they are unambiguous references that are not based on the relative directions of an observer, just like the cardinal directions of east and west do n't change no matter the direction a person faces.
The term starboard derives from the Old English steorbord, meaning the side on which the ship is steered. Before ships had rudders on their centrelines, they were steered with a steering oar at the stern of the ship on the right hand side of the ship, because more people are right - handed. Since the steering oar was on the right side of the boat, it would tie up at the wharf on the other side. Hence the left side was called port.
Formerly, larboard was used instead of port. This is from Middle - English ladebord and the term lade is related to the modern load. Larboard sounds similar to starboard and in 1844 the Royal Navy ordered that port be used instead. The United States Navy followed suit in 1846. Larboard continued to be used well into the 1850s by whalers.
The navigational treaty convention, the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea -- for instance, as appears in the Merchant Shipping (Distress Signals and Prevention of Collisions) Regulations of 1996 (and comparable US documents from the US Coast Guard), -- sets forth requirements for maritime vessels to avoid collisions, whether by sail or powered, and whether a vessel is overtaking, approaching head - on, or crossing. To set forth these navigational rules, the terms starboard and port are absolutely essential, and to aid in in situ decision - making, the two sides of each vessel are marked, dusk to dawn, by navigation lights, the vessel 's starboard side by green and its port side by red. Aircraft are lit in the same way.
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who is associated with kakori train conspiracy case of august 1925 | Kakori conspiracy - wikipedia
The Kakori Conspiracy (or Kakori train robbery or Kakori Case) was a train robbery that took place between Kakori and, near Lucknow, on 9 August 1925 during the Indian Independence Movement against the British Indian Government. The robbery was organised by the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA).
The robbery was conceived by Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan who belonged to the HRA, which later became the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. This organisation was established to carry out revolutionary activities against the British Empire in India with the objective of achieving independence. Since the organisation needed money for purchase of weaponry, Bismil and his party decided to plunder a train on one of the Northern Railway lines. The robbery plan was executed by Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Chandrashekhar Azad, Sachindra Bakshi, Keshab Chakravarty, Manmathnath Gupta, Murari Lal Gupta (fake name of Murari Lal Khanna), Mukundi Lal (Mukundi Lal Gupta) and Banwari Lal. One passenger was killed by an accidental shot.
Influence
Anushilan Samiti
Notable events
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On 9 August 1925, the Number 8 Down Train travelling from Shahjahanpur to Lucknow was approaching the town of Kakori (now in Uttar Pradesh), when one of the revolutionaries pulled the chain to stop the train and overpowered the guard. It is believed that they looted that specific train because train was supposed to carry the money - bags belonging to the British Government Treasury in the guard 's cabin. One passenger was killed by an accidental shot, making it a murder case. They looted only these bags containing some 8,000 Rupees and escaped to Lucknow while not a single Indian was looted, because the targets of the mission were:
Following the incident, the British administration started an intense manhunt and arrested several of the revolutionaries involved in the HRA. Their leader, Ram Prasad Bismil, was arrested at Saharanpur on 26 September 1925, and his lieutenant, Ashfaqullah Khan, was arrested ten months later at Delhi.
Forty people were arrested from all over India. Their names with the places of arrest are:
Of the above, Shachindra Nath Sanyal, Rajendra Lahiri and Yogesh Chandra Chatterji had already been arrested in Bengal. Lahiri was prosecuted in a Dakshineshwar bombing case, while Ashfaqullah Khan and Sachindra Bakshi were arrested later when the main Kakori conspiracy case was over. A supplementary case was filed against these two and they were prosecuted in the same manner.
Ram Prasad Bismil and some others were charged with various offences, including robbery and murder. Fifteen people had been released due to lack of evidence and a further five had absconded. Two of the absconders -- Ashfaqullah Khan and Sachindra Bakshi -- were captured after the trial, while one of the others, Chandrasekhar Azad, reorganised the HRA in 1928 and shot himself on 27 February 1931 at Chandrasekhar Azad Park, Allahabad.
Charges pressed against a further four men were dropped. Damodar Swarup Seth was discharged due to illness, while Veer Bhadra Tiwari, Jyoti Shankar Dixit and Shiv Charan Lal have been suspected of providing information to the authorities. A further two people -- Banarsi Lal and Indu Bhushan Mitra -- became approvers: they helped the prosecution, as also did Banwari Lal in return for a lenient sentence of two years imprisonment.
Charges against 15 of the accused were withdrawn. The trial against the remaining 28 began on 21 May 1926 in the special session court of A. Hamilton. Abbas Salim Khan, Banwari Lal Bhargava, Gyan Chattarjee and Mohd Ayuf were the assessors of the case. Of the 28, Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee and Rajendra Nath Lahiri were transported from where they had been held in Bengal.
The court appointed Jagat Narayan Mulla as public prosecutor knowingly; he had been prejudiced against Ram Prasad Bismil since 1916, when Bismil led the grand procession of Bal Gangadhar Tilak at Lucknow. He had also been the public procecutor in the Mainpuri conspiracy case of 1918.
Following the arrest of Ashfaqullah Khan, the police tried to make him provide evidence against his accomplices but he refused. Another supplementary case was filed against Ashfaqulla Khan and Sachindra Bakshi in the court of Special Sessions Judge J.R.W. Bennett. An appeal was filed in the then Chief Court of Oudh (now in Uttar Pradesh) on 18 July 1927.
The punishments given were as follows:
After final judgement of court, the group photograph was taken and all the accused were sent to the different jails of United Province. They were asked to put off their clothes and wear the jail dress like other prisoners. All the accused protested this jail order and started hunger strikes on the first day. Their plea was quite genuine. They argued that since the all have been charged to overturn the British rule and have been punished under section 120 (B) and 121 (A) hence they should be treated as political prisoners and provided the same facilities in the jails.
The details of their hunger strike are given hereunder:
The legal defence for the arrested revolutionaries was provided by Gobind Ballabh Pant, Mohan Lal Saxena, Chandra Bhanu Gupta, Ajit Prasad Jain, Gopi Nath Srivastava, R.M. Bahadurji and B.K. Chaudhury and Kripa Shankar Hajela. Pandit Jagat Narayan Mulla, a leading advocate from Lucknow and brother in law of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru refused to take up the defence of the arrested revolutionaries. He was appointed as Public Prosecutor by the law of Court.
Among the political figures who came out in support of those arrested for the Kakori train robbery were: Motilal Nehru, Madan Mohan Malviya, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Lala Lajpat Rai, Jawaharlal Nehru, Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, Shiv Prasad Gupta, Shri Prakash and Acharya Narendra Dev.
There were widespread protests against the Court 's decision all over the country, and members of the Central Legislature even petitioned the Viceroy of India to commute the death sentences given to the four men to life sentences. Appeals were also sent to the Privy Council and even to Mohandas K. Gandhi himself. However, these requests were turned down and the men were finally executed.
On 22 August 1927, the Chief Court endorsed the original judgement with an exception of one or two punishments. A mercy appeal was filed in due course before the Provincial Governor of U.P. by the members of legislative council which was dismissed. Ram Prasad Bismil wrote a letter to Madan Mohan Malviya on 9 September 1927 from Gorakhpur Jail. Malviya sent a memorandum to the then Viceroy and Governor General of India Edward Fredrick Lindley Wood with the signatures of 78 Members of Central Legislature, which was also turned down.
On 16 September 1927, the final mercy appeal was forwarded to Privy Council at London and to the King Emperor through a famous lawyer of England S.L. Polak but the British Government, who had already decided to hang them, sent their final decision to the India office of Viceroy that all the four condemned prisoners were to be hanged till death by 19 December 1927 positively.
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is the us post office going out of business | United States Postal Service - Wikipedia
The United States Postal Service (USPS; also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service) is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution.
The U.S. Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, when Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The Post Office Department was created in 1792 from Franklin 's operation, elevated to a cabinet - level department in 1872, and transformed in 1971 into the U.S. Postal Service as an independent agency.
The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees and operated 211,264 vehicles in 2014. The USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price and quality. The USPS still has exclusive access to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail '' and personal letterboxes in the United States, but now has to compete against private package delivery services, such as United Parcel Service and FedEx.
Since the early 1980s, many of the direct tax subsidies to the Post Office (with the exception of subsidies for costs associated with the disabled and overseas voters) have been reduced or eliminated in favor of indirect subsidies, in addition to the advantages associated with a government - enforced monopoly on the delivery of first - class mail. Since the 2006 all - time peak mail volume, after which Congress passed the Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act (which mandated $5.5 billion per year to be paid into an account to fully prefund employee retirement health benefits, a requirement exceeding that of other government and private organizations), revenue dropped sharply due to recession - influenced declining mail volume, prompting the postal service to look to other sources of revenue while cutting costs to reduce its budget deficit. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, and its revenue was $67.8 billion in 2014 and $68.9 billion in 2015.
In the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, setting up a location in Boston where one could post a letter back home to England. Other attempts focused on a dedicated postal service between two of the larger colonies, such as Massachusetts and Virginia, but the available services remained limited in scope and disjointed for many years. For example, informal independently - run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672.
A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21 - year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service. On February 17, 1691, a grant of letters patent from the joint sovereigns, William III and Mary II, empowered him:
"to erect, settle, and establish within the chief parts of their majesties ' colonies and plantations in America, an office or offices for receiving and dispatching letters and pacquets, and to receive, send, and deliver the same under such rates and sums of money as the planters shall agree to give, and to hold and enjoy the same for the term of twenty - one years. ''
The patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later. Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692. Rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed postal laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neale 's patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies. The chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic.
Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies. Most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, the information hub of the new nation. News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, and to exchange news from newspapers between the thirteen states. Overthrowing the London - oriented imperial postal service in 1774 -- 1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office (USPO) was created on July 26, 1775, by decree of the Second Continental Congress. Benjamin Franklin headed it briefly.
Before the Revolution, individuals like Benjamin Franklin and William Goddard were the colonial postmasters who managed the mails then and were the general architects of a postal system that started out as an alternative to the Crown Post.
The official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department (USPOD). It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress "To establish post offices and post roads ''. The 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the entire country with low - cost access to information on public affairs, while establishing a right to personal privacy.
Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger. Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi. At the same time Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson, judge of Louisiana Territory, the largest territory in North America. Bruce Adamson wrote that: "Next to Benjamin Franklin, Rufus Easton was one of the most colorful people in United States Postal History. '' It was Easton who educated Abraham Lincoln 's Attorney General, Edward Bates. In 1815 Edward Bates moved into the Easton home and lived there for years at Third and Elm. Today this is the site of the Jefferson Memorial Park. In 1806 Postmaster General Gideon Granger wrote a three - page letter to Easton, begging him not to partake in a duel with vice-president Aaron Burr. Two years earlier it was Burr who had shot and killed Alexander Hamilton. Many years later in 1852, Easton 's son, Major - General Langdon Cheves Easton, was commissioned by William T. Sherman, at Fort Union to deliver a letter to Independence, Missouri. Sherman wrote: "In the Spring of 1852, General Sherman mentioned that the quartermaster, Major L.C. Easton, at Fort Union, New Mexico, had occasion to send some message east by a certain date, and contracted with Aubrey to carry it to the nearest post office (then Independence, Missouri), making his compensation conditional on the time consumed. He was supplied with a good horse, and an order on the outgoing trains for exchange. Though the whole route was infested with hostile Indians, and not a house on it, Aubrey started alone with his rifle. He was fortunate in meeting several outward - bound trains, and thereby made frequent changes of horses, some four or five, and reached Independence in six days, having hardly rested or slept the whole way. ''
To cover long distances, the Post Office used a hub - and - spoke system, with Washington as the hub and chief sorting center. By 1869, with 27,000 local post offices to deal with, it had changed to sorting mail en route in specialized railroad mail cars, called Railway Post Offices, or RPOs. The system of postal money orders began in 1864. Free mail delivery began in the larger cities in 1863.
The postal system played a crucial role in national expansion. It facilitated expansion into the West by creating an inexpensive, fast, convenient communication system. Letters from early settlers provided information and boosterism to encourage increased migration to the West, helped scattered families stay in touch and provide assistance, assisted entrepreneurs in finding business opportunities, and made possible regular commercial relationships between merchants in the west and wholesalers and factories back east. The postal service likewise assisted the Army in expanding control over the vast western territories. The widespread circulation of important newspapers by mail, such as the New York Weekly Tribune, facilitated coordination among politicians in different states. The postal service helped integrate established areas with the frontier, creating a spirit of nationalism and providing a necessary infrastructure.
The Post Office in the 19th century was a major source of federal patronage. Local postmasterships were rewards for local politicians -- often the editors of party newspapers. About three quarters of all federal civilian employees worked for the Post Office. In 1816 it employed 3341 men, and in 1841, 14,290. The volume of mail expanded much faster than the population, as it carried annually 100 letters and 200 newspapers per 1000 white population in 1790, and 2900 letters and 2700 newspapers per thousand in 1840.
The Post Office Department was enlarged during the tenure of President Andrew Jackson. As the Post Office expanded, difficulties were experienced due to a lack of employees and transportation. The Post Office 's employees at that time were still subject to the so - called "spoils '' system, where faithful political supporters of the executive branch were appointed to positions in the post office and other government corporations as a reward for their patronage. These appointees rarely had prior experience in postal service and mail delivery. This system of political patronage was replaced in 1883, after passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act.
In 1823, ten years after the Post Office had first begun to use steamboats to carry mail between post towns where no roads existed, waterways were declared post roads. Once it became clear that the postal system in the United States needed to expand across the entire country, the use of the railroad to transport the mail was instituted in 1832, on one line in Pennsylvania. All railroads in the United States were designated as post routes, after passage of the Act of July 7, 1838. Mail service by railroad increased rapidly thereafter.
An Act of Congress provided for the issuance of stamps on March 3, 1847, and the Postmaster General immediately let a contract to the New York City engraving firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Edson. The first stamp issue of the U.S. was offered for sale on July 1, 1847, in New York City, with Boston receiving stamps the following day and other cities thereafter. The 5 - cent stamp paid for a letter weighing less than 1 oz (28 g) and traveling less than 300 miles, the 10 - cent stamp for deliveries to locations greater than 300 miles, or twice the weight deliverable for the 5 - cent stamp.
In 1847, the U.S. Mail Steamship Company acquired the contract which allowed it to carry the U.S. mails from New York, with stops in New Orleans and Havana, to the Isthmus of Panama for delivery in California. The same year, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company had acquired the right to transport mail under contract from the United States Government from the Isthmus of Panama to California. In 1855, William Henry Aspinwall completed the Panama Railway, providing rail service across the Isthmus and cutting to three weeks the transport time for the mails, passengers and goods to California. This remained an important route until the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869. Railroad companies greatly expanded mail transport service after 1862, and the Railway Mail Service was inaugurated in 1869.
Rail cars designed to sort and distribute mail while rolling were soon introduced. RMS employees sorted mail "on - the - fly '' during the journey, and became some of the most skilled workers in the postal service. An RMS sorter had to be able to separate the mail quickly into compartments based on its final destination, before the first destination arrived, and work at the rate of 600 pieces of mail an hour. They were tested regularly for speed and accuracy.
Parcel Post service began with the introduction of International Parcel Post between the USA and foreign countries in 1887. That same year, the U.S. Post Office (predecessor of the USPS) and the Postmaster General of Canada established parcel - post service between the two nations. A bilateral parcel - post treaty between the independent (at the time) Kingdom of Hawaii and the USA was signed on 19 December 1888 and put into effect early in 1889. Parcel - post service between the USA and other countries grew with the signing of successive postal conventions and treaties. While the Post Office agreed to deliver parcels sent into the country under the UPU treaty, it did not institute a domestic parcel - post service for another twenty - five years.
The advent of Rural Free Delivery (RFD) in the U.S. in 1896, and the inauguration of a domestic parcel post service by Postmaster General Frank H. Hitchcock in 1913, greatly increased the volume of mail shipped nationwide, and motivated the development of more efficient postal transportation systems. Many rural customers took advantage of inexpensive Parcel Post rates to order goods and products from businesses located hundreds of miles away in distant cities for delivery by mail. From the 1910s to the 1960s, many college students and others used parcel post to mail home dirty laundry, as doing so was less expensive than washing the clothes themselves.
After four - year - old Charlotte May Pierstorff was mailed from her parents to her grandparents in Idaho in 1914, mailing of people was prohibited. In 1917, the Post Office imposed a maximum daily mailable limit of two hundred pounds per customer per day after a business entrepreneur, W.H. Coltharp, used inexpensive parcel - post rates to ship more than eighty thousand masonry bricks some four hundred seven miles via horse - drawn wagon and train for the construction of a bank building in Vernal, Utah.
The advent of parcel post also led to the growth of mail order businesses that substantially increased rural access to modern goods over what was typically stocked in local general stores.
In 1912, carrier service was announced for establishment in towns of second and third class with $100,000 appropriated by Congress. From January 1, 1911, until July 1, 1967, the United States Post Office Department operated the United States Postal Savings System. An Act of Congress of June 25, 1910, established the Postal Savings System in designated Post Offices, effective January 1, 1911. The legislation aimed to get money out of hiding, attract the savings of immigrants accustomed to the postal savings system in their native countries, provide safe depositories for people who had lost confidence in banks, and furnish more convenient depositories for working people. The law establishing the system directed the Post Office Department to redeposit most of the money in the system in local banks, where it earned 2.5 percent interest.
The system paid 2 - percent interest per year on deposits. The half percent difference in interest was intended to pay for the operation of the system. Certificates were issued to depositors as proof of their deposit. Depositors in the system were initially limited to hold a balance of $500, but this was raised to $1,000 in 1916 and to $2,500 in 1918. The initial minimum deposit was $1. In order to save smaller amounts for deposit, customers could purchase a 10 - cent postal savings card and 10 - cent postal savings stamps to fill it. The card could be used to open or add to an account when its value, together with any attached stamps, amounted to one or more dollars, or it could be redeemed for cash. At its peak in 1947, the system held almost $3.4 billion in deposits, with more than four million depositors using 8,141 postal units.
The Post Office Department played a role during World War I, enacting the Espionage and Trading with the Enemy Acts. Also monitoring foreign mail and acting as counter-espionage to help secure allied victory.
On August 12, 1918, the Post Office Department took over airmail service from the United States Army Air Service (USAAS). Assistant Postmaster General, Otto Praeger, appointed Benjamin B. Lipsner to head the civilian - operated Air Mail Service. One of Lipsner 's first acts was to hire four pilots, each with at least 1,000 hours flying experience, paying them an average of $4,000 per year ($63.7 thousand today). The Post Office Department used new Standard JR - 1B biplanes specially modified to carry the mail while the war was still in progress, but following the war operated mostly World War I surplus military de Havilland DH - 4 aircraft.
During 1918, the Post Office hired an additional 36 pilots. In its first year of operation, the Post Office completed 1,208 airmail flights with 90 forced landings. Of those, 53 were due to weather and 37 to engine failure. By 1920, the Air Mail service had delivered 49 million letters. Domestic air mail became obsolete in 1975, and international air mail in 1995, when the USPS began transporting First - Class mail by air on a routine basis.
The Post Office was one of the first government departments to regulate obscene materials on a national basis. When the U.S. Congress passed the Comstock laws of 1873, it became illegal to send through the U.S. mail any material considered obscene or indecent, or which promoted abortion issues, birth control, or alcohol consumption.
On March 18, 1970, postal workers in New York City -- upset over low wages and poor working conditions, and emboldened by the Civil Rights movement -- organized a strike against the United States government. The strike initially involved postal workers in only New York City, but it eventually gained support of over 210,000 United States Post Office Department workers across the nation. While the strike ended without any concessions from the Federal government, it did ultimately allow for postal worker unions and the government to negotiate a contract which gave the unions most of what they wanted, as well as the signing of the Postal Reorganization Act by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970. The Act replaced the cabinet - level Post Office Department with a new federal agency, the United States Postal Service, and took effect on July 1, 1971.
The United States Postal Service employs some 617,000 workers, making it the third - largest civilian employer in the United States behind the federal government and Wal - Mart. In a 2006 U.S. Supreme Court decision, the Court noted: "Each day, according to the Government 's submissions here, the United States Postal Service delivers some 660 million pieces of mail to as many as 142 million delivery points. '' As of 2016, the USPS operates 31,585 post offices and locations in the U.S., and delivers 153.4 billion pieces of mail annually.
The USPS operates one of the largest civilian vehicle fleets in the world, with an estimated 227,896 vehicles, the majority of which are the easily identified Chevrolet / Grumman LLV (long - life vehicle), and the newer Ford / Utilimaster FFV (flex - fuel vehicle), originally also referred to as the CRV (carrier route vehicle). It is by geography and volume the globe 's largest postal system, delivering 47 % of the world 's mail. For every penny increase in the national average price of gasoline, the USPS spends an extra $8 million per year to fuel its fleet.
The number of gallons of fuel used in 2009 was 444 million, at a cost of US $1.1 billion. The fleet is notable in that many of its vehicles are right - hand drive, an arrangement intended to give drivers the easiest access to roadside mailboxes. Some Rural Letter Carriers use personal vehicles. Standard postal - owned vehicles do not have license plates. These vehicles are identified by a seven digit number displayed on the front and rear.
The Department of Defense and the USPS jointly operate a postal system to deliver mail for the military; this is known as the Army Post Office (for Army and Air Force postal facilities) and the Fleet Post Office (for Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard postal facilities).
In February 2013, the Postal Service announced that on Saturdays it would only deliver packages, mail - order medicines, Priority Mail, and Express Mail, effective August 10, 2013. However, this change was reversed by federal law in the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013. They now deliver packages on Sunday -- only for Amazon.com. During the four weeks preceding Christmas since 2013, packages from all mail classes and senders were delivered on Sunday in some areas.
Parcels are also delivered on holidays, with the exception of Thanksgiving and Christmas.
In October 2016, the Postal Service released Future Ready, a five - year plan required by law starting in 1993. The plan outlines the Postal Service 's goals for the next five years.
1. Deliver a world - class customer experience.
2. Equip, empower, and engage employees.
3. Innovate faster to deliver value.
4. Invest in our future platforms.
In 2011, numerous media outlets reported that the USPS was going out of business. The USPS 's strategy came under fire as new technologies emerged and the USPS was not finding ways to generate new sources of revenue.
In 2016, the Postal Service collected $71.49 billion in revenue.
In 2016, the USPS had its fifth straight annual operating loss, in the amount of $5.59 billion, of which $5.8 billion was the accrual of unpaid mandatory retiree health payments.
First Class mail volume peaked in 2001 and has declined 29 % from 1998 to 2008, due to the increasing use of email and the World Wide Web for correspondence and business transactions.
FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages.
Lower volume means lower revenues to support the fixed commitment to deliver to every address once a day, six days a week. According to an official report on November 15, 2012, the U.S. Postal Service lost $15.9 billion its 2012 fiscal year.
In response, the USPS has increased productivity each year from 2000 to 2007, through increased automation, route re-optimization, and facility consolidation. Despite these efforts, the organization saw an $8.5 billion budget shortfall in 2010, and was losing money at a rate of about $3 billion per quarter in 2011.
On December 5, 2011 the USPS announced it would close more than half of its mail processing centers, eliminate 28,000 jobs and reduce overnight delivery of First - Class Mail. This will close down 252 of its 461 processing centers. (At peak mail volume in 2006, the USPS operated 673 facilities.) As of May 2012, the plan was to start the first round of consolidation in summer 2012, pause from September to December, and begin a second round in February 2014; 80 % of first class mail would still be delivered overnight through the end of 2013. New delivery standards were issued in January 2015, and the majority of single - piece (not presorted) first - class mail is now being delivered in two days instead of one. Large commercial mailers can still have first - class mail delivered overnight if delivered directly to a processing center in the early morning, though as of 2014 this represented only 11 % of first - class mail. Unsorted first - class mail will continued to be delivered anywhere in the contiguous United States within three days.
In July 2011, the USPS announced a plan to close about 3,700 small post offices. Various representatives in Congress protested, and the Senate passed a bill that would have kept open all post offices further than 10 miles from the next office. In May 2012, the service announced it had modified its plan. Instead, rural post offices would remain open with reduced retail hours (some as little as two hours per day) unless there was a community preference for a different option. In a survey of rural customers, 20 % preferred the "Village Post Office '' replacement (where a nearby private retail store would provide basic mail services with expanded hours), 15 % preferred merger with another Post Office, and 11 % preferred expanded rural delivery services. Approximately 40 % of postal revenue already comes from online purchases or private retail partners including Walmart, Staples, Office Depot, Walgreens, Sam 's Club, Costco, and grocery stores. The National Labor Relations Board agreed to hear the American Postal Workers Union 's arguments that these counters should be manned by postal employees who earn far more and have "a generous package of health and retirement benefits ''.
On January 28, 2009, Postmaster General John E. Potter testified before the Senate that, if the Postal Service could not readjust its payment toward the contractually funding earned employee retiree health benefits, as mandated by the Postal Accountability & Enhancement Act of 2006, the USPS would be forced to consider cutting delivery to five days per week during June, July, and August.
H.R. 22, addressing this issue, passed the House of Representatives and Senate and was signed into law on September 30, 2009. However, Postmaster General Potter continued to advance plans to eliminate Saturday mail delivery.
On June 10, 2009, the National Rural Letter Carriers ' Association (NRLCA) was contacted for its input on the USPS 's current study of the effect of five - day delivery along with developing an implementation plan for a five - day service plan. A team of Postal Service headquarters executives and staff has been given a time frame of sixty days to complete the study. The current concept examines the effect of five - day delivery with no business or collections on Saturday, with Post Offices with current Saturday hours remaining open.
On Thursday, April 15, 2010, the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform held a hearing to examine the status of the Postal Service and recent reports on short and long term strategies for the financial viability and stability of the USPS entitled "Continuing to Deliver: An Examination of the Postal Service 's Current Financial Crisis and its Future Viability. '' At which, PMG Potter testified that by the year 2020, the USPS cumulative losses could exceed $238 billion, and that mail volume could drop 15 percent from 2009.
In February 2013, the USPS announced that in order to save about $2 billion per year, Saturday delivery service would be discontinued except for packages, mail - order medicines, Priority Mail, Express Mail, and mail delivered to Post Office boxes, beginning August 10, 2013. However the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013, passed in March, reversed the cuts to Saturday delivery.
The Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act of 2006 (PAEA) obligates the USPS to fund the present value of earned retirement obligations (essentially past promises which have not yet come due) within a ten - year time span. In contrast, private businesses in the United States have no legal obligation to pay for retirement costs at promise - time rather than retirement - time, but about one quarter do.
The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is the main bureaucratic organization responsible for the human resources aspect of many federal agencies and their employees. The PAEA created the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefit Fund (PSRHB) after Congress removed the Postal Service contribution to the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). Most other employees that contribute to the CSRS have 7 % deducted from their wages.
On September 30, 2014, the USPS failed to make a $5.7 billion payment on this debt, the fourth such default.
Congress has limited rate increases for First - Class Mail to the cost of inflation, unless approved by the Postal Regulatory Commission. A 3 ¢ surcharge above inflation increased the 1 oz (28 g) rate to 49 ¢ in January, 2014, but this was approved by the Commission for two years only.
Comprehensive reform packages considered in the 113th Congress include S. 1486 and H.R. 2748. These include the efficiency measure, supported by Postmaster General Patrick Donahoe of ending door - to - door delivery of mail for some or most of the 35 million addresses that currently receive it, replacing that with either curbside boxes or nearby "cluster boxes ''. This would save $4.5 billion per year out of the $30 billion delivery budget; door - to - door city delivery costs annually on average $353 per stop, curbside $224, and cluster box $160 (and for rural delivery, $278, $176, and $126, respectively).
S. 1486, also with the support of Postmaster Donahoe, would also allow the USPS to ship alcohol in compliance with state law, from manufacturers to recipients with ID to show they are over 21. This is projected to raise approximately $50 million per year. (Shipping alcoholic beverages is currently illegal under 18 U.S.C. § 1716 (f).)
In 2014, the Postal Service was requesting reforms to worker 's compensation, moving from a pension to defined contribution retirement savings plan, and paying senior retiree health care costs out of Medicare funds, as is done for private - sector workers.
The Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service sets policy, procedure, and postal rates for services rendered, and has a similar role to a corporate board of directors. Of the eleven members of the Board, nine are appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate (see 39 U.S.C. § 202). The nine appointed members then select the United States Postmaster General, who serves as the board 's tenth member, and who oversees the day - to - day activities of the service as Chief Executive Officer (see 39 U.S.C. § § 202 -- 203). The ten - member board then nominates a Deputy Postmaster General, who acts as Chief Operating Officer, to the eleventh and last remaining open seat.
The independent Postal Regulatory Commission (formerly the Postal Rate Commission) is also controlled by appointees of the President confirmed by the Senate. It oversees postal rates and related concerns, having the authority to approve or reject USPS proposals.
The USPS is often mistaken for a government - owned corporation (e.g., Amtrak) because it operates much like a business. It is, however, an "establishment of the executive branch of the Government of the United States '', (39 U.S.C. § 201) as it is controlled by Presidential appointees and the Postmaster General. As a government agency, it has many special privileges, including sovereign immunity, eminent domain powers, powers to negotiate postal treaties with foreign nations, and an exclusive legal right to deliver first - class and third - class mail. Indeed, in 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in a unanimous decision that the USPS was not a government - owned corporation, and therefore could not be sued under the Sherman Antitrust Act.
The U.S. Supreme Court has also upheld the USPS 's statutory monopoly on access to letter boxes against a First Amendment freedom of speech challenge; it thus remains illegal in the U.S. for anyone, other than the employees and agents of the USPS, to deliver mailpieces to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail ''.
The Postal Service also has a Mailers ' Technical Advisory Committee and local Postal Customer Councils, which are advisory and primarily involve business customers.
Article I, section 8, Clause 7 of the United States Constitution grants Congress the power to establish post offices and post roads, which has been interpreted as a de facto Congressional monopoly over the delivery of first class residential mail -- which has been defined as non-urgent residential letters (not packages). Accordingly, no other system for delivering first class residential mail -- public or private -- has been tolerated, absent Congress 's consent.
The mission of the Postal Service is to provide the American public with trusted universal postal service. While not explicitly defined, the Postal Service 's universal service obligation (USO) is broadly outlined in statute and includes multiple dimensions: geographic scope, range of products, access to services and facilities, delivery frequency, affordable and uniform pricing, service quality, and security of the mail. While other carriers may claim to voluntarily provide delivery on a broad basis, the Postal Service is the only carrier with a legal obligation to provide all the various aspects of universal service.
Proponents of universal service principles claim that since any obligation must be matched by the financial capability to meet that obligation, the postal monopoly was put in place as a funding mechanism for the USO, and it has been in place for over a hundred years. It consists of two parts: the Private Express Statutes (PES) and the mailbox access rule. The PES refers to the Postal Service 's monopoly on the delivery of letters, and the mailbox rule refers to the Postal Service 's exclusive access to customer mailboxes.
Proponents of universal service principles further claim that eliminating or reducing the PES or mailbox rule would affect the ability of the Postal Service to provide affordable universal service. If, for example, the PES and the mailbox rule were to be eliminated, and the USO maintained, then either billions of dollars in tax revenues or some other source of funding would have to be found.
Some proponents of universal service principles suggest that private communications that are protected by the veil of government promote the exchange of free ideas and communications. This separates private communications from the ability of a private for - profit or non-profit organization to corrupt. Security for the individual is in this way protected by the United States Post Office, maintaining confidentiality and anonymity, as well as government employees being much less likely to be instructed by superiors to engage in nefarious spying. It is seen by some as a dangerous step to extract the universal service principle from the post office, as the untainted nature of private communications is preserved as assurance of the protection of individual freedom of privacy.
However, as the recent notice of a termination of mail service to residents of the Frank Church -- River of No Return Wilderness indicates, mail service has been contracted to private firms such as Arnold Aviation for many decades. KTVB - TV reported:
"We can not go out every week and pick up our mail... it 's impossible '', said Heinz Sippel. "Everyone gets their mail. Why ca n't we? '' said Sue Anderson. Getting mail delivered, once a week, by airplane is not a luxury, it 's a necessity for those who live in Idaho 's vast wilderness -- those along the Salmon and Selway rivers. It 's a service that 's been provided to them for more than half a century -- mostly by Ray Arnold of Arnold Aviation.
The decision was reversed; U.S. Postmaster General John Potter indicated that acceptable service to back country customers could not be achieved in any other fashion than continuing an air mail contract with Arnold Aviation to deliver the mail.
The Postal Act of 2006 required the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC) to submit a report to the President and Congress on universal postal service and the postal monopoly in December 2008. The report must include any recommended changes. The Postal Service report supports the requirement that the PRC is to consult with and solicit written comments from the Postal Service. In addition, the Government Accountability Office is required to evaluate broader business model issues by 2011.
On October 15, 2008, the Postal Service submitted a report to the PRC on its position related to the Universal Service Obligation (USO). It said no changes to the USO and restriction on mailbox access were necessary at this time, but increased regulatory flexibility was required to ensure affordable universal service in the future. In 2013, the Postal Service announced that starting August 2013, Saturday delivery would be discontinued.
Obligations of the USO include uniform prices, quality of service, access to services, and six - day delivery to every part of the country. To assure financial support for these obligations, the postal monopoly provides the Postal Service the exclusive right to deliver letters and restricts mailbox access solely for mail. The report argued that eliminating or reducing either aspect of the monopoly "would have a devastating impact on the ability... to provide the affordable universal service that the country values so highly. '' Relaxing access to the mailbox would also pose security concerns, increase delivery costs, and hurt customer service, according to the Post Office. The report notes:
Most of these alternatives are not actually free in some communities. For example, in the Chicago metropolitan area and many other major metros one must get a background check from police and pay a daily fee for the right to solicit or post commercial messages on private property.
Regarding the monopoly on delivery of letters, the report notes that the monopoly is not complete, as there is an exception for letters where either the amount paid for private carriage of the letter equals at least six times the current rate for the first ounce of a single - piece First - Class Mail letter (also known as the "base rate '' or "base tariff '') or the letter weighs at least 12.5 ounces.
The Postal Service said that the USO should continue to be broadly defined and there should be no changes to the postal monopoly. Any changes would have far - reaching effects on customers and the trillion dollar mailing industry. "A more rigidly defined USO would... ultimately harm the American public and businesses, '' according to the report, which cautions that any potential change must be studied carefully and the effects fully understood.
FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages. Due to the postal monopoly, they are not allowed to deliver non-urgent letters and may not directly ship to U.S. Mail boxes at residential and commercial destinations. However, both companies have transit agreements with the USPS in which an item can be dropped off with either FedEx or UPS who will then provide shipment up to the destination post office serving the intended recipient where it will be transferred for delivery to the U.S. Mail destination, including Post Office Box destinations. These services also deliver packages which are larger and heavier than USPS will accept. DHL Express was the third major competitor until February 2009, when it ceased domestic delivery operations in the United States.
A variety of other transportation companies in the United States move cargo around the country, but either have limited geographic scope for delivery points, or specialize in items too large to be mailed. Many of the thousands of courier companies focus on same - day delivery, for example, by bicycle messenger.
Although USPS and FedEx are direct competitors, USPS contracts with FedEx for air transport of 2 -- 3 Day Priority Mail and Priority Mail Express (typically delivered overnight).
The Post Office Department owned and operated the first public telegraph lines in the United States, starting in 1844 from Washington to Baltimore, and eventually extending to New York, Boston, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. In 1847 the telegraph system was privatized, except for a period during World War I, when it was used to accelerate the delivery of letters arriving at night.
Between 1942 and 1945 "V - Mail '' (for "Victory Mail '') service was available for military mail. Letters were converted into microfilm and reprinted near the destination, to save room on transport vehicles for military cargo.
From 1982 to 1985 Electronic Computer Originated Mail, known as E-COM was accepted for bulk mailings. Text was transmitted electronically to one of 25 post offices nationwide. The Postal Service would print the mail and put it in special envelopes bearing a blue E-COM logo. Delivery was assured within 2 days.
To improve accuracy and efficiency, the Postal Service introduced the Intelligent Mail program to complement the ZIP code system. This system, which was intended to replace the depreciated POSTNET system, allows bulk mailers to use pre-printed bar codes to assist in mail delivery and sorting. Additional features, called Enhanced, or Full - Service, Intelligent Mail Barcodes allow for mail tracking of bulk mail through the postal system up to the final delivery Post Office.
Critics of the universal service requirement and the statutory postal monopoly include several professional economists advocating for the privatization of the mail delivery system, or at least a relaxation of the universal service model that currently exists. Rick Geddes argued in 2000:
Furthermore, some economists have argued that because public enterprises may pursue objectives different than profit maximization, they might have more of an incentive than profit - maximizing firms to behave anticompetitively through policies such as predatory pricing, misstating costs, and creating barriers to entry. To resolve those issues, one economist proposes a cost - allocation model that would determine the optimal allocation of USPS 's common costs by finding the share of costs that would maximize USPS profits from its competitive products. Postal regulators could use such a cost model to ensure that the Postal Service is not abusing its statutory monopoly by subsidizing price cuts in competitive product markets with revenue obtained from the monopolized market.
The United States Postal Inspection Service (USPIS) is one of the oldest law enforcement agencies in the U.S. Founded by Benjamin Franklin, its mission is to protect the Postal Service, its employees, and its customers from crime and protect the nation 's mail system from criminal misuse.
Postal Inspectors enforce over 200 federal laws providing for the protection of mail in investigations of crimes that may adversely affect or fraudulently use the U.S. Mail, the postal system or postal employees.
The USPIS has the power to enforce the USPS monopoly by conducting search and seizure raids on entities they suspect of sending non-urgent mail through overnight delivery competitors. According to the American Enterprise Institute, a private conservative think tank, the USPIS raided Equifax offices in 1993 to ascertain if the mail they were sending through Federal Express was truly "extremely urgent. '' It was found that the mail was not, and Equifax was fined $30,000.
Lastly, the PIS oversees the activities of the Postal Police Force who patrol in and around selected high - risk postal facilities in major metropolitan areas in the United States and its territories.
The United States Postal Service Office of Inspector General (OIG) was authorized by law in 1996. Prior to the 1996 legislation, the Postal Inspection Service performed the duties of the OIG. The Inspector General, who is independent of postal management, is appointed by and reports directly to the nine presidentially appointed, Senate -- confirmed members of the Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service.
The primary purpose of the OIG is to prevent, detect and report fraud, waste and program abuse, and promote efficiency in the operations of the Postal Service. The OIG has "oversight '' responsibility for all activities of the Postal Inspection Service.
All mailable articles (e.g., letters, flats, machinable parcels, irregular parcels, etc.) shipped within the United States must comply with an array of standards published in the USPS Domestic Mail Manual (DMM). Before addressing the mailpiece, one must first comply with the various mailability standards relating to attributes of the actual mailpiece such as: minimum / maximum dimensions and weight, acceptable mailing containers, proper mailpiece sealing / closure, utilization of various markings, and restrictions relating to various hazardous (e.g., explosives, flammables, etc.) and restricted (e.g., cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, etc.) materials, as well as others articulated in § 601 of the DMM.
The USPS specifies the following key elements when preparing the face of a mailpiece:
Domestic First - Class Mail costs 49 ¢ for envelopes (34 ¢ for post cards) and upwards, depending on the weight and dimensions of the letter and the class.
Mail going to naval vessels is known as the Fleet Post Office (FPO) and to Army or Air Force installations use the city abbreviation APO (Army Post Office or Air Force Post Office).
Undeliverable mail that could not be readily returned, including mail without a return address, is treated as dead mail at a Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia or Saint Paul, Minnesota.
The USPS maintains a list of proper abbreviations.
The format of a return address is similar. Though some style manuals recommend using a comma between the city and state name when typesetting addresses in other contexts, for optimal automatic character recognition, the Post Office does not recommend this when addressing mail. The official recommendation is to use all upper case block letters with proper formats and abbreviations, and leave out all punctuation except for the hyphen in the ZIP + 4 code. If the address is unusually formatted or illegible enough, it will require hand - processing, delaying that particular item. The USPS publishes the entirety of their postal addressing standards.
Postal address verification tools and services are offered by the USPS and third party companies to help ensure mail is deliverable by fixing formatting, appending information such as ZIP code and validating the address is a valid delivery point. Customers can look up ZIP codes and verify addresses using USPS Web Tools available on the official USPS website and Facebook page, as well as on third - party sites.
Delivery Point Validation (DPV) provides the highest level of address accuracy checking. In a DPV process, the address is checked against the AMS data file to ensure that it exists as an active delivery point. The USPS does not offer DPV validation on their website however there are companies that offer services to perform DPV verification.
The actual postage can be paid via:
All unused U.S. postage stamps issued since 1861 are still valid as postage at their indicated value. Stamps with no value shown or denominated by a letter are also still valid, although the value depends upon the particular stamp. For some stamps issued without a printed value, the current value is the original value. But some stamps beginning in 1988 or earlier, including "Forever Stamps '' that were issued beginning in April 2007, and all 1st class mail 1st ounce stamps beginning 2011 - 01 - 21, the value is the current value of a 1st class mail 1st ounce stamps. (The USPS calls these "Forever Stamps ''. The generic name is non-denominated postage.)
Forever stamps are sold at the First - Class Mail postage rate at the time of purchase, but will always be valid for First - Class Mail (1 oz and under), no matter how rates rise in the future. Britain has had a similar stamp since 1989. The cost of mailing a 1 oz (28 g) First - Class letter increased to 49 cents on January 26, 2014.
A postage meter is a mechanical device used to create and apply physical evidence of postage (or franking) to mailed matter. Postage meters are regulated by a country 's postal authority; for example, in the United States, the United States Postal Service specifies the rules for the creation, support, and use of postage meters. A postage meter imprints an amount of postage, functioning as a postage stamp, a cancellation and a dated postmark all in one. The meter stamp serves as proof of payment and eliminates the need for adhesive stamps.
In addition to using standard stamps, postage can now be printed in the form of an electronic stamp, or e-stamp, from a personal computer using a system called Information Based Indicia. This online PC Postage method relies upon application software on the customer 's computer contacting a postal security device at the office of the postal service.
Electronic Verification System (eVS) is the Postal Service 's integrated mail management technology that centralizes payment processing and electronic postage reports. Part of an evolving suite of USPS electronic payment services called PostalOne!, eVS allows mailers shipping large volumes of parcels through the Postal Service a way to circumvent use of hard - copy manifests, postage statements and drop - shipment verification forms. Instead, mailers can pay postage automatically through a centralized account and track payments online.
Beginning in August 2007, the Postal Service began requiring mailers shipping Parcel Select packages using a permit imprint to use eVS for manifesting their packages.
All U.S. postage stamps issued under the former United States Post Office Department and other postage items that were released before 1978 are not subject to copyright, but stamp designs since 1978 are copyrighted. The United States Copyright Office in section 313.6 (C) (1) of the Third Edition of the Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices holds that "Works prepared by officers or employees of the U.S. Postal Service... are not considered works of the U.S. Government '' and are therefore eligible for registration. Thus, the USPS holds copyright to such materials released since 1978 under Title 17 of the United States Code. Written permission is required for use of copyrighted postage stamp images, although under USPS rules, permission is "generally '' not required for "educational use '', "news reporting '' or "philatelic advertising use, '' but users must cite USPS as the source of the image and include language such as "© United States Postal Service. All rights reserved. ''
As of April 2011, domestic postage levels for low - volume mailers include:
The Post Office will not deliver packages heavier than 70 pounds (32 kg) or if the length (the package 's longest dimension) plus the girth (the measurement around the package at its largest point in the two shorter dimensions) is greater than 108 inches (270 cm) combined (130 inches (330 cm) for Parcel Post)
Discounts are available for large volumes of mail. Depending on the postage level, certain conditions might be required or optional for an additional discount:
In addition to bulk discounts on Express, Priority, and First - Class Mail, the following postage levels are available for bulk mailers:
Depending on the type of mail, additional services are available for an additional fee:
In May 2007, the USPS restructured international service names to correspond with domestic shipping options. Formerly, USPS International services were categorized as Airmail (Letter Post), Economy (Surface) Parcel Post, Airmail Parcel Post, Global Priority, Global Express, and Global Express Guaranteed Mail. The former Airmail (Letter Post) is now First - Class Mail International, and includes small packages weighing up to four pounds (1.8 kg). Economy Parcel Post was discontinued for international service, while Airmail Parcel Post was replaced by Priority Mail International. Priority Mail International Flat - Rate packaging in various sizes was introduced, with the same conditions of service previously used for Global Priority. Global Express is now Express Mail International, while Global Express Guaranteed is unchanged. The international mailing classes with a tracking ability are Express, Express Guaranteed, and Priority (except that tracking is not available for Priority Mail International Flat Rate Envelopes or Priority Mail International Small Flat Rate Boxes).
One of the major changes in the new naming and services definitions is that USPS - supplied mailing boxes for Priority and Express mail are now allowed for international use. These services are offered to ship letters and packages to almost every country and territory on the globe. The USPS provides much of this service by contracting with a private parcel service, FedEx.
The USPS provides an M - bag service for international shipment of printed matter; previously surface M - bags existed, but with the 2007 elimination of surface mail, only airmail M - bags remain. The term "M - bag '' is not expanded in USPS publications; M - bags are simply defined as "direct sacks of printed matter... sent to a single foreign addressee at a single address ''; however, the term is sometimes referred to informally as "media bag '', as the bag can also contain "discs, tapes, and cassettes '', in addition to books, for which the usual umbrella term is "media ''; some also refer to them as "mail bags ''.
Military mail is billed at domestic rates when being sent from the United States to a military outpost, and is free when sent by deployed military personnel. The overseas logistics are handled by the Military Postal Service Agency in the Department of Defense. Outside of forward areas and active operations, military mail First - Class takes 7 -- 10 days, Priority 10 -- 15 days, and Parcel Post about 24 days.
Three independent countries with a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. (Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia) have a special relationship with the United States Postal Service:
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In 2007, the US Postal Service discontinued its outbound international surface mail ("sea mail '') service, mainly because of increased costs. Returned undeliverable surface parcels had become an expensive problem for the USPS. The discontinuation has been criticized by independent booksellers, by other small businesses which ship internationally, by the Peace Corps, and by military personnel. Domestic surface mail (now "Retail Ground '' or "Commercial Parcel Select '') remains available.
Alternatives to international surface mail include:
Processing of standard sized envelopes and cards is highly automated, including reading of handwritten addresses. Mail from individual customers and public postboxes is collected by mail carriers into plastic tubs, which are taken to one of approximately 251 Processing and Distribution Centers (P&DC) across the United States. Each P&DC sorts mail for a given region (typically with a radius of around 200 miles (320 km)) and connects with the national network for interregional mail. The USPS has consolidated mail sorting for large regions into the P&DCs on the basis that most mail is addressed to faraway destinations, but for cities at the edge of a P&DC 's region, this means all locally addressed mail must now travel long distances (that is, to and from the P&DC for sorting) to reach nearby addresses.
At the P&DC, mail is emptied into hampers which are then automatically dumped into a Dual Pass Rough Cull System (DPRCS). As mail travels through the DPRCS, large items, such as packages and mail bundles, are removed from the stream. As the remaining mail enters the first machine for processing standard mail, the Advanced Facer - Canceler System (AFCS), pieces that passed through the DPRCS but do not conform to physical dimensions for processing in the AFCS (e.g., large envelopes or overstuffed standard envelopes) are automatically diverted from the stream. Mail removed from the DPRCS and AFCS is manually processed or sent to parcel sorting machines.
In contrast to the previous system, which merely canceled and postmarked the upper right corner of the envelope, thereby missing any stamps which were inappropriately placed, the Advanced Facer - Canceler System locates indicia (stamp or metered postage mark), regardless of the orientation of the mail as it enters the machine, and cancels it by applying a postmark. Detection of indicia enables the AFCS to determine the orientation of each mailpiece and sort it accordingly, rotating pieces as necessary so all mail is sorted right - side up and faced in the same direction in each output bin.
Mail is output by the machine into three categories: mail already affixed with a bar code and addressed (such as business reply envelopes and cards); mail with machine printed (typed) addresses; and mail with handwritten addresses. Additionally, machines with a recent Optical Character Recognition (OCR) upgrade have the capability to read the address information, including handwritten, and sort the mail based on local or outgoing ZIP codes.
Mail with typed addresses goes to a Multiline Optical Character Reader (MLOCR) which reads the ZIP Code and address information and prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelope. Mail (actually the scanned image of the mail) with handwritten addresses (and machine - printed ones that are not easily recognized) goes to the Remote Bar Coding System. It also corrects spelling errors and, where there is an error, omission, or conflict in the written address, identifies the most likely correct address.
When it has decided on a correct address, it prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelopes, similarly to the MLOCR system. RBCS also has facilities in place, called Remote Encoding Centers, that have humans look at images of mail pieces and enter the address data. The address data is associated with the image via an ID Tag, a fluorescent barcode printed by mail processing equipment on the back of mail pieces.
Processed mail is imaged by the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking (MICT) system to allow easier tracking of hazardous substances. Images are taken at more than 200 mail processing centers, and are destroyed after being retained for 30 days.
If a customer has filed a change of address card and his or her mail is detected in the mailstream with the old address, the mailpiece is sent to a machine that automatically connects to a Computerized Forwarding System database to determine the new address. If this address is found, the machine will paste a label over the former address with the current address. The mail is returned to the mailstream to forward to the new location.
Mail with addresses that can not be resolved by the automated system are separated for human intervention. If a local postal worker can read the address, he or she manually sorts it out according to the ZIP code on the article. If the address can not be read, mail is either returned to the sender (First - Class Mail with a valid return address) or is sent to the Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia (formerly known as the dead letter office). At this office, the mail is opened to try to find an address to forward to. If an address is found, the contents are resealed and delivered. Otherwise, the items are held for 90 days in case of inquiry by the customer; if they are not claimed, they are either destroyed or auctioned off at the monthly Postal Service Unclaimed Parcel auction to raise money for the service.
Once the mail is bar coded, it is automatically sorted by a Delivery Bar Code Sorter (DBCS) that reads the bar code, identifies the destination of the mailpiece, and sends it to an appropriate tray that corresponds to the next segment of its journey.
Regional mail is either trucked to the appropriate local post office, or kept in the building for carrier routes served directly from the P&DC. Out - of - region mail is trucked to the airport and then flown, usually as baggage on commercial airlines, to the airport nearest the destination station. At the destination P&DC, mail is once again read by a DBCS which sorts items to local post offices; this includes grouping mailpieces by individual mail carrier.
At the carrier route level, 95 % of letters arrive pre-sorted; the remaining mail must be sorted by hand. The Post Office is working to increase the percentage of automatically sorted mail, including a pilot program to sort "flats ''.
FedEx provides air transport service to USPS for Priority and Express Mail. Priority Mail and Express Mail are transported from Priority Mail processing centers to the closest FedEx - served airport, where they are handed off to FedEx. FedEx then flies them to the destination airport and hands them back to USPS for transport to the local post office and delivery.
Although its customer service centers are called post offices in regular speech, the USPS recognizes several types of postal facilities, including the following:
While common usage refers to all types of postal facilities as "substations '', the USPS Glossary of Postal Terms does not define or even list that word. Post Offices often share facilities with other governmental organizations located within a city 's central business district. In those locations, often Courthouses and Federal Buildings, the building is owned by the General Services Administration while the U.S. Postal Services operates as a tenant. The USPS retail system has approximately 36,000 post offices, stations, and branches.
In the year 2004, the USPS began deploying Automated Postal Centers (APCs). APCs are unattended kiosks that are capable of weighing, franking, and storing packages for later pickup as well as selling domestic and international postage stamps. Since its introduction, APCs do not take cash payments -- they only accept credit or debit cards. Similarly, traditional vending machines are available at many post offices to purchase stamps, though these are being phased out in many areas. Due to increasing use of Internet services, as of June 2009, no retail post office windows are open 24 hours; overnight services are limited to those provided by an Automated Postal Center.
In February 2006, the USPS announced that they plan to replace the nine existing facility - types with five processing facility - types:
Over a period of years, these facilities are expected to replace Processing & Distribution Centers, Customer Service Facilities, Bulk Mail Centers, Logistic and Distribution Centers, annexes, the Hub and Spoke Program, Air Mail Centers, and International Service Centers.
The changes are a result of the declining volumes of single - piece First - Class Mail, population shifts, the increase in drop shipments by advertising mailers at destinating postal facilities, advancements in equipment and technology, redundancies in the existing network, and the need for operational flexibility.
The United States Postal Service does not directly own or operate any aircraft or trains, although both were formerly operated. The mail and packages are flown on airlines with which the Postal Service has a contractual agreement. The contracts change periodically. Contract airlines have included: UPS, Emery Worldwide, Ryan International Airlines, FedEx Express, American Airlines, United Airlines, and Express One International. The Postal Service also contracts with Amtrak to carry some mail between certain cities such as Chicago and Minneapolis -- Saint Paul.
The last air delivery route in the continental U.S., to residents in the Frank Church -- River of No Return Wilderness, was scheduled to be ended in June 2009. The weekly bush plane route, contracted out to an air taxi company, had in its final year an annual cost of $46,000, or $2400 / year per residence, over ten times the average cost of delivering mail to a residence in the United States. This decision has been reversed by the U.S. Postmaster General.
Private US parcel forwarding or US mail forwarding companies focusing on personal shopper, relocation, Ex-pat and mail box services often interface with the United States Postal Service for transporting of mail and packages for their customers.
From 1810, mail was delivered seven days a week. In 1828, local religious leaders noticed a decline in Sunday - morning church attendance because of local post offices ' doubling as gathering places. These leaders appealed to the government to intervene and close post offices on Sundays. The government, however, declined, and mail was delivered 7 days a week until 1912.
Today, U.S. Mail (with the exception of Express Mail) is not delivered on Sunday, except in a few towns in which the local religion has had an effect on the policy, such as Loma Linda, California, which has a significant Seventh - day Adventist population and where U.S. Mail is delivered Sunday through Friday, with the exception of observed federal holidays.
Saturday delivery was temporarily suspended in April 1957, because of lack of funds, but quickly restored.
Budget problems prompted consideration of dropping Saturday delivery starting around 2009. This culminated in a 2013 announcement that regular mail services would be cut to five days a week, which was reversed by Congress before it could take effect. (See the section Revenue decline and planned cuts.)
Originally, mail was not delivered to homes and businesses, but to post offices. In 1863, "city delivery '' began in urban areas with enough customers to make this economical. This required streets to be named, houses to be numbered, with sidewalks and lighting provided, and these street addresses to be added to envelopes. The number of routes served expanded over time. In 1891, the first experiments with Rural Free Delivery began in less densely populated areas. There is currently an effort to reduce direct delivery in favor of mailbox clusters.
To compensate for high mail volume and slow long - distance transportation which saw mail arrive at post offices throughout the day, deliveries were made multiple times a day. This ranged from twice for residential areas to up to seven times for the central business district of Brooklyn, New York. In the late 19th century, mail boxes were encouraged, saving carriers the time it took to deliver directly to the addressee in person; in the 1910s and 1920s, they were phased in as a requirement for service. In the 1940s, multiple daily deliveries began to be reduced, especially on Saturdays. By 1990, the last twice - daily deliveries in New York City were eliminated.
Today, mail is delivered once a day on - site to most private homes and businesses. The USPS still distinguishes between city delivery (where carriers generally walk and deliver to mailboxes hung on exterior walls or porches, or to commercial reception areas) and rural delivery (where carriers generally drive). With "curbside delivery '', mailboxes are at the ends of driveways, on the nearest convenient road. "Central point delivery '' is used in some locations, where several nearby residences share a "cluster '' of individual mailboxes in a single housing.
Some customers choose to use post office boxes for an additional fee, for privacy or convenience. This provides a locked box at the post office to which mail is addressed and delivered (usually earlier in the day than home delivery). Customers in less densely populated areas where there is no city delivery and who do not qualify for rural delivery may receive mail only through post office boxes. High - volume business customers can also arrange for special pick - up.
Another option is the old - style general delivery, for people who have neither post office boxes nor street addresses. Mail is held at the post office until they present identification and pick it up.
Some customers receive free post office boxes if the USPS declines to provide door - to - door delivery to their location or a nearby box. People with medical problems can request door - to - door delivery. Homeless people are also eligible for post office boxes at the discretion of the local postmaster, or can use general delivery.
From 1885 to 1997, a service called special delivery was available, which caused a separate delivery to the final location earlier in the day than the usual daily rounds.
In December 2012, the USPS began a limited one - year trial of same - day deliveries directly from retailers or distribution hubs to residential addresses in the same local area, a service it dubbed "Metro Post ''. The trial was initially limited to San Francisco and the only retailer to participate in the first few weeks was 1 - 800 - FLOWERS.
In March 2013, the USPS faced new same - day competition for e-commerce deliveries from Google Shopping Express.
In November 2013, the Postal Service began regular package delivery on Sundays for Amazon customers in New York and Los Angeles, which it expanded to 15 cities in May 2014. Amazon Sunday delivery has now been expanded to most major markets as of September, 2015.
Other competition in this area includes online grocers such as AmazonFresh, Webvan, and delivery services operated by grocery stores like Peapod and Safeway.
Residential customers can fill out a form to forward mail to a new address, and can also send pre-printed forms to any of their frequent correspondents. They can also put their mail on "hold '', for example, while on vacation. The Post Office will store mail during the hold, instead of letting it overflow in the mailbox. These services are not available to large buildings and customers of a commercial mail receiving agency, where mail is subsorted by non-Post Office employees into individual mailboxes.
Postal money orders provide a safe alternative to sending cash through the mail, and are available in any amount up to $1000. Like a bank cheque, money orders are cashable only by the recipient. Unlike a personal bank check, they are prepaid and therefore can not be returned because of insufficient funds. Money orders are a declining business for the USPS, as companies like PayPal, PaidByCash and others are offering electronic replacements.
From 1911 to 1967, the Postal Service also operated the United States Postal Savings System, not unlike a savings and loan association with the amount of the deposit limited.
A January 2014 report by the Inspector General of the USPS suggested that the agency could earn $8.9 billion per year in revenue by providing financial services, especially in areas where there are no local banks but there is a local post office, and to customers who currently do not have bank accounts.
The Postal Service is the nation 's second - largest civilian employer. As of 2011, it employed 574,000 personnel, divided into offices, processing centers, and actual post offices. The United States Postal Service would rank 29th on the 2010 Fortune 500 list, if considered a private company.
Labor unions representing USPS employees include: The American Postal Workers Union (APWU), which represents postal clerks and maintenance, motor vehicle, mail equipment shops, material distribution centers, and operating services and facilities services employees, postal nurses, and IT and accounting; the National Association of Letter Carriers (NALC), which represents city letter carriers; the National Rural Letter Carriers ' Association (NRLCA), which represents rural letter carriers; and the National Postal Mail Handlers Union (NPMHU).
USPS employees are divided into three major crafts according to the work they engage in:
Other non-managerial positions in the USPS include:
Though the USPS employs many individuals, as more Americans send information via email, fewer postal workers are needed to work dwindling amounts of mail. Post offices and mail facilities are constantly downsizing, replacing craft positions with new machines and consolidating mail routes through the MIARAP (Modified Interim Alternate Route Adjustment Process) agreement. A major round of job cuts, early retirements, and a construction freeze were announced on March 20, 2009.
In the early 1990s, widely publicized workplace shootings by disgruntled employees at USPS facilities led to a Human Resource effort to provide care for stressed workers and resources for coworker conflicts. Due to media coverage, postal employees gained a reputation among the general public as more likely to be mentally ill. The USPS Commission on a Safe and Secure Workplace found that "Postal workers are only a third as likely as those in the national workforce to be victims of homicide at work. '' In the documentary Murder by Proxy: How America Went Postal, it was argued that this number failed to factor out workers killed by external subjects rather than by fellow employees.
This series of events in turn has influenced American culture, as seen in the slang term "going postal '' (see Patrick Sherrill for information on his August 20, 1986, rampage) and the computer game Postal. Also, in the opening sequence of Naked Gun 331⁄3: The Final Insult, a yell of "Disgruntled postal workers '' is heard, followed by the arrival of postal workers with machine guns. In an episode of Seinfeld, the mailman character, Newman, explained in a dramatic monologue that postal workers "go crazy and kill everyone '' because the mail never stops. In The Simpsons episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday, '' Nelson Muntz asks Postmaster Bill if he has "ever gone on a killing spree ''; Bill replies, "The day of the gun - toting, disgruntled postman shooting up the place went out with the Macarena ''.
The series of massacres led the US Postal Service to issue a rule prohibiting the possession of any type of firearms (except for those issued to Postal Inspectors) in all designated USPS facilities.
In 2016, a video footage was released showing a group of police officers from the New York City Police Department (NYPD) arresting a US Postal Service officer while he was in the middle of his deliveries. The footage showed that the officers were dressed in civilian clothing. The NYPD is reportedly investigating alleged disorderly conduct.
Unions of the U.S. Postal Service
History
International associations
Mail bag types
Workplace violence
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dark was the night and cold was the ground | Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground - wikipedia
"Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' is a gospel blues song written and performed by American musician Blind Willie Johnson and recorded in 1927. The song is primarily an instrumental featuring Johnson 's self - taught bottleneck slide guitar and picking style accompanied by his vocalizations of humming and moaning. It has the distinction of being one of 27 samples of music included on the Voyager Golden Record, launched into space in 1977 to represent the diversity of life on Earth. The song has been highly praised and covered by numerous musicians and is featured on the soundtracks of several films.
Born in 1897, Johnson taught himself how to play guitar and dedicated his life to blues and gospel music, playing for people on street corners and in mission halls. Columbia Records had a field unit that traveled to smaller towns to record local talent. Johnson recorded 30 songs for them at five sessions between 1927 and 1930. Among the first of these was "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground ''.
The song 's title is borrowed from a hymn that was popular in the nineteenth century American South with fasola singers. "Gethsemane '', written by English clergyman Thomas Haweis in 1792, begins with the lines "Dark was the night, cold was the ground / on which my Lord was laid. '' Music historian Mark Humphrey describes Johnson 's composition as an impressionistic rendition of "lining out '', a call - and - response style of singing hymns that is common in southern African - American churches.
"Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' is 3 minutes and 21 seconds of Johnson 's unique guitar playing in open D tuning for slide. By most accounts, Johnson substituted a knife or penknife for the bottleneck. His melancholy, gravel - throated humming of the guitar part creates the impression of "unison moaning '', a melodic style common in Baptist churches where, instead of harmonizing, a choir hums or sings the same vocal part, albeit with slight variations among its members. Although Johnson 's vocals are indiscernible, several sources indicate the subject of the song is the crucifixion of Christ.
His records were sold by the Columbia and Vocalion labels with other blues acts like Bessie Smith, whom Johnson outsold during the Depression years. In 1928, the influential blues critic Edward Abbe Niles championed Johnson in his column for The Bookman, praising his "violent, tortured, and abysmal shouts and groans, and his inspired guitar playing ''.
Johnson 's music experienced a revival in the 1960s thanks in large part to the efforts of blues guitarist Reverend Gary Davis. A highly regarded figure within the burgeoning New York folk scene, Davis gave copies of Johnson 's records to young musicians and taught them to play his songs. The Soul Stirrers, Staples Singers, Buffy Sainte - Marie and Peter, Paul & Mary all covered Johnson. In 1969, the English folk - rock band Fairport Convention released the album What We Did on Our Holidays which included a song inspired by "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' called "The Lord Is in this Place... How Dreadful Is this Place ''. A compilation album titled Dark Was the Night was released in 2009 by the Red Hot Organization, a charity that raises awareness of HIV and AIDS issues through music. The Kronos Quartet recorded an arrangement of "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' that appears on the album. The song "Excavating Rita '' by Half Man Half Biscuit on their 2011 album 90 Bisodol (Crimond) quotes the song 's title.
Singer - guitarist Jack White of The White Stripes called "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' "the greatest example of slide guitar ever recorded '' and used the song as a standard to measure such iconic rock music that followed in its wake, such as "Whole Lotta Love '' by Led Zeppelin. In 2003, John Clarke in The Times wrote that "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' was "the most intense and startling blues record ever made ''. Francis Davis, author of The History of the Blues concurs, writing "In terms of its intensity alone -- its spiritual ache -- there is nothing else from the period to compare to Johnson 's ' Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground ', on which his guitar takes the part of a preacher and his wordless voice the part of a rapt congregation. ''
Johnson 's recording of "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' was selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry, which selects recordings annually that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
"Dark was the Night, Cold was the Ground '' was used on the Oscar - nominated soundtrack to Pier Paolo Pasolini 's classic film, The Gospel According to St Matthew, in scenes where Judas Iscariot laments betraying Christ and a cripple asks to be healed. Ry Cooder based his soundtrack to the Palme d'Or - winning film, Paris, Texas on "Dark was the Night, Cold was the Ground '', which he has described as "the most soulful, transcendent piece in all American music. '' Wim Wenders, the director of Paris, Texas, included Blind Willie Johnson 's music and life in his 2003 documentary The Soul of a Man, produced for the PBS series "The Blues ''.
In 1977, Carl Sagan and other researchers collected sounds and images from planet Earth to send on Voyager 1. The Voyager Golden Record includes recordings of frogs, crickets, volcanoes, a human heartbeat, laughter, greetings in 55 languages, and 27 pieces of music. "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground '' was included, according to Sagan, because "Johnson 's song concerns a situation he faced many times: nightfall with no place to sleep. Since humans appeared on Earth, the shroud of night has yet to fall without touching a man or woman in the same plight. ''
78 rpm records
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who said may the 4th be with you | Star Wars Day - wikipedia
Star Wars Day, May 4, celebrates George Lucas ' Star Wars. It is observed by fans of the media franchise. Observance of the commemorative day spread quickly through media and grassroots celebrations.
The date was chosen for the pun on the catchphrase "May the Force be with you '' as "May the Fourth be with you ''. Even though the holiday was not created or declared by Lucasfilm, many Star Wars fans across the world have chosen to celebrate the holiday. It has since been embraced by Lucasfilm as an annual celebration of Star Wars.
Apocryphally, the reference was first used on May 4, 1979, the day Margaret Thatcher took office as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. An online news article from the Danish public broadcaster says her political party, the Conservatives, placed a congratulatory advertisement in The London Evening News, saying "May the Fourth Be with You, Maggie. Congratulations. ''
The saying was used in a UK Parliament defence debate on May 4, 1994.
Astrophysicist and author Jeanne Cavelos used the saying on page 94 of her 1999 book The Science of Star Wars.
In 2008, the first Facebook groups appeared, celebrating Luke Skywalker Day, with the same catchphrase. While the initial group never received widespread acclaim, the phenomenon spread to college campuses a few years later, and Star Wars Day was born.
In 2011, the first organized celebration of Star Wars Day took place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada at the Toronto Underground Cinema. Produced by Sean Ward and Alice Quinn, festivities included an Original Trilogy Trivia Game Show; a costume contest with celebrity judges; and the web 's best tribute films, mash - ups, parodies, and remixes on the big screen. The second annual edition took place on Friday, May 4, 2012.
Fans (even government officials) have celebrated Star Wars in a variety of ways in social media and on television.
Since 2013, The Walt Disney Company has officially observed the holiday with several Star Wars events and festivities at Disneyland and Walt Disney World. Disney had purchased Lucasfilm including the rights to Star Wars in late 2012.
Minor League baseball teams such as the Toledo Mud Hens and the Durham Bulls have worn special uniforms as part of Star Wars Day promotions.
On Star Wars Day 2015, astronauts in the International Space Station watched Star Wars.
Some recognize the following day, May 5, as "Revenge of the Fifth '', a play on Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith and celebrate the Sith Lords and other villainous characters from the Star Wars series rather than the Jedi.
Others celebrate this one day later, on May 6, citing "Revenge of the Sixth '' as a better play on "Sith ''.
The Los Angeles City Council declared May 25, 2007, as Star Wars Day, in honor of the 30th anniversary release date of Star Wars. A separate initiative for observing Geek Pride Day on May 25 is based on the Star Wars connection along with ties to The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy (Towel Day) and Discworld.
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right to vote freedom of expression freedom of the press | First Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The First Amendment (Amendment I) to the United States Constitution prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, ensuring that there is no prohibition on the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble, or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. It was adopted on December 15, 1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights.
The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York (1925), the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states -- a process known as incorporation -- through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th and 21st - century court decisions which protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
The amendment as adopted in 1791 reads as follows:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
In 1776, the second year of the American Revolutionary War, the Virginia colonial legislature passed a Declaration of Rights that included the sentence "The freedom of the press is one of the greatest bulwarks of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic Governments. '' Eight of the other thirteen states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered "mere admonitions to state legislatures '', rather than enforceable provisions.
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation, a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17, 1787, featuring among other changes a stronger chief executive. George Mason, a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights, proposed that the Constitution include a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties. Other delegates -- including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison -- disagreed, arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other, unnamed rights were unprotected. After a brief debate, Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations.
For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions. Opposition to ratification ("Anti-Federalism '') was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification (including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights. The U.S. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states. In the 1st United States Congress, following the state legislatures ' request, James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments, and his proposed draft of the First Amendment read as follows:
The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the Legislature by petitions, or remonstrances, for redress of their grievances.
This language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendment 's intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, and adopted on December 15, 1791.
Thomas Jefferson wrote with respect to the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government in an 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists (a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the Congregational church in Connecticut):
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof '', thus building a wall of separation between Church & State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.
In Reynolds v. United States (1878) the Supreme Court used these words to declare that "it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured. Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere (religious) opinion, but was left free to reach (only those religious) actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. '' Quoting from Jefferson 's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom the court stated further in Reynolds:
In the preamble of this act (...) religious freedom is defined; and after a recital ' that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion, and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tendency, is a dangerous fallacy which at once destroys all religious liberty ', it is declared ' that it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government for its officers to interfere (only) when (religious) principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order. ' In these two sentences is found the true distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State.
Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, and some states continued official state religions after ratification. Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregational until the 1830s. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the U.S. Supreme Court incorporated the Establishment Clause (i.e., made it apply against the states):
The "establishment of religion '' clause of the First Amendment means at least this: Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion to another... in the words of Jefferson, the (First Amendment) clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect ' a wall of separation between church and State '... That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach.
In Torcaso v. Watkins (1961), the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office. In the Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994), The Court concluded that "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to irreligion. '' In a series of cases in the first decade of the 2000s -- Van Orden v. Perry (2005), McCreary County v. ACLU (2005), and Salazar v. Buono (2010) -- the Court considered the issue of religious monuments on federal lands without reaching a majority reasoning on the subject.
Everson used the metaphor of a wall of separation between church and state, derived from the correspondence of President Thomas Jefferson. It had been long established in the decisions of the Supreme Court, beginning with Reynolds v. United States in 1879, when the Court reviewed the history of the early Republic in deciding the extent of the liberties of Mormons. Chief Justice Morrison Waite, who consulted the historian George Bancroft, also discussed at some length the Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments by James Madison, who drafted the First Amendment; Madison used the metaphor of a "great barrier ''.
In Everson, the Court adopted Jefferson 's words. The Court has affirmed it often, with majority, but not unanimous, support. Warren Nord, in Does God Make a Difference?, characterized the general tendency of the dissents as a weaker reading of the First Amendment; the dissents tend to be "less concerned about the dangers of establishment and less concerned to protect free exercise rights, particularly of religious minorities. ''
Beginning with Everson, which permitted New Jersey school boards to pay for transportation to parochial schools, the Court has used various tests to determine when the wall of separation has been breached. Everson laid down the test that establishment existed when aid was given to religion, but that the transportation was justifiable because the benefit to the children was more important. In the school prayer cases of the early 1960s, (Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp), aid seemed irrelevant; the Court ruled on the basis that a legitimate action both served a secular purpose and did not primarily assist religion. In Walz v. Tax Commission (1970), the Court ruled that a legitimate action could not entangle government with religion; in Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), these points were combined into the Lemon test, declaring that an action was an establishment if:
The Lemon test has been criticized by justices and legal scholars, but it remains the predominant means by which the Court enforces the Establishment Clause. In Agostini v. Felton (1997), the entanglement prong of the Lemon test was demoted to simply being a factor in determining the effect of the challenged statute or practice. In Zelman v. Simmons - Harris (2002), the opinion of the Court considered secular purpose and the absence of primary effect; a concurring opinion saw both cases as having treated entanglement as part of the primary purpose test. Further tests, such as the endorsement test and coercion test, have been developed to determine whether a government action violated the Establishment Clause.
In Lemon the Court stated that the separation of church and state could never be absolute: "Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense. Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable '', the court wrote. "Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation, far from being a ' wall ', is a blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship. ''
Accommodationists, in contrast, argue along with Justice William O. Douglas that "(w) e are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being ''. This group holds that the Lemon test should be applied selectively. As such, for many conservatives, the Establishment Clause solely prevents the establishment of a state church, not public acknowledgements of God nor "developing policies that encourage general religious beliefs that do not favor a particular sect and are consistent with the secular government 's goals. ''
"Freedom of religion means freedom to hold an opinion or belief, but not to take action in violation of social duties or subversive to good order. '' In Reynolds v. United States (1878), the Supreme Court found that while laws can not interfere with religious belief and opinions, laws can be made to regulate some religious practices (e.g., human sacrifices, and the Hindu practice of suttee). The Court stated that to rule otherwise, "would be to make the professed doctrines of religious belief superior to the law of the land, and in effect permit every citizen to become a law unto himself. Government would exist only in name under such circumstances. '' In Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940), the Court held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied the Free Exercise Clause to the states. While the right to have religious beliefs is absolute, the freedom to act on such beliefs is not absolute.
In Sherbert v. Verner (1963), the Supreme Court required states to meet the "strict scrutiny '' standard when refusing to accommodate religiously motivated conduct. This meant that a government needed to have a "compelling interest '' regarding such a refusal. The case involved Adele Sherbert, who was denied unemployment benefits by South Carolina because she refused to work on Saturdays, something forbidden by her Seventh - day Adventist faith. In Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972), the Court ruled that a law that "unduly burdens the practice of religion '' without a compelling interest, even though it might be "neutral on its face '', would be unconstitutional.
The need for a compelling governmental interest was narrowed in Employment Division v. Smith (1990), which held no such interest was required under the Free Exercise Clause regarding a neutral law of general applicability that happens to affect a religious practice, as opposed to a law that targets a particular religious practice (which does require a compelling governmental interest). In Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah (1993), the Supreme Court ruled Hialeah had passed an ordinance banning ritual slaughter, a practice central to the Santería religion, while providing exceptions for some practices such as the kosher slaughter. Since the ordinance was not "generally applicable '', the Court ruled that it needed to have a compelling interest, which it failed to have, and so was declared unconstitutional.
In 1993, the Congress passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA), seeking to restore the compelling interest requirement applied in Sherbert and Yoder. In City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), the Court struck down the provisions of RFRA that forced state and local governments to provide protections exceeding those required by the First Amendment, on the grounds that while the Congress could enforce the Supreme Court 's interpretation of a constitutional right, the Congress could not impose its own interpretation on states and localities. According to the court 's ruling in Gonzales v. UDV (2006), RFRA remains applicable to federal laws and so those laws must still have a "compelling interest ''.
The First Amendment bars Congress from "abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press.... '' U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens commented about this phraseology in a 1993 journal article: "I emphasize the word ' the ' in the term ' the freedom of speech ' because the definite article suggests that the draftsmen intended to immunize a previously identified category or subset of speech. '' Stevens said that, otherwise, the clause might absurdly immunize things like false testimony under oath. Like Stevens, journalist Anthony Lewis wrote: "The word ' the ' can be read to mean what was understood at the time to be included in the concept of free speech. '' But what was understood at the time is not 100 % clear. In the late 1790s, the lead author of the speech and press clauses, James Madison, argued against narrowing this freedom to what had existed under English common law:
The practice in America must be entitled to much more respect. In every state, probably, in the Union, the press has exerted a freedom in canvassing the merits and measures of public men, of every description, which has not been confined to the strict limits of the common law.
Madison wrote this in 1799, when he was in a dispute about the constitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Laws, which was legislation enacted in 1798 by President John Adams ' Federalist Party to ban seditious libel. Madison believed that legislation to be unconstitutional, and his adversaries in that dispute, such as John Marshall, advocated the narrow freedom of speech that had existed in the English common law.
The Supreme Court declined to rule on the constitutionality of any federal law regarding the Free Speech Clause until the 20th century. For example, the Supreme Court never ruled on the Alien and Sedition Acts; three Supreme Court justices riding circuit presided over sedition trials without indicating any reservations. The leading critics of the law, Vice President Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, argued for the Acts ' unconstitutionality based on the First Amendment and other Constitutional provisions. Jefferson succeeded Adams as president, in part due to the unpopularity of the latter 's sedition prosecutions; he and his party quickly overturned the Acts and pardoned those imprisoned by them. In the majority opinion in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), the Court noted the importance of this public debate as a precedent in First Amendment law and ruled that the Acts had been unconstitutional: "Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history. ''
During the patriotic fervor of World War I and the First Red Scare, the Espionage Act of 1917 imposed a maximum sentence of twenty years for anyone who caused or attempted to cause "insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty in the military or naval forces of the United States ''. Specifically, the Espionage Act of 1917 states that if anyone allows any enemies to enter or fly over the United States and obtain information from a place connected with the national defense, they will be punished. Hundreds of prosecutions followed. In 1919, the Supreme Court heard four appeals resulting from these cases: Schenck v. United States, Debs v. United States, Frohwerk v. United States, and Abrams v. United States.
In the first of these cases, Socialist Party of America official Charles Schenck had been convicted under the Espionage Act for publishing leaflets urging resistance to the draft. Schenck appealed, arguing that the Espionage Act violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. In Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court unanimously rejected Schenck 's appeal and affirmed his conviction. This conviction continued to be debated over whether Schenck went against the right to freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., writing for the Court, explained that "the question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. '' One week later, in Frohwerk v. United States, the court again upheld an Espionage Act conviction, this time that of a journalist who had criticized U.S. involvement in foreign wars.
In Debs v. United States, the Court elaborated on the "clear and present danger '' test established in Schenck. On June 16, 1918, Eugene V. Debs, a political activist, delivered a speech in Canton, Ohio, in which he spoke of "most loyal comrades were paying the penalty to the working class -- these being Wagenknecht, Baker and Ruthenberg, who had been convicted of aiding and abetting another in failing to register for the draft. '' Following his speech, Debs was charged and convicted under the Espionage Act. In upholding his conviction, the Court reasoned that although he had not spoken any words that posed a "clear and present danger '', taken in context, the speech had a "natural tendency and a probable effect to obstruct the recruiting services ''. In Abrams v. United States, four Russian refugees appealed their conviction for throwing leaflets from a building in New York; the leaflets argued against President Woodrow Wilson 's intervention in Russia against the October Revolution. The majority upheld their conviction, but Holmes and Justice Louis Brandeis dissented, holding that the government had demonstrated no "clear and present danger '' in the four 's political advocacy.
The Supreme Court denied a number of Free Speech Clause claims throughout the 1920s, including the appeal of a labor organizer, Benjamin Gitlow, who had been convicted after distributing a manifesto calling for a "revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat ''. In Gitlow v. New York (1925), the Court upheld the conviction, but a majority also found that the First Amendment applied to state laws as well as federal laws, via the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Holmes and Brandeis dissented in several more cases in this decade, however, advancing the argument that the Free Speech Clause protected a far greater range of political speech than the Court had previously acknowledged. In Whitney v. California (1927), in which Communist Party USA organizer Charlotte Anita Whitney had been arrested for "criminal syndicalism '', Brandeis wrote a dissent in which he argued for broader protections for political speech:
Those who won our independence... believed that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are means indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth; that without free speech and assembly discussion would be futile; that with them, discussion affords ordinarily adequate protection against the dissemination of noxious doctrine; that the greatest menace to freedom is an inert people; that public discussion is a political duty; and that this should be a fundamental principle of the American government.
In Herndon v. Lowry (1937), the Court heard the case of African American Communist Party organizer Angelo Herndon, who had been convicted under the Slave Insurrection Statute for advocating black rule in the southern United States. In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court reversed Herndon 's conviction, holding that Georgia had failed to demonstrate that there was any "clear and present danger '' in Herndon 's political advocacy.
In 1940, Congress enacted the Smith Act, making it illegal to advocate "the propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force and violence ''. The statute provided law enforcement a tool to combat Communist leaders. After Eugene Dennis was convicted in the Foley Square trial for attempting to organize a Communist Party, he petitioned for certiorari, which the Supreme Court granted. In Dennis v. United States (1951), the Court upheld the law, 6 -- 2. Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson relied on Holmes ' "clear and present danger '' test as adapted by Learned Hand: "In each case (courts) must ask whether the gravity of the ' evil ', discounted by its improbability, justifies such invasion of free speech as necessary to avoid the danger. '' Clearly, Vinson suggested, clear and present danger did not intimate "that before the Government may act, it must wait until the putsch is about to be executed, the plans have been laid and the signal is awaited. '' In a concurring opinion, Justice Felix Frankfurter proposed a "balancing test '', which soon supplanted the "clear and present danger '' test:
The demands of free speech in a democratic society as well as the interest in national security are better served by candid and informed weighing of the competing interests, within the confines of the judicial process.
In Yates v. United States (1957), the Supreme Court limited the Smith Act prosecutions to "advocacy of action '' rather than "advocacy in the realm of ideas ''. Advocacy of abstract doctrine remained protected while speech explicitly inciting the forcible overthrow of the government was punishable under the Smith Act.
During the Vietnam War, the Court 's position on public criticism of the government changed drastically. Though the Court upheld a law prohibiting the forgery, mutilation, or destruction of draft cards in United States v. O'Brien (1968), fearing that burning draft cards would interfere with the "smooth and efficient functioning '' of the draft system, the next year, the court handed down its decision in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), expressly overruling Whitney v. California. Now the Supreme Court referred to the right to speak openly of violent action and revolution in broad terms:
(Our) decisions have fashioned the principle that the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not allow a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or cause such action.
Brandenburg discarded the "clear and present danger '' test introduced in Schenck and further eroded Dennis. In Cohen v. California (1971), the Court voted 5 -- 4 to reverse the conviction of a man wearing a jacket reading "Fuck the Draft '' in the corridors of a Los Angeles County courthouse. Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote in the majority opinion that Cohen 's jacket fell in the category of protected political speech despite the use of an expletive: "one man 's vulgarity is another man 's lyric. ''
In Talley v. California (1960), the Court struck down a Los Angeles city ordinance that made it a crime to distribute anonymous pamphlets. Justice Hugo Black wrote in the majority opinion: "There can be no doubt that such an identification requirement would tend to restrict freedom to distribute information and thereby freedom of expression... Anonymous pamphlets, leaflets, brochures and even books have played an important role in the progress of mankind. '' In McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995), the Court struck down an Ohio statute that made it a crime to distribute anonymous campaign literature. However, in Meese v. Keene (1987), the Court upheld the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938, under which several Canadian films were defined as "political propaganda '', requiring their sponsors to be identified.
In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court reviewed the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 and related laws, which restricted the monetary contributions that may be made to political campaigns and expenditure by candidates. The Court affirmed the constitutionality of limits on campaign contributions, stating that they "serve (d) the basic governmental interest in safeguarding the integrity of the electoral process without directly impinging upon the rights of individual citizens and candidates to engage in political debate and discussion. '' However, the Court overturned the spending limits, which it found imposed "substantial restraints on the quantity of political speech. ''
The court again scrutinized campaign finance regulation in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission (2003). The case centered on the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA), a federal law that imposed new restrictions on campaign financing. The Supreme Court upheld provisions which barred the raising of soft money by national parties and the use of soft money by private organizations to fund certain advertisements related to elections. However, the Court struck down the "choice of expenditure '' rule, which required that parties could either make coordinated expenditures for all its candidates, or permit candidates to spend independently, but not both, which the Court agreed "placed an unconstitutional burden on the parties ' right to make unlimited independent expenditures. '' The Court also ruled that the provision preventing minors from making political contributions was unconstitutional, relying on Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District.
In Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (2007), the Court sustained an "as applied '' challenge to BCRA, holding that issue ads may not be banned from the months preceding a primary or general election. In Davis v. Federal Election Commission (2008), the Supreme Court declared the "Millionaire 's Amendment '' provisions of the BCRA to be unconstitutional. The Court held that easing BCRA restrictions for an opponent of a self - financing candidate spending at least $350,000 of his or her own money violated the freedom of speech of the self - financing candidate.
In Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010), the Court ruled that the BCRA 's federal restrictions on electoral advocacy by corporations or unions were unconstitutional for violating the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. The Court overruled Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce (1990), which had upheld a state law that prohibited corporations from using treasury funds to support or oppose candidates in elections did not violate the First or Fourteenth Amendments. The Court also overruled the portion of McConnell that upheld such restrictions under the BCRA. In other words, the ruling was considered to hold that "political spending is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment ''.
In McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014), the Court ruled that federal aggregate limits on how much a person can donate to candidates, political parties, and political action committees, combined respectively in a two - year period known as an "election cycle, '' violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment.
The divisive issue of flag desecration as a form of protest first came before the Supreme Court in Street v. New York (1969). In response to hearing an erroneous report of the murder of civil rights activist James Meredith, Sidney Street burned a 48 - star U.S. flag. Street was arrested and charged with a New York state law making it a crime "publicly (to) mutilate, deface, defile, or defy, trample upon, or cast contempt upon either by words or act (any flag of the United States). '' In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court, relying on Stromberg v. California (1931), found that because the provision of the New York law criminalizing "words '' against the flag was unconstitutional, and the trial did not sufficiently demonstrate that he was convicted solely under the provisions not yet deemed unconstitutional, the conviction was unconstitutional. The Court, however, "resist (ed) the pulls to decide the constitutional issues involved in this case on a broader basis '' and left the constitutionality of flag - burning unaddressed.
The ambiguity with regard to flag - burning statutes was eliminated in Texas v. Johnson (1989). In that case, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag at a demonstration during the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas. Charged with violating a Texas law prohibiting the vandalizing of venerated objects, Johnson was convicted, sentenced to one year in prison, and fined $2,000. The Supreme Court reversed his conviction in a 5 -- 4 vote. Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. wrote in the decision that "if there is a bedrock principle underlying the First Amendment, it is that government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable. '' Congress then passed a federal law barring flag burning, but the Supreme Court struck it down as well in United States v. Eichman (1990). A Flag Desecration Amendment to the U.S. Constitution has been proposed repeatedly in Congress since 1989, and in 2006 failed to pass the Senate by a single vote.
While the unauthorized wear or sale of the Medal of Honor has been a punishable offense under federal law since the early 20th century, the Stolen Valor Act criminalized the act of not only wearing, but also verbally claiming entitlement to military awards that a person did not in fact earn. In United States v. Alvarez (2012), the Supreme Court struck down the Act, ruling that the First Amendment bars the government from punishing people for making false claims regarding military service or honors where the false claim was not "made to effect a fraud or secure moneys or other valuable considerations. '' The decision was a 6 -- 3 ruling, but the six justices in the majority could not agree on a single rationale for it.
The Supreme Court has determined that the First Amendment also protects citizens from being compelled to say or pay for certain speech. For example, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943), the Supreme Court ruled that school children could not be punished for refusing either to say the pledge of allegiance or salute the American flag.
Commercial speech is speech done on behalf of a company or individual for the purpose of making a profit. Unlike political speech, the Supreme Court does not afford commercial speech full protection under the First Amendment. To effectively distinguish commercial speech from other types of speech for purposes of litigation, the Court uses a list of four indicia:
Alone, each indicium does not compel the conclusion that an instance of speech is commercial; however, "(t) he combination of all these characteristics... provides strong support for... the conclusion that the (speech is) properly characterized as commercial speech. ''
In Valentine v. Chrestensen (1942), the Court upheld a New York City ordinance forbidding the "distribution in the streets of commercial and business advertising matter. '' Writing for a unanimous court, Justice Owen Roberts explained:
This court has unequivocally held that streets are proper places for the exercise of the freedom of communicating information and disseminating opinion and that, though the states and municipalities may appropriately regulate the privilege in the public interest, they may not unduly burden or proscribe its employment in their public thoroughfares. We are equally clear that the Constitution imposes no such restraint on government as respects purely commercial advertising.
In Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976), the Court overruled Valentine and ruled that commercial speech was entitled to First Amendment protection:
What is at issue is whether a State may completely suppress the dissemination of concededly truthful information about entirely lawful activity, fearful of that information 's effect upon its disseminators and its recipients... (W) e conclude that the answer to this one is in the negative.
In Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Association (1978), the Court ruled that commercial speech was not protected by the First Amendment as much as other types of speech:
We have not discarded the "common - sense '' distinction between speech proposing a commercial transaction, which occurs in an area traditionally subject to government regulation, and other varieties of speech. To require a parity of constitutional protection for commercial and noncommercial speech alike could invite a dilution, simply by a leveling process, of the force of the (First) Amendment 's guarantee with respect to the latter kind of speech.
In Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission (1980), the Court clarified what analysis was required before the government could justify regulating commercial speech:
Six years later, the U.S. Supreme Court, applying the Central Hudson standards in Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico (1986), affirmed the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico 's conclusion that Puerto Rico 's Games of Chance Act of 1948, including the regulations thereunder, was not facially unconstitutional. The lax interpretation of Central Hudson adopted by Posadas was soon restricted under 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996), when the Court invalidated a Rhode Island law prohibiting the publication of liquor prices.
In Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969), the Supreme Court extended free speech rights to students in school. The case involved several students who were punished for wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War. The Court ruled that the school could not restrict symbolic speech that did not "materially and substantially '' interrupt school activities. Justice Abe Fortas wrote:
First Amendment rights, applied in light of the special characteristics of the school environment, are available to teachers and students. It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate... (S) chools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism. School officials do not possess absolute authority over their students. Students... are possessed of fundamental rights which the State must respect, just as they themselves must respect their obligations to the State.
In Healy v. James (1972), the Court ruled that Central Connecticut State College 's refusal to recognize a campus chapter of Students for a Democratic Society was unconstitutional, reaffirming Tinker.
However, since 1969 the Court has also placed several limitations on Tinker interpretations. In Bethel School District v. Fraser (1986), the Court ruled that a student could be punished for his sexual - innuendo - laced speech before a school assembly and, in Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988), the Court found that schools need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with their basic educational mission. In Morse v. Frederick (2007), the Court ruled that schools could, consistent with the First Amendment, restrict student speech at school - sponsored events, even events away from school grounds, if students promote "illegal drug use ''.
In Packingham v. North Carolina (2017), the Supreme Court held that a North Carolina law prohibiting registered sex offenders from accessing various websites impermissibly restricted lawful speech in violation of the First Amendment. The Court held that "a fundamental principle of the First Amendment is that all persons have access to places where they can speak and listen, and then, after reflection, speak and listen once more. ''
The federal government and the states have long been permitted to limit obscenity or pornography. While the Supreme Court has generally refused to give obscenity any protection under the First Amendment, pornography is subject to little regulation. However, the definitions of obscenity and pornography have changed over time.
In Rosen v. United States (1896), the Supreme Court adopted the same obscenity standard as had been articulated in a famous British case, Regina v. Hicklin (1868). The Hicklin test defined material as obscene if it tended "to deprave or corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences, and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall ''. In the early twentieth century, literary works including An American Tragedy (Theodore Dreiser, 1925) and Lady Chatterley 's Lover (D.H. Lawrence, 1928) were banned for obscenity. In the federal district court case United States v. One Book Called Ulysses (1933), Judge John M. Woolsey established a new standard to evaluate James Joyce 's novel Ulysses (1922), stating that works must be considered in their entirety, rather than declared obscene on the basis of an individual part of the work.
The Supreme Court ruled in Roth v. United States (1957) that the First Amendment did not protect obscenity. It also ruled that the Hicklin test was inappropriate; instead, the Roth test for obscenity was "whether to the average person, applying contemporary community standards, the dominant theme of the material, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest ''. This definition proved hard to apply, however, and in the following decade, members of the Court often reviewed films individually in a court building screening room to determine if they should be considered obscene. Justice Potter Stewart, in Jacobellis v. Ohio (1964), famously stated that, although he could not precisely define pornography, "I know it when I see it ''.
The Roth test was expanded when the Court decided Miller v. California (1973). Under the Miller test, a work is obscene if:
(a)... ' the average person, applying contemporary community standards ' would find the work, as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest... (b)... the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law, and (c)... the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
Note that "community '' standards -- not national standards -- are applied whether the material appeals to the prurient interest, leaving the question of obscenity to local authorities. Child pornography is not subject to the Miller test, as the Supreme Court decided in New York v. Ferber (1982) and Osborne v. Ohio (1990), ruling that the government 's interest in protecting children from abuse was paramount.
Personal possession of obscene material in the home may not be prohibited by law. In Stanley v. Georgia (1969), the Court ruled that "(i) f the First Amendment means anything, it means that a State has no business telling a man, sitting in his own house, what books he may read or what films he may watch. '' However, it is constitutionally permissible for the government to prevent the mailing or sale of obscene items, though they may be viewed only in private. Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition (2002) further upheld these rights by invalidating the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996, holding that, because the act "(p) rohibit (ed) child pornography that does not depict an actual child '' it was overly broad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment and that:
First Amendment freedoms are most in danger when the government seeks to control thought or to justify its laws for that impermissible end. The right to think is the beginning of freedom, and speech must be protected from the government because speech is the beginning of thought.
In United States v. Williams (2008), the Court upheld the PROTECT Act of 2003, ruling that prohibiting offers to provide and requests to obtain child pornography did not violate the First Amendment, even if a person charged under the Act did not possess child pornography.
In some states, there are Son of Sam laws prohibiting convicted criminals from publishing memoirs for profit. These laws were a response to offers to David Berkowitz to write memoirs about the murders he committed. The Supreme Court struck down a law of this type in New York as a violation of the First Amendment in the case Simon & Schuster v. Crime Victims Board (1991). That statute did not prohibit publication of a memoir by a convicted criminal. Instead, it provided that all profits from the book were to be put in escrow for a time. The interest from the escrow account was used to fund the New York State Crime Victims Board -- an organization that pays the medical and related bills of victims of crime. Similar laws in other states remain unchallenged.
American tort liability for defamatory speech or publications traces its origins to English common law. For the first two hundred years of American jurisprudence, the basic substance of defamation law continued to resemble that existing in England at the time of the Revolution. An 1898 American legal textbook on defamation provides definitions of libel and slander nearly identical to those given by William Blackstone and Edward Coke. An action of slander required the following:
An action of libel required the same five general points as slander, except that it specifically involved the publication of defamatory statements. For certain criminal charges of libel, such as seditious libel, the truth or falsity of the statements was immaterial, as such laws were intended to maintain public support of the government and true statements could damage this support even more than false ones. Instead, libel placed specific emphasis on the result of the publication. Libelous publications tended to "degrade and injure another person '' or "bring him into contempt, hatred or ridicule ''.
Concerns that defamation under common law might be incompatible with the new republican form of government caused early American courts to struggle between William Blackstone 's argument that the punishment of "dangerous or offensive writings... (was) necessary for the preservation of peace and good order, of government and religion, the only solid foundations of civil liberty '' and the argument that the need for a free press guaranteed by the Constitution outweighed the fear of what might be written. Consequently, very few changes were made in the first two centuries after the ratification of the First Amendment.
The Supreme Court 's ruling in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964) fundamentally changed American defamation law. The case redefined the type of "malice '' needed to sustain a libel case. Common law malice consisted of "ill - will '' or "wickedness ''. Now, a public officials seeking to sustain a civil action against a tortfeasor needed to prove by "clear and convincing evidence '' that there was actual malice. The case involved an advertisement published in The New York Times indicating that officials in Montgomery, Alabama had acted violently in suppressing the protests of African - Americans during the civil rights movement. The Montgomery Police Commissioner, L.B. Sullivan, sued the Times for libel, stating that the advertisement damaged his reputation. The Supreme Court unanimously reversed the $500,000 judgment against the Times. Justice Brennan suggested that public officials may sue for libel only if the publisher published the statements in question with "actual malice '' -- "knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not. '' In sum, the court held that "the First Amendment protects the publication of all statements, even false ones, about the conduct of public officials except when statements are made with actual malice (with knowledge that they are false or in reckless disregard of their truth or falsity). ''
While actual malice standard applies to public officials and public figures, in Philadelphia Newspapers v. Hepps (1988), the Court found that, with regard to private individuals, the First Amendment does "not necessarily force any change in at least some features of the common - law landscape. '' In Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc. (1985) the Court ruled that "actual malice '' need not be shown in cases involving private individuals, holding that "(i) n light of the reduced constitutional value of speech involving no matters of public concern... the state interest adequately supports awards of presumed and punitive damages -- even absent a showing of ' actual malice. ' '' In Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. (1974), the Court ruled that a private individual had to prove actual malice only to be awarded punitive damages, but not to seek actual damages. In Hustler Magazine v. Falwell (1988), the Court extended the "actual malice '' standard to intentional infliction of emotional distress in a ruling which protected parody, in this case a fake advertisement in Hustler suggesting that evangelist Jerry Falwell 's first sexual experience had been with his mother in an outhouse. Since Falwell was a public figure, the Court ruled that "importance of the free flow of ideas and opinions on matters of public interest and concern '' was the paramount concern, and reversed the judgement Falwell had won against Hustler for emotional distress.
In Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. (1990), the Court ruled that the First Amendment offers no wholesale exception to defamation law for statements labeled "opinion '', but instead that a statement must be provably false (falsifiable) before it can be the subject of a libel suit. Nonetheless, it has been argued that Milkovich and other cases effectively provide for an opinion privilege. In consequence a significant number of states have enacted state opinion privilege laws.
State constitutions provide free speech protections similar to those of the U.S. Constitution. In a few states, such as California, a state constitution has been interpreted as providing more comprehensive protections than the First Amendment. The Supreme Court has permitted states to extend such enhanced protections, most notably in Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins. In that case, the Court unanimously ruled that while the First Amendment may allow private property owners to prohibit trespass by political speakers and petition - gatherers, California was permitted to restrict property owners whose property is equivalent to a traditional public forum (often shopping malls and grocery stores) from enforcing their private property rights to exclude such individuals. However, the Court did maintain that shopping centers could impose "reasonable restrictions on expressive activity ''. Subsequently, New Jersey, Colorado, Massachusetts and Puerto Rico courts have adopted the doctrine; California 's courts have repeatedly reaffirmed it.
The free speech and free press clauses have been interpreted as providing the same protection to speakers as to writers, except for wireless broadcasting which has been given less constitutional protection. The Free Press Clause protects the right of individuals to express themselves through publication and dissemination of information, ideas and opinions without interference, constraint or prosecution by the government. This right was described in Branzburg v. Hayes as "a fundamental personal right '' that is not confined to newspapers and periodicals. In Lovell v. City of Griffin (1938), Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes defined "press '' as "every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion ''. This right has been extended to media including newspapers, books, plays, movies, and video games. While it is an open question whether people who blog or use social media are journalists entitled to protection by media shield laws, they are protected equally by the Free Speech Clause and the Free Press Clause, because both clauses do not distinguish between media businesses and nonprofessional speakers. This is further shown by the Supreme Court consistently refusing to recognize the First Amendment as providing greater protection to the institutional media than to other speakers. For example, in a case involving campaign finance laws the Court rejected the "suggestion that communication by corporate members of the institutional press is entitled to greater constitutional protection than the same communication by '' non-institutional - press businesses.
A landmark decision for press freedom came in Near v. Minnesota (1931), in which the Supreme Court rejected prior restraint (pre-publication censorship). In this case, the Minnesota legislature passed a statute allowing courts to shut down "malicious, scandalous and defamatory newspapers '', allowing a defense of truth only in cases where the truth had been told "with good motives and for justifiable ends ''. In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court applied the Free Press Clause to the states, rejecting the statute as unconstitutional. Hughes quoted Madison in the majority decision, writing, "The impairment of the fundamental security of life and property by criminal alliances and official neglect emphasizes the primary need of a vigilant and courageous press ''.
However, Near also noted an exception, allowing prior restraint in cases such as "publication of sailing dates of transports or the number or location of troops ''. This exception was a key point in another landmark case four decades later: New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), in which the administration of President Richard Nixon sought to ban the publication of the Pentagon Papers, classified government documents about the Vietnam War secretly copied by analyst Daniel Ellsberg. The Court found, 6 -- 3, that the Nixon administration had not met the heavy burden of proof required for prior restraint. Justice Brennan, drawing on Near in a concurrent opinion, wrote that "only governmental allegation and proof that publication must inevitably, directly, and immediately cause the occurrence of an evil kindred to imperiling the safety of a transport already at sea can support even the issuance of an interim restraining order. '' Justices Black and Douglas went still further, writing that prior restraints were never justified.
The courts have rarely treated content - based regulation of journalism with any sympathy. In Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo (1974), the Court unanimously struck down a state law requiring newspapers criticizing political candidates to publish their responses. The state claimed that the law had been passed to ensure journalistic responsibility. The Supreme Court found that freedom, but not responsibility, is mandated by the First Amendment and so it ruled that the government may not force newspapers to publish that which they do not desire to publish.
Content - based regulation of television and radio, however, have been sustained by the Supreme Court in various cases. Since there is a limited number of frequencies for non-cable television and radio stations, the government licenses them to various companies. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that the problem of scarcity does not allow the raising of a First Amendment issue. The government may restrain broadcasters, but only on a content - neutral basis. In Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation, the Supreme Court upheld the Federal Communications Commission 's authority to restrict the use of "indecent '' material in broadcasting.
State governments retain the right to tax newspapers, just as they may tax other commercial products. Generally, however, taxes that focus exclusively on newspapers have been found unconstitutional. In Grosjean v. American Press Co. (1936), the Court invalidated a state tax on newspaper advertising revenues, holding that the role of the press in creating "informed public opinion '' was vital. Similarly, some taxes that give preferential treatment to the press have been struck down. In Arkansas Writers ' Project v. Ragland (1987), for instance, the Court invalidated an Arkansas law exempting "religious, professional, trade and sports journals '' from taxation since the law amounted to the regulation of newspaper content. In Leathers v. Medlock (1991), the Supreme Court found that states may treat different types of the media differently, such as by taxing cable television, but not newspapers. The Court found that "differential taxation of speakers, even members of the press, does not implicate the First Amendment unless the tax is directed at, or presents the danger of suppressing, particular ideas. ''
In Branzburg v. Hayes (1972), the Court ruled that the First Amendment did not give a journalist the right to refuse a subpoena from a grand jury. The issue decided in the case was whether a journalist could refuse to "appear and testify before state and Federal grand juries '' basing the refusal on the belief that such appearance and testimony "abridges the freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the First Amendment ''. The 5 -- 4 decision was that such a protection was not provided by the First Amendment. However, a concurring opinion by Justice Lewis F. Powell, in which he stated that a claim for press privilege "should be judged on its facts by the striking of a proper balance between freedom of the press and the obligation of all citizens to give relevant testimony with respect to criminal conduct. The balance of these vital constitutional and societal interests on a case - by - case basis accords with the tried and traditional way of adjudicating such questions. '', has been frequently cited by lower courts since the decision.
The Petition Clause protects the right "to petition the government for a redress of grievances ''. This includes the right to communicate with government officials, lobbying government officials and petitioning the courts by filing lawsuits with a legal basis. The Petition Clause first came to prominence in the 1830s, when Congress established the gag rule barring anti-slavery petitions from being heard; the rule was overturned by Congress several years later. Petitions against the Espionage Act of 1917 resulted in imprisonments. The Supreme Court did not rule on either issue.
In California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited, 404 U.S. 508 (1972), the Supreme Court stated that the right to petition encompass "the approach of citizens or groups of them to administrative agencies (which are both creatures of the legislature, and arms of the executive) and to courts, the third branch of Government. Certainly the right to petition extends to all departments of the Government. The right of access to the courts is indeed but one aspect of the right of petition. '' Today thus this right encompasses petitions to all three branches of the federal government -- the Congress, the executive and the judiciary -- and has been extended to the states through incorporation. According to the Supreme Court, "redress of grievances '' is to be construed broadly: it includes not solely appeals by the public to the government for the redressing of a grievance in the traditional sense, but also, petitions on behalf of private interests seeking personal gain. The right not only protects demands for "a redress of grievances '' but also demands for government action. The petition clause includes according to the Supreme Court the opportunity to institute non-frivolous lawsuits and mobilize popular support to change existing laws in a peaceful manner.
In Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri (2011), the Supreme Court stated regarding the Free Speech Clause and the Petition Clause:
It is not necessary to say that the two Clauses are identical in their mandate or their purpose and effect to acknowledge that the rights of speech and petition share substantial common ground... Both speech and petition are integral to the democratic process, although not necessarily in the same way. The right to petition allows citizens to express their ideas, hopes, and concerns to their government and their elected representatives, whereas the right to speak fosters the public exchange of ideas that is integral to deliberative democracy as well as to the whole realm of ideas and human affairs. Beyond the political sphere, both speech and petition advance personal expression, although the right to petition is generally concerned with expression directed to the government seeking redress of a grievance.
The right of assembly was originally distinguished from the right to petition. In United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the Supreme Court held that "the right of the people peaceably to assemble for the purpose of petitioning Congress for a redress of grievances, or for anything else connected with the powers or duties of the National Government, is an attribute of national citizenship, and, as such, under protection of, and guaranteed by, the United States. The very idea of a government, republican in form, implies a right on the part of its citizens to meet peaceably for consultation in respect to public affairs and to petition for a redress of grievances. '' Justice Morrison Waite 's opinion for the Court carefully distinguished the right to peaceably assemble as a secondary right, while the right to petition was labeled to be a primary right. Later cases, however, paid less attention to these distinctions.
In two 1960s decisions collectively known as forming the Noerr - Pennington doctrine, the Court established that the right to petition prohibited the application of antitrust law to statements made by private entities before public bodies: a monopolist may freely go before the city council and encourage the denial of its competitor 's building permit without being subject to Sherman Act liability.
Although the First Amendment does not explicitly mention freedom of association, the Supreme Court ruled, in National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama (1958), that this freedom was protected by the Amendment and that privacy of membership was an essential part of this freedom. The U.S. Supreme Court decided in Roberts v. United States Jaycees (1984) that "implicit in the right to engage in activities protected by the First Amendment '' is "a corresponding right to associate with others in pursuit of a wide variety of political, social, economic, educational, religious, and cultural ends ''. In Roberts the Court held that associations may not exclude people for reasons unrelated to the group 's expression, such as gender.
However, in Hurley v. Irish - American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston (1995), the Court ruled that a group may exclude people from membership if their presence would affect the group 's ability to advocate a particular point of view. Likewise, in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000), the Court ruled that a New Jersey law, which forced the Boy Scouts of America to admit an openly gay member, to be an unconstitutional abridgment of the Boy Scouts ' right to free association.
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who did the louisiana territory belonged to before 1802 | Louisiana Purchase - wikipedia
The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of Louisiana '') was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828,000 square miles or 2.14 million km2) by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000 / € 9,100,000) and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000) for a total of sixty - eight million francs ($15 million, equivalent to $300 million in 2016). The Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The territory contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; a large portion of North Dakota; a large portion of South Dakota; the northeastern section of New Mexico; the northern portion of Texas; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (plus New Orleans); and small portions of land within the present Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves.
The Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, then the First Consul of the French Republic, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, regained ownership of Louisiana. However, France 's failure to put down the revolt in Saint - Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States to fund his military. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the port city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands, but quickly accepted the bargain. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. Before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition; they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient.
Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics. It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. France ceded the territory to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven Years ' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.
Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired "piece by piece. '' The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound reconsideration '' of this policy necessary. New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney 's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit '' in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.
In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon 's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on 30 November 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on 20 December 1803. A further ceremony was held in St. Louis, Upper Louisiana regarding the New Orleans formalities. The 9 -- 10 March 1804 event is remembered as Three Flags Day.
James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition which would follow.
The Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S. history. Stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803, Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish did n't want the Americans to settle in their territory.
Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen states. In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of his greatest contributions to the United States. On April 18, 1802, Jefferson penned a letter to United States Ambassador to France Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous course. The letter began:
The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has written to you fully. Yet I can not forbear recurring to it personally, so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three - eighths of our territory must pass to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions, her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there, so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...
Jefferson 's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans. '' Not only did he say that day would be a low point in France 's history, for it would seal America 's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding program.
While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800 went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread nationwide when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans. Southerners feared that Napoleon would free all the slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere. Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction. In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint - Domingue (present - day Haiti), which was then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.
Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801 after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.
In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc to Saint - Domingue (present - day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the slaves. Napoleon wanted its revenues and productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.
In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint - Domingue (more than two - thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere. In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.
In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged in back - channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson 's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.
Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France, as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would erode states ' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there.
Throughout this time, Jefferson had up - to - date intelligence on Napoleon 's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two. Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain 's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness.
Napoleon needed peace with the United Kingdom to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade the UK.
As Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France 's New World empire. Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.
Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de Barbé - Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe 's arrival, Barbé - Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million, (equivalent to about $300 million in 2016 dollars,) which averages to less than three cents per acre (7 ¢ / ha).
The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.
The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803. On July 4, 1803, the treaty reached Washington, D.C.. The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert 's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.
Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched the intent of that document to justify his purchase. This argument goes as follows:
The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson 's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were concerned that the United States had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain.
Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase 's constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59 -- 57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.
The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave - holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.
Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners '', unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.
Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers. The French government replied that these objections were baseless since the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.
Henry Adams claimed "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless. '' The sale of course was not "worthless '' -- the U.S. actually did take possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests. '' Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned it over to American officials.
Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson 's alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did.
Jefferson 's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution ''), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country 's territory by treaty could not be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction '' if the Congress approved the treaty.
The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution specifies.
The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self - interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead, if the Louisiana Purchase went through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.
When Spain later objected to the United States purchasing Louisiana from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that America would have to treat with France for the territory.
The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on 30 April by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank. ''
The United States Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty with a vote of twenty - four to seven on October 20. The Senators who voted against the treaty were: Simeon Olcott and William Plumer of New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James Hillhouse and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.
On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
A timeline of legislation can be found at the Library of Congress: American Memory: The Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline -- 1803 - 1804.
France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag - raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.
On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under Commandant Amos Stoddard.
Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory. The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, aka Louisiana Territory (1805 -- 1812).
New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory.
A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory 's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.
The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande and West Florida. Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis. The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams -- Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.
The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain 's internal provinces.
If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill - defined British possession -- Rupert 's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo - American Convention of 1818.
The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act, which recognized West Florida as part of the United States. The Adams -- Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.
Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams -- Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.
Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This was particularly true in the area of the present - day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color. Both present - day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the early 19th century.
During this period, south Louisiana received an influx of French - speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint - Domingue, today 's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American - held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint - Domingue and revolt. They wanted the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.
The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African - Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over). In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836. The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later. As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as "slave states. ''
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.
After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox. In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present - day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present - day Iowa. With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for that purpose until 1826.
During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.
The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government 's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction. Francis Baring 's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations. Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.
Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to France. Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of England, which never took place.
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who played the original floyd the barber on the andy griffith show | Floyd Lawson - wikipedia
Floyd Lawson (Floyd the Barber) is a fictional character on the American sitcom The Andy Griffith Show, who was likely inspired by barbers in Andy Griffith 's real - life hometown of Mount Airy, North Carolina. One barber named Russell Hiatt was known as "the real - life Floyd ''. Hiatt may have cut Andy Griffith 's hair while Griffith was young and living in Mount Airy, and was still cutting hair daily at "Floyd 's City Barber Shop '' in Downtown Mount Airy until several years before his death on May 3, 2016. Griffith denied that Hiatt was the inspiration for Floyd Lawson, however, saying, "A barber up there says he cut my hair when I was a child. Hell, he 'll have to be 115 years old. '' (1)
Floyd the Barber was the slow - paced, somewhat absent - minded barber in the series ' fictional town of Mayberry. He was first seen in episode # 12, "Stranger in Town, '' played by actor Walter Baldwin. Baldwin established the running gag of Floyd 's inability to trim sideburns evenly, which continued throughout the run of the series. Baldwin portrayed Floyd for just one episode. From 1961 on, the role was played by Howard McNear, the actor most commonly associated with the role. In McNear 's first appearance as Floyd, the character 's last name was "Colby ''; thereafter the character was always "Floyd Lawson ''.
Over the first few seasons, the importance of Floyd the Barber to the series increased. Slowly, McNear changed his delivery of dialogue for Floyd from fast - paced to slower and slower as time went on. Floyd also became involved more in the plots of the various episodes as time went on.
In early 1963, midway through the third season, Howard McNear suffered a serious stroke. He was left with limited use of his arms and legs, especially his left arm, which rarely moved. The producers of the series and Andy Griffith wanted McNear to return as Floyd when his health permitted it, and after about a year, McNear was talked into coming back (which he was not going to do at first). The series had a special chair constructed that McNear was able to sit in most of the time while on the set, as the stroke had left him only able to stand for short periods of time. Accordingly, the Floyd character then began to appear regularly again on the series towards the end of season four.
The last appearance of Floyd the Barber on The Andy Griffith Show was in the final episode of the seventh season. Howard McNear 's health worsened and he was not able to return to the series for season eight, and he died less than a year later. To try to fill in his loss on the series, a new character named Emmett Clark (a fix - it man) was brought in. It was announced on the series that Floyd had retired because he had earned enough money. Emmett (played by veteran character actor Paul Hartman) moved his fix - it shop into Floyd 's old barber shop location in Mayberry.
Floyd has a mustache, wears thick glasses and usually wears a white barber jacket. He is a whimsical and laid back, but occasionally excitable and absent - minded fellow whose barber shop is something of an institution in the fictional town of Mayberry. He is also an amateur poet, sometimes composing verse for Mayberry civic events. These poems always consisted of repeating, over and over, the same few words. Floyd also has a fondness for President Calvin Coolidge, often attributing quotes to him -- the irony being that President Coolidge was known for being a man of few words with the nickname of "Silent Cal ''. The men of Mayberry gather at Floyd 's barbershop, not only to get their hair cut, but to play checkers, discuss current events, read comic books, or generally just to "shoot the breeze '' and "carry on ''. When not cutting hair, Floyd can generally be seen sitting on the bench outside his shop.
In 1964, Howard McNear suffered a massive stroke that left him with limited mobility in his arms and legs. He was also unable to stand for long periods of time. After returning to the series a year and a half later, Floyd is only seen sitting or apparently standing behind the barber 's chair. Scenes with Floyd standing were accomplished with the use of a special brace that was hidden from view behind the barber 's chair.
Floyd Lawson is the uncle of Deputy Warren Ferguson, who replaced Deputy Barney Fife in the 1965 season, after the departure of actor Don Knotts. In the Season 1 episode "Those Gossipin ' Men '', Floyd has a son named Norman who plays the saxophone. Norman is not seen again in the series, although he is mentioned in the episode "The Jinx '' as a terrible baseball player. In other Season 1 episodes, Floyd refers to his wife, whose name is revealed to be Melba in the Season 1 episode "Quiet Sam ''. Melba was never seen and was never referred to after the first season. In the Season 3 episode, "Floyd the Gay Deceiver '', Floyd is apparently single or a widower. The episode centers around Floyd meeting a woman with whom he corresponded through a "Lonely Hearts Club ''.
At the start of The Andy Griffith Show, Floyd was a secondary character, despite the fact that his barbershop is one of the main centers of action in Mayberry. Over time, Floyd 's role gradually increased, and he began to be featured as a main character, most notably in the Season 2 episode "The Bookie Barber '' and two Season 3 episodes: "Floyd the Gay Deceiver '' and "Convicts At Large ''.
The character of Floyd the Barber has proved to be a large part of the popular culture as proven by these examples: In two episodes of the comedy sketch program Second City Television, actor Eugene Levy played Floyd the Barber. His first appearance was in a parody of The Godfather, in the opening scene as Amerigo Bonasera, in which he asks the Don to hurt Opie for breaking his barber pole. The last line delivered by Floyd is "Ohh, and would you kill Howard Sprague for me? '' referring to Howard Sprague, a character from The Andy Griffith Show. His other appearance was in a parody of The Andy Griffith Show, "The Merv Griffith Show, '' in which he is in his barber shop cutting hair and at a surprise party for Gomer.
Kurt Cobain wrote a song titled "Floyd the Barber '' that was recorded on Nirvana 's first album Bleach (1989). In the song, Floyd, Barney, Opie and Aunt Bee hold him captive after he comes in for a shave, torturing and murdering him.
St. Elsewhere, which frequently referenced other television programs, had a barber named Floyd in the series finale (which also referred to Dr. Kimble 's one - armed patient being on the loose, Henry Blake (patient no. 4077) being the victim of a helicopter crash, and a re-enactment of the Mary Tyler Moore 's group - hug and shuffle to the tissues).
Floyd Lawson is also referenced in the theme song for the animated series Freakazoid as being the titular hero 's barber.
He is also mentioned numerous times on different episodes of Mystery Science Theater 3000 and Cinematic Titanic.
In the Star Trek episode "The City on the Edge of Forever '', there is a scene in which Captain Kirk (William Shatner) and guest star Joan Collins are walking down a street supposedly located in New York City during the 1930s. As they are walking down the sidewalk, a glass window clearly marked "Floyd 's Barber Shop '' is visible briefly. This is because both series used the outdoor Desilu Studios lot that was originally constructed as "Atlanta '' in the film Gone with the Wind (1939).
In an episode of St. Elsewhere, guest - starring Griffith cast member Jack Dodson, the characters make reference to the hospital 's barber also named Floyd. Dodson 's character adds, "He may bury us all. ''
On NBC 's sitcom 30 Rock, Liz Lemon 's recurring boyfriend, a recovering alcoholic, is named Floyd De Barber and played by SNL cast member Jason Sudeikis.
His voice and mannerisms were sometimes imitated by Jon Stewart on The Daily Show.
FX series Sons of Anarchy featured a barber by the name of Floyd, first showing up in season 1.
In the Animaniacs episode "Dough Dough Boys / Boot Camping / General Boo - Regard '', Wakko gets his hair cut by Floyd during boot camp. Floyd in this episode was voiced by John Roarke
In the Freakazoid! theme song, it is revealed that the titular character goes to Floyd the barber for his haircuts.
In the English dub of Digimon: The Movie, Matt and T.K. go to a barber shop where the barber is addressed as "Floyd ''. In the closing credits, other characters in the barber shop are credited as "Andy, '' "Barney '' and "Aunt Bea ''.
In the fourth - season episode of Arrested Development entitled "Smashed '', during the "haircut meeting '', Ron Howard refers to his barber as Floyd, remarking that he calls all of his barbers "Floyd ''. Mr. Howard, of course, was a fellow castmate in The Andy Griffith Show.
Comedian Tim Wilson paid homage to Lawson in the lyrics of his 1999 song "Haircut Malpractice '', singing "We ought to strap you in the chair with Floyd Lawson and get that mess under control. ''
Actor and comedian Rich Koz has portrayed Floyd Lawson on WCIU - TV 's "Svengoolie '' which is now seen nationally on the Me - TV Network. Koz appeared as Floyd during the program 's showing of Return to Mayberry, the 1986 NBC TV movie reuniting the surviving characters of The Andy Griffith Show. Koz also portrayed Floyd Lawson during a mini-marathon of The Munsters as part of "Svengoolie 's TV Graveyard ''.
A 1988, CBS, Saturday morning kids show titled Hey Vern It 's Ernest had a segment in each episode titled "Earl the Barber ''. Earl is clearly patterned after Mayberry 's barber, Floyd. In each episode, lead character Ernest P. Worrell comes in for a haircut and after giving it some thought tells Earl he wants his hair cut to make him look like a Wall Street tycoon. Earl is then shown in quick picture cuts (with fast music) "going to work ''. When finished he gives Ernest a mirror to check out his handy work. Ernest, shocked at the results, excitedly says "Earl, this does n't make me look like a Wall Street tycoon. '' Realizing his mistake, Earl says "silly me, why I thought you said a baby baboon '' or a windswept dune or a lazy lagoon, for example. Earl then asks Ernest how he likes the new look. After taking a second look at the mirror, Ernest replies "It could work. ''
In the mid-1960s, Russell Hiatt contacted Howard McNear and gained his written permission to use his likeness on T - shirts and other items for an unlimited amount of time. Over the years, McNear 's likeness has been used for things such as large billboard ads advertising "Pink Floyd '' on rock radio. A large pink image of Howard McNear was usually in the ads. All rights to McNear 's image are controlled by the barber Hiatt.
Hiatt died May 3, 2016 at 92 after nearly 70 years working at Floyd 's City Barber Shop in Andy Griffith 's real hometown of Mount Airy, North Carolina. Due to health problems, he had retired several years earlier. It is uncertain whether he cut Griffith 's hair when the actor had yet to become famous, though Griffith got his hair cut at Palace Barber Shop. Hiatt was only two years older than Griffith, so he would have had to have cut his hair before Griffith moved away from Mt. Airy for college in the late 1940s. They both would have been teenagers at that time. In 1946, Hiatt started working at City Barber Shop (which was established in 1929), which added the name Floyd 's in 1989 and now has photos and drawings of characters from the show. Jim Clark of the Andy Griffith Show Rerun Watchers Club doubts that City Barber Shop inspired Floyd 's, but believes it was based Griffith 's memories of barber shops in Mount Airy. Even though Hiatt made no attempt to look like or act like the TV character, Clark called Hiatt "the uncanny virtual embodiment of Floyd the Barber ''.
People from every state and 42 countries have visited City Barber Shop; many are shown in the 20,000 photos on the walls and the 40,000 other photos in storage. On one occasion, Oprah Winfrey visited. George "Goober '' Lindsey and John Schneider (of The Dukes of Hazzard and Smallville) both had their hair trimmed by Hiatt himself while visiting Mount Airy.
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what songs did chris stapleton write for other artists | Chris Stapleton - wikipedia
Christopher Alvin Stapleton (born April 15, 1978) is an American singer - songwriter and guitarist. Born and raised in Kentucky, Stapleton moved to Nashville, Tennessee where he started a career as a songwriter, contributing to the repertoire of numerous artists. As a vocalist, Stapleton led two music groups before releasing three studio albums as a soloist. His musical styles, which incorporate a wide variety of genres, include country music, southern rock and bluegrass.
Stapleton served as the frontman of bluegrass group The SteelDrivers from 2008 to 2010. Thereafter, he released his critically acclaimed debut studio album Traveller (2015), which reached number one on the US Billboard 200 and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). His second studio album From A Room: Volume 1 was released in May 2017, and gave him his second wins for Country Music Association Award for Album of the Year and Grammy Award for Best Country Album. From A Room: Volume 2 was released in December 2017.
Stapleton has co-written six country number - one songs including the five - week number - one "Never Wanted Nothing More '' recorded by Kenny Chesney, "Love 's Gonna Make It Alright '' recorded by George Strait, "Drink a Beer '' recorded by Luke Bryan, and "Come Back Song '' recorded by Darius Rucker. Over 150 of Stapleton 's songs have appeared on albums by such artists as Adele, Luke Bryan, Tim McGraw, Brad Paisley, and Dierks Bentley. Among other artists, he has co-written with Vince Gill, Peter Frampton and Sheryl Crow. He is the recipient of several accolades, including five Grammy Awards, five Academy of Country Music Awards and seven Country Music Association Awards.
Stapleton was born in a Lexington, Kentucky hospital as the middle of three children in the family. His mother, Carol J. (Mace) Stapleton, worked at the local health department and his father, Herbert Joseph Stapleton, Jr. (1946 -- 2013), was a coal miner. He comes from a family of coal miners. He has an older brother, Herbert Joseph III and younger sister, Melanie Brooke.
Stapleton grew up in the small town of Staffordsville, Kentucky, which is located just outside of Paintsville, located between the city and the Paintsville lake. He graduated from Johnson Central High School where he was his class valedictorian and attended Vanderbilt University where he studied engineering, but dropped out after a year.
In 2001, Stapleton moved to Nashville, Tennessee to pursue a music career. As a songwriter, he signed with the publishing house Sea Gayle Music, a deal he got shortly after moving to Nashville.
In 2007, he became the frontman for the bluegrass group The Steeldrivers. They had two hit records; each peaked at number 2 on the bluegrass chart before Stapleton left in 2010.
In 2010, Stapleton founded a Southern rock band called The Jompson Brothers. The band was made up of Stapleton on vocals, Greg McKee on guitar, J.T. Cure on bass, Bard McNamee on drums. They toured regionally until 2013 and at one point, opened for the Zac Brown Band. The band independently released a self - titled album in November 2010.
In 2013, Stapleton signed to Mercury Nashville, a division of Universal Music Group Nashville, as a solo artist. His first single, "What Are You Listening To? '', was released in October 2013, but did not perform as expected. The single was part of a record that was recorded but never released. Stapleton also cowrote the theme -- "All - Nighter Comin ' '' -- to the WSM - AM show, The WSM All Nighter with Marcia Campbell, an American radio show with a large trucker following. He cowrote the song with Vince Gill and Al Anderson, with Gill featured on vocals on the track. Songs written by Stapleton have been included on to the soundtracks of several feature films, including Valentine 's Day, Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip. and Hell or High Water.
In 2013, Stapleton and his wife Morgane sang the Don Williams song, "Amanda '', live at the Grand Ole Opry. They also did an NPR Tiny Desk Concert in November 2015.
At the 2014 CMT Artist of the Year event, Stapleton performed with Lady Antebellum, who played Stapleton 's song, "Drink a Beer '', which Luke Bryan had recorded, in honor of Bryan, who was unable to attend the ceremony due to a death in his family. Stapleton had previously sung it during Bryan 's 2013 CMA Awards performance of the same song.
His debut solo album, Traveller, was released on May 5, 2015. Recorded in Nashville 's RCA Studio A, Stapleton co-produced the album with producer Dave Cobb. On the album he plays guitar and sings with a live band that is made up of bass player J.T. Cure (from The Jompson Brothers), pedal steel player Robby Turner, drummer Derek Mixon, Mickey Raphael on harmonica, and wife Morgane Stapleton singing harmonies. Stapleton emphasized the importance of the band lineup that came together during the making and promotion of the record, saying the familiarity he had with Cure and Mixon (he has known and played with Cure for over 20 years), plus Cobb 's producing which included contributing acoustic guitar in the recording process, added to the richness of making the record.
Stapleton said that the album was inspired by a cross country road trip he took after his father died in 2013. He said he wrote the title track "Traveller '' while on a road trip with his wife, driving down Interstate 40 from Phoenix, Arizona, to Nashville via New Mexico. His wife helped him to sift through 15 years worth of songs to pick 9 songs to start recording with.
Stapleton won three awards at the 2015 Country Music Association Awards: Album of the Year, Male Vocalist of the Year, and New Artist of the Year. At the CMA Awards, Stapleton performed with Justin Timberlake his version of the song popularized as a David Allen Coe live - show staple, "Tennessee Whiskey '' and Timberlake 's "Drink You Away ''. Considered a career - defining moment by music publications, the performance along with his wins that night lifted him to national prominence. In December 2015, Stapleton received the 2015 CMT Artists of the Year Breakout award during a live performance at the annual CMT Artists of the Year show. Traveller was nominated for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year and won the categories Best Country Album and Best Country Solo Performance. It also won the Academy of Country Music Award for Album of the Year. The top selling country album of 2016, it has sold a total of 2 million copies domestically as of July 2017.
In 2016, Stapleton -- along with his wife Morgane -- contributed the track, "You Are My Sunshine '', to producer Dave Cobb 's compilation record project, Southern Family. He collaborated with Jake Owen on the song "If He Ai n't Gonna Love You '' on Owen 's album American Love. Stapleton performed on the main stage at the 2016 Country to Country festival in Europe along with Andrew Combs, Kacey Musgraves and headliner Eric Church. Stapleton was the musical guest on the Saturday Night Live episode which aired January 16, 2016, alongside host Adam Driver. He performed "Parachute '' and "Nobody to Blame '' from Traveller.
In January 2016, Stapleton performed "Either Way '', a song he wrote with Kendall Marvel and Tim James, at the Country Radio Hall of Fame 's Country Radio Seminar in Nashville. It was previously recorded by Lee Ann Womack for her 2008 album, Call Me Crazy. The track would be featured on his second studio album From A Room: Volume 1. Released on May 5, 2017, Volume 1 takes its name from Nashville 's RCA Studio A, where it was recorded during the winter of 2016 -- 17. The same month he embarked on his "All - American Road Show Tour ''. Volume 1 was certified gold in the US the next month, eventually giving Stapleton his second CMA for Album of the Year, and became the best - selling country album of the year. His third studio album From A Room: Volume 2 was released on December 1, 2017. Both albums Volume 1 and Volume 2 debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 charts.
Stapleton co-wrote three songs for Justin Timberlake 's studio album Man of the Woods (2018), including their collaboration "Say Something '', which officially reached the top ten list on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. Stapleton was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live for a second time on January 27, 2018, where he performed songs from From a Room: Volume 2 with Sturgill Simpson. In March, "Broken Halos '' off From A Room: Volume 1 reached the top of the Country Airplay chart. Stapleton recorded a cover of "I Want Love '' for Restoration: Reimagining the Songs of Elton John and Bernie Taupin.
Stapleton 's music influences range from outlaw country and bluegrass to rock and roll and blues. Editors from NPR and Paste magazine described his sound as a blend of country, classic rock and Southern soul. Before going solo, Stapleton led the progressive bluegrass band The SteelDrivers and the rock and roll band The Jompson Brothers. His first solo album Traveller is an old - school country, Southern rock and bluegrass record, and his second From A Room: Volume 1 focuses on country, blues and roots rock. He played the acoustic guitar and electric guitar for both albums.
Stapleton is a soul singer with a baritone vocal range. After attending one of his concerts in 2015, Los Angeles Times ' writer Randy Lewis opined his singing recalls "the note - bending style of country that traces to Merle Haggard and Lefty Frizzell and the gut - wrenching expressionism of blues and R&B perfected by Ray Charles '', while his guitar performances elicits "memories of Texas blues rocker Stevie Ray Vaughan. '' Stapleton has cited Charles, Otis Redding and Freddie King as some of his music influences, along with Kentucky - based country artists, Keith Whitley, Dwight Yoakam and Patty Loveless: "the list goes on and on. Those names are just part of life in Kentucky. You ca n't help but be aware of them and be influenced by them. ''
Stapleton is married to singer - songwriter Morgane Stapleton, who co-wrote Carrie Underwood 's 2006 single "Do n't Forget to Remember Me ''. She had a recording deal with Arista Nashville. The couple met when they were working at adjacent publishing houses. They have two children and live in Nashville. In October 2017, the couple announced they are expecting twins.
Stapleton has received numerous awards, accolades and nominations. He is the recipient of five Grammy Awards, five Academy of Country Music Awards, seven Country Music Association Awards, two Billboard Music Awards, two iHeartRadio Music Awards, among others. For his work as composer he has received nine ASCAP Country awards, including the Vanguard Award.
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what countries can visit the us without a visa | Visa Waiver Program - wikipedia
The Visa Waiver Program (VWP) is a program of the United States Government which allows citizens of specific countries to travel to the United States for tourism, business, or while in transit for up to 90 days without having to obtain a visa. The program applies to the United States as well as the US territories of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands in the Caribbean, with limited application to other US territories.
All of the countries selected by the US government to be in the program are high - income economies with a very high Human Development Index that are generally regarded as developed countries.
To be eligible for a visa waiver under the VWP, the traveler seeking admission to the United States must be a citizen of a country that has been designated by the U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security, in consultation with the Secretary of State, as a "program country ''. Permanent residents of designated countries who are not citizens of a designated country do not qualify for a visa waiver. The criteria for designation as program countries are specified in Section 217 (c) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (Title 8 U.S.C. § 1187). The criteria stress passport security and a very low nonimmigrant visa refusal rate, not more than 3 % as specified in Section 217 (c) (2) (A) of the Immigration and Nationality Act and ongoing compliance with the immigration law of the United States.
Citizens of 38 countries and territories are eligible for visa - free entry into the United States under the VWP:
Argentina was added to the program on 8 July 1996 and removed from the list from 21 February 2002. Uruguay was added to the program on 9 August 1999 and removed from the list from 15 April 2003.
Visitors may stay for 90 days in the United States which also includes the time spent in Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the islands in the Caribbean if the arrival was through the United States. The ESTA is required if arriving by air or cruise ship. Visa Waiver applies without ESTA for land border crossings, but the VWP does not apply at all (i.e. a visa is required) if a passenger is arriving via air or sea on an unapproved carrier.
Since 2016, the visa waiver does not apply in cases where a person had previously traveled to Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, or Yemen on or after 1 March 2011 or for those who are dual citizens of Iran, Iraq, Sudan or Syria. Certain categories such as diplomats, military, journalists, humanitarian workers or legitimate businessmen may have their visa requirement waived by the Secretary of Homeland Security.
Countries nominated for status in the Visa Waiver Program are in between "road map '' status and eligibility to participate. Nomination kicks off a detailed evaluation by the United States Department of Homeland Security of the nominated country 's homeland security and immigration practices. There is no established timeline for how long a country may remain on the nominated list before either being approved or rejected from the program.
Since 2005, the U.S. Department of State has been conducting discussions with countries known as "road map countries, '' which are interested in joining (or rejoining) the VWP. Of the original 19 countries, 10 have been admitted to the VWP. The remaining nine countries are:
Eligibility for the visa waiver may be withdrawn at any time. Usually this may happen if the United States feels that citizens of a certain country are more likely than before to violate their VWP restrictions, such as working without a permit or overstaying their allowed period of stay in the United States. Accordingly, Argentina 's participation in the VWP was terminated in 2002 in light of the financial crisis taking place in that country and its potential effect on mass emigration and unlawful overstay of its citizens in the United States by way of the VWP. Uruguay 's participation in the program was revoked in 2003 for similar reasons. While a country 's political and economic standing does not directly determine its eligibility, it is widely believed that citizens of politically stable and economically developed nations would not have much incentive to illegally seek employment and violate their visa while in the U.S., risks that the consul seriously considers in approving or denying a visa. Israel has not been included in the VWP reportedly in part because of its strict scrutiny of Palestinian Americans traveling to Israel, thus not fulfilling the mutuality requirement.
The European Union has been pressuring the United States to extend the Visa Waiver Program to its five remaining member countries that are not currently in it: Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Poland, and Romania. All of these are "road map countries '' except Croatia, which only recently joined the EU in 2013. In November 2014 Bulgarian Government announced that it will not ratify the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership unless the United States lifted visas for its citizens.
Number of admissions into the United States per VWP country under the program (including the Guam and Northern Mariana Islands Visa Waiver Program):
* Only for Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands.
The Adjusted Refusal Rate is based on the refusal rate of B visa applications. B visas are adjudicated based on applicant interviews; the interviews generally last between 60 and 90 seconds. Due to time constraints, adjudicators profile applicants. Certain demographics, such as young adults, those who are single and / or unemployed, almost never receive visas. Adjudicators are evaluated on how fast they carry out interviews, not the quality of adjudication decisions. The validity of B visa decisions is not evaluated.
To qualify for the Visa Waiver Program, a country must have had a nonimmigrant visa refusal rate of less than 3 % for the previous year or an average of no more than 2 % over the past two fiscal years with neither year going above 2.5 %. In addition, the country must provide visa - free access to United States citizens and has to be either an independent country or a dependency of a VWP country (which has precluded Hong Kong and Macau from participating in the program.) (Until 4 April 2016, Argentina charged $160 to U.S. citizens to enter.)
In the table below, eligible countries are in bold, with their flag depicted and linked to their relevant individual article on Wikipedia. The Adjusted Visa Refusal Rate for B visas were as follows:
A number of visitors from the Visa Waiver Program countries overstayed the 90 - day maximum. The Department of Homeland Security published a report for 2016 that lists the number of violations made by passengers who arrived via air and sea. The table below excludes statistics on persons who left the United States later than their allowed stay or legalized their status and shows only suspected overstays who remained in the country.
After the expansion of the European Union in 2004, both the newly admitted countries and EU agencies began intensive lobbying efforts to include those new countries in the VWP. The U.S. Government initially responded to those efforts by developing bilateral strategies with 19 candidate countries known as the Visa Waiver Roadmap process. The U.S. Government began to accept the possibility of departing from the original country designation criteria - which had been contained within immigration law per se - and to expand them by adding political criteria, with the latter being able to override the former. This development began first with Bill S. 2844 which explicitly named Poland as the only country to be added to the VWP, and continued as an amendment to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 (S. 2611), whose Sec. 413, Visa Waiver Program Expansion, defined broader criteria that would apply to any EU country that provided "material support '' to the multinational forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the definition of that "material support '' would be met again only by Poland and Romania, a fact that was not favorably received by the other EU candidate countries. Ironically, Poland remains the only Central European country that is not a participating nation in the VWP as of 2017, due to a visa refusal rate above the critical threshold of 3 %.
A June 2007 Hudson Institute Panel stressed the urgency of the inclusion of Central Europe in the VWP: "An inexplicable policy that is causing inestimable damage to the United States with its new Central and Eastern European NATO allies is the region 's exclusion from the visa waiver program. As Helle Dale wrote in the spring issue of European Affairs: "Meanwhile the problem is fueling anti-U.S. antagonisms and a perception of capricious discrimination by U.S. bureaucrats -- - and damping the visits to the U.S. of people from countries with whom Washington would like to improve commercial and intellectual ties. Meanwhile horror stories abound from friends and diplomats from Central and Eastern Europe about the problems besetting foreigners seeking to visit the United States. In fact bringing up the subject of visas with any resident of those countries is like waving a red flag before a bull. '' Visa waiver must be satisfactorily addressed and resolved at long last. ''
During his visit to Estonia in November 2006, President Bush announced his intention "to work with our Congress and our international partners to modify our visa waiver program ''. In 2006, the Secure Travel and Counterterrorism Partnership Bill was introduced in the Senate but no action was taken and that bill, as well as a similar one introduced in the House the following year, died after two years of inactivity. The bill would have directed the Secretary of Homeland Security to establish a pilot program to expand the visa waiver program for up to five new countries that are cooperating with the United States on security and counterterrorism matters. The bill would have changed the nonimmigrant visa refusal rate threshold - from 3 % - to 10 %, thus making (as of 2010) 28 countries qualify for inclusion in the visa - waiver program: Argentina, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Croatia, Cyprus, Hong Kong (HKSAR passport and British National (Overseas) passport), Israel, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Poland, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Taiwan, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Uruguay. Note that Cyprus, Malta, Timor Leste, and Vatican City, had already (in 2006) refusal rates less than the original 3 %, but were not included in the VWP countries (whereas a year later, some additional countries had this original low level: Cyprus and Taiwan). However, for continued participation, DHS re-evaluates participating countries every two years, as required by Congress. Through this process, two countries, Argentina and Uruguay, now are no longer eligible to participate. Current members will have to fulfill any new requirements to continue their eligibility for membership in the program. The European Union is currently planning to negotiate for participation of all of its members in the Visa Waiver Program.
In October 2008, President Bush announced that the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and South Korea would be added to the program on November 17. "It is a removal of the last relic of Communism and the Cold War '', said Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek.
On December 22, 2008, in a joint press conference at Auberge de Castille, Maltese Prime Minister Lawrence Gonzi and U.S. Ambassador Molly Bordonaro announced that Malta would join the program with effect from 30 December 2008.
In January 2009 the first Assistant Secretary (acting as Under Secretary - equivalent) for Policy at the United States Department of Homeland Security Stewart Baker announced that Croatia is expected to join the Visa Waiver program by 2011.
On June 17, 2008, Bulgarian Foreign Minister Ivailo Kalfin and U.S. Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff signed an interim agreement under the Visa Waiver Program, the press service of the Bulgarian Foreign Ministry said in a statement.
Greece officially joined the program on April 5, 2010.
President Obama promised that Poland would be added to the program, in a meeting with Polish President Bronislaw Komorowski in December 2010; however no date has been set for when Poland will be added. Organizations such as the Federation for American Immigration Reform and the Center for Immigration Studies still oppose Poland 's admission both due to its continued high visa refusal rate, as well as its being a major source of illegal immigrants; the CIS also criticized South Korea 's admission to the program on these grounds.
On October 2, 2012, Secretary Napolitano announced the inclusion of Taiwan into the program effectively as of November 1, 2012. Only Taiwanese nationals with a valid passport and National Identification Number can apply for ESTA online to benefit from the country 's newly acquired visa - free status.
In 2013 there was conflict over the United States - Israel Strategic Partnership Act of 2013 whose Senate version specifies that satisfaction of the requirements regarding reciprocal travel privileges for U.S. citizens would be subject to security concerns. Many members of the House of Representatives oppose the security language because it seems to validate Israel 's tendency to turn away Arab Americans without giving any reason. None of the other 37 countries in the visa waiver program has such an exemption.
The only European microstate that is not a member of the program is the Vatican City.
The visa refusal rate for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region has dropped to 1.7 % for HKSAR passport and 2.6 % for British National (Overseas) passport as of 2012. Hong Kong met all VWP criteria but did not qualify at the time because it is not legally a separate country, despite having its own passports and independent judicial system, monetary system and immigration control. The former Chief Executive of Hong Kong, Donald Tsang, raised the issue with then - Secretary of State Hillary Clinton during his visit to the U.S. in 2011 and was met with positive response. On May 16, 2013, a bipartisan amendment bill was passed by the Senate Judiciary Committee but not ratified into law. On 10 August 2015, the U.S. Consul General to Hong Kong and Macau, Clifford Hart, said during an interview with South China Morning Post that the visa waiver is "not happening anytime soon '', as the Visa Waiver law requires the participant to be a "sovereign state '' and Hong Kong is not independent, thus ending the possibility of Hong Kong joining the program. He also denied that the failed lobbying effort of HKSAR government on this issue was a result of the refusal of detaining Edward Snowden in 2013.
Congress passed legislation in 1986 to create the Visa Waiver Program with the aim of facilitating tourism and short - term business visits to the United States, and allowing the United States Department of State to focus consular resources on addressing higher risks. The United Kingdom became the first country to participate in the Visa Waiver Program in July 1988, followed by Japan on 16 December 1988. In October 1989, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, and West Germany were added to the VWP.
In 1991, more European countries joined the Program - Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Norway, San Marino and Spain - as well as New Zealand (the first country from Oceania). In 1993, Brunei became the second Asian country to be admitted to the Program.
On 1 April 1995, Ireland was added to the VWP. In 1996, Australia and Argentina (the first Latin American country) joined, although Argentina was later removed in 2002. On 30 September 1997, Slovenia was added. On 9 August 1999, Portugal, Singapore and Uruguay joined the program, although Uruguay was subsequently removed in 2003.
Following the September 11 terrorist attacks, the George W. Bush administration decided to tighten entry requirements into the United States, as a result of which legislation was passed requiring foreign visitors entering under the Visa Waiver Program to present a machine - readable passport upon arrival starting from 1 October 2003. However, as a number of VWP still issued non-machine readable passports (for example, more than a third of French and Spanish passport holders held a non-machine readable version), the implementation of the new rule was postponed to 26 October 2004, with the exception of Belgian citizens, as there were concerns about the security and integrity of Belgian passports.
The US government originally planned to require all visitors to the US under the Visa Waiver Program to hold a biometric passport starting from 26 October 2004 if their passport was issued on or after that date. However, after the requirement to have a machine - readable passport was postponed to 26 October 2004, the biometric passport requirement subsequently had its implementation date moved to 26 October 2005, only to be further postponed by another year to 26 October 2006 at the request of the European Union, which raised concerns about the number of participating countries which would have been able to make the deadline.
Starting on 26 October 2006, travellers entering the US under the Visa Waiver Program are required to present a biometric passport if their passport was issued on or after that date. When the new rule came into force on that day, three countries (Andorra, Brunei and Liechtenstein) had not yet started issuing biometric passports.
In November 2006, the US government announced that plans for an "Electronic Travel Authorization '' program (officially named "Electronic System for Travel Authorization '') would be developed so that VWP travelers can give advance information on their travels to the United States. In return, they will be given authorization electronically to travel to the United States, although it does not guarantee admission to the United States. This program is modeled on the Electronic Travel Authority scheme that has been used in Australia for many years.
While all participating nations must provide reciprocal visa - free travel for U.S. citizens (usually ninety days for tourism or business purposes), Australia is the only nation that requires U.S. citizens to apply for an Electronic Travel Authority (ETA), which in fact is a visa that is stored electronically in a computer system operated by the Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC). The ETA has replaced visa - free travel to Australia, and the only nation accorded visa - free travel rights to Australia is New Zealand under the auspices of the Trans - Tasman Travel Arrangement (rather than not requiring a visa, NZ citizens are accorded one automatically upon arrival). A passport holder must apply for and purchase an ETA through an authorized travel agency, airline, or via the official DIAC website before departing for Australia. However, as the ETA process is relatively free of formality, the United States recognizes it as the equivalent of visa - free travel. Citizens of the European Union and other European nations must apply for an eVisitor electronic travel authorization for travel to Australia, which is similar to the ETA program, but free. Australian government policy in this respect is similar to U.S. policy, which similarly requires Visa Waiver Program participants to apply for an ESTA.
The Northern Mariana Islands had previously been a separate jurisdiction from the United States in terms of immigration control. Under a federalization law passed by the U.S. Congress in 2008, the Northern Marianas ' immigration functions were taken over by United States Department of Homeland Security agencies on November 28, 2009. The present Guam - Northern Mariana Islands Visa Waiver Program took effect at that time, replacing previous Northern Marianas ' legislation governing entry to the islands and also replacing a previous Guam - specific Visa Waiver Program. That program had included the aforementioned countries as well as Indonesia, Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands, though these countries were removed from the list of eligible nations for the new program.
In the past, the government of the Northern Mariana Islands had issued Visitor Entry Permits (VEP) instead of visas. Citizens of all countries in the federal visa waiver program were exempt from the VEP requirement, as were citizens of Taiwan and holders of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passports and British National (Overseas) passports. Under the islands ' previous immigration policy, citizens of the following countries or jurisdictions were prohibited from entering the CNMI: Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Cuba, Egypt, Eritrea, Fujian Province of China, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Myanmar, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
U.S. visa policy does not apply to the territory of American Samoa, as it has its own entry requirements and maintains control of its own borders. Hence, neither a U.S. visa nor an ESTA can be used to enter American Samoa. U.S. nationals may enter and remain indefinitely; nationals of countries in the American Samoa Entry Permit Waiver Program may enter with an "OK to board '', issued electronically, for visits not exceeding 30 days; nationals of other countries require an entry permit. The "OK to board '' or entry permit can not be obtained from a U.S. diplomatic mission, but from the Attorney General 's Office of American Samoa.
Government sources disagree on the exact list of countries in the American Samoa Entry Permit Waiver Program. One source has the same list as the U.S. Visa Waiver Program but does not include Canada, while another source includes Canada but excludes Ireland.
To obtain an "OK to board '', travelers must send a copy of their passport (valid for at least 6 months after planned departure from American Samoa) and a copy of their round - trip or onward ticket by email to the Attorney General 's Office of American Samoa, at least 48 hours before travel. They must also pay a fee of 20 USD, before travel or on arrival.
To obtain an entry permit, travelers must have a local sponsor, who must provide either a deed of private land or signatures of the sa'o (head chief) and pulenu'u (village mayor) for communal land. Travelers must also provide a round - trip or onward ticket, clearances from the High Court of American Samoa, Lyndon B. Johnson Tropical Medical Center in Pago Pago, Department of Homeland Security of American Samoa, police and health clearances from the country of origin, and pay a fee of 40 USD. The application for an entry permit must be made at least 30 days before travel. Nationals of Samoa may apply for 7 - day, 14 - day or 30 - day permits.
The requirements for the visa waiver program are as follows:
All travelers must have individual passports. It is not acceptable (for the visa waiver scheme) for children to be included on a parent 's passport.
All visitors from VWP countries must hold a biometric passport.
All incoming passengers who intend to take advantage of the Visa Waiver Program are required to apply for a travel authorization through the Electronic System for Travel Authorization (ESTA) online before departure to the United States, preferably at least 72 hours (3 days) in advance. This new requirement was announced on June 3, 2008 and is intended to bolster U.S. security by pre-screening participating VWP passengers against terrorist and / or no - fly lists and databases. The electronic authorization, which is valid for a two - year period, mirrors Australia 's Electronic Travel Authority system. The authorization is mandatory for participating VWP citizens before boarding flights destined to the United States, but as with formal visas this does not guarantee admission into the United States since final admission eligibility is determined at U.S. ports of entry by CBP officers.
According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security 's ESTA fact sheet:
An approved ESTA travel authorization is:
valid for up to two years or until the traveler 's passport expires, whichever comes first; valid for multiple entries into the U.S.; and not a guarantee of admissibility to the United States at a port of entry. ESTA approval only authorizes a traveler to board a carrier for travel to the U.S. under the VWP. In all cases, CBP officers make admissibility determinations at our ports of entry. (For additional information, please visit "Know Before You Go '' at www.cbp.gov/travel.)
Currently all travelers from VWP countries are required to obtain an ESTA approval prior to boarding a carrier to travel by air or sea to the United States under the VWP.
The standard requirement for passport validity is six months beyond the expected date of departure from the United States. However, the US has signed agreements with a number of countries to waive this requirement.
If entering the United States by air or sea, additional requirements apply. The traveler must:
Applicants for admission under the Visa Waiver Program:
Those who do not meet the requirements for the Visa Waiver Program must obtain a U.S. tourist visa from an U.S. embassy or consulate.
Having been arrested or convicted does not in itself make a person ineligible to use the Visa Waiver Program. You are only ineligible if you do not meet the requirements of the program. However, some U.S. embassies advise such persons to apply for a tourist visa even though there is no legal obligation for the individual to do so. There is no right of appeal if a CBP officer decides to refuse entry, unless you hold a visa when an appeal can be made to an immigration judge.
Those previously refused entry to the United States are not automatically ineligible for the Visa Waiver Program, but unless the reason for refusal is addressed, it is likely to reoccur. Hence again, many embassies advise such persons to apply for a tourist visa.
A person entering the United States under the VWP can not request an extension of the original allowed period of stay in the U.S. (this practice is allowed to those holding regular visas). However, VWP visitors may seek to adjust status on the basis of either (1) marriage to a US citizen or (2) an application for asylum. U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers determine admissibility upon traveler 's arrival. If one seeks to enter the U.S. under the VWP and is denied entry by a CBP officer at a port of entry, no path of appealing or review of the denial of entry is allowed. VWP including ESTA does not guarantee entry to the United States. CBP officers make the final determination of entry to the United States.
Travelers can leave to contiguous countries (Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean), but will not be granted another 90 days after reentry in the United States.
There are restrictions on the type of employment - related activities allowed. Meetings and conferences in relation to the alien 's profession / line of business / employer in their home country, are generally acceptable, but most forms of "gainful employment '' are not. There are however poorly - classifiable exceptions such as persons performing professional services in the US for a non US employer, and persons installing, servicing and repairing commercial or industrial equipment or machinery pursuant to a contract of sale. Performers (such as actors and musicians) who plan on performing live or taping scenes for productions back home, as well as athletes participating in an athletic event are likewise not allowed to use the VWP for their respective engagements and are instead required to have an O or P visa prior to arrival. Foreign media representatives and journalists on assignment are required to have a nonimmigrant media (I) visa.
Applicant should display social and economic ties which bind them to their country of origin or may be refused entry.
Separate from the Visa Waiver Program, 8 U.S.C. § 1182 (d) (4) (B) permits the Attorney General and the Secretary of State (acting jointly) to waive visa requirements for admission to the United States in nonimmigrant status for nationals of foreign contiguous territories or adjacent islands or for residents of those territories or islands who have a common nationality with those nationals. The regulations relating to such admissions can be found at 8 C.F.R. 212.1.
Restrictions on the use of the Visa Waiver Program do not affect this class of travellers unless separately provided for by statute or regulation. For example, a Canadian citizen who has briefly overstayed a previous visit to the U.S. (by less than 180 days) will still not require a visa for future visits, while a VWP national who overstays will become ineligible for the VWP for life and will need a visa for future visits.
Until 2003, this visa waiver was granted not only to citizens of those countries and territories, but to permanent residents of Bermuda and Canada who were citizens of Commonwealth of Nations countries or of Ireland. In 2003, the Immigration and Naturalization Service announced that it would be terminating the visa waiver for non-citizen permanent residents of Bermuda and Canada; thenceforth, those Canadian & Bermudian permanent residents who were citizens of a Visa Waiver Program country could enjoy visa - free entry to the United States under that program, while citizens of other countries would be required to possess a valid advance visa for entry to the United States.
Bahamian citizens do not require a visa to enter the United States if they apply for entry at one of the Preclearance Facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International Airports. Bahamian citizens must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must be in possession of valid, unexpired passport or a Bahamian Travel Document indicating that they have Bahamian citizenship. In addition to a passport, all applicants 14 years of age or older must present a police certificate issued by the Royal Bahamas Police Force within the past six months. All Bahamians applying for admission at a port - of - entry other than the Preclearance Facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International Airports are required to be in possession of a valid visa to enter the United States.
Canadian citizens do not require a non-immigrant visa when entering the United States, except those Canadians that fall under nonimmigrant visa categories E, K, S, or V, but under different legislation from the Visa Waiver program. However, they must still establish that they meet the requirements of the appropriate status they wish to enter in. For example, while a Canadian intending to study in the U.S. does not need to present Form I - 20 at a U.S. embassy or consulate in order to receive an F - 1 visa like other foreigners, they must still be issued a Form I - 20 and present it at the Port of Entry to establish their eligibility for F - 1 status.
Citizens of Canada who enter as visitors are exempted from being fingerprinted or photographed under US - VISIT and do not require a machine readable passport. US Customs and Border Protection decides whether to allow entry based on non-immigrant intent. The maximum permitted length of stay is one year but can be extended, although CBP usually considers six months to be the maximum permitted per calendar year, except under unusual circumstances (such as medical treatment).
Before 23 January 2007, citizens of Canada, (provided they held valid photo identification) were able to enter the United States with only a birth certificate as proof of citizenship and were not required to show a passport. Citizens of other parts of North America, such as Mexico or Bermuda have always been subject to holding a valid Visa stamp or a border crossing card along with their passports. On 23 January 2007, Canadian and U.S. citizens were required to have passports when entering the U.S. by air only.
As of 1 June 2009, Canadian and U.S. citizens are required to present either a valid passport, a NEXUS card, a Free and Secure Trade card (FAST) or an enhanced driver 's licence / enhanced identification card when entering the United States by land or water. Canadians entering the U.S. by air are still required to present a valid passport or NEXUS card. A NEXUS card can only be used at designated U.S. and Canadian airports with NEXUS card kiosks. Children under 16, or under 19 while traveling with a school group need to only present a birth certificate or other similar proof of citizenship when entering the U.S. from Canada by land or water.
British Overseas Territories citizens by virtue of their connection to Bermuda can enter the United States visa - free provided they are bona - fide visitors -- no I - 94 is required. To qualify, they must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must not be arriving the United States from outside the Western Hemisphere. In addition, they must present a Bermudian passport which fulfils the following criteria:
British Overseas Territories Citizens by virtue of their connection to the British Virgin Islands can enter the neighboring U.S. Virgin Islands visa - free for short business and pleasure. Travelers must possess a valid British Virgin Islands passport and travel directly to the U.S. Virgin Islands in order to qualify for this territory - specific visa waiver arrangement. A visa is required for anyone traveling directly to Puerto Rico or the United States mainland.
Whilst residents of the Cayman Islands, as British Overseas Territories Citizens, are eligible automatically to register as a full British citizen under Section 4 (A) of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, thereby able additionally to enter the United States under the Visa Waiver Program, they can alternatively enter visa - free using their Cayman Islands passports. To qualify under the latter method, their Cayman Islands passports must confirm their British Overseas Territories citizenship and be endorsed by the Cayman Islands Passport and Corporate Services Office with a Cayman - U.S. visa waiver, issued at a cost of $15 -- 25 and valid for one entry. They must travel directly between the Cayman Islands and the United States and their Cayman Islands passport must also have a validity of at least six months beyond their intended departure date from the United States. If Cayman Islanders elect to enter the U.S. using the Cayman - U.S. visa waiver, they are not required to apply for an ESTA online, since they are not entering under the VWP.
British Overseas Territories Citizens by virtue of their connection to the Turks and Caicos Islands can enter the United States visa - free for short business and pleasure. To qualify, they must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, not violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must arrive in the United States on a direct flight from the territory. In addition, they must present a Turks and Caicos Islands passport which states that they are a British Overseas Territory Citizen and have the right to abode in the Turks and Caicos Islands. In addition to a valid, unexpired passport, all travellers 14 years of age or older must present a police certificate issued by the Royal Turks and Caicos Islands Police Force within the past six months. All British Overseas Territories Citizens of the Turks and Caicos Islands who apply for admission at a port - of - entry that does not have direct air service to / from the territory, are required to be in possession of a valid visa to enter the United States.
Under the Compact of Free Association, citizens of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau (except for adopted children, citizens wishing to adopt while in the U.S., and citizens from any of these nations who acquired citizenship via an Immigrant investor program) may enter, reside, study, and work indefinitely in the United States without visas. These three sovereign nations hold the distinction of being the only countries in the world whose citizens do not require visas or other required documents (with the exception of a valid passport) in order to visit, study, or work in the United States for an indefinite period of time. However, individuals admitted under the Compact of Free Association do not have U.S. permanent resident status and must apply for an immigrant visa or Adjustment of Status on the same basis as other aliens, such as family ties or employer sponsorship, before they can become U.S. permanent residents. Time spent in the United States under the Compact of Free Association does not count toward the physical presence requirements for naturalization as a U.S. citizen.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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where are most of the worlds landmasses located | List of islands by area - wikipedia
This list of islands by area includes all islands in the world greater than 2,500 km (970 sq mi) and several other islands over 1,000 km (390 sq mi), sorted in descending order by area. For comparison, continents are also shown.
Although the continental landmasses listed below are not normally called islands (by definition a landmass can not be both an island and a continent), they are, in fact, land entirely surrounded by water. In effect, they are enormous islands and are shown here for that reason. The figures are approximations and are for the continental mainland only.
This section of the list might not be complete, but covers almost all of the islands in the world over 1,000 km (390 sq mi). The area of some Antarctic islands is uncertain.
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which is the live wire brown or blue | Electrical wiring in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Electrical wiring in the United Kingdom is commonly understood to be an electrical installation for operation by end users within domestic, commercial, industrial, and other buildings, and also in special installations and locations, such as marinas or caravan parks. It does not normally cover the transmission of electrical power to them.
Installations are distinguished by a number of criteria, such as voltage (high, low, extra low), phase (single or 3 phase), nature of electrical signal (power, data), type and design of cable (conductors and insulators used, cable design, solid / fixed or stranded / flexible, intended use, protective materials), circuit design (ring, radial), and so on.
Electrical wiring is ultimately regulated to ensure safety of operation, by such as the Building Regulations, currently legislated as the Building Regulations 2010, which lists "controlled services '' such as electric wiring that must follow specific directions and standards, and the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989. The detailed rules for end - use wiring followed for practical purposes are those of BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations. (IET Wiring Regulations), currently in its 17th edition Amendment 3, which provide the detailed descriptions referred to by legislation.
UK electrical wiring standards are largely harmonised with the regulations in other European countries and the international IEC 60446 standard. However, there are a number of specific national practices, habits and traditions that differ significantly from other countries, and which in some cases survived harmonisation. These include the use of ring circuits for domestic and light commercial fixed wiring, fused plugs, and for circuits installed prior to harmonisation, historically unique wiring colours.
The standard wiring colours in the UK are (as of 2006) the same as elsewhere in Europe and follow international standard IEC 60446. This colour scheme had already been introduced for appliance flexes in the UK in the early 1970s, however the original colour scheme recommended by the IEE for fixed wiring was permitted until 2006. As a result, the international standard blue / brown scheme is as of 2006 found in most appliance flexes. In fixed wiring, the blue / brown scheme is only found in newer (post-2004) installations, and the old IEE black / red scheme is likely to be encountered in existing installations for many more decades.
The standard colours in fixed wiring were harmonised in 2004 with the regulations in other European countries and the international IEC 60446 standard. For a transitional period (April 2004 -- March 2006) either set of colours were allowed (but not both), provided that any changes in the colour scheme are clearly labelled. From April 2006, only the new colours should be used for any new wiring.
The UK changed colour codes three decades after most other European countries, as the change in standard was not considered safe. Blue, previously used as a phase colour, is now the colour for neutral. Black, which was previously used for neutral, now indicates a phase.
Household wiring does not usually use three - phase supplies and the clash only occurs in three - phase systems. Wiring to the old standard can be detected by use of a red wire. The new standard colour code does not use red. Where new wiring is mixed with old, cables must be clearly marked to prevent interchange of phase and neutral.
Variation in the earth / ground conductor 's colour means its colour should not be used as the decision of the old vs new standard cable or colour assignment.
Cables of American origin have a white neutral lead and a black line lead. This can occur on IEC mains leads and dual 220 / 110 V imported equipment.
On telecommunications nominal 48 V DC supplies, the live is usually − 42 V (flat batteries) to almost − 57 V (float charge).
The IEC currently specifies a colour - coding for new local DC distribution. These are:
There is a long history of colour changes; prior to 1964 white was used instead of yellow as the second phase, and before World War II, a black earth and a green third phase in place of green earth and white phase was permitted. The regulations actually permitted (and still do) the use of any wire colour that is not an earth colour, providing it is unambiguously identified at all connections by clear labelling or by correctly coloured over-sleeving. It was not uncommon on commercial builds of the 1960s with a three phase supply for the phase colours (red, yellow, blue) to be used throughout single phase sub circuits thus indicating the phase origin of the supply, in this case no oversleeving was used and can give rise to confusion when encountered today.
Direct current mains supplies are now only of historical interest in the UK but the colour coding was red for live and black for earthed (regardless of the actual polarity). Hardly any loads were polarity sensitive when D.C. systems were introduced (principally incandescent lighting, heating systems or series D.C. motors) and it was considered more important to identify the live wire than the polarity. In later years of D.C. supplies, however, much more equipment became sensitive to polarity, such as many domestic radios & television sets. Where all three wires were available, the historical colour code was red (positive), black (middle) and white (negative). The negative line changed to yellow in 1964, and then to blue in 1966.
The colour of the overall sheath is currently grey, or white for low halogen material. Previously cables from different manufacturers were available variously in grey or white, with no significance attached to the sheath colour. The grey colour was adopted by cable manufacturers to match older lead sheathed flat cables with some manufacturers using a silver grey PVC, Additionally twin & earth cable, as it is called was available in red for fire alarms until the early 2000s
UK fixed wiring circuits, unlike almost all other countries, make widespread use of ring circuit designs, as well as radial circuit designs often seen in other countries. (This was one of the recommendations of the Electrical Installations Committee, convened in 1942 as part of the Post War Building Studies programme, which in 1944 determined that the ring final circuit offered a more efficient and lower cost method to support a greater number of sockets.) It continues to be the usual wiring method for domestic and light commercial socket and device wiring in the UK. Lighting circuits, which typically have lower power requirements, are usually radially wired, confusingly sometimes called "loop '' wiring.
In both ring and radial circuits, the circuit wiring starts at a consumer unit or distribution board, traverses in turn a number of sockets or devices (point - to - point style), before terminating. The difference is that a radial circuit simply ends upon reaching the last connected device, while in a ring circuit the termination is made by rejoining the end of the circuit from the last device back to its starting point. A ring circuit therefore forms a continuous ring. This means that there are two independent paths from the supply to every device. Ideally, the ring acts like two radial circuits proceeding in opposite directions around the ring, the dividing point between them dependent on the distribution of load in the ring. If the load is evenly split across the two directions, the current in each direction is half of the total, allowing the use of wire with half the current - carrying capacity. (Because heating effects are proportional to the square of the current, this means the cable theoretically only needs to be quarter of the usual cross section area, for the same current carrying capacity). In practice, the load does not always split evenly, so thicker wire is used.
Cables are most commonly a single outer sheath containing separately - insulated line and neutral wires, and a non-insulated protective earth to which sleeving is added when exposed. Standard sizes have a conductor cross sectional area of 1, 1.5, 2.5, 4, 6 and 10 mm. Sizes of 1 or 1.5 mm are typically used for 6 or 10 ampere lighting circuits and 2.5 mm for socket circuits.
The earthing conductor is uninsulated since it is not intended to have any voltage difference from surrounding earthed articles. Additionally, if the insulation of a line or neutral wire becomes damaged, then the wire is more likely to earth itself on the bare earth conductor and in doing so either trip the RCD or burn the fuse out by drawing too much current.
Earthing and Bonding together are used together, to provide shock protection by avoiding a dangerous combination of magnitude and duration of the voltage to which people may be exposed in the event of a fault within the installation or outside the installation. (Exposure may be from e.g. hand to hand or hand to foot, between simultaneously accessible conductive surfaces, which might include the earth itself, mildly conductive floors and walls, metal taps, pipes, electrical appliances etc. Examples of faults are an insulation failure between a line conductor and a metallic frame of an appliance within the installation, a break in a combined protective - earth and neutral conductor in the supply, or an insulation fault in the supply transformer causing the whole low - voltage system to rise in potential.) Conductors for these protective functions of earthing and bonding are insulated with green / yellow (striped) colour coding, which is not permitted for any other conductors.
Earthing connects exposed conductive parts (ECPs) of electrical equipment to a main earthing terminal (MET), which is connected to a "means of earthing '' that somehow connects it to the earth itself (the ground / soil / planet!). In installations fed from low - voltage public supplies in the UK this means of earthing can be by any of the methods TN - S, TN - C-S or TT defined in BS7671. In the event of an insulation fault from a live conductor to an appliance 's metal frame (an ECP), the frame could -- if not so connected -- be dangerous if touched by someone who is also for example standing outside on the ground, or standing inside on a concrete floor, or holding a tap whose pipe connects it electrically into the ground. Protective earthing limits the combination of magnitude and duration of the dangerous voltage that could exist between the ECP and the earth itself. In conventional installations in the UK the voltage between an appliance frame and the earth itself during a zero - impedance fault has a dangerous magnitude: it might be reduced to about half of the 230 V line - earth voltage, which is well above the 50 V usually accepted as safe for an ac system, or it might be nearly 230 V in a TT system with a poor earth electrode for the installation. The duration of this voltage must therefore be limited, which is done by "automatic disconnection of supply '' (ADS) either by overcurrent protection devices (OCPDs), or by residual current devices (RCDs) that specifically detect the current escaping from the intended circuit, allowing them to have a far lower tripping current. In TT systems it is almost always necessary to have an RCD, as earth electrodes usually have many times higher resistance than a typical supply cable, so earth - fault currents are relatively low. In the TN - S or TN - C-S systems none of the "earth fault '' current necessarily passes through the actual earth, as there is a metallic circuit for the entire earth - fault loop: adequate ADS times may often be achieved by normal OCPDs However, the connection to the earth itself is always relevant, since the earth forms a mildly conductive surface that we can not easily avoid (e.g. a person standing on the ground and touching a metal appliance or tap or building - framework that is connected with the electrical installation 's protective earthing system). In TT systems the installation 's earth electrode needs to have low enough impedance to operate protection if a safe voltage (usually taken as 50 V) between the installation and remote earth is exceeded; in TN systems the system 's neutral point needs a low resistance connection to earth to prevent a fault between a line conductor and some unintended earth electrode from displacing the neutral - point potential to a dangerous level compared to the earth.
Bonding is the connection of conductive parts together, to reduce the voltage between them. This is an important measure for electric shock protection. When this protective function is the purpose of bonding, BS7671 describes the bonding by the term "protective equipotential bonding ''; this does not mean that the bonding guarantees perfect equipotentiality, but just that it reduces the differences of potential. In the following, this formal term is abbreviated to "bonding ''. Without adequate bonding, dangerous voltages could arise between conductive parts that can be touched simultaneously, either due to problems outside the installation, or to faults in the installation.
Main bonding connects "extraneous conductive parts '' such as mains water / gas supply pipes, structural parts of buildings, communication cable sheaths, lightning protection systems etc., to the main earthing terminal. These parts could otherwise introduce potentials that are different from the potential of the installation 's earthing system. The main bonding avoids dangerous differences in potential being introduced into the installation, between e.g. two different pipework systems, or between pipes and electrical system ECPs.
Supplementary bonding connects simultaneously touchable conductive parts in local parts of an installation: the parts may be pairs of ECPs on different circuits, or an ECP and extraneous conductive parts. This reduces the voltage between them, even in fault conditions. Supplementary bonding is particularly used in situations such as bathrooms, where body resistance is low and therefore requires magnitude and duration of touch voltages to be very limited.
In special circumstances (not domestic installations) bonding with deliberate lack of connection to earth (earth free local equipotential bonding) may be used. Bonding, by the IEC60364 terminology used in BS7671 should not be seen as just an extra to earthing. In recent US practice, which differs considerably from IEC principles and terminology, "bonding '' is used more widely as a term for all the aspects of earthing that are not literally connections with the earth itself ("grounding ''); so the connection of protective earth conductors to the supply neutral (since the TN - C-S system is the only permitted form in their residential installations) is now named bonding rather than earthing. This is not the case in the UK.
A domestic supply typically consists of a large cable connected to a service head, the sealed box containing the main supply fuse, treated as the supply to the premises. This will typically have a value from 40 -- 100 A. Separate line and neutral cables (tails) go from here to an electricity meter, and often an earth conductor too. More tails proceed from the meter into the consumer side of the installation and into a consumer unit (distribution board), or in some cases to a Henley block (a splitter box used in low voltage electrical engineering, slang named for W.T. Henley & Co. also sometimes called an "Isco '' block, both names derived from brands of these blocks) and thence to more than one distribution board.
The distribution board (aka fusebox) contains one or more main switches and an individual fuse or miniature circuit breaker (MCB) for each final circuit. Modern installations may use residual - current devices (RCDs) or residual current breakers with overcurrent protection (RCBOs). The RCDs are used for earth leakage protection, while RCBOs combine earth leakage protection with overcurrent protection. In a UK - style board, breaker positions are numbered top to bottom in the left - hand column, then top to bottom in the right column.
Since some point in the 1970s, the supply voltage in UK domestic premises has been 240 V AC (RMS) at 50 Hz. In 1988, a Europe - wide agreement was reached to unify the various national voltages, which ranged, at the time, 220 -- 240 V, to a common European standard of 230 V (CENELEC Harmonization Document HD 472 S1: 1988).
The standard nominal supply voltage in domestic single - phase 50 Hz installations in the UK is still 240 V AC (RMS), but since 1 January 1995 (Electricity Supply Regulations, SI 1994, No. 3021) this has an asymmetric voltage tolerance of 230 V (216.2 -- 253.0 V), which covers the same voltage range as continental 220 V supplies to the new unified 230 V standard. This was supposed to be widened to 230 V ± 10 % (207 -- 253 V), but the time of this change has been put back repeatedly and as of December 2012 there is no definitive date. The old standard was 240 V ± 6 % (225.6 -- 254.4 V), which is mostly contained within the new range, and so in practice suppliers have had no reason to actually change voltages.
Three phase power is usually supplied as needed, for commercial and industrial premises. While three phase loads take balanced power from the three phases, any single phase loads are distributed to ensure equal loading of the three phases. Each row of breakers in the distribution board is fed from a different phase (L1, L2, and L3), to allow 3 - pole common - trip breakers to have one pole on each phase.
Single - pole switches are most commonly used to control circuits. These switches isolate only the line conductor feeding the load and are used for lighting and other smaller loads. For larger loads like air conditioners, cookers, water heaters and other fixed appliances a double - pole switch is used, which isolates also the neutral, for more safety. A three - pole isolator or circuit breaker is used for three - phase loads, and also at the distribution board to isolate all the phases as well as the neutral.
Many accessories for electrical installations (e.g., wall sockets, switches) sold in the UK are designed to fit into the mounting boxes defined in BS 4662: 2006 - Boxes for flush mounting of electrical accessories -- Requirements, test methods and dimensions, with an 86 mm × 86 mm square face plate that is fixed to the rest of the enclosure by two M3. 5 screws (typ. 25 mm or 40 mm long) located on a horizontal centre line, 60.3 mm apart. Double face plates for BS 4662 boxes measure 147 mm × 86 mm and have the two screws 120.6 mm apart.
Accessories in the BS 4662 format are only available in a comparatively limited range of designs and lack the product diversity and design sophistication found in other European markets. The UK installation - accessory industry is therefore occasionally criticised for being overly conservative. As many modern types of electrical accessories (e.g., home automation control elements from non-UK manufacturers) are not available in BS 4662 format, other standard mounting boxes are increasingly used as well, such as those defined in DIN 49073 - 1 (60 mm diameter, 45 mm deep, fixing screws 60 mm apart) or, less commonly in the UK, ANSI / NEMA OS - 1.
The commonly used domestic wall - mount socket used in the UK for currents up to 13 A is defined in BS 1363 - 2 and normally includes a switch. For higher currents or three - phase supplies, IEC 60309 sockets are to be used instead.
Many high load non-UK - sourced appliances need IEC 60309 connectors (or wiring via a British Standard "20 A connection unit '') in the UK because of the lower plug rating.
Flexible appliance cords require protection at a lower current than that provided by the ring circuit overcurrent protection device. The protection device may be contained within the appliance plug or connection unit, and is normally a ceramic cartridge fuse to BS 1362: 1973, commonly rated at 3 A (red), 5 A (black), or 13 A (brown), but some accessories and adaptors use a ceramic cartridge fuse to BS 646: 1958.
In the case of permanently connected equipment, a fused connection unit to BS 1363 - 4 is used, this may include an isolator switch and a neon bulb to indicate if the equipment is powered.
In the case of non-permanently connected domestic equipment, a BS 1363 - 2 socket rated at 13 A is attached to the ring circuit, into which a fused plug may be inserted. (Note, it is not intended that the fuse should protect the appliance itself, for which it is still necessary for the appliance designer to take the necessary precautions.) Multiple socket accessories may be protected with a fuse within the socket assembly.
In domestic wiring, the following cable types are typically used:
The selection of conductors must be made taking into consideration both the maximum voltage drop allowed at the load end and also the current carrying capacity of the conductor. Conductor size and voltage drop tables are available to determine the selection, which will be based on the load current supplied.
The choice of circuit breaker is also based on the normal rated current of the circuit. Modern circuit breakers have overload and short circuit current protection combined. The overload protection is for protection of the equipment against sustained small - to - medium increase in current above the rated current, while short circuit protection is for the protection of the conductors against high over-currents due to short circuits.
For domestic circuits the following choices are typically adopted for selecting conductor and circuit breaker sizes.
For distribution boards the incomer circuit breaker rating depends on the actual current demand at that board. For this the maximum demand and diversity is taken into consideration based on which the probable current is calculated. Diversity is the condition that all appliances are not likely to be working all at the same time or at their maximum ratings. From this the maximum demand is calculated and the currents are added to determine the load current and hence the rating of the circuit breaker.
IEE recommends these current demands and diversity factors for various loads to determine the load current and rating of overcurrent protective device.
The installation of electrical devices in bathrooms and shower rooms is regulated in Section 701 of BS 7671: 2008, and Part P of the Building Regulations. For such rooms, four special zones are defined, in which additional protection is required for electrical facilities:
Within zone 0, no devices are allowed apart from suitable equipment and or insulated pull cords. Previously, in zone 1, only separated extra low voltage (SELV) devices were permitted. Any AC transformer supplying such a device must be located outside zones 0 -- 2. Since the introduction of the 17th edition of the IET Wiring Regulations in 2008, 230V fixtures such as light fittings and extractor fans are permitted in zones 1 and 2, subject to those fixtures meeting the appropriate ingress protection ratings. The minimum required ingress protection rating in zone 0 is IPX7 and IPX4 in zone 1 and 2. If water jets are likely to occur, at least IPX5 is required in zone 1 -- 3. Otherwise, in zone 3 and beyond, an ingress protection rating of IP20 is the minimum required. Equipment in zones 1 and 2 must be protected by a 30 mA residual current device (RCD).
Shaving sockets (with isolating transformer) are permitted in zone 2 if direct spray from a shower is unlikely, even if they are only IP20. Before the 2008 regulations, such shaving sockets were the only sockets permitted in a bathroom or shower room. Since BS 7671: 2008 normal domestic sockets are permitted, at distances greater than 3 m from the edge of the zones, providing the circuit is RCD protected. As the new regulations also require all general purpose sockets not for use by skilled or instructed persons to be RCD protected, this effectively permits normal wiring in the larger bathroom. (Earlier British wiring rules in bathrooms used to be far more restrictive, leading to British peculiarities in bathrooms such as the use of cord switches. The 2011 edition of the wiring regulations is more flexible now, placing restrictions on bathroom installations that are now more similar to those in other European countries.)
For swimming pools, Section 603 of BS 7671 defines similar zones. In some of these zones, only industrial sockets according to IEC 60309 are permitted, in order to discourage the use of portable domestic appliances with inappropriate ingress protection rating.
For use outdoors or in other wet locations (but not bathrooms) special sockets are made. These can be divided into three main groups, industrial sockets which are totally different from the standard sockets; sockets with the same pinout as normal sockets but that will only seal properly when the correct plug and socket are used together (e.g., the 5 A, 13 A, and 15 A variants of Lewden sockets) and sockets that completely enclose a normal plug with a seal around the flex (e.g., MK Masterseal).
Sockets that are outside or can "feasibly supply equipment outside the equipotential zone '' (a wording that is fairly ambiguous and the exact interpretation of which is subject to some controversy) should be protected by a 30 mA, or lower, RCD to provide additional safety. Since 2008, all sockets for general use should be RCD protected, removing the questions that used to arise, such as if a socket by the door might power a lawnmower does it need an RCD?
The risk of electrical shock on construction sites can be reduced by several measures, including reduction of the normal 230 volt distribution voltage to 110 volts for electrical lighting and power tools. By using a centre - tapped transformer, each conductor of the circuit is only at 55 volts with respect to earth. This reduces the chance of dangerous electrical shock when using power tools in wet locations. Where 230 volts must be used, a residual current device (RCD) can be used to detect small leakage currents and automatically isolate faulty equipment. In sites where hazardous flammable gases or liquids are present, special wiring rules are applied to reduce the probability of a spark igniting a fire or explosion.
In England and Wales, the Building Regulations (Approved Document: Part P) require domestic electrical installations to be designed and installed safely according to the "fundamental principles '' given in British Standard BS 7671 Chapter 13, most recently updated in January 2015. These are very similar to the fundamental principles defined in international standard IEC 60364 - 1 and equivalent national standards in other countries. Accepted ways for fulfilling this legal requirement include:
In Scotland, the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004 apply.
Installations in commercial and industrial premises must satisfy various safety legislation, such as the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989. Again, recognised standards and practices, such as BS 7671 "Wiring Regulations '', are used to help meet the legislative requirements.
All new electrical work in England and Wales within a domestic setting must comply with Part P of the Building Regulations first introduced on 1 January 2005, which are legally enforceable. One way of achieving this is to apply British Standard BS 7671 (the "Wiring Regulations ''), including carrying out adequate inspection and testing to this standard of the completed works. British Standard BS 7671 (the "Wiring Regulations '') is not statutory, thus someone doing electrical work is allowed to deviate from the wiring regulations to some degree, but it is generally accepted that it is best to follow the wiring regulations to the highest standard possible. Electrical work does not have to be compliant with BS 7671, but if a casualty or fatality occurs as a direct result of that electrical work, and this results in a legal action, then it may be necessary to justify major deviations from the principles of BS 7671 and other appropriate standards.
Some of the restrictions first introduced with the 2005 version Part P were highly controversial, especially the rules surrounding work carried out by unregistered electricians, builders and DIYers. Under the new regulations, commencement of any work other than simple changes became notifiable to the local building control authority; "other than simple '' in this context meant any work in a kitchen or bathroom other than like - for - like replacement, work in other areas more than just adding extra lights or sockets to an existing circuit or meeting certain other criteria, such as outdoor wiring. To coincide with the new regulations, the Government approved several professional bodies to award "competent persons '' status to enterprises which meet the minimum agreed criteria for Scheme entry. Scheme membership allows an enterprise to "self - certify '' work that they carry out without the requirement to have undergone any formal installation training or to hold relevant qualifications in electrical installation practices - since practical competence can be assessment - based only. The minimum criteria for Scheme entry is set by the EAS Committee, on which all of the commercial enterprises running Competent Persons Schemes are actively represented.
The local authority 's building control must be informed of any notifiable work carried out by someone not registered under this scheme before it is started (unless it is an emergency) and must subsequently be approved by them. Originally, it was widely understood by some local authorities that inspection by a qualified person (leading to authority approval) must be organised and paid for by the home - owner or person responsible for the site and this caused some considerable criticism.
On 6 April 2006, Part P was amended to clarify the actual requirements around certification of DIY work (or work completed by someone otherwise unable to self - certify) and to "make enforcement more proportionate to the risk ''.
The 2006 amendment made it clear that it is the responsibility of the building control authority to issue the necessary certificate (a Building Regulations Completion Certificate) once work has been completed. Any inspection required to safely issue that certificate must be determined by, and paid for by, the building control authority. This can be done "in house '' or they may contract the work out to specialist body. Although any inspections are at the expense of the building authority, notification of building work is a formal process and a building control fee is payable.
In some cases the installation of 12 V downlighters is notifiable whereas the installation of 230 V mains downlighters is not. This is because 12 V downlighters draw high currents, in comparison with a mains voltage lamp with the same power rating, and that combined with the wrong choice of cable could lead to a fire.
Additionally, whilst the Building Regulations apply equally to anyone carrying out electrical work in dwellings, without appropriate knowledge and test equipment it is not possible to ensure that the work carried out is safe. Registered Scheme members must issue appropriate certification for each job.
Another element of confusion is that the term "Special Locations '' has different meanings in Part P of the Building Regulations and BS 7671 (the "Wiring Regulations '').
Later revisions of part P (latest is 2013) retain the requirement to work to an appropriate standard, but have relaxed the requirements on both certification and notification for many more types of minor works, and crucially also permit a member of an approved body to inspect and ' sign off ' notifiable aspects of any work of a third party such as DIYer whose work is of a suitable standard. This is intended to free up local authorities, who often do not have suitably qualified building control staff themselves. Due to uncertainty about who then becomes responsible for any hidden wiring, very few electricians are happy to sign off an installation that they have not been party to from the outset, and been able to agree stages to inspect and test before any covering in.
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who addresses the joint session of the parliament | Joint session of Indian Parliament - wikipedia
The Parliament of India is bicameral. Concurrence of both houses are required to pass any bill. However, the authors of the Constitution of India visualised situations of deadlock between the upper house i.e. Rajya Sabha and the lower house i.e. Lok Sabha. Therefore, the Constitution of India provides for Joint sittings of both the Houses to break this deadlock. The joint sitting of the Parliament is called by the President and is presided over by the Speaker or, in his absence, by the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha or in his absence, the Deputy - Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. If any of the above officers are not present then any other member of the Parliament can preside by consensus of both the House.
As per Article 108 of Constitution, a Joint session of Parliament can be summoned in the following situations.
If after a Bill has been passed by one House and transmitted to the other House --
(a) the Bill is rejected by the other House; or (b) the Houses have finally disagreed as to the amendments to be made in the Bill; or (c) more than six months elapse from the date of the reception of the Bill by the other House without the Bill being passed by it, the President may, unless the Bill has elapsed by reason of a dissolution of the House of the People, notify to the Houses by message if they are sitting or by public notification if they are not sitting, his intention to summon them to meet in a joint sitting for the purpose of deliberating and voting on the Bill
However, in calculating period of six months, those days are not considered when house is prorogued or adjourned for more than 4 consecutive days.
If the above conditions are satisfied, the President of India may summon joint sitting of both the houses of parliament.
Not all bills can be refereed to a joint sitting of Parliament. There are two exception.
1. Money Bill
Under the Constitution of India, money bills require approval of the Lok Sabha only. Rajya Sabha can make recommendations to Lok Sabha, which it is not required to accept. Even if Rajya Sabha does n't pass a money bill within 14 days, it is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses of Parliament after expiry of the above period. Therefore, a requirement to summon a joint session can never arise in the case of money bill.
2. Constitution Amendment Bill
Article 368 of Indian constitution require that constitution of India can be amended by both houses of parliament by 2 / 3 majority. In case of disagreement between both houses, there is no provision to summon joint session of parliament.
Joint session of Indian parliament has been called for only three bills i.e. dowry prohibition act, 1960, banking service commission act, 1977 and POTA, 2002.
BILLS PASSED IN JOINT SESSION: 1. Dowry Prohibition Bill, 1960 2. Banking Service Commission (Repeal) Bill, 1978 3. Prevention of Terrorism Bill, 2002
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who wrote the resolutions of the stamp act congress | Stamp Act Congress - wikipedia
The Stamp Act Congress, or First Congress of the American Colonies, was a meeting held between October 7 and 25, 1765, in New York City, consisting of representatives from some of the British colonies in North America; it was the first gathering of elected representatives from several of the American colonies to devise a unified protest against new British taxation. Parliament had passed the Stamp Act, which required the use of specially stamped paper for legal documents, playing cards, calendars, newspapers and dice for virtually all business in the colonies, and was going into effect on November 1, 1765.
The Congress was organized in response to a circular letter distributed by the colonial legislature of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and consisted of delegates from nine of the eighteen British colonies in North America. All nine of the attending delegations were from the Thirteen Colonies that eventually formed the United States of America. Although sentiment was strong in some of the other colonies to participate in the Congress, a number of royal governors took steps to prevent the colonial legislatures from meeting to select delegates.
The Congress met in the building now known as Federal Hall, and was held at a time of widespread protests in the colonies, some of which were violent, against the Stamp Act 's implementation. The delegates discussed and united against the act, issuing a Declaration of Rights and Grievances in which they claimed that Parliament did not have the right to impose the tax because it did not include any representation from the colonies. Members of six of the nine delegations signed petitions addressed to Parliament and King George III objecting to the Act 's provisions.
The extra-legal nature of the Congress caused alarm in Britain, but any discussion of the congress 's propriety were overtaken by economic protests from British merchants whose business with the colonies suffered as a consequence of the protests and their associated non-importation of British products. These economic issues prompted the British Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act, but it passed the Declaratory Act the same day, to express its opinion on the basic constitutional issues raised by the colonists; it stated that Parliament could make laws binding the American colonies "in all cases whatsoever. ''
In the aftermath of the French and Indian War, the British Parliament sought to increase revenues from its overseas colonies, where the cost of stationing troops had become significant. Parliament first passed the Sugar and Currency Acts in 1764, specifically aimed at raising money for the Crown, through the tighter regulation of colonial trade. These acts had brought protests from colonial legislatures, but had skirted the idea of direct taxation by structuring their revenues as trade - related excise duties. Prime Minister George Grenville noted at the time of the Sugar Act 's passage that a stamp tax might also be necessary, immediately raising concern and protest in the colonies.
With the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament attempted to raise money through direct taxation on the colonies for the first time. The act required that all sorts of printed material carry a stamp (purchased from a government agent) to show that the tax had been paid. Use of the stamped paper was required for newspapers, books, court documents, commercial papers, land deeds, almanacs, dice, and playing cards. The revenue was to help finance the operations of the empire, including the cost of stationing troops in the colonies, without seeking revenue through the established colonial assemblies (a method that had a history of failure).
In June 1765, the Massachusetts Assembly drafted a letter, which was sent to the legislatures of "the several Colonies on this Continent '' to "consult together on the present circumstances of the colonies ''. Nine colonies ultimately selected delegates to attend the congress: Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and South Carolina. All of the delegates selected were members of their colonial legislative bodies.
The methods by which delegates were selected were in some cases unorthodox. In Delaware, then known as the "Three Lower Counties '' of the Penn proprietors, assembly members held informal meetings in each of the three counties, in each case selecting the same three delegates. In New York, the assembly had been prorogued and was judged unlikely to be summoned by Lieutenant Governor Colden to consider the Massachusetts letter. The assembly 's committee of correspondence, consisting of its New York City delegates, discussed the letter and decided under the circumstances to assume the authority to represent the colony. New Jersey 's assembly politely declined to send delegates before adjourning in late June, but after political sentiment against the Stamp Act became more pronounced, Speaker Robert Ogden called an extra-legal assembly (since only the governor could officially call it into session) in late September that chose three delegates. Governor William Franklin was upset at this action, but took no action beyond protesting the unusual meeting. Maryland 's assembly, prorogued because of a smallpox outbreak, was finally called into session by Governor Horatio Sharpe to consider the Massachusetts letter on September 23, and delegates were chosen.
The colonies that were not represented at the congress did not send delegates for a variety of reasons. The Virginia and Georgia assemblies were deliberately prevented from meeting by their governors. New Hampshire chose not to send delegates due to an ongoing financial crisis in the colony; by the time some assembly members sought to reconsider this decision, the assembly had adjourned and Governor Benning Wentworth refused to call it into session. North Carolina Lieutenant Governor William Tryon had prorogued the assembly for other reasons, and there was apparently no action taken to request a special session, despite public protests and opposition to the act by Speaker John Ashe. Nova Scotia (which then included present - day Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick) declined to send delegates, despite significant economic connections to Massachusetts, and a strong presence of expatriate New Englanders in its assembly. Dominated by financial interests connected to England, the assembly never even considered a protest resolution against the Stamp Act. Quebec, Newfoundland, and East and West Florida did not have colonial assemblies, and were not invited.
When word of the pending congress reached London, the Lords of Trade were so disturbed that they wrote to the king that "this is a matter of the utmost importance to the Kingdom and legislature of Great Britain... and proper only for the consideration of Parliament. '' Communications being slow, by the time Parliament was informed about its existence, the Stamp Act Congress was already in session. The trade commissioners also noted that "this appears to us to be the first instance of any General Congress appointed by the Assemblies of the Colonies without the Authority of the Crown, a Measure which we Conceive of dangerous Tendency in itself ''.
Delegates began to arrive in New York in late September, and a preliminary meeting was held by four delegations on September 30; what was discussed then is not known. The first session of the Congress was held on October 7, in New York 's City Hall (now known as Federal Hall). It elected Timothy Ruggles, a conservative Massachusetts delegate, as its chairman, narrowly rejecting James Otis, whom John Adams described as the soul of the body. John Cotton, the deputy secretary of the Massachusetts General Court, had been retained by the Massachusetts delegation to make a formal record, was chosen as the body 's secretary and record keeper. The selection of Ruggles as a delegate had been engineered by Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard in the hopes of limiting the effectiveness of the congress. His success in being elected chairman was due at least in part to the perception that Otis, a populist firebrand, "might give their meeting an ill grace. ''
The formal sessions of the Stamp Act Congress were conducted behind closed doors, although some of its business may have been conducted in informal sessions held in coffeehouses and other establishments in the evenings. Lieutenant Governor Colden, unable to prevent the meeting, called it an "illegal convention '', noting that "(w) hatever possible pretences may be used for this meeting their real intentions may be dangerous. '' The delegates were clear that they were in fact loyal to the Crown. New York delegate Robert R. Livingston wrote that the Congress was designed to insure the unity of the British empire, for "if I really wished to see America in a state of independence, I should desire as one of the most effectual means to that end that the stamp act should be inforced. ''
Little is known of the debates in congress. The official congressional journal, in an apparently deliberate move, only contains the barest details of official actions, and none of the participants kept private journals. As a result, accounts of the congress are based on fragmentary records from contemporary letters and publications. In addition to selecting officers, the first sessions examined the credentials of each of the delegations; despite the unorthodox methods by which some were chosen, no delegates were rejected. They also debated on how voting in the body should take place, eventually agreeing that each delegation would cast a single vote.
The early substantive debates centered around issues raised by the Stamp Act and the earlier Sugar Act. The delegates spent a significant amount of time discussing the differences between direct ("internal '') taxation and the regulation of trade (or "external taxation ''), and seeking formal justification of the idea that only the colonial assemblies had the right to levy internal taxes. Fairly early in the deliberations the delegates agreed to produce a statement of rights which would form the foundation for petitions the congress would submit to Parliament and the king. According to Delaware delegate Caesar Rodney, the drafting of this statement was made difficult by the desire to balance the colonists ' rights with the royal prerogative and the acknowledged powers of Parliament.
On October 19, the delegates adopted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, a document primarily intended for local political discussion. Over the next few days separate committees drafted three documents: an address to the king, a memorial to the House of Lords, and a petition to the House of Commons. Separate committees worked over the next few days to draft these, which were accepted after debate and revision by the delegates on October 22 and 23. When the issue of signing these documents was discussed on October 24, matters suddenly became more complicated. The delegations from Connecticut and South Carolina refused to sign the documents, citing their instructions specifically denying such power. New York 's delegation also refused, citing the informality with which it had been selected. From the other six delegations, New Jersey 's Robert Ogden and Massachusetts ' Timothy Ruggles both refused to sign, sparking a heated argument. Ruggles eventually moved that no one sign the documents, and that they instead be sent unsigned to the colonial assemblies. James Otis pointed out that the Massachusetts assembly had authorized its delegation to sign any jointly agreed documents, and that Ruggles ' suggestion undermined the purpose of the congress to present a united front. Although the other delegates from the six colonies did sign the petitions, Ruggles and Ogden did not, and both were called before their respective assemblies to justify their actions. Ruggles in his defense admitted that he was opposed to the substance of the documents, and Ogden argued weakly that he thought separate petitions would be more effective than a joint one. (Others noted that Parliament had already ignored such petitions.) Ruggles and Thomas McKean had an angry exchange over the matter, resulting in Ruggles challenging McKean to a duel. The duel did not take place, and Ruggles left New York early the next morning. The congress met again on October 25, at which time the petitions were signed, and arrangements were made for the transmission of some of the documents to England, and the making of copies for the non-participating colonies.
The Declaration of Rights contains fourteen statements. The first six lay groundwork, proclaiming loyalty to the crown, and asserting that, according to the Rights of Englishmen and the more general "freedom of a people '', only representatives chosen by the colonists could levy taxes. Because Parliament did not have such representatives, it could not levy taxes. The seventh statement asserts that the Rights of Englishmen afford all colonists the right to trial by jury. The remaining statements protest the unconstitutionality of the Stamp Act, express the economic consequences act (which, among other things, would reduce trade to the detriment of English manufacturers), and reiterated the rights of the colonists to petition the crown and Parliament.
The petitions directed to the House of Lords and the king were written in flattering tones, gently stating the liberties the colonists had enjoyed as British subjects and hoping they would retain them. The petition to the Lords specifically acknowledged "due Subordination to that August Body the British Parliament. '' In contrast, the petition addressed to the House of Commons was more detailed, advancing economic arguments against the Stamp Act and requesting the repeal of legislation creating a jury-less vice admiralty court at Halifax. It also reiterated the supremacy of Parliament.
Copies of the petitions left New York on two ships, including one that had arrived during the Congress, carrying stamped paper. Lord Dartmouth, the colonial secretary, rejected the petition to the Lords, saying it was an inappropriate document. The House of Commons cited several reasons not to consider the petition, including: it had been submitted by an unconstitutional assembly; it denied Parliament 's right to levy taxes; acceptance of the petition would constitute an admission that Parliament had erred. The weak Rockingham Ministry, laboring for support against political opponents, rallied merchant interests in opposition to the Stamp Act, and it was repealed primarily on the strength of economic arguments advanced by these interests. To address the constitutional issues raised by the North American protests, Parliament also passed the Declaratory Act, claiming the authority to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever ''.
This Congress is generally viewed as one of the first organized and coordinated political actions of the American Revolution, even though its participants were not at all interested in independence from Great Britain. Despite significant political differences and disagreements between the Thirteen Colonies, tensions occasioned by the harsh Parliamentary response to the 1773 Boston Tea Party prompted the calling of the First Continental Congress, which produced a united response to the Intolerable Acts of 1774. Colonies such as Quebec and Nova Scotia that had only moderate opposition to the Stamp Act continued to act moderately through the rising protests, and remained Loyal during the American Revolutionary War.
Most of the official papers of the Congress have not survived. One copy of its journal, from the papers of Caesar Rodney, survives in the library at Rowan University in Glassboro, New Jersey, and a second exists in the Connecticut state archives. The Maryland copy of the journal, although the original is lost, was transcribed into its assembly 's records and printed in 1766. Inconsistencies within and between these documents make it uncertain whether any is an accurate representation of the official journal (which was probably taken to Massachusetts and was not located by Weslager in his research).
Jacob Kollock was also selected to represent the Delaware counties, and is known to have traveled to New York; however, there is no record of his attendance at the Congress ' official sessions. Joseph Fox, speaker of the Pennsylvania assembly, was also chosen as a delegate, but decided not to attend because conditions in Pennsylvania required his presence there. Samuel Adams is often mistakenly listed as a delegate, but he is not on the list of delegates.
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according to terror management theory what is the primary motive of human beings | Terror management theory - wikipedia
Terror management theory (TMT) is an evolutionary psychology theory originally proposed by Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon, and Tom Pyszczynski and codified in their book The Worm at the Core: On the Role of Death in Life (2015). It proposes that a basic psychological conflict results from having a self - preservation instinct whilst realizing that death is inevitable and to some extent unpredictable. This conflict produces terror, and the terror is then managed by embracing cultural values, or symbolic systems that act to provide life with enduring meaning and value.
Examples of cultural values that impact an individual 's terror of death are those that purport to offer literal immortality (e.g. belief in afterlife, religion). However, TMT also argues that other cultural values -- including those that are seemingly unrelated to death -- offer symbolic immortality. For example, values of national identity, posterity, cultural perspectives on sex, and human superiority over animals have been linked to death concerns. In many cases these values are thought to offer symbolic immortality either a) by providing the sense that one is part of something greater that will ultimately outlive the individual (e.g. country, lineage, species), or b) by making one 's symbolic identity superior to biological nature (i.e. you are a personality, which makes you more than a glob of cells).
Because cultural values determine that which is meaningful, they are also the foundation for self - esteem. TMT describes self - esteem as being the personal, subjective measure of how well an individual is living up to their cultural values.
TMT is derived from anthropologist Ernest Becker 's 1973 Pulitzer Prize - winning work of nonfiction The Denial of Death, in which Becker argues most human action is taken to ignore or avoid the inevitability of death. The terror of absolute annihilation creates such a profound -- albeit subconscious -- anxiety in people that they spend their lives attempting to make sense of it. On large scales, societies build symbols: laws, religious meaning systems, cultures, and belief systems to explain the significance of life, define what makes certain characteristics, skills, and talents extraordinary, reward others whom they find exemplify certain attributes, and punish or kill others who do not adhere to their cultural worldview. On an individual level, self - esteem provides a buffer against death - related anxiety.
Ernest Becker, 1973
Cultural anthropologist Ernest Becker asserted in his 1973 book The Denial of Death that humans, as intelligent animals, are able to grasp the inevitability of death. They therefore spend their lives building and believing in cultural elements that illustrate how to make themselves stand out as individuals and give their lives significance and meaning. Death creates an anxiety in humans; it strikes at unexpected and random moments, and its nature is essentially unknowable, causing people to spend most of their time and energy to explain, forestall, and avoid it.
Becker expounded upon the previous writings of Sigmund Freud, Søren Kierkegaard, Norman O. Brown, and Otto Rank. According to clinical psychiatrist Morton Levitt, Becker replaces the Freudian preoccupation with sexuality with the fear of death as the primary motivation in human behavior.
People desire to think of themselves as beings of value and worth with a feeling of permanence, a concept in psychology known as self - esteem. This feeling counters the cognitive dissonance created by an individual 's realization that they may be no more important than any other living thing. Becker refers to high self - esteem as heroism:
the problem of heroics is the central one of human life, that it goes deeper into human nature than anything else because it is based on organismic narcissism and on the child 's need for self - esteem as the condition for his life. Society itself is a codified hero system, which means that society everywhere is a living myth of the significance of human life, a defiant creation of meaning.
The rationale behind decisions regarding one 's own health can be explored through a terror management model. A 2008 research article in Psychological Review proposes a three - part model for understanding how awareness of death can ironically subvert health - promoting behaviors by redirecting one 's focus towards behaviors that build self - esteem instead: "Proposition 1 suggests that conscious thoughts about death can instigate health - oriented responses aimed at removing death - related thoughts from current focal attention. Proposition 2 suggests that the unconscious resonance of death - related cognition promotes self - oriented defenses directed toward maintaining, not one 's health, but a sense of meaning and self - esteem. The last proposition suggests that confrontations with the physical body may undermine symbolic defenses and thus present a previously unrecognized barrier to health promotion activities. ''
Terror management theorists consider TMT to be compatible with the theory of evolution: Valid fears of dangerous things have an adaptive function that helped facilitate the survival of our ancestors ' genes. However, generalized existential anxiety resulting from the clash between a desire for life and awareness of the inevitability of death is neither adaptive nor selected for. TMT views existential anxiety as an unfortunate byproduct of these two highly adaptive human proclivities rather than as an adaptation that the evolutionary process selected for its advantages. Just as human bipedalism confers advantages as well as disadvantages, death anxiety is an inevitable part of our intelligence and awareness of dangers.
Anxiety in response to the inevitability of death threatened to undermine adaptive functioning and therefore needed amelioration. TMT posits that humankind used the same intellectual capacities that gave rise to this problem to fashion cultural beliefs and values that provided protection against this potential anxiety. TMT considers these cultural beliefs (even unpleasant and frightening ones, such as ritual human sacrifice) when they manage potential death anxiety in a way that promotes beliefs and behaviors which facilitated the functioning and survival of the collective.
Hunter - gatherers used their emerging cognitive abilities to facilitate solving practical problems, such as basic needs for nutrition, mating, and tool - making. As these abilities evolved, an explicit awareness of death also emerged. But once this awareness materialized, the potential for terror that it created put pressure on emerging conceptions of reality. Any conceptual formation that was to be widely accepted by the group needed to provide a means of managing this terror.
Originally, the emergence of morality evolved to facilitate co-existence within groups. Together with language, morality served pragmatic functions that extended survival. The struggle to deny the finality of death co-opted and changed the function of these cultural inventions. For example, Neanderthals might have begun burying their dead as a means of avoiding unpleasant odors, disease - infested parasites, or dangerous scavengers. But during the Upper Paleolithic era, these pragmatic burial practices appear to have become imbued with layers of ritual performance and supernatural beliefs, suggested by the elaborate decoration of bodies with thousands of beads or other markers. Food and other necessities were also included within the burial chamber, indicating the potential for a belief system that included life after death. In many human cultures today, funerals are viewed primarily as cultural events, viewed through the lens of morality and language, with little thought given to the utilitarian origins of burying the dead.
Evolutionary history also indicates that "the costs of ignoring threats have outweighed the costs of ignoring opportunities for self - development. '' This reinforces the concept that abstract needs for individual and group self - esteem may continue to be selected for by evolution, even when they sometimes confer risks to physical health and well - being.
Self - esteem lies at the heart of TMT and is a fundamental aspect of its core paradigms. TMT fundamentally seeks to elucidate the causes and consequences of a need for self - esteem. Theoretically, it draws heavily from Ernest Becker 's conceptions of culture and self - esteem (Becker, 1971; Becker, 1973). TMT not only attempts to explain the concept of self - esteem, it also tries to explain why we need self - esteem. One explanation is that self - esteem is used as a coping mechanism for anxiety. It helps people control their sense of terror and nullify the realization that humans are just animals trying to manage the world around them. According to TMT, self - esteem is a sense of personal value that is created by beliefs in the validity of one 's cultural worldview, and the belief that one is living up to the cultural standards created by that worldview.
Critically, Hewstone et al. (2002) have questioned the causal direction between self - esteem and death - anxiety, evaluating whether one 's self - esteem comes from their desire to reduce their death anxiety, or if death anxiety arises from a lack of self - esteem. In other words, an individual 's suppression of death anxiety may arise from their overall need to increase their self - esteem in a positive manner.
Research has demonstrated that self - esteem can play an important role in physical health. In some cases, people may be so concerned with their physical appearance and boosting their self - esteem that they ignore problems or concerns with their own physical health. Arndt et al. (2009) conducted three studies to examine how peer perceptions and social acceptance of smokers contributes to their quitting, as well as if, and why these people continue smoking for outside reasons, even when faced with thoughts of death and anti-smoking prompts. Tanning and exercising were also looked at in the researchers ' studies. The studies found that people are influenced by the situations around them. Specifically, Arndt et al. (2009) found in terms of their self - esteem and health, that participants who saw someone exercising were more likely to increase their intentions to exercise. In addition, the researchers found in study two that how participants reacted to an anti-smoking commercial was affected by their motivation for smoking and the situation which they were in. For instance, people who smoked for extrinsic reasons and were previously prompted with death reminders were more likely to be compelled by the anti-smoking message.
An individual 's level of self - consciousness can affect their views on life and death. To a point, increasing self - consciousness is adaptive in that it helps prevent awareness of danger. However, research has demonstrated that there may be diminishing returns from this phenomenon. Individuals with higher levels of self - consciousness sometimes have increased death cognition, and a more negative outlook on life, than those with reduced self - consciousness.
Conversely, self - esteem can work in the opposite manner. Research has confirmed that individuals with higher self - esteem, particularly in regard to their behavior, have a more positive attitude towards their life. Specifically, death cognition in the form of anti-smoking warnings were n't effective for smokers and in fact, increased their already positive attitudes towards the behavior. The reasons behind individuals ' optimistic attitudes towards smoking after mortality was made salient, indicate that people use positivity as a buffer against anxiety. Continuing to hold certain beliefs even after they are shown to be flawed creates cognitive dissonance regarding current information and past behavior, and the way to alleviate this is to simply reject new information. Therefore, anxiety buffers such as self - esteem allow individuals to cope with their fears more easily. Death cognition may in fact cause negative reinforcement that leads people to further engage in dangerous behaviors (smoking in this instance) because accepting the new information would lead to a loss of self - esteem, increasing vulnerability and awareness of mortality.
The mortality salience hypothesis (MS) states that if indeed one 's cultural worldview, or one 's self - esteem, serves a death - denying function, then threatening these constructs should produce defenses aimed at restoring psychological equanimity (i.e., returning the individual to a state of feeling invulnerable). In the MS paradigm, these "threats '' are simply experiential reminders of one 's own death. This can, and has, taken many different forms in a variety of study paradigms (e.g., asking participants to write about their own death; conducting the experiment near funeral homes or cemeteries; having participants watch graphic depictions of death, etc.). Like the other TMT hypotheses, the literature supporting the MS hypothesis is vast and diverse. For a meta analysis of MS research, see Burke et al. (2010).
Experimentally, the MS hypothesis has been tested in close to 200 empirical articles. After participants in an experiment are asked to write about their own death (vs. a neutral, non-death control topic, such as dental pain), and then following a brief delay (distal, worldview / self - esteem defenses work the best after a delay; see Greenberg et al. (1994) for a discussion), the participants ' defenses are measured. In one early TMT study assessing the MS hypothesis, Greenberg et al. (1990) had Christian participants evaluate other Christian and Jewish students that were similar demographically, but differed in their religious affiliation. After being reminded of their death (experimental MS induction), Christian participants evaluated fellow Christians more positively, and Jewish participants more negatively, relative to the control condition. Conversely, bolstering self - esteem in these scenarios leads to less worldview defense and derogation of dissimilar others.
Mortality salience has an influence on individuals and their decisions regarding their health. Cox et al. (2009) discuss mortality salience in terms of suntanning. Specifically, the researchers found that participants who were prompted with the idea that pale was more socially attractive along with mortality reminders, tended to lean towards decisions that resulted in more protective measures from the sun. The participants were placed in two different conditions; one group of participants were given an article relating to the fear of death, while the control group received an article unrelated to death dealing with the fear of public speaking. Additionally, they gave one group an article pertaining to the message that "bronze is beautiful, '' one relating to the idea that "pale is pretty, '' and one neutral article that did not speak of tan or pale skin tones. Finally, after introducing a delay activity, the researchers gave the participants a five - item questionnaire asking them about their future sun - tanning behaviors. The study illustrated that when tan skin was associated with attractiveness, mortality salience positively affected people 's intentions to suntan; however, when pale skin was associated with attractiveness people 's intentions to tan decreased.
Studies have shown that mortality and self - esteem are important factors of the terror management theory. Jessop et al. (2008) study this relationship within four studies that all examine how people react when they are given information on risks, specifically, in terms of the mortality related to the risks of driving. More specifically, the researchers were exploring how participants acted in terms of self - esteem, and its impact on how mortality - related health - risk information would be received. Overall, Jessop et al. (2008) found that even when mortality is prominent, people who engage in certain behaviors to improve their self - esteem have a greater chance of continuing with these activities. Mortality and self - esteem are both factors that influence people 's behaviors and decision - making regarding their health. Furthermore, individuals who are involved in behaviors and possess motivation to enhance their self - worth are less likely to be affected by the importance placed on health risks, in terms of mortality.
Self - esteem is important when mortality is made salient. It can allow people a coping mechanism, one that can cushion individuals ' fears; and thus, impacting one 's attitudes towards a given behavior. Individuals who have higher levels of self - esteem regarding their behavior (s) are less likely to have their attitudes, and thus their behaviors changed regardless of mortality salient or death messages. People will use their self - esteem to hide behind their fears of dying. In terms of smoking behaviors, people with higher smoking - based self - esteem are less susceptible to anti-smoking messages that relate to death; therefore, mortality salience and death warnings afford them with an even more positive outlook on their behavior, or in this instance their smoking.
In the Hansen et al. (2010) experiment the researchers manipulated mortality salience. In the experiment, Hansen et al. (2010) examined smokers ' attitudes towards the behavior of smoking. Actual warning labels were utilized to create mortality salience in this specific experiment. The researchers first gave participants a questionnaire to measure their smoking - based self - esteem. Following the questionnaire, participants were randomly assigned to two different conditions; the first were given anti-smoking warning labels about death and the second, control group were exposed to anti-smoking warning labels not dealing with death. Before the participants ' attitudes towards smoking were taken the researchers introduced an unrelated question to provide a delay. Further research has demonstrated that delays allow mortality salience to emerge because thoughts of death become non-conscious. Finally, participants were asked questions regarding their intended future smoking behavior. However, one weakness in their conduction was that the final questionnaire addressed opinions and behavioral questions, as opposed to the participants level of persuasion regarding the different anti-smoking warning labels.
Many people are more motivated by social pressures, rather than health risks. Specifically for younger people, mortality salience is stronger in eliciting changes of one 's behavior when it brings awareness to the immediate loss of social status or position, rather than a loss, such as death that one can not imagine and feels far off. However, there are many different factors to take into consideration, such as how strongly an individual feels toward a decision, his or her level of self - esteem, and the situation around the individual. Particularly with people 's smoking behaviors, self - esteem and mortality salience have different effects on individuals ' decisions. In terms of the longevity of their smoking decisions, it has been seen that individuals ' smoking habits are affected, in the short - term sense, when they are exposed to mortality salience that interrelates with their own self - esteem. Moreover, people who viewed social exclusion prompts were more likely to quit smoking in the long run than those who were simply shown health - effects of smoking. More specifically, it was demonstrated that when individuals had high levels of self - esteem they were more likely to quit smoking following the social pressure messages, rather than the health risk messages. In this specific instance, terror management, and specifically mortality salience is showing how people are more motivated by the social pressures and consequences in their environment, rather than consequences relating to their health. This is mostly seen in young adult smokers with higher smoking - based self - esteems who are not thinking of their future health and the less - immediate effects of smoking on their health.
Another paradigm that TMT researchers use to get at unconscious concerns about death is what is known as the death thought accessibility (DTA) hypothesis. Essentially, the DTA hypothesis states that if individuals are motivated to avoid cognitions about death, and they avoid these cognitions by espousing a worldview or by buffering their self - esteem, then when threatened, an individual should possess more death - related cognitions (e.g., thoughts about death, and death - related stimuli) than they would when not threatened.
The DTA hypothesis has its origins in work by Greenberg et al. (1994) as an extension of their earlier terror management hypotheses (i.e., the anxiety buffer hypothesis and the mortality salience hypothesis). The researchers reasoned that if, as indicated by Wegner 's research on thought suppression (1994; 1997), thoughts that are purposely suppressed from conscious awareness are often brought back with ease, then following a delay death - thought cognitions should be more available to consciousness than (a) those who keep the death - thoughts in their consciousness the whole time, and (b) those who suppress the death - thoughts but are not provided a delay. That is precisely what they found. However, other psychologists have failed to replicate these findings.
In these initial studies (i.e., Greenberg et al. (2004); Arndt et al. (1997)), and in numerous subsequent DTA studies, the main measure of DTA is a word fragment task, whereby participants can complete word fragments in distinctly death - related ways (e.g., coff_ _ as coffin, not coffee) or in non death - related ways (e.g., sk_ _l as skill, not skull). If death - thoughts are indeed more available to consciousness, then it stands to reason that the word fragments should be completed in a way that is semantically related to death.
The introduction of this hypothesis has refined TMT, and led to new avenues of research that formerly could not be assessed due to the lack of an empirically validated way of measuring death - related cognitions. Also, the differentiation between proximal (conscious, near, and threat - focused) and distal (unconscious, distant, symbolic) defenses that have been derived from DTA studies have been extremely important in understanding how people deal with their terror.
It is important to note how the DTA paradigm subtly alters, and expands, TMT as a motivational theory. Instead of solely manipulating mortality and witnessing its effects (e.g., nationalism, increased prejudice, risky sexual behavior, etc.), the DTA paradigm allows a measure of the death - related cognitions that result from various affronts to the self. Examples include threats to self - esteem and to one 's worldview; the DTA paradigm can therefore assess the role of death - thoughts in self - esteem and worldview defenses. Furthermore, the DTA hypothesis lends support to TMT in that it corroborates its central hypothesis that death is uniquely problematic for human beings, and that it is fundamentally different in its effects than meaning threats, (i.e., Heine et al., 2006) and that is death itself, and not uncertainty and lack of control associated with death; Fritsche et al. (2008) explore this idea.
Since its inception, the DTA hypothesis had been rapidly gaining ground in TMT investigations, and as of 2009, has been employed in over 60 published papers, with a total of more than 90 empirical studies.
How people respond to their fears and anxiety of death is investigated in TMT. Moreover, Taubman - Ben - Ari and Noy (2010) examine the idea that a person 's level of self - awareness and self - consciousness should be considered in relation to their responses to their anxiety and death cognitions. The more an individual is presented with their death or death cognitions in general, the more fear and anxiety one may have; therefore, to combat said anxiety one may implement anxiety buffers.
Due to a change in people 's lifestyles, in the direction of more unhealthy behaviors, the leading causes of death now, being cancer and heart disease, most definitely are related to individuals ' unhealthy behaviors (though the statement is over-generalising and certainly can not be applied to every case) Age and death anxiety both are factors that should be considered in the terror management theory, in relation to health - promoting behaviors. Age undoubtedly plays some kind of role in people 's health - promoting behaviors; however, an actual age related effect on death anxiety and health - promoting behaviors has yet to be seen. Although, research has demonstrated that for young adults only, when they were prompted with death related scenarios, they yielded more health - promoting behaviors, compared to those participants in their sixties. In addition, death anxiety has been found to have an effect for young adults, on their behaviors of health promotion.
The terror management health model (TMHM) explores the role that death plays on one 's health and behavior. Goldenberg and Arndt (2008) state that the TMHM proposes the idea that death, despite its threatening nature, is in fact instrumental and purposeful in the conditioning of one 's behavior towards the direction of a longer life.
According to Goldenberg and Arndt (2008), certain health behaviors such as breast self - exams (BSEs) can consciously activate and facilitate people to think of death, especially their own death. While death can be instrumental for individuals, in some cases, when breast self - exams activate people 's death thoughts an obstacle can present itself, in terms of health promotion, because of the experience of fear and threat. Abel and Kruger (2009) have suggested that the stress caused by increased awareness of mortality when celebrating one 's birthday might explain the birthday effect, where mortality rates seem to spike around these days.
On the other hand, death and thoughts of death can serve as a way of empowering the self, not as threats. Researchers, Cooper et al. (2011) explored TMHM in terms of empowerment, specifically using BSEs under two conditions; when death thoughts were prompted, and when thoughts of death were non-conscious. According to TMHM, people 's health decisions, when death thoughts are not conscious, should be based on their motivations to act appropriately, in terms of the self and identity. Cooper et al. (2011) found that when mortality and death thoughts were primed, women reported more empowerment feelings than those who were not prompted before performing a BSE.
Additionally, TMHM suggests that mortality awareness and self - esteem are important factors in individuals ' decision making and behaviors relating to their health. TMHM explores how people will engage in behaviors, whether positive or negative, even with the heightened awareness of mortality, in the attempt to conform to society 's expectations and improve their self - esteem. The TMHM is useful in understanding what motivates individuals regarding their health decisions and behaviors.
In terms of smoking behaviors and attitudes, the impact of warnings with death messages depends on:
People with low self - esteem, but not high self - esteem, have more negative emotions when reminded of death. This is believed to be because these individuals lack the very defenses that TMT argues protect people from mortality concerns (e.g., solid worldviews). In contrast, positive mood states are not impacted by death thoughts for people of low or high self - esteem.
It has been suggested that culture provides meaning, organization, and a coherent world view that diminishes the psychological terror caused by the knowledge of eventual death. The terror management theory can help to explain why a leader 's popularity can grow substantially during times of crisis. When a follower 's mortality is made prominent they will tend to show a strong preference for iconic leaders. An example of this occurred when George W. Bush 's approval rating jumped almost 50 percent following the September 11 attacks in the United States. As Forsyth (2009) posits, this tragedy made U.S. citizens aware of their mortality, and Bush provided an antidote to these existential concerns by promising to bring justice to the terrorist group responsible for the attacks.
Researchers Cohen et al. (2004), in their particular study on TMT, tested the preferences for different types of leaders, while reminding people of their mortality. Three different candidates were presented to participants. The three leaders were of three different types: task - oriented (emphasized setting goals, strategic planning, and structure), relationship - oriented (emphasized compassion, trust, and confidence in others), and charismatic. The participants were then placed in one of two conditions: mortality salient or control group. In the former condition the participants were asked to describe the emotions surrounding their own death, as well as the physical act of the death itself, whereas the control group were asked similar questions about an upcoming exam. The results of the study were that the charismatic leader was favored more, and the relationship - oriented leader was favored less, in the mortality - salient condition. Further research has shown that mortality salient individuals also prefer leaders who are members of the same group, as well as men rather than women (Hoyt et al. 2010). This has links to social role theory.
TMT posits that religion was created as a means for humans to cope with their own mortality. Supporting this, arguments in favor of life after death, and simply being religious, reduce the effects of mortality salience on worldview defense. Thoughts of death have also been found to increase religious beliefs. At an implicit, subconscious level, this is the case even for people who claim to be nonreligious.
Several psychologists, especially evolutionary psychologists, have argued against terror management theory. One scholar commented that the field of psychology would be advanced by a study of paralyzed states caused by anxiety that would only be alleviated with the reworking of a person 's mental state. These authors instead explain human behavior is selected to urge people to avoid situations likely to lead to death. This suggests that mortality salience effects reflect adaptive responses to solve specific life - threats rather than an unconscious attempt to avoid this realization.
Since findings on mortality salience and worldview defense were first published, other researchers have claimed that the effects may have been obtained due to reasons other than death itself, such as anxiety, fear, or other aversive stimuli such as pain. Other studies have found effects similar to those that MS results in -- for example, thinking about difficult personal choices to be made, being made to respond to open - ended questions regarding uncertainty, thinking about being robbed, thinking about being socially isolated, and being told that one 's life lacks meaning. While these cases exist, thoughts of death have since been compared to various aversive experimental controls, such as (but not limited to) thinking about: failure, writing a critical exam, public speaking with a considerable audience, being excluded, paralysis, dental pain, intense physical pain, etc.
With regards to the studies that found similar effects, TMT theorists have argued that in the previously mentioned studies where death was not the subject thought about, the subjects would quite easily be related to death in an individual 's mind due to "linguistic or experiential connection with mortality '' (p. 332) For example, being robbed invokes thoughts of violence and being unsafe in one 's own home -- many people have died trying to protect their property and family. A second possible explanation for these results involves the death - thought accessibility hypothesis: these threats somehow sabotage crucial anxiety - buffering aspects of an individual 's worldview or self - esteem, which increases their DTA. For example, one study found increased DTA in response to thoughts of antagonistic relations with attachment figures.
The meaning maintenance model (MMM) was initially introduced as a comprehensive motivational theory that claimed to subsume TMT, with alternative explanations for TMT findings. Essentially, it posits that people automatically give meaning to things, and when those meanings are somehow disrupted, it causes anxiety. In response, people concentrate on "meaning maintenance to reestablish their sense of symbolic unity '' and that such "meaning maintenance often involves the compensatory reaffirmation of alternative meaning structures ''. These meanings, among other things, should "provide a basis for prediction and control of our... environments, help (one) to cope with tragedy and trauma... and the symbolic cheating of death via adherence to the enduring values that these cultures provide ''.
TMT theorists argue that MMM can not describe why different sets of meaning are preferred for a symbol by different people, and that while they may exist, "different ((i.e., more concrete)) types of meaning have different psychological functions ''. For example, MMM theorists argue that all types of meaning are basically equal, and yet one could not compare the likelihood of defensive responses resulting from exposure to a deck of cards containing black hearts with something like the September 11 attacks. TMT theorists argue, essentially, that unless something is an important element of a person 's anxiety - buffering worldview or self - esteem, it will not require broad meaning maintenance.
In sum, TMT theorists believe that MMM can not accurately claim to be an alternative to TMT because it does not seem to be able to explain the current breadth of TMT evidence. As an example, TMT theorists assert that mortality salience would not be a threat to meaning, since our eventual demise is a necessary condition of life. Therefore, it should not cause an individual to engage in general meaning maintenance. MMM also makes no attempt to explain why threatening meaning increases DTA.
Some theorists have argued that it is not the idea of death and nonexistence that is unsettling to people, but the fact that uncertainty is involved. For example, these researchers posited that people defend themselves by altering their fear responses from uncertainty to an enthusiasm approach. Other researchers argue for distinguishing fear of death from fear of dying and, therein, posit that ultimately the fear of death has more to do with some other fear (e.g., fear of pain) or reflects fear of the unknown.
TMT theorists agree that uncertainty can be disconcerting in some cases and it may even result in defense responses, but note that they believe the inescapability of death and the possibility of its finality regarding one 's existence is most unsettling. They ask, "' Would death be any less frightening if you knew for certain that it would come next Tuesday at 5: 15 p.m., and that your hopes for an afterlife were illusory? '... Would you rather be certain that death is the end, or live with the uncertainty that it might not be? '' They also note that people actually seek out some types of uncertainty, and that being uncertain is not always very unpleasant. In contrast, there is substantial evidence that, all things being equal, uncertainty and the unknown represent fundamental fears and are only experienced as pleasant when there is sufficient contextual certainty. For example, a surprise involves uncertainty, but is only perceived as pleasant if there is sufficient certainty that the surprise will be pleasant. Consider a box received on a birthday from a trusted family member as compared to the box received at the end of the film "Seven '' (which contains a severed head).
Though TMT theorists acknowledge that many responses to mortality salience involve greater approaches (zealousness) towards important worldviews, they also note examples of mortality salience which resulted in the opposite, which offensive defensiveness can not account for: when negative features of a group to which participants belong were made salient, people actively distanced themselves from that group under mortality salience.
Several critiques have been proposed against TMT from evolutionary psychologists -- for reasons including that fear is an adaptive response in individuals ' that has come about as a result of natural selection; without these adaptations human beings would have never been able to avoid maladaptive situations. Thus, it is unlikely that people would have psychological ways of slowing - down anxiety. In response, TMT theorists argue that this critique is mixing up fear related to immediate danger with anxiety related to thoughts of threats that will or may occur eventually. TMT is talking about the protection that self - esteem and cultural worldviews offer against the threat of unavoidable death in the future. While anxiety may be adaptive in avoiding entering a dangerous place (e.g. because a predator may be waiting), this does n't mean that anxiety must be adaptive in all cases. For a more comprehensive review of TMT and evolutionary psychology, see Landau et al., 2007. Similar evolutionary critiques have been raised by researchers exploring uncertainty and unknowns (see for reviews,).
Coalitional psychology (CP) is presented as another alternative to TMT, which proposes that there is an evolutionary tendency to seek safety in groups (coalitions) as a reaction to adaptive threats. People already a part of coalitional groups seek to protect their membership by exhibiting their value to the group. TMT theorists answer by arguing that CP 1) can not account for the fact that virtually all cultures have a supernatural dimension; 2) it does not explain why cultural worldview defense is symbolic, involving allegiance to both specific and general systems of abstract meaning unrelated to specific threats, rather than focused on the specific adaptive threats it supposedly evolved to deal with; 3) it dismisses TMT 's dual process account of the underlying processes that generate MS effects without providing an alternative of any kind or attempting to account for the data relevant to this aspect of the TMT analysis and 4) the experiments testing hypotheses derived from CP do not provide compelling or unique support for CP, 5) it can not account for a host of empirical findings supporting hypotheses derived from TMT that could never be deduced from CP.
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who does liam neeson play in harry potter | Liam Neeson - wikipedia
Liam John Neeson, OBE (born 7 June 1952) is an actor from Northern Ireland. In 1976, he joined the Lyric Players ' Theatre in Belfast for two years. He then acted in the Arthurian film, Excalibur (1981). Between 1982 and 1987, Neeson starred in five films, most notably alongside Mel Gibson and Anthony Hopkins in The Bounty (1984), and Robert De Niro and Jeremy Irons in The Mission (1986). He landed a leading role alongside Patrick Swayze in Next of Kin (1989).
Neeson rose to prominence when he starred in the title role in Steven Spielberg 's Academy Award - winning film, Schindler 's List (1993). He has since starred in other successful films, including the title role in the historical biopic Michael Collins (1996), the 1998 film adaptation of Victor Hugo 's Les Misérables, the epic space opera Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace (1999), the biographical drama Kinsey (2004), the superhero film Batman Begins (2005), the action thriller series Taken (2008 -- 2014), the thriller - survival film The Grey (2011), and the historical drama Silence (2016). He also provided the voices of Aslan in The Chronicles of Narnia trilogy (2005 -- 2010) and the titular monster in A Monster Calls (2016).
He has been nominated for a number of awards, including an Academy Award for Best Actor, a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and three Golden Globe Awards for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama. Empire magazine ranked Neeson among both the "100 Sexiest Stars in Film History '' and "The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time ''.
Neeson was born in Ballymena, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, the son of Katherine "Kitty '' Neeson (née Brown), a cook, and Bernard "Barney '' Neeson, a caretaker at the Ballymena Boys All Saints Primary School. Raised as a Roman Catholic, he was named Liam after the local priest. The third of four siblings, he has three sisters: Elizabeth, Bernadette, and Rosaleen. Neeson said growing up as a Catholic in a predominately Protestant town made him cautious, and once said he felt like a "second class '' citizen in the town; though he also stated that he was never made to feel "inferior or even different '' at the town 's predominantly Protestant technical college. Neeson has described himself as out of touch with the politics and history of Northern Ireland, until becoming aware of protests by fellow students after Bloody Sunday in 1972, during the Troubles conflict. The experience of these protests encouraged him to learn more about local history. In a 2009 interview, Neeson said "I never stop thinking about it (the Troubles). I 've known guys and girls who have been perpetrators of violence and victims. Protestants and Catholics. It 's part of my DNA. ''
At age 9, Neeson began boxing lessons at the All Saints Youth Club and later became Ulster 's amateur senior boxing champion. Neeson first stepped on stage at age 11, after his English teacher offered him the lead role in a school play, which he accepted because the girl he was attracted to was starring in it. He continued to act in school productions over the following years.
Neeson 's interest in acting and decision to become an actor were also influenced by Ian Paisley, founder of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), into whose Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster Neeson would sneak. Neeson has said of Paisley: "He had a magnificent presence and it was incredible to watch him just Bible - thumping away... it was acting, but it was also great acting and stirring too ''. In 1971, Neeson was enrolled as a physics and computer science student at Queen 's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, before leaving to work for the Guinness Brewery. At Queen 's, he discovered a talent for football and was spotted by Seán Thomas at Bohemian F.C. There was a club trial in Dublin, and Neeson played one game as a substitute against Shamrock Rovers F.C., but he was not offered a contract.
After leaving the university, Neeson returned to Ballymena where he worked in a variety of casual jobs, from a fork - lift operator at Guinness to a truck driver. He also attended teacher training college for two years in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, before again returning to his hometown. In 1976, Neeson joined the Lyric Players ' Theatre in Belfast where he performed for two years. He got his first film experience in 1977, playing Jesus Christ and Evangelist in the religious film Pilgrim 's Progress (1978). Neeson moved to Dublin in 1978 after he was offered a part in Ron Hutchinson 's Says I, Says He, a drama about The Troubles, at the Project Arts Centre. He acted in several other Project productions and joined the Abbey Theatre (the National Theatre of Ireland). In 1980, he performed alongside Stephen Rea, Ray McAnally and Mick Lally, playing Doalty in Brian Friel 's play Translations, the first production of Brian Friel and Stephen Rea 's Field Day Theatre Company, first presented in the Guildhall, Derry, on 23 September 1980.
In 1980, filmmaker John Boorman saw him on stage as Lennie Small in Of Mice and Men and offered him the role of Sir Gawain in the Arthurian film, Excalibur. After Excalibur, Neeson moved to London, where he continued working on stage, in small budget films and in television. He lived with the actress Helen Mirren at this time, whom he met working on Excalibur. Between 1982 and 1987, Neeson starred in five films; most notably alongside Mel Gibson and Anthony Hopkins in 1984 's The Bounty and Robert De Niro and Jeremy Irons in 1986 's The Mission. Neeson guest - starred in the third season of the television series Miami Vice in 1986 and moved to Hollywood to star in more high - profile roles in the next year. That year, he starred alongside Cher and Dennis Quaid in Suspect in a role that brought him critical acclaim. In 1988, he starred alongside Clint Eastwood in the fifth Dirty Harry film "The Dead Pool '' in the role of Peter Swan, a horror film director. In 1990, he followed this with a starring role in Sam Raimi 's Darkman. Although the film was successful, Neeson 's subsequent years would not bring him the same recognition. In 1993, he joined Ellis Island co-star and future wife Natasha Richardson in the Broadway play Anna Christie. They also worked together in Nell, released the following year.
Director Steven Spielberg offered Neeson the role of Oskar Schindler in the film about the Holocaust, Schindler 's List, after seeing him in Anna Christie on Broadway. Even with Kevin Costner, Mel Gibson and Warren Beatty all expressing interest in portraying Schindler, (the last auditioning), Neeson was cast in December 1992 after formally auditioning for the role. Neeson read the Keneally book and concluded that his character "enjoyed fookin ' (sic) with the Nazis. In Keneally 's book, it says he was regarded as a kind of a buffoon by them... if the Nazis were New Yorkers, he was from Arkansas. They do n't quite take him seriously, and he used that to full effect. '' His critically acclaimed performance earned him a nomination for a Best Actor Oscar, and helped the film earn Best Picture of 1993. However, the best actor award went to Tom Hanks for his performance in Philadelphia. Neeson also garnered BAFTA and Golden Globes nominations for his work as Oskar Schindler. Soon after these accolades, Neeson became an in - demand leading actor. He starred in the subsequent period pieces Rob Roy (1995) and Michael Collins (1996), the latter earning him a win for Best Starring Role at the Venice Film Festival and another Golden Globe nomination. He went on to star as Jean Valjean in the 1998 adaptation of Victor Hugo 's Les Misérables and in The Haunting (1999) as Dr. David Marrow.
In 1999, Neeson starred as Jedi Master Qui - Gon Jinn in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. Director George Lucas cast Neeson in the role because he considered the actor to have great skills and presence, describing him as a "master actor, who the other actors will look up to, who has got the qualities of strength that the character demands. '' As the first Star Wars film to be released in sixteen years, it was surrounded by a large amount of media anticipation. Neeson 's connection to Star Wars started in the Crown Bar, Belfast. Neeson stated to Ricki Lake, "I probably would n't have taken the role if it was n't for the advice of Peter King in the Crown during a Lyric reunion. '' Despite mixed reviews from critics and fans, The Phantom Menace was an enormous box - office success and remained the most financially successful Star Wars film unadjusted for inflation, until Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015). Neeson 's performance as Qui - Gon received several positive reviews, and a Saturn Award nomination. A stock recording of Neeson 's voice from The Phantom Menace can be heard during a scene in Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones (2002). Neeson was later reported to be making an appearance in Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith (2005) portraying Qui - Gon again, but ultimately did not. In the animated television series Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 -- 14), Neeson reprised the role of Qui - Gon once again by voicing the character in two episodes of the third season and one episode of the sixth season.
Neeson narrated the 2001 documentaries Journey into Amazing Caves, a short film about two scientists who travel around the world to search for material for potential cures, and The Endurance: Shackleton 's Legendary Antarctic Adventure. The latter won awards at a number of film festivals including Best Documentary from both the Chicago Film Critics Association and the National Board of Review. After being nominated for a Tony Award for his role opposite Laura Linney in The Crucible, Neeson appeared with Harrison Ford in Kathryn Bigelow 's 2002 submarine thriller K - 19: The Widowmaker as Captain Mikhail Polenin. He was also on the cast of Martin Scorsese 's Gangs of New York with Leonardo DiCaprio, Brendan Gleeson, Cameron Diaz and Daniel Day - Lewis, and played a recently widowed writer in Richard Curtis ' ensemble comedy Love Actually (2003). His role as Alfred Kinsey in Kinsey again put the actor up for nomination for a Golden Globe Award, but he lost to Leonardo DiCaprio for The Aviator.
In 2004, Neeson hosted an episode of the NBC sketch show Saturday Night Live. He starred as a redneck trucker, Marlon Weaver, in an "Appalachian Emergency Room '' sketch and a hippie in a one - off sketch about two stoners (the other played by Amy Poehler) who attempt to borrow a police dog to find their lost stash of marijuana. Despite vowing not to play any Irish stereotypes, Neeson did play a stereotypically Irish man named Lorcan McArdle in the home makeover show parody "You Call This A House, Do Ya? ''
In 2005, Neeson played Godfrey of Ibelin in Ridley Scott 's epic adventure Kingdom of Heaven, Ra 's al Ghul, one of the main villains in Batman Begins, and Father Bernard in Neil Jordan 's adaptation of Patrick McCabe 's novel, Breakfast on Pluto. In The Simpsons episode "The Father, the Son, and the Holy Guest Star '' (2005), he voiced the kindly priest who (briefly) converts Bart and Homer to Catholicism. That same year, he gave his voice to the lion Aslan in the blockbuster fantasy film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. In 2007, he starred in the American Civil War epic Seraphim Falls.
He also voiced the main character 's father, James in the video game, Fallout 3. Executive producer Todd Howard said, "This role was written with Liam in mind, and provides the dramatic tone for the entire game ''. Fallout 3, the third game in the Fallout series, was extremely well received by critics and shipped 4.7 million copies by the end of 2008, the year it was released.
In the director 's commentary of the 2007 Transformers DVD, Michael Bay said that he had told the animators to seek inspiration from Neeson in creating Optimus Prime 's body language. Neeson appeared as Alistair Little in the BBC Northern Ireland / Big Fish Films television drama Five Minutes of Heaven, which tells the true story of a young Protestant man convicted of murdering a Catholic boy during The Troubles.
He starred in the action film Taken in 2008, a French - produced film also starring Famke Janssen and Maggie Grace. Based on a script by Luc Besson and Robert Mark Kamen and directed by Pierre Morel, the film stars Neeson as a retired CIA operative from their elite Special Activities Division who sets about tracking down his teenage daughter after she is kidnapped. Taken was a worldwide box office hit, grossing $223.9 million worldwide, making almost $200 million more than its production budget. Neeson has stated in interviews that he believed that Taken had put some people off the idea of actually travelling to Europe. Taken brought Neeson back into the center of the public eye and resulted in his being cast in many more big - budget Hollywood movies. That year he also narrated the documentary Black Holes: The Other Side of Infinity and again lent his voice to Aslan in The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (2008). He also provided a voice for Hayao Miyazaki 's anime film Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea, which received an August 2009 release.
In 2010, Neeson played Zeus in the remake of the 1981 film, Clash of the Titans. The film went on becoming a huge box office hit, grossing $475 million worldwide. Neeson also starred in Atom Egoyan 's erotic thriller Chloe, theatrically released by Sony Pictures Classics on 26 March 2010. Chloe had enjoyed commercial success and became the Canadian director 's biggest money maker ever. Later the same year, he played John "Hannibal '' Smith in the spin - off movie from the television series The A-Team.
In 2010, Neeson voiced the character Aslan again in the sequel The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader. In 2011, Neeson starred in Unknown, a German - British - American co-production of a French book, it was filmed in Berlin in early 2010. It has been compared to Taken, which was set in Paris.
Neeson reunited with director Steven Spielberg with plans to star as Abraham Lincoln in the 2012 film Lincoln, based on the book Team of Rivals by Doris Kearns Goodwin. In preparation for the role, Neeson visited the District of Columbia and Springfield, Illinois, where Lincoln lived prior to being elected, and read Lincoln 's personal letters. Neeson eventually declined the role, claiming he was "past his sell date '' and had grown too old to play Lincoln. He was later replaced in the role by Daniel Day - Lewis.
It was announced in July 2010 that Neeson would guest - star on the new Showtime series The Big C. In 2011, he played himself, in BBC2 's series Life 's Too Short. In late 2011, Neeson was cast to play the lead character, a journalist, in a new album recording and arena production of Jeff Wayne 's War of the Worlds. He replaced Richard Burton, who had posthumously appeared in the arena production through CGI animation. Neeson did not physically appear on the stage, instead playing the role through the use of 3D holography. In 2012, Neeson starred in Joe Carnahan 's The Grey. The film received mostly positive reviews and Neeson 's performance received critical acclaim. He also starred in Taken 2, a successful sequel to his 2008 blockbuster. That year, he once again played Ra 's al Ghul in The Dark Knight Rises, the third and final film in Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy. He narrated the first trailer for the film.
On 31 January 2014, it was reported that Neeson would work with director Martin Scorsese again in an adaptation of the novel Silence. Neeson had a supporting role as the henchman Bad Cop / Good Cop in the animated film The Lego Movie, which was a critical and commercial success. Neeson later played Bill Marks in the 2014 action film Non-Stop. The film was released on 28 February 2014. He also appeared, uncredited, as God in the BBC2 series Rev... Neeson stars in the 2014 film A Walk Among the Tombstones, an adaption of the best - selling novel of the same name, in which he plays former cop Matthew Scudder, a detective hired to hunt the killers of a drug dealer 's wife.
During Super Bowl XLIX, Supercell did a Clash of Clans commercial with him playing the game as "AngryNeeson52 '' and vowing revenge on his opponent "BigBuffetBoy85 '' while waiting for his scone at a bakery. The appearance was a parody of his role in Taken. In 2016 Neeson narrated the RTÉ One three - part documentary on the Easter Rising, 1916. In 2016, he voiced the Monster in the Spanish film A Monster Calls.
Neeson opposes the unrestricted right to own firearms in the United States and has made calls for gun control. In January 2015, he repeated his views, calling US gun laws a "disgrace '' in an interview with Emirati newspaper Gulf News when replying to a question about the Charlie Hebdo shootings in Paris earlier that month. In response, U.S gun manufacturer Para USA, which provided the weapons used by Neeson in the Taken film series, expressed regret at working with him, saying: "We will no longer provide firearms for use in films starring Liam Neeson and ask that our friends and partners in Hollywood refrain from associating our brand and products with his projects. ''
In 2014, he protested against the anti-carriage horse campaign of New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio, who said he would outlaw horse - drawn carriages in Central Park once he took office. Neeson wrote an opinion page published in The New York Times citing the carriage trade as a safe one for employees, horses and tourists and noted it was a livelihood for many immigrants.
Neeson narrated a video for Amnesty International in favour of the legalisation of abortion in Ireland, which some conservative and pro-life commentators criticised, calling it "creepy '' and "anti-Catholic ''.
Neeson lived with actress Helen Mirren during the early 1980s. They had met while working on Excalibur (1981). Interviewed by James Lipton for Inside the Actors Studio, Neeson said Mirren was instrumental in his getting an agent.
Neeson met his future wife, actress Natasha Richardson, while performing in a revival of the play Anna Christie on Broadway in 1993. They married on 3 July 1994. She and Neeson had two sons together, Micheál Richard Antonio (born 22 June 1995, in Dublin) and Daniel Jack (born 27 August 1996, in New York City). In October 1998, Neeson and Richardson won £ 50,000 ($85,370) in libel damages after the Daily Mirror tabloid wrongly claimed that their marriage was on the line. They donated the money to victims of the August 1998 Omagh bombing. In August 2004, Neeson and his wife purchased an estate in Millbrook, New York. On 18 March 2009, Richardson died when she suffered a severe head injury in a skiing accident at the Mont Tremblant Resort, northwest of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Neeson donated her organs following her death.
A heavy smoker earlier in his career, Neeson quit smoking in 2003, while working on Love Actually. When he took the role of Hannibal for the 2010 film adaptation of The A-Team, Neeson had reservations about smoking cigars (which is a signature trait of the character) in the film due to being an ex-smoker, but agreed to keep that personality trait of Hannibal intact for the film. In August 2009, Neeson said that he had been naturalised as a United States citizen. In March 2011, he was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador for UNICEF. Neeson is a patron of Belfast - based charity and film festival CineMagic, which encourages and helps young people to get involved in the movie industry.
In 2009, nearly four decades after he was an undergraduate in Physics and Computer Science at Queen 's University, Belfast, Neeson was awarded an honorary doctorate. He was a student at the university in 1971, before leaving to work for Guinness. His honorary doctorate was presented to him, in New York, by Vice-Chancellor Professor Peter Gregson.
In June 2012, Neeson 's publicist denied reports that Neeson was converting to Islam. However, the actor has expressed an affection for the adhan, the Islamic call to prayer, that he grew accustomed to while filming Taken 2 in Istanbul: "By the third week, it was like I could n't live without it. It really became hypnotic and very moving for me in a very special way. Very beautiful. '' He also expressed admiration for the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius of Loyola.
In the year 2000, Neeson was offered the "Freedom of the Town of Ballymena '' by the Ballymena Borough Council, but because of objections made by members of the Democratic Unionist Party regarding his comments that he had felt like a "second - class citizen '' growing up as a Catholic in the town, he declined the award, citing tensions. Following the controversy, Neeson wrote a letter to the council, stating; "I will always remain very proud of my upbringing in, and association with, the town and my country of birth, which I will continue to promote at every opportunity. Indeed I regard the enduring support over the years from all sections of the community in Ballymena as being more than sufficient recognition for any success which I may have achieved as an actor. '' Subsequently, on 28 January 2013, Neeson received the Freedom of the Borough from Ballymena Borough Council at a ceremony in the town.
Neeson was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in her 2000 New Year Honours. The American Ireland Fund honoured Neeson with their Performing Arts Award for the great distinction he has brought to Ireland at their 2008 Dinner Gala in New York City. In 2009, at a ceremony in New York, Neeson was awarded an honorary doctorate by Queen 's University, Belfast. On 9 April 2016, he was honoured with the Outstanding Contribution to Cinema Award by the Irish Film and Television Academy (IFTA) at the Mansion House, Dublin, with Irish President Michael D. Higgins presenting the award. In 2017, Neeson was listed by UK - based company Richtopia at number 74 in the list of 200 Most Influential Philanthropists and Social Entrepreneurs Worldwide.
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the story behind turn your eyes upon jesus | The Heavenly Vision - Wikipedia
Look full in His wonderful face; And the things of earth will grow strangely dim
"The Heavenly Vision '', also known as "Turn Your Eyes Upon Jesus '' (the first line of its chorus), is a hymn written by Helen Howarth Lemmel. It was inspired by a tract entitled Focused, written by the missionary Isabella Lilias Trotter. Today the chorus is most widely known, and has become a standard reprinted in many hymnals.
Lemmel first published the hymn in England as a pamphlet in 1918, and then included it in a 1922 collection called Glad Songs. It was included in a 1924 American collection entitled Gospel Truth in Song and was widely reprinted in other collections.
In 1992 the Christian band Newsboys included the song (combined with "Where You Belong '') on their album Not Ashamed and released a video of the song.
Michael W. Smith features the song on his 2001 live worship album Worship.
Country artist Alan Jackson 's recording of this song for his father - in - law 's funeral in 2005 became the inspiration for his 2006 gospel album Precious Memories.
The refrain of the hymn was used in the worship song, "Center '' by Charlie Hall and Matt Redman.
In 2013, the Christian punk pop band Eleventyseven covered the hymn, titled "Turn Your Eyes Upon Jesus '', on their Good Spells (EP).
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lies of the heart zee world real name | Doli Armaano Ki - Wikipedia
Doli Armaano Ki (International Title: Lies Of The Heart) was an Indian television drama show. which premiered on 2 December 2013, and ran until 25 September 2015. It aired on Zee TV Monday through Friday.
The show is being dubbed In English and will air on Zee World on DSTv channel: 166 and Dubbed In Tamil as Kalyana Kanavugal (Marriage Dreams) in Polimer TV.
It is the story of Urmi, a young girl who gets married to Samrat, an arrogant, male chauvinist and abusive husband. As the story progresses Urmi and Samrat have a child, Shaurya. Moving further Urmi walks out of her marriage with Samrat due to his infidelity and ends up as a successful independent woman. Later, Ishaan, who has been Urmi 's friend, confidant and lawyer, falls in love with her and they get married.
Samrat, the abusive husband, comes back to take revenge on Urmi. In the process, Ishaan is killed while saving Samrat and later Samrat ends his life due to guilt.
Moving 15 years forward, Shaurya is an upright honest reporter who runs a news agency. Diya works with Shaurya in the same agency. On a work assignment Diya is raped. Hereon begins the journey of Urmi, Shaurya and Diya.
Over the years Urmi, with her courage, integrity and determination to fight for the right has become one of the most iconic characters on Zee TV. With this leap Urmi passes the baton she has been carrying to Shaurya. The story henceforth focuses on Shaurya and Diya and how Shaurya helps Diya, stand up for her, fights for her, supports her and eventually falls in love with her. Diya on her part fights for her rights, lives her life with her head held high and also eventually falls in love with Shaurya.
In Pakistan, it airs on Geo Kahani
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the first google server was made of lego | Google logo - Wikipedia
The Google logo appears in numerous settings to identify the search engine company. Google has relied on several logos since its renaming (see History of Google), with the first logo created by Sergey Brin using GIMP. A revised logo debuted on September 1, 2015. The previous logo, with slight modifications between 1999 and 2013, was designed by Ruth Kedar; the wordmark was based on the Catull typeface, an old style serif typeface designed by Gustav Jäger (de) for the Berthold Type Foundry in 1982.
The company also includes various modifications or humorous features, such as cartoon modifications of their logo for use on holidays, birthdays of famous people, and major events, such as the Olympics. These special logos, some designed by Dennis Hwang, have become known as Google Doodles.
In 1998, Larry Page created a computerized version of the Google letters using the free graphics program GIMP. The typeface was changed and an exclamation mark was added mimicking the Yahoo! logo.
"There were a lot of different color iterations '', says Ruth Kedar, the graphic designer who developed the now - famous logo. "We ended up with the primary colors, but instead of having the pattern go in order, we put a secondary color on the L, which brought back the idea that Google does n't follow the rules. ''
In 2010, the Google logo received its first major overhaul since May 31, 1999. The new logo was first previewed on November 8, 2009, and was officially launched on May 6, 2010. It utilises an identical typeface to the previous logo, but the "o '' is distinctly more orange - colored in place of the previously more yellowish "o '', as well as a much more subtle shadow rendered in a different shading style. On September 19, 2013, Google introduced a new "flat '' (two - dimensional) logo with a slightly altered color palette. On May 24, 2014, the Google logo was updated, the second ' g ' moved right one pixel and the ' l ' moved down and right one pixel. The old 2010 Google logo remained in use on some pages, such as the Google Doodles page, for a period of time.
On September 1, 2015, Google introduced a controversial "new logo and identity family '' designed to work across multiple devices. The notable difference in the logo is the change in the typeface. The colors remained the same; however, Google switched to a modern, geometric sans - serif typeface called Product Sans, created in - house at Google (and also used for the Alphabet logo).
The first Google Doodle was in honor of the Burning Man Festival of 1998. The doodle was designed by Larry Page and Sergey Brin to notify users of their absence in case the servers crashed. Subsequent Google Doodles were designed by an outside contractor, until Larry and Sergey asked then - intern Dennis Hwang to design a logo for Bastille Day in 2000. Hwang has been designing the Google Doodles ever since.
A colorless version of the logo is particularly used on a local homepage in recognition of a major tragedy, often for several days. The design was apparently first used on the Google Poland homepage following the air disaster that killed, among others, Polish President Lech Kaczyński in April 2010. A few days later, the logo was used in China and Hong Kong to pay respects to the victims of the Qinghai earthquake.
On September 8, 2010, the doodle once again changed to a greyed - out Google logo that lit up with the standard Google colors as the first 6 letters of a search query were entered. It goes by the name of the Keystroke Logo.
Google 's favicon from May 31, 1999 to May 29, 2008, was a blue, uppercase "G '' on white background. It was accompanied by a border with a red, blue, and a green side.
On May 30, 2008, a new favicon was launched. It showed the lowercase "g '' from Google 's 1999 logo, colored in blue against a white background, and originally was intended to be a part of a larger set of icons developed for better scalability on mobile devices.
A new favicon was launched on January 9, 2009. It included a left - aligned white "g '' with background areas colored in red, green, blue and yellow, with the top, bottom, and left edges of the "g '' cropped. It was based on a design by André Resende, a computer science undergraduate student at the University of Campinas in Brazil. He submitted it for a contest launched by Google in June 2008 to receive favicon submissions. The official Google blog stated: "His placement of a white ' g ' on a color - blocked background was highly recognizable and attractive, while seeming to capture the essence of Google ''.
The favicon used from August 13, 2012 to August 31, 2015, showed the small letter "g '' in white, centered on a solid light blue background. As of September 1, 2015, Google 's favicon shows a capital letter "G '', in the tailor - made font for the new logo, with segments colored red, yellow, green, and blue.
Media related to Google logos at Wikimedia Commons
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who administer the oath of office to the president | Oath of office of the president of the United States - wikipedia
The Oath of office of the President of the United States is the oath or affirmation that the President of the United States takes after assuming the presidency but before he or she begins the execution of the office. The wording of the oath is specified in Article II, Section One, Clause 8, of the United States Constitution.
This clause is one of two oath or affirmation clauses, but it alone actually specifies the words that must be spoken. The other, Article VI, Clause 3, simply requires the persons specified therein to "be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution. '' The presidential oath, on the other hand, requires much more than this general oath of allegiance and fidelity. This clause enjoins the new president to swear or affirm that he "will to the best of his ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States. ''
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: -- "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States. ''
While the Constitution does not mandate that anyone in particular should administer the presidential oath of office, it is typically administered by the Chief Justice. There have been several exceptions, however. George Washington was sworn into office during his first inauguration, on April 30, 1789, by Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston. William Cranch, chief judge of the U.S. Circuit Court, administered the oath to Millard Fillmore on July 10, 1850, when he became president after the death of Zachary Taylor. Upon being informed of Warren Harding 's death, while visiting his family home in Plymouth Notch, Vermont, Calvin Coolidge was sworn in as president by his father, John Calvin Coolidge Sr., a notary public. Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes administered the oath of office to Lyndon B. Johnson aboard Air Force One after John F. Kennedy 's assassination on November 22, 1963. This was the first (and to date only) time a woman administered the oath of office. Overall, the presidential oath has been administered by 15 Chief Justices (one of whom -- William Howard Taft -- was also a former president), one Associate Justice, four federal judges, two New York state judges, and one notary public.
The Constitutional language gives the option to "affirm '' instead of "swear ''. While the reasons for this are not documented, it may relate to certain Christians, including Quakers, who apply this scripture literally: "But above all things, my brethren, swear not, neither by heaven, neither by the earth, neither by any other oath: but let your yea be yea; and your nay, nay; lest ye fall into condemnation '' (James 5: 12, KJV). Franklin Pierce was the only president known to use the word "affirm '' rather than "swear. '' Herbert Hoover is often listed to have used "affirm '' as well, owing to his being a Quaker, but a newsreel taken of the ceremony indicates that the words used were "solemnly swear. '' Richard Nixon, who was also a Quaker, also swore, rather than affirm.
There have been two forms of administering, and taking, the oath of office.
Under the first form, now in disuse, the administrator articulated the constitutional oath in the form of a question, and modifying the wording from the first to the second person, as in, "Do you, George Washington, solemnly swear... '' and then requested an affirmation. At that point a response of "I do '' or "I swear '' completed the oath.
It is believed that this was the common procedure at least until the early 20th century. In 1881, the New York Times article covering the swearing in of Chester A. Arthur, reported that he responded to the question of accepting the oath with the words, "I will, so help me God. '' In 1929, Time magazine reported that the Chief Justice began the oath uttering, "You, Herbert Hoover, do you solemnly swear... '', Hoover replied with a simple "I do ''.
Under the second, and current form, the administrator articulates the oath in the affirmative, and in the first person, so that the president takes the oath by repeating it verbatim. Franklin Roosevelt, in 1933, stood silent as Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes recited the entire oath, then repeated that oath from beginning to end himself. By the time of Harry Truman 's inauguration in 1949, the practice was for the Chief Justice to utter the oath in phrases, with the president - elect repeating those phrases, until the oath was completed.
By convention, incoming presidents raise their right hand and place the left on a Bible or other book while taking the oath of office. In 1789, George Washington took the oath of office with an altar Bible borrowed from the St. John 's Lodge No. 1, Ancient York Masons lodge in New York, and he kissed the Bible afterward. Subsequent presidents up to and including Harry Truman, followed suit. Dwight Eisenhower broke that tradition in 1953 when he said a prayer instead of kissing the Bible.
Theodore Roosevelt did not use a Bible when taking the oath in 1901. Both John Quincy Adams and Franklin Pierce swore on a book of law, with the intention that they were swearing on the constitution. Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in on a Roman Catholic missal on Air Force One. Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, George H.W. Bush, Barack Obama and Donald Trump each swore the oath on two Bibles.
It is uncertain how many presidents used a Bible or added the words "So help me God '' at the end of the oath, or in their acceptance of the oath, as neither is required by law; unlike many other federal oaths which do include the phrase "So help me God. '' There is currently debate as to whether or not George Washington, the first president, added the phrase to his acceptance of the oath. No contemporary sources mention Washington as adding a religious codicil to his acceptance.
The historical debate over who first used "So help me God, '' is marred by ignoring the two forms of giving the oath. The first, now in disuse, is when the administrator articulates the constitutional oath in the form of a question, as in, "Do you George Washington solemnly swear... '', requesting an affirmation. At that point a response of "I do '' or "I swear '' completes the oath. Without verbatim transcripts, the scant existing evidence shows this was the common procedure at least until the early 20th century. In 1865 the Sacramento Daily Union covered the second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln finished his oath with "So help me God, '' and he kissed the Bible. However, the Daily Union 's account seems embellished in a number of ways, and other newspaper accounts, published closer in time to the ceremony, do not mention Lincoln 's uttering the phrase. In 1881, the New York Times article covering the swearing in of Chester A. Arthur, reported that he responded to the question of accepting the oath with the words, "I will, so help me God ''. In 1929, Time magazine reported that the Chief Justice began the oath uttering, "You, Herbert Hoover, do you solemnly swear... '' Hoover replied with a simple "I do ''.
A Federal lawsuit filed in the District of Columbia by Michael Newdow on December 30, 2008, contended the second, current form of administration, where both the chief justice and the president articulate the oath, appending "So help me God '', to be a breach of the Constitutional instructions. The suit distinguishes between the words spoken by the administrator, which must conform to the exact 35 words of the Constitution, and the president, who has a right to add a personal prayer, such as "So help me God. ''
Chief Justice Roberts ' reply was that his "prompting '' for these four extra-constitutional words were to be recited "after '' the oath of office, and not as a part of the oath as claimed in the suit. After rendering the oath to President Barack Obama, Roberts prompted with a question "So help you God? '', to which the president responded, "So help me God. ''
The First Congress explicitly prescribed the phrase "So help me God '' in oaths under the Judiciary Act of 1789 for all U.S. judges and officers other than the president. It was prescribed even earlier under the various first state constitutions as well as by the Second Continental Congress in 1776. Although the phrase is mandatory in these oaths, the said Act also allows for the option that the phrase be omitted by the officer, in which case it would be called an affirmation instead of an oath: "Which words, so help me God, shall be omitted in all cases where an affirmation is admitted instead of an oath. '' In contrast, the oath of the president is the only oath specified in the Constitution. It does not include the closing phrase "So help me God '', and it also allows for the optional form of an affirmation which is not considered an oath. In practice, however, most presidents, at least during the last century, have opted to take the oath (rather than an affirmation), to use a Bible to do so, and also to close the oath with the customary phrase.
The earliest known source indicating Washington added "So help me God '' to his acceptance, not to the oath, is attributed to Washington Irving, aged six at the time of the inauguration, and first appears 65 years after the event. The only contemporary account that repeats the oath in full, a report from the French consul, Comte de Moustier, states only the constitutional oath, without reference to Washington 's adding "So Help Me God '' to his acceptance.
Evidence is lacking to support the claim that presidents between Washington and Abraham Lincoln used the phrase "So help me God. '' A contemporaneous newspaper account of Lincoln 's 1865 inauguration states that Lincoln appended the phrase "So help me God '' to the oath. This newspaper report is followed by another account, provided later in the same year after Lincoln 's death (April 15, 1865), that Lincoln said "So help me God '' during his oath. The evidence pertaining to the 1865 inauguration is much stronger than that pertaining to Lincoln 's 1861 use of the phrase. Several sources claim that Lincoln said "So help me God '' at his 1861 inauguration, yet these sources were not contemporaneous to the event. During the speech, Lincoln stated that his oath was "registered in Heaven '', something some have taken as indicating he likely uttered the phrase "So help me God. '' Conversely, there was a claim made by A.M. Milligan (a Presbyterian minister who advocated for an official Christian U.S. government) that letters were sent to Abraham Lincoln asking him to swear to God during his inaugurations, and Lincoln allegedly wrote back saying that God 's name was not in the Constitution, and he could not depart from the letter of that instrument.
Other than the president of the United States, many politicians (including Jefferson Davis, sworn in as president of the Confederate States of America in 1861) used the phrase "So help me God '' when taking their oaths. Likewise, all federal judges and executive officers were required as early as 1789 by statute to include the phrase unless they affirmed, in which case the phrase must be omitted.
Given that nearly every president - elect since President Franklin D. Roosevelt has recited the codicil, it is likely that the majority of presidents - elect have uttered the phrase (as well as some vice presidents, while taking their oaths). However, as President Theodore Roosevelt chose to conclude his oath with the phrase "And thus I swear, '' it seems that this current of tradition was not overwhelmingly strong even as recently as the turn of the twentieth century.
Since the office of president of the United States came into existence in 1789 there have been 58 inaugural ceremonies to mark the commencement of a new four - year presidential term, plus an additional nine marking the start of a partial presidential term following the intra-term death or resignation of an incumbent president. With the 2017 inauguration of Donald Trump, the oath has been taken 75 different times by 44 persons. This numerical discrepancy results chiefly from two factors: a president must take the oath at the beginning of each term of office, and, because Inauguration Day has sometimes fallen on a Sunday, five presidents have taken the oath privately before the public inaugural ceremonies. In addition, three have repeated the oath as a precaution against potential later constitutional challenges.
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how to dial indian mobile number from pakistan | Telephone numbers in Pakistan - wikipedia
Area codes in Pakistan are from two to five digits long; the smaller the city, the longer the prefix. All the large cities have two - digit codes.
Smaller towns have a six digit number. Large cities have seven digit numbers. Azad Jammu and Kashmir has five digit numbers. On 1 July 2009, telephone numbers in Karachi and Lahore were changed from seven digits to eight digits. This was accomplished by adding the digit "9 '' to the beginning of any phone number that started with a "9 '' (government and semi-government connexions), and adding the digit "3 '' to any phone numbers that did not start with the number "9 ''.
It is common to write phone numbers as (0xx) yyyyyyy, where xx is the area code. The 0 prefix is for trunk (long - distance) dialling from within the country. International callers should dial + 92xxyyyyyyy
All mobile phone codes are four digits long and start with 03. All mobile numbers are seven digits long, and denote the mobile provider on a nationwide basis and not geographic location. Thus all Telenor numbers (for example) nationwide carry mobile code 0345 etc.
NWD (area) codes for common cities are:
Premium Rate services:
Toll free numbers (For callers within Pakistan):
See also List of dialling codes in Pakistan
Fixed line numbers:
WLL / IP Phone numbers:
Mobile telephone numbers in Pakistan are of the following format 03XZ - YYYYYYY where X is the single letter code assigned to a specific mobile telephone operator and Z - YYYYYYY is the local telephone number from any mobile phone or Land Line.
Existing Codes
International callers must dial + 92 - 3XZ - YYYYYYY to reach a mobile number in Pakistan from outside Pakistan, where ' + 92 ' is the Country Code, ' 3XZ ' is Mobile Access Code as per the above list and ' YYYYYYY ' is personal number.
Within Pakistan the same number can be reached by dialing either 03XZ - YYYYYYY or ' 0092 - 3XZ - YYYYYYY ' or ' + 92 - 3XZ - YYYYYYY ' from any mobile device or land line.
In order to dial a land line number from a mobile phone in Pakistan, city code is required in all cases. However, city code is not required between land line calls within the same city. For instance, to call a land line number ' YYYYYYY ' from another land line in the same city, dial only ' YYYYYYY '. However, to call this number from another land line in another city or from a mobile phone anywhere (same city or another city), dial ' (0XX) - YYYYYYY '.
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when constructing an dna molecule what is important when determining the orientation of each strand | Restriction map - wikipedia
A restriction map is a map of known restriction sites within a sequence of DNA. Restriction mapping requires the use of restriction enzymes. In molecular biology, restriction maps are used as a reference to engineer plasmids or other relatively short pieces of DNA, and sometimes for longer genomic DNA. There are other ways of mapping features on DNA for longer length DNA molecules, such as mapping by transduction.
One approach in constructing a restriction map of a DNA molecule is to sequence the whole molecule and to run the sequence through a computer program that will find the recognition sites that are present for every restriction enzyme known.
Before sequencing was automated, it would have been prohibitively expensive to sequence an entire DNA strand. To find the relative positions of restriction sites on a plasmid, a technique involving single and double restriction digests is used. Based on the sizes of the resultant DNA fragments the positions of the sites can be inferred. Restriction mapping is a very useful technique when used for determining the orientation of an insert in a cloning vector, by mapping the position of an off - center restriction site in the insert.
The experimental procedure first requires an aliquot of purified plasmid DNA (see appendix) for each digest to be run. Digestion is then performed with each enzyme (s) chosen. The resulting samples are subsequently run on an electrophoresis gel, typically on agarose gel.
The first step following the completion of electrophoresis is to add up the sizes of the fragments in each lane. The sum of the individual fragments should equal the size of the original fragment, and each digest 's fragments should also sum up to be the same size as each other. If fragment sizes do not properly add up, there are two likely problems. In one case, some of the smaller fragments may have run off the end of the gel. This frequently occurs if the gel is run too long. A second possible source of error is that the gel was not dense enough and therefore was unable to resolve fragments close in size. This leads to a lack of separation of fragments which were close in size. If all of the digests produce fragments that add up one may infer the position of the REN (restriction endonuclease) sites by placing them in spots on the original DNA fragment that would satisfy the fragment sizes produced by all three digests.
See also restriction enzymes for more detail about the enzymes exploited in this technique.
For example the most common application of restriction mapping is presented: Determining the orientation of a cloned insert. This method requires that restriction maps of the cloning vector and the insert are already available.
If you know of a restriction site placed towards one end of the insert you can determine the orientation by observing the size of the fragments in the gel. Often the orientation of inserts is important and this technique is used to screen for the correct orientation.
In this example the orientation of an insert cloned with EcoRI will be found.
Digests
Resultant Fragments: approximate sizes
Hypothetical Multiple Cloning Site of Vector
5 ' -- -- - HindIII - EcoRI -- -- 3 '
Discussion
The EcoRI digest excises the insert yielding fragments of 3 kb and 5 kb. These are the sizes of the insert and vector backbone respectively. This is expected since the size of both the insert and vector are known beforehand. The presence of the insert is confirmed.
There is a known HindIII site off - center in the 3 kb insert. It is 2 kb away from one end (end A), and 1 kb away from the other end (end B). The HindIII digest of your clone yields fragments of 2 kb and 6 kb. The 2 kb fragment is exclusively the insert sequence and the 6 kb fragment is 1 kb of insert sequence attached to 5 kb of vector sequence. This means that the insert was cloned in an A to B orientation as opposed to B to A which would yield fragments of 7 kb and 1kb.
resultant map
Rapid Denaturation and Renaturation of a crude DNA preparation by alkaline lysis of the cells and subsequent neutralization
In this technique the cells are lysed in alkaline conditions. The DNA in the mixture is denatured (strands separated) by disrupting the hydrogen bonds between the two strands. The large genomic DNA is subject to tangling and staying denatured when the pH is lowered during the neutralization. In other words, the strands come back together in a disordered fashion, basepairing randomly. The circular supercoiled plasmids ' strands will stay relatively closely aligned and will renature correctly. Therefore, the genomic DNA will form an insoluble aggregate and the supercoiled plasmids will be left in solution. This can be followed by phenol extraction to remove proteins and other molecules. Then the DNA can be subjected to ethanol precipitation to concentrate the sample.
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where did the battle of the somme take place | Battle of the Somme - wikipedia
British Empire
c. 420,000
Associated articles
The Battle of the Somme (French: Bataille de la Somme, German: Schlacht an der Somme), also known as the Somme Offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British and French empires against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the upper reaches of the River Somme in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies and was the largest battle of the First World War on the Western Front. More than three million men fought in this battle and one million men were wounded or killed, making it one of the bloodiest battles in human history.
The French and British had committed themselves to an offensive on the Somme during Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise, in December 1915. The Allies agreed upon a strategy of combined offensives against the Central Powers in 1916, by the French, Russian, British and Italian armies, with the Somme offensive as the Franco - British contribution. Initial plans called for the French army to undertake the main part of the Somme offensive, supported on the northern flank by the Fourth Army of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). When the Imperial German Army began the Battle of Verdun on the Meuse on 21 February 1916, French commanders diverted many of the divisions intended for the Somme and the "supporting '' attack by the British became the principal effort.
The first day on the Somme (1 July) saw a serious defeat for the German Second Army, which was forced out of its first position by the French Sixth Army, from Foucaucourt - en - Santerre south of the Somme to Maricourt on the north bank and by the Fourth Army from Maricourt to the vicinity of the Albert -- Bapaume road. The first day on the Somme was, in terms of casualties, also the worst day in the history of the British army, which suffered 57,470 casualties. These occurred mainly on the front between the Albert -- Bapaume road and Gommecourt, where the attack was defeated and few British troops reached the German front line. The British troops on the Somme comprised a mixture of the remains of the pre-war regular army; the Territorial Force; and Kitchener 's Army, a force of volunteer recruits including many Pals ' Battalions, recruited from the same places and occupations.
The battle is notable for the importance of air power and the first use of the tank. At the end of the battle, British and French forces had penetrated 10 km (6 mi) into German - occupied territory, taking more ground than in any of their offensives since the Battle of the Marne in 1914. The Anglo - French armies failed to capture Péronne and halted 5 km (3 mi) from Bapaume, where the German armies maintained their positions over the winter. British attacks in the Ancre valley resumed in January 1917 and forced the Germans into local withdrawals to reserve lines in February, before the scheduled retirement to the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) began in March. Debate continues over the necessity, significance and effect of the battle. David Frum opined that a century later, "' the Somme ' remains the most harrowing place - name '' in the history of the British Commonwealth.
Allied war strategy for 1916 was decided at the Chantilly Conference from 6 -- 8 December 1915. Simultaneous offensives on the Eastern Front by the Russian army, on the Italian Front by the Italian army, and on the Western Front by the Franco - British armies, were to be carried out to deny time for the Central Powers to move troops between fronts during lulls. In December 1915, General Sir Douglas Haig replaced Field Marshal Sir John French as Commander - in - Chief of the BEF. Haig favoured a British offensive in Flanders close to BEF supply routes, to drive the Germans from the Belgian coast and end the U-boat threat from Belgian waters. Haig was not formally subordinate to Marshal Joseph Joffre but the British played a lesser role on the Western Front and complied with French strategy. In January 1916, Joffre had agreed to the BEF making its main effort in Flanders, but in February 1916 it was decided to mount a combined offensive where the French and British armies met, astride the Somme River in Picardy before the British offensive in Flanders. A week later the Germans began an offensive against the French at Verdun. The costly defence of Verdun forced the French army to commit divisions intended for the Somme offensive, eventually reducing the French contribution to 13 divisions in the Sixth Army, against 20 British divisions. By 31 May, the ambitious Franco - British plan for a decisive victory, had been reduced to a limited offensive to relieve pressure on the French at Verdun with a battle of attrition on the Somme.
The Chief of the German General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, intended to end the war by splitting the Anglo - French Entente in 1916, before its material superiority became unbeatable. Falkenhayn planned to defeat the large amount of reserves which the Entente could move into the path of a breakthrough, by threatening a sensitive point close to the existing front line and provoking the French into counter-attacking German positions. Falkenhayn chose to attack towards Verdun to take the Meuse heights and make Verdun untenable. The French would have to conduct a counter-offensive on ground dominated by the German army and ringed with masses of heavy artillery, leading to huge losses and bring the French army close to collapse. The British would then have to begin a hasty relief offensive and would also suffer huge losses. Falkenhayn expected the relief offensive to fall south of Arras against the Sixth Army and be destroyed. (Despite the certainty by mid-June of an Anglo - French attack on the Somme against the Second Army, Falkenhayn sent only four divisions, keeping eight in the western strategic reserve. No divisions were moved from the Sixth Army, despite it holding a shorter line with 17 ⁄ divisions and three of the reserve divisions in the Sixth Army area. The maintenance of the strength of the Sixth Army, at the expense of the Second Army on the Somme, indicated that Falkenhayn intended the counter-offensive against the British to be made north of the Somme front, once the British offensive had been shattered.) If such Franco - British defeats were not enough, Germany would attack the remnants of both armies and end the western alliance for good. The unexpected length of the Verdun offensive, and the need to replace many exhausted units at Verdun, depleted the German strategic reserve placed behind the Sixth Army, which held the Western Front from Hannescamps, 18 km (11 mi) south - west of Arras to St. Eloi, south of Ypres and reduced the German counter-offensive strategy north of the Somme, to one of passive and unyielding defence.
The Battle of Verdun (21 February -- 18 December 1916) began a week after Joffre and Haig agreed to mount an offensive on the Somme. The German offensive at Verdun was intended to threaten the capture of the city and induce the French to fight an attrition battle, in which German advantages of terrain and firepower would cause the French disproportionate casualties. The battle changed the nature of the offensive on the Somme, as French divisions were diverted to Verdun, and the main effort by the French diminished to a supporting attack for the British. German overestimation of the cost of Verdun to the French contributed to the concentration of German infantry and guns on the north bank of the Somme. By May, Joffre and Haig had changed their expectations of an offensive on the Somme, from a decisive battle to a hope that it would relieve Verdun and keep German divisions in France, which would assist the Russian armies conducting the Brusilov Offensive. The German offensive at Verdun was suspended in July, and troops, guns, and ammunition were transferred to Picardy, leading to a similar transfer of the French Tenth Army to the Somme front. Later in the year, the Franco - British were able to attack on the Somme and at Verdun sequentially and the French recovered much of the ground lost on the east bank of the Meuse in October and December.
The Brusilov Offensive (4 June -- 20 September), absorbed the extra forces that had been requested on 2 June by Fritz von Below, commanding the German Second Army, for a spoiling attack on the Somme. On 4 June, Russian armies attacked on a 200 mi (320 km) front, from the Romanian frontier to Pinsk and eventually advanced 93 mi (150 km), reaching the foothills of the Carpathian mountains, against German and Austro - Hungarian troops of Armeegruppe von Linsingen and Armeegruppe Archduke Joseph. During the offensive the Russians inflicted c. 1,500,000 losses including c. 407,000 prisoners. Three divisions were ordered from France to the Eastern Front on 9 June and the spoiling attack on the Somme was abandoned. Only four more divisions were sent to the Somme front before the Anglo - French offensive began, bringing the total to 10 ⁄ divisions. Falkenhayn, and then Hindenburg and Ludendorff, were forced to send divisions to Russia throughout the summer to prevent a collapse of the Austro - Hungarian army and then to conduct a counter-offensive against Romania, which declared war against the Central Powers on 27 August. In July there were 112 German divisions on the Western Front and 52 divisions in Russia and in November there were 121 divisions in the west and 76 divisions in the east.
The original British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of six divisions and the Cavalry Division, had lost most of the army 's pre-war regular soldiers in the battles of 1914 and 1915. The bulk of the army was made up of volunteers of the Territorial Force and Lord Kitchener 's New Army, which had begun forming in August 1914. Rapid expansion created many vacancies for senior commands and specialist functions, which led to many appointments of retired officers and inexperienced newcomers. In 1914, Douglas Haig had been a lieutenant - general in command of I Corps and was promoted to command the First Army in early 1915 and then the BEF in December, which eventually comprised five armies with sixty divisions. The swift increase in the size of the army reduced the average level of experience within it and created an acute equipment shortage. Many officers resorted to directive command, to avoid delegating to novice subordinates, although divisional commanders were given great latitude in training and planning for the attack of 1 July, since the heterogeneous nature of the 1916 army made it impossible for corps and army commanders to know the capacity of each division.
Despite considerable debate among German staff officers, Erich von Falkenhayn continued the policy of unyielding defence in 1916. Falkenhayn implied after the war that the psychology of German soldiers, shortage of manpower, and lack of reserves made the policy inescapable, as the troops necessary to seal off breakthroughs did not exist. High losses incurred in holding ground by a policy of no retreat were preferable to higher losses, voluntary withdrawals, and the effect of a belief that soldiers had discretion to avoid battle. When a more flexible policy was substituted later, decisions about withdrawal were still reserved to army commanders. On the Somme front, Falkenhayn 's construction plan of January 1915 had been completed. Barbed wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt 5 -- 10 yards (4.6 -- 9.1 m) wide to two, 30 yards (27 m) wide and about 15 yards (14 m) apart. Double and triple thickness wire was used and laid 3 -- 5 feet (0.91 -- 1.52 m) high. The front line had been increased from one trench line to three, 150 -- 200 yards (140 -- 180 m) apart, the first trench occupied by sentry groups, the second (Wohngraben) for the bulk of the front - trench garrison and the third trench for local reserves. The trenches were traversed and had sentry - posts in concrete recesses built into the parapet. Dugouts had been deepened from 6 -- 9 feet (1.8 -- 2.7 m) to 20 -- 30 feet (6.1 -- 9.1 m), 50 yards (46 m) apart and large enough for 25 men. An intermediate line of strongpoints (the Stützpunktlinie) about 1,000 yards (910 m) behind the front line was also built. Communication trenches ran back to the reserve line, renamed the second line, which was as well - built and wired as the first line. The second line was beyond the range of Allied field artillery, so as to force an attacker to stop and move field artillery forward before assaulting the line.
British intentions evolved as the military situation changed after the Chantilly Conference. French losses at Verdun reduced the contribution available for the offensive on the Somme and increased the urgency for the commencement of operations on the Somme. The principal role in the offensive devolved to the British and on 16 June, Haig defined the objectives of the offensive as the relief of pressure on the French at Verdun and the infliction of losses on the Germans. After a five - day artillery bombardment, the British Fourth Army was to capture 27,000 yards (25,000 m) of the German first line, from Montauban to Serre and the Third Army was to mount a diversion at Gommecourt. In a second phase, the Fourth Army was to take the German second position, from Pozières to the Ancre and then the second position south of the Albert -- Bapaume road, ready for an attack on the German third position south of the road towards Flers, when the Reserve Army which included three cavalry divisions, would exploit the success to advance east and then north towards Arras. The French Sixth Army, with one corps on the north bank from Maricourt to the Somme and two corps on the south bank southwards to Foucaucourt, would make a subsidiary attack to guard the right flank of the main attack being made by the British.
After the (Herbstschlacht or Autumn Battles) of 1915, a third defence line another 3,000 yards (2,700 m) back from the Stützpunktlinie was begun in February 1916 and was almost complete on the Somme front when the battle began. German artillery was organised in a series of Sperrfeuerstreifen (barrage sectors); each officer was expected to know the batteries covering his section of the front line and the batteries ready to engage fleeting targets. A telephone system was built, with lines buried 6 feet (1.8 m) deep for 5 mi (8.0 km) behind the front line, to connect the front line to the artillery. The Somme defences had two inherent weaknesses that the rebuilding had not remedied. The front trenches were on a forward slope, lined by white chalk from the subsoil and easily seen by ground observers. The defences were crowded towards the front trench, with a regiment having two battalions near the front - trench system and the reserve battalion divided between the Stützpunktlinie and the second line, all within 2,000 yards (1,800 m) and most troops within 1,000 yards (910 m) of the front line, accommodated in the new deep dugouts. The concentration of troops at the front line on a forward slope guaranteed that it would face the bulk of an artillery bombardment, directed by ground observers on clearly marked lines.
The first day on the Somme began 141 days of the Battle of the Somme and the opening day of the Battle of Albert. The attack was made by five divisions of the French Sixth Army either side of the Somme, eleven British divisions of the Fourth Army north of the Somme to Serre and two divisions of the Third Army opposite Gommecourt, against the German Second Army of General Fritz von Below. The German defence south of the Albert -- Bapaume road mostly collapsed and the French had "complete success '' on both banks of the Somme, as did the British from the army boundary at Maricourt to the Albert -- Bapaume road. On the south bank the German defence was made incapable of resisting another attack and a substantial retreat began; on the north bank the abandonment of Fricourt was ordered. The defenders on the commanding ground north of the road inflicted a huge defeat on the British infantry, who had an unprecedented number of casualties. Several truces were negotiated, to recover wounded from no man 's land north of the road. The Fourth Army took 57,470 casualties, of which 19,240 men were killed, the French Sixth Army had 1,590 casualties and the German 2nd Army had 10,000 -- 12,000 losses.
The Battle of Albert was the first two weeks of Anglo - French offensive operations in the Battle of the Somme. The Allied preparatory artillery bombardment began on 24 June and the Anglo - French infantry attacked on 1 July, on the south bank from Foucaucourt to the Somme and from the Somme north to Gommecourt, 2 mi (3.2 km) beyond Serre. The French Sixth Army and the right wing of the British Fourth Army inflicted a considerable defeat on the German Second Army but from the Albert -- Bapaume road to Gommecourt, the British attack was a disaster where most of the c. 60,000 British casualties were incurred. Against Joffre 's wishes, Haig abandoned the offensive north of the road, to reinforce the success in the south, where the Anglo - French forces pressed forward towards the German second line, preparatory to a general attack on 14 July.
The Fourth Army attacked the German second defensive position from the Somme past Guillemont and Ginchy, north - west along the crest of the ridge to Pozières on the Albert -- Bapaume road. The objectives of the attack were the villages of Bazentin le Petit, Bazentin le Grand and Longueval which was adjacent to Delville Wood, with High Wood on the ridge beyond. The attack was made by four divisions on a front of 6,000 yd (5.5 km) at 3: 25 a.m. after a five - minute hurricane artillery bombardment. Field artillery fired a creeping barrage and the attacking waves pushed up close behind it in no man 's land, leaving them only a short distance to cross when the barrage lifted from the German front trench. Most of the objective was captured and the German defence south of the Albert -- Bapaume road put under great strain but the attack was not followed up due to British communication failures, casualties and disorganisation.
The Battle of Fromelles was a subsidiary attack to support the Fourth Army on the Somme 80 km (50 mi) to the south, to exploit any weakening of the German defences opposite. Preparations for the attack were rushed, the troops involved lacked experience in trench warfare and the power of the German defence was "gravely '' underestimated, the attackers being outnumbered 2: 1. On 19 July, von Falkenhayn had judged the British attack to be the anticipated offensive against the 6th Army. Next day Falkenhayn ordered the Guard Reserve Corps to be withdrawn to reinforce the Somme front. The Battle of Fromelles had inflicted some losses on the German defenders but gained no ground and deflected few German troops bound for the Somme. The attack was the debut of the Australian Imperial Force on the Western Front and, according to McMullin, "the worst 24 hours in Australia 's entire history ''. Of 7,080 BEF casualties, 5,533 losses were incurred by the 5th Australian Division; German losses were 1,600 -- 2,000, with 150 taken prisoner.
The Battle of Delville Wood was an operation to secure the British right flank, while the centre advanced to capture the higher lying areas of High Wood and Pozières. After the Battle of Albert the offensive had evolved to the capture of fortified villages, woods, and other terrain that offered observation for artillery fire, jumping - off points for more attacks, and other tactical advantages. The mutually costly fighting at Delville Wood eventually secured the British right flank and marked the Western Front debut of the South African 1st Infantry Brigade (incorporating a Southern Rhodesian contingent), which held the wood from 15 -- 20 July. When relieved the brigade had lost 2,536 men, similar to the casualties of many brigades on 1 July.
The Battle of Pozières began with the capture of the village by the 1st Australian Division (Australian Imperial Force) of the Reserve Army, the only British success in the Allied fiasco of 22 / 23 July, when a general attack combined with the French further south, degenerated into a series of separate attacks due to communication failures, supply failures and poor weather. German bombardments and counter-attacks began on 23 July and continued until 7 August. The fighting ended with the Reserve Army taking the plateau north and east of the village, overlooking the fortified village of Thiepval from the rear.
The Battle of Guillemont was an attack on the village which was captured by the Fourth Army on the first day. Guillemont was on the right flank of the British sector, near the boundary with the French Sixth Army. German defences ringed the British salient at Delville Wood to the north and had observation over the French Sixth Army area to the south towards the Somme river. The German defence in the area was based on the second line and numerous fortified villages and farms north from Maurepas at Combles, Guillemont, Falfemont Farm, Delville Wood and High Wood, which were mutually supporting. The battle for Guillemont was considered by some observers to be the supreme effort of the German army during the battle. Numerous meetings were held by Joffre, Haig, Foch, Rawlinson and Fayolle to co-ordinate joint attacks by the four armies, all of which broke down. A pause in Anglo - French attacks at the end of August, coincided with the largest counter-attack by the German army in the Battle of the Somme.
In the Battle of Ginchy the 16th Division captured the German - held village. Ginchy was 1.5 km (0.93 mi) north - east of Guillemont, at the junction of six roads on a rise overlooking Combles, 4 km (2.5 mi) to the south - east. After the end of the Battle of Guillemont, British troops were required to advance to positions which would give observation over the German third position, ready for a general attack in mid-September. British attacks from Leuze Wood northwards to Ginchy had begun on 3 September, when the 7th Division captured the village and was then forced out by a German counter-attack. The capture of Ginchy and the success of the French Sixth Army on 12 September, in its biggest attack of the battle of the Somme, enabled both armies to make much bigger attacks, sequenced with the Tenth and Reserve armies, which captured much more ground and inflicted c. 130,000 casualties on the German defenders during the month.
The Battle of Flers -- Courcelette was the third and final general offensive mounted by the British Army, which attacked an intermediate line and the German third line to take Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt, which was combined with a French attack on Frégicourt and Rancourt to encircle Combles and a supporting attack on the south bank of the Somme. The strategic objective of a breakthrough was not achieved but the tactical gains were considerable, the front line being advanced by 2,500 -- 3,500 yards (2,300 -- 3,200 m) and many casualties were inflicted on the German defenders. The battle was the debut of the Canadian Corps, New Zealand Division and tanks of the Heavy Branch of the Machine Gun Corps on the Somme.
The Battle of Morval was an attack by the Fourth Army on Morval, Gueudecourt and Lesboeufs held by the German 1st Army, which had been the final objectives of the Battle of Flers -- Courcelette (15 -- 22 September). The attack was postponed to combine with attacks by the French Sixth Army on Combles, south of Morval and because of rain. The combined attack was also intended to deprive the German defenders further west, near Thiepval of reinforcements, before an attack by the Reserve Army, due on 26 September. Combles, Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt were captured and a small number of tanks joined in the battle later in the afternoon. Many casualties were inflicted on the Germans but the French made slower progress. The Fourth Army advance on 25 September was its deepest since 14 July and left the Germans in severe difficulties, particularly in a salient near Combles. The Reserve Army attack began on 26 September in the Battle of Thiepval Ridge.
The Battle of Thiepval Ridge was the first large offensive mounted by the Reserve Army of Lieutenant General Hubert Gough and was intended to benefit from the Fourth Army attack at Morval by starting 24 hours afterwards. Thiepval Ridge was well fortified and the German defenders fought with great determination, while the British co-ordination of infantry and artillery declined after the first day, due to confused fighting in the maze of trenches, dug - outs and shell - craters. The final British objectives were not reached until the Battle of the Ancre Heights (1 October -- 11 November). Organisational difficulties and deteriorating weather frustrated Joffre 's intention to proceed by vigorous co-ordinated attacks by the Anglo - French armies, which became disjointed and declined in effectiveness during late September, at the same time as a revival occurred in the German defence. The British experimented with new techniques in gas warfare, machine - gun bombardment and tank -- infantry co-operation, as the Germans struggled to withstand the preponderance of men and material fielded by the Anglo - French, despite reorganisation and substantial reinforcements of troops, artillery and aircraft from Verdun. September became the worst month for casualties for the Germans.
The Battle of Le Transloy began in good weather and Le Sars was captured on 7 October. Pauses were made from 8 -- 11 October due to rain and 13 -- 18 October to allow time for a methodical bombardment, when it became clear that the German defence had recovered from earlier defeats. Haig consulted with the army commanders and on 17 October reduced the scope of operations by cancelling the Third Army plans and reducing the Reserve Army and Fourth Army attacks to limited operations, in co-operation with the French Sixth Army. Another pause followed before operations resumed on 23 October on the northern flank of the Fourth Army, with a delay during more bad weather on the right flank of the Fourth Army and on the French Sixth Army front, until 5 November. Next day the Fourth Army ceased offensive operations, except for small attacks intended to improve positions and divert German attention from attacks being made by the Reserve / Fifth Army. Larger operations resumed in January 1917.
The Battle of the Ancre Heights was fought after Haig made plans for the Third Army to take the area east of Gommecourt, the Reserve Army to attack north from Thiepval Ridge and east from Beaumont Hamel -- Hébuterne and for the Fourth Army to reach the Péronne -- Bapaume road around Le Transloy and Beaulencourt -- Thilloy -- Loupart Wood, north of the Albert -- Bapaume road. The Reserve Army attacked to complete the capture of Regina Trench / Stuff Trench, north of Courcelette to the west end of Bazentin Ridge around Schwaben and Stuff Redoubts, during which bad weather caused great hardship and delay. The Marine Brigade from Flanders and fresh German divisions brought from quiet fronts counter-attacked frequently and the British objectives were not secured until 11 November.
The Battle of the Ancre was the last big British operation of the year. The Fifth (formerly Reserve) Army attacked into the Ancre valley to exploit German exhaustion after the Battle of the Ancre Heights and gain ground ready for a resumption of the offensive in 1917. Political calculation, concern for Allied morale and Joffre 's pressure for a continuation of attacks in France, to prevent German troop transfers to Russia and Italy also influenced Haig. The battle began with another mine being detonated beneath Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt. The attack on Serre failed, although a brigade of the 31st Division, which had attacked in the disaster of 1 July, took its objectives before being withdrawn later. South of Serre, Beaumont Hamel and Beaucourt - sur - l'Ancre were captured. South of the Ancre, St. Pierre Division was captured, the outskirts of Grandcourt reached and the Canadian 4th Division captured Regina Trench north of Courcelette, then took Desire Support Trench on 18 November. Until January 1917 a lull occurred, as both sides concentrated on enduring the weather.
At the start of 1916, most of the British Army had been an inexperienced and patchily trained mass of volunteers. The Somme was the debut of the Kitchener Army created by Lord Kitchener 's call for recruits at the start of the war. The British volunteers were often the fittest, most enthusiastic and best educated citizens but British casualties were also inexperienced soldiers and it has been claimed that their loss was of lesser military significance than the losses of the remaining peace - trained officers and men of the German army. British casualties on the first day were the worst in the history of the British army, with 57,470 British casualties, 19,240 of whom were killed.
British survivors of the battle had gained experience and the BEF learned how to conduct the mass industrial warfare, which the continental armies had been fighting since 1914. The continental powers had begun the war with trained armies of regulars and reservists, which were wasting assets. Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria wrote, "What remained of the old first - class peace - trained German infantry had been expended on the battlefield ''. A war of attrition was a logical strategy for Britain against Germany, which was also at war with France and Russia. A school of thought holds that the Battle of the Somme placed unprecedented strain on the German army and that after the battle it was unable to replace casualties like - for - like, which reduced it to a militia.
The destruction of German units in battle was made worse by lack of rest. British and French aircraft and long - range guns reached well behind the front - line, where trench - digging and other work meant that troops returned to the line exhausted. Despite the strategic predicament of the German army, it survived the battle, withstood the pressure of the Brusilov Offensive, and conducted an invasion of Romania. In 1917, the German army in the west survived the large British and French offensives of the Nivelle Offensive and the Third Battle of Ypres, though at great cost.
Falkenhayn was sacked and replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the end of August 1916. At a conference at Cambrai on 5 September, a decision was taken to build a new defensive line well behind the Somme front. The Siegfriedstellung was to be built from Arras to St. Quentin, La Fère and Condé, with another new line between Verdun and Pont - à - Mousson. These lines were intended to limit any Allied breakthrough and to allow the German army to withdraw if attacked; work began on the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) at the end of September. Withdrawing to the new line was not an easy decision and the German high command struggled over it during the winter of 1916 -- 1917. Some members wanted to take a shorter step back, to a line between Arras and Sailly, while the First and Second army commanders wanted to stay on the Somme. Generalleutnant von Fuchs on 20 January 1917 said that,
Enemy superiority is so great that we are not in a position either to fix their forces in position or to prevent them from launching an offensive elsewhere. We just do not have the troops... We can not prevail in a second battle of the Somme with our men; they can not achieve that any more. (20 January 1917)
and that half measures were futile, retreating to the Siegfriedstellung was unavoidable. After the loss of a considerable amount of ground around the Ancre valley to the British Fifth Army in February 1917, the German armies on the Somme were ordered on 14 February, to withdraw to reserve lines closer to Bapaume. A further retirement to the Hindenburg Line (Siegfriedstellung) in Operation Alberich began on 16 March 1917, despite the new line being unfinished and poorly sited in some places.
The British and French had advanced about 6 mi (9.7 km) on the Somme, on a front of 16 mi (26 km) at a cost of 419,654 to 432,000 British and about 200,000 French casualties, against 465,181 to 500,000 or perhaps even 600,000 German casualties. Until the 1930s the dominant view of the battle in English - language writing was that the battle was a hard - fought victory against a brave, experienced and well - led opponent. Winston Churchill had objected to the way the battle was being fought in August 1916, Lloyd George when Prime Minister criticised attrition warfare frequently and condemned the battle in his post-war memoirs. In the 1930s a new orthodoxy of "mud, blood and futility '' emerged and gained more emphasis in the 1960s when the 50th anniversaries of the Great War battles were commemorated.
Until 1916, transport arrangements for the BEF were based on an assumption that the war of movement would soon resume and make it pointless to build infrastructure, since it would be left behind. The British relied on motor transport from railheads which was insufficient where large masses of men and guns were concentrated. When the Fourth Army advance resumed in August, the wisdom of not building light railways which would be left behind was argued by some, in favour of building standard gauge lines.
Experience of crossing the beaten zone showed that such lines or metalled roads could not be built quickly enough to sustain an advance, and that pausing while communications caught up allowed the defenders to recover. On the Somme the daily carry during attacks on a 12 mi (19 km) front was 20,000 long tons (20,000 t) and a few wood roads and rail lines were inadequate for the number of lorries and roads. A comprehensive system of transport was needed, which required a much greater diversion of personnel and equipment than had been expected.
The Battle of the Somme was one of the costliest battles of World War I. The original Allied estimate of casualties on the Somme, made at the Chantilly Conference on 15 November 1916, was 485,000 British and French casualties and 630,000 German. As one German officer wrote,
Somme. The whole history of the world can not contain a more ghastly word.
In 1931, Wendt published a comparison of German and British - French casualties which showed an average of 30 percent more Allied casualties than German losses on the Somme. In the first 1916 volume of the British Official History (1932), J.E. Edmonds wrote that comparisons of casualties were inexact, because of different methods of calculation by the belligerents but that British casualties were 419,654, from total British casualties in France in the period of 498,054, French Somme casualties were 194,451 and German casualties were c. 445,322, to which should be added 27 percent for woundings, which would have been counted as casualties using British criteria; Anglo - French casualties on the Somme were over 600,000 and German casualties were under 600,000.
The addition by Edmonds of c. 30 percent to German figures, to make them comparable to British criteria, was criticised as "spurious '' by M.J. Williams in 1964. McRandle and Quirk in 2006 cast doubt on the Edmonds calculations but counted 729,000 German casualties on the Western Front from July to December against 631,000 by Churchill, concluding that German losses were fewer than Anglo - French casualties but the ability of the German army to inflict disproportionate losses had been eroded by attrition. Sheffield wrote that the calculation by Edmonds of Anglo - French casualties was correct but the one for German casualties was discredited, quoting the official German figure of 500,000 casualties. In the second 1916 volume of the British Official History (1938), Miles wrote that total German casualties in the battle were 660,000 -- 680,000, against Anglo - French casualties of fewer than 630,000, using "fresh data '' from the French and German official accounts.
In 1938, Churchill wrote that the Germans had suffered 270,000 casualties against the French, between February and June 1916 and 390,000 between July and the end of the year (see statistical tables in Appendix J of Churchill 's World Crisis) with 278,000 casualties at Verdun. Some losses must have been in quieter sectors but many must have been inflicted by the French at the Somme. Churchill wrote that Franco - German losses at the Somme, were "much less unequal '' than the Anglo - German ratio. During the Battle of the Somme German forces suffered 537,919 casualties, of which 338,011 losses were inflicted by the French and 199,908 losses by the British. In turn German forces inflicted 794,238 casualties on the Entente. Doughty wrote that French losses on the Somme were "surprisingly high '' at 202,567 men, 54 % of the 377,231 casualties at Verdun. Prior and Wilson used Churchill 's research and wrote that the British lost 432,000 soldiers from 1 July -- mid-November (c. 3,600 per day) in inflicting c. 230,000 German casualties and offer no figures for French casualties or the losses they inflicted on the Germans. Sheldon wrote that the British lost "over 400,000 '' casualties. Harris wrote that total British losses were c. 420,000, French casualties were over 200,000 men and German losses were c. 500,000, according to the "best '' German sources. Sheffield wrote that the losses were "appalling '', with 419,000 British casualties, c. 204,000 French and perhaps 600,000 German casualties.
In a commentary on the debate about Somme casualties, Philpott used Miles 's figures of 419,654 British casualties and the French official figures of 154,446 Sixth Army losses and 48,131 Tenth Army casualties. German losses were described as "disputed '', ranging from 400,000 -- 680,000. Churchill 's claims were a "snapshot '' of July 1916 and not representative of the rest of the battle. Philpott called the "blood test '' a crude measure compared to manpower reserves, industrial capacity, farm productivity and financial resources and that intangible factors were more influential on the course of the war. The German army was exhausted by the end of 1916, with loss of morale and the cumulative effects of attrition and frequent defeats causing it to collapse in 1918, a process which began on the Somme, echoing Churchill that the German soldiery was never the same again.
After the Battle of the Ancre (13 -- 18 November 1916), British attacks on the Somme front were stopped by the weather and military operations by both sides were mostly restricted to survival in the rain, snow, fog, mud fields, waterlogged trenches and shell - holes. As preparations for the offensive at Arras continued, the British attempted to keep German attention on the Somme front. British operations on the Ancre from 10 January -- 22 February 1917, forced the Germans back 5 mi (8.0 km) on a 4 mi (6.4 km) front, ahead of the schedule of the Alberich Bewegung (Alberich Manoeuvre / Operation Alberich) and eventually took 5,284 prisoners. On 22 / 23 February, the Germans fell back another 3 mi (4.8 km) on a 15 mi (24 km) front. The Germans then withdrew from much of the R. I Stellung to the R. II Stellung on 11 March, forestalling a British attack, which was not noticed by the British until dark on 12 March; the main German withdrawal from the Noyon salient to the Hindenburg Line (Operation Alberich) commenced on schedule on 16 March.
Defensive positions held by the German army on the Somme after November 1916 were in poor condition, the garrisons were exhausted and censors of correspondence from front - line soldiers reported tiredness and low morale. The situation left the German command doubtful that the army could withstand a resumption of the battle. The German defence of the Ancre began to collapse under British attacks, which on 28 January 1917 caused Rupprecht to urge that the retirement to the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) begin. Ludendorff rejected the proposal next day but British attacks on the First Army, particularly the Action of Miraumont (also known as the Battle of Boom Ravine, 17 -- 18 February) caused Rupprecht on the night of 22 February to order a preliminary withdrawal of c. 4 mi (6.4 km) to the R. I Stellung (R. I Position). On 24 February the Germans withdrew, protected by rear guards, over roads in relatively good condition which were then destroyed. The German withdrawal was helped by a thaw, which turned roads behind the British front into bogs and by disruption to the railways which supplied the Somme front. On the night of 12 March the Germans withdrew from the R. I Stellung between Bapaume and Achiet le Petit and the British reached the R. II Stellung (R. II Position) on 13 March.
The Royal British Legion with the British Embassy in Paris and the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, commemorate the battle on 1 July each year, at the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. For their efforts on the first day of the battle, The 1st Newfoundland Regiment was given the name "The Royal Newfoundland Regiment '' by George V on 28 November 1917. The first day of the Battle of the Somme is commemorated in Newfoundland, remembering the "Best of the Best '' at 11: 00 a.m. on the Sunday nearest to 1 July. The Somme is remembered in Northern Ireland due to the participation of the 36th (Ulster) Division and commemorated by veterans ' groups and by unionist / Protestant groups such as the Orange Order. The British Legion and others commemorate the battle on 1 July.
On 1 July 2016, at 7: 28 am British Summer Time, the UK observed a two minute silence to mark the start of the battle which began 100 years earlier. A special ceremony was broadcast on BBC1 and all BBC radio stations participated in the silence. At the start of the silence, the King 's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery fired a gun every four seconds for one hundred seconds and a whistle was blown to end it. Just like a Remembrance Sunday silence, a bugler played The Last Post after the silence. The silence was announced during a speech by the Prime Minister David Cameron who said, "There will be a national two - minute silence on Friday morning. I will be attending a service at the Thiepval Memorial near the battlefield, and it 's right that the whole country pauses to remember the sacrifices of all those who fought and lost their lives in that conflict. '' On 1 July 2016, a ceremony was held in Heaton Park in north Manchester in England. Heaton Park was the site of a large army training camp during the war.
Across Britain on 1 July 2016, 1400 actors dressed in replica World War I - period British Army uniforms walked about in streets and public open areas, from 7am to 7 pm. Each took on temporarily the identity of a British soldier who died on the first day of the Somme, and handed out information cards about that soldier. They did not talk, except for occasionally singing "We 're here because we 're here '' to the tune of Auld Lang Syne. This event was called "Ghost Soldiers ''.
The Battle of the Somme has been called the beginning of modern all - arms warfare, during which Kitchener 's Army learned to fight the mass - industrial war in which the continental armies had been engaged for two years. This view sees the British contribution to the battle as part of a coalition war and part of a process, which took the strategic initiative from the German Army and caused it irreparable damage, leading to its collapse in late 1918.
Haig and General Rawlinson have been criticised ever since 1916 for the human cost of the battle and for failing to achieve their territorial objectives. On 1 August 1916 Winston Churchill criticised the British Army 's conduct of the offensive to the British Cabinet, claiming that though the battle had forced the Germans to end their offensive at Verdun, attrition was damaging the British armies more than the German armies. Though Churchill was unable to suggest an alternative, a critical view of the British on the Somme has been influential in English - language writing ever since. As recently as 2016, historian Peter Barton argued in a series of three television programmes that the Battle of the Somme should be regarded as a German defensive victory.
A rival conclusion by some historians (Terraine, Sheffield, Duffy, Chickering, Herwig and Philpott et al.) is that there was no strategic alternative for the British in 1916 and that an understandable horror at British losses is insular, given the millions of casualties borne by the French and Russian armies since 1914. This school of thought sets the battle in a context of a general Allied offensive in 1916 and notes that German and French writing on the battle puts it in a continental perspective.
Little German and French writing on this topic has been translated, leaving much of the continental perspective and detail of German and French military operations inaccessible to the English - speaking world.
In current secondary education, the Battle of the Somme is barely mentioned in German school curricula, while it features prominently in the United Kingdom. In many British schools, variations of the question Does Haig deserve to be called ' The Butcher Of The Somme '? (Year 9) or To what extent can Sir Douglas Haig be considered either a butcher or a hero of the First World War? (GCSE) are used to teach pupils historical empathy, evaluation and argumentative writing skills.
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which is the biggest airport in the usa | List of the busiest airports in the United States - wikipedia
These are lists of the busiest airports in the United States, based on various ranking criteria.
The FAA uses passenger boarding for a full calendar year to determine Airport Improvement Program (AIP) entitlements. The term hub is used by the FAA to identify very busy commercial service airports. For instance, large hubs are those airports that each account for at least one percent of total U.S. passenger enplanements. Medium hubs are defined as airports that each account for between 0.25 percent and one percent of the total passenger enplanements. According to preliminary FAA data, in 2014 there were 30 large hubs and 30 medium hubs.
Listed according to data compiled by Airports Council International North America, and ranked according to total passengers during 2015.
This list has the same 99 airports as the FAA list, but the order is slightly different. The FAA ranks by passengers boarding. ACI ranks by sum of boarding, disembarking, and flying through without leaving airplane. The statistics are slightly more than twice as high.
Listed according to data compiled by the Office of Aviation Analysis, part of the United States Department of Transportation, and ranked according to total international passengers during 2016.
Listed according to data compiled by the Federal Aviation Administration for the United States, and ranked according to total cargo throughput in pounds during 2015.
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where was hachi a dog's tale filmed | Hachi: a dog 's Tale - wikipedia
Hachi: A Dog 's Tale is a 2009 English - language drama film. Based on the true story of a faithful Akita Inu, the titular Hachikō, it is directed by Lasse Hallström, written by Stephen P. Lindsey and Kaneto Shindo, and stars Richard Gere, Joan Allen and Sarah Roemer. The film is a remake of the 1987 Japanese film Hachikō Monogatari.
Hachi: A Dog 's Tale premiered at the Seattle International Film Festival on June 13, 2009, and its first theatrical release was in Japan on August 8. Sony Pictures Entertainment decided to forgo a U.S. theatrical release. The film was given a UK theatrical release on March 12, 2010, courtesy of Entertainment Film Distributors, and opened in over 25 countries throughout 2009 and 2010. The film 's foreign box office returns total $46.7 million as of January 2011.
Hachi is a story of love and devotion between a dog and a man, and based on the true story of Hachikō (ハチ公, November 10, 1923 -- March 8, 1935). The story is told by Ronnie, the man 's grandson. When Ronnie has to give a presentation at school about a personal hero, his chosen subject is his grandfather 's dog, Hachiko. Despite his classmates ' laughing, Ronnie tells the story of how his grandfather, Professor Parker Wilson, finds a lost puppy which has been freighted to America from Japan and accidentally left at the train station of the Professor 's small Rhode Island hometown. The professor ends up taking the puppy home, planning to search out its intended destination and send it on to its real owner. However the search for the puppy 's owner is unsuccessful, and Parker and the puppy begin to form a close connection. From his friend Ken, a Japanese professor, Parker learns that the dog is of the Japanese Akita breed. Ken also translates the symbol on the puppy 's collar as Hachi (ハ) -- Japanese for the number 8 -- signifying good fortune, even though the puppy 's life so far has seemed anything but lucky. Thus the puppy acquires his name, ' Hachiko, or Hachi for short, and although Parker 's wife, Cate, is opposed to keeping the puppy, eventually she relents upon realizing how strong the bond between Parker and Hachi has become.
Over the next year or so, Parker and Hachi become even closer. Parker tries, but Hachi refuses to do dog - like activities such as chasing and fetching. One morning, Parker leaves for work and Hachi follows him to the train station and refuses to leave until Parker walks him home. Later that afternoon, Hachi walks to the station to wait patiently for Parker to return. Parker is surprised to find Hachi waiting for him, and it becomes a daily routine.
One day, Hachi waits patiently as the train arrives, but there is no sign of Parker. He waits, lying in the snow for hours until Parker 's son - in - law Michael comes to get him. Although everyone tries to tell Hachi that Parker has died (of a cerebral hemorrhage during a lecture in class), Hachi does n't understand. Hachi continues to return to the station and wait every day.
As time passes, Cate sells the house and Hachi is sent to live with Parker and Cate 's daughter Andy, her husband Michael, and their baby Ronnie. However, Hachi escapes and finds his way back to the station, where he sits at his usual spot. Andy arrives and takes him home, but after seeing how depressed the dog is she lets him out to return to the station. Hachi waits every day at the train station and sleeps in the rail yard at night. He is fed daily by the train station workers who knew the professor. After seeing a newspaper article about Hachi, Ken visits Hachi.
Cate comes back to visit Parker 's grave on the tenth anniversary of his death and meets Ken. She is stunned to see a now elderly Hachi still waiting at the station. Overcome with grief, Cate sits and waits for the next train with him. At home, Cate tells the now ten - year - old Ronnie about Hachi. Meanwhile, Hachi continues waiting until his body can wait no longer, and is last seen lying in the snow, alone and still, although he is comforted by a final vision of Parker finally appearing and picking him up to go, presumably to the afterlife.
Ronnie concludes his story of why Hachi will forever be his hero. The story has clearly moved the class, with some students holding back tears, including those who had laughed at the beginning. After school, Ronnie, coming off the school bus, is met by his dad and his own puppy, also named Hachi. The film ends with Ronnie and Hachi walking down the same tracks where Parker and the previous Hachi had spent so much time together.
The movie was based on the real Japanese Akita dog Hachiko, who was born in Ōdate, Japan in 1923. After the death of his owner, Ueno Hidesaburō in 1925, Hachiko returned to the Shibuya train station the next day and every day after that for the next nine years until he died in March 1935. A bronze statue of Hachiko is in front of the Shibuya train station in his honor. Hachikō is known in Japanese as chūken Hachikō (忠 犬 ハチ公) "faithful dog Hachikō '', hachi meaning "eight '' and kō meaning "affection. ''
The majority of filming took place in Bristol, Rhode Island and Woonsocket, Rhode Island. The only spoken reference to the actual location where filming took place is when the newspaper reporter Teddy states he works for the Woonsocket Call (Woonsocket 's daily newspaper).
Additional locations included the University of Rhode Island in Kingston, Rhode Island, along the Providence and Worcester Railroad Mechanical, and the Columbus Theater located in Providence, Rhode Island. A second production unit filmed scenes on - location in Japan. Footage was shot at the (now closed) Reynolds Elementary School in Bristol.
The film received mostly positive reviews from critics. It holds a IMDb rating of 8.1 / 10. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, reported that 62 % of critics gave the film positive reviews with an average rating of 5.8 / 10.
On May 19, 2012, a bronze statue of Hachiko the dog was placed at the train depot at Woonsocket Depot Square, Woonsocket, Rhode Island, where Hachi was filmed. The train depot at One Depot Square has been named Hachiko Place. The Rhode Island statue 's dedication ceremony was part of the Cherry Blossom Festival held in three Rhode Island towns: Pawtucket, Central Falls, and Woonsocket. Dignitaries including the Mayor of Woonsocket and the Consul General of Japan attended the ceremony. Two cherry blossom trees were planted by the statue. A visitor from New Jersey 's Akita - mix (also named Hachi) was invited to participate at the ribbon - cutting ceremony as a "real - life stand - in for Hachiko ''.
Animal trainer Mark Harden and his team trained the three Akitas -- Leyla, Chico and Forrest -- who played the role of Hachi in the movie. Harden adopted Chico after the movie was completed.
The Blackstone Valley Heritage Corridor and the Blackstone Valley Tourism Council have created a handout with useful info for people who want to take a tour of the movie locations for "Hachi ''
According to the movie 's closing cards, the real Hachiko died in March 1934, while the earlier movie, Hachikō Monogatari, and other sources state that he died in March 1935 (9 years and 9 months after Professor Ueno 's death).
The film score of Hachi was composed by Jan A.P. Kaczmarek.
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when does game of thrones season 7 come on hbo | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also adapting material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons. On April 25, 2017, it was reported by Daily Express that the actors ' new salary made them each earn £ 2 million ($2.6 million USD) per episode.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season., and Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season. After some speculation, UFC President Dana White announced that Conor McGregor would appear in a cameo role in the seventh season. However, in January 2017, McGregor confirmed it was a rumor. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 34 critics with an average rating of 8.3 out of 10. The season also received a 94 % episode average score on Rotten Tomatoes, the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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who came to batman in batman v superman | Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice - Wikipedia
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is a 2016 American superhero film featuring the DC Comics characters Batman and Superman. Directed by Zack Snyder and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, the film is the second installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) following 2013 's Man of Steel. It was written by Chris Terrio and David S. Goyer, and features an ensemble cast that includes Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Jesse Eisenberg, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Jeremy Irons, Holly Hunter and Gal Gadot. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is the first live - action film to feature Batman and Superman together, as well as the first live - action cinematic portrayal of Wonder Woman, Aquaman, Flash and Cyborg. In the film, criminal mastermind Lex Luthor manipulates Batman into a preemptive battle with Superman, whom Luthor is obsessed with defeating.
The film was announced at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con International, after the release of Man of Steel. Snyder stated that the film would take inspiration from the Batman comic book series The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller, but clarified that it would follow an original premise. The incarnation of Batman in the film is different from the character 's previous portrayal in The Dark Knight Trilogy, serving as a cinematic reboot of the character. The film is also inspired by narrative elements from the "Death of Superman '' story arc. Pre-production began at East Los Angeles College in October 2013, with principal photography starting in May 2014 in Detroit, Michigan. Additional filming also took place in Chicago.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, and was released in the United States on March 25, 2016, in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D, 4DX, premium large formats and 70 mm prints. Following a strong debut that set new box office records, the film experienced a historic drop in its second weekend and never recovered. Despite turning a profit, it was deemed a box office disappointment and received generally unfavorable reviews from critics for its tone, screenplay and pacing, though some praised its visual style and acting performances. An extended cut, dubbed the "Ultimate Edition '' which features 30 minutes of additional footage, was released digitally on June 28, 2016, and on Blu - ray and DVD on July 19, 2016. A follow - up entitled Justice League is set to be released in November 2017, and a standalone Superman sequel is in development.
In 2015, Eighteen months after the battle between Superman and General Zod in Metropolis, Superman has become a controversial figure. Billionaire Bruce Wayne, who has operated in Gotham City as the vigilante Batman for two decades, sees Superman as a potential threat to humanity. After learning of Batman 's form of justice, Clark Kent seeks to expose Batman via Daily Planet articles. Wayne learns that Russian weapon trafficker Anatoli Knyazev has been contacting LexCorp mogul Lex Luthor. Meanwhile, Luthor unsuccessfully tries to persuade Senator June Finch to allow him to import kryptonite retrieved from the Indian Ocean following Zod 's terraforming attempt, claiming he wants to maintain it as a "deterrent '' against future Kryptonian invasions. He instead makes alternative plans with Finch 's subordinate and gains access to Zod 's body and the Kryptonian scout ship.
Bruce attends a gala at LexCorp to steal encrypted data from the company 's mainframe, but has it taken from him by an antiquities dealer named Diana Prince; she eventually returns it to Bruce. While decrypting the drive, Bruce dreams of a post-apocalyptic world, where he leads a group of rebels against a fascist Superman. He is awoken from his vision by an unidentified person who warns him of Lois Lane 's crucial role in the future, and urges him to find "the others '' before vanishing. Wayne later discovers that Luthor is also investigating metahumans. One of them is Prince herself, who is shown in a photo taken during World War I. Wayne admits to Alfred Pennyworth that he plans to steal the kryptonite to weaponize it, should it become necessary to fight Superman.
At a congressional hearing, as Finch questions Superman on the validity of his actions, a bomb goes off and kills everyone present but Superman. Believing he should have detected the bomb, and frustrated by his failure to save the people, Superman goes into self - imposed exile. Batman breaks into LexCorp and steals the kryptonite, planning to use it to battle Superman by building a powered exoskeleton, creating a kryptonite grenade launcher, and a kryptonite - tipped spear. Meanwhile, Luthor enters the Kryptonian ship and accesses details of a vast technology database accumulated from over 100,000 worlds.
Later, Luthor kidnaps Lois and Martha Kent, Clark 's adoptive mother, to bring Superman out of exile. He reveals to him that he manipulated Superman and Batman by fueling their distrust for each other. Luthor demands that Superman kill Batman in exchange for Martha 's life. Superman tries to explain the situation to Batman, but instead Batman fights Superman and eventually subdues him. Before Batman can kill him with the spear, Superman urges Batman to "save Martha '', whose name is also shared with Bruce 's late mother, confusing him long enough for Lois to arrive and explain what Superman meant. Realizing how far he has fallen and unwilling to let an innocent die, Batman rescues Martha, while Superman confronts Luthor on the scout ship.
Luthor executes his backup plan, unleashing a genetically engineered monster with DNA from both Zod 's body and his own. Diana Prince arrives unexpectedly; revealing her metahuman nature, she joins forces with Batman and Superman to fight the creature. It becomes clear that the creature can absorb and redirect energy, and outmatches Prince, Batman and Superman. Realizing that the creature is vulnerable to kryptonite, Superman retrieves the kryptonite spear. With Batman and Prince 's help containing it, Superman impales the monster, killing it. In its last moments, the creature stabs a weakened Superman with one of its bone protrusions, apparently killing Superman.
Luthor is arrested and Batman confronts him in prison, warning Luthor that he will always be watching him. Luthor gloats that Superman 's death has made the world vulnerable to powerful alien threats. A memorial is held for Superman in Metropolis. Clark is also declared dead, with various friends and family members including Bruce Wayne and Diana Prince attending for him in Smallville. Martha gives an envelope to Lois, which contains an engagement ring from Clark. After the funeral, Bruce expresses his regrets to Diana about how he failed Superman. He reveals to her that he plans to form a team of metahumans, starting with those from Luthor 's files, to help protect the world in Superman 's absence. After they leave, the dirt atop Clark 's coffin begins to levitate.
Additionally, Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Lauren Cohan portray Thomas and Martha Wayne, Bruce Wayne 's deceased parents, Patrick Wilson portrays the President of the United States in a voice role, and Michael Cassidy portrays Jimmy Olsen, a CIA agent. Reprising their roles from Man of Steel are Harry Lennix as Secretary Calvin Swanwick, Christina Wren as Major Carrie Farris, Kevin Costner as Jonathan Kent, Rebecca Buller as Jenny Jurwich, Chad Krowchuk as Glen Woodburn, and Carla Gugino as the Kryptonian A.I. Kelor. The corpse of General Zod also appears in the film in a crucial role; however, Michael Shannon did not film any scenes for the film and the corpse was created using the physique of fitness model Greg Plitt and a head - shot of Shannon. Mark Edward Taylor portrays Jack O'Dwyer, an executive of Wayne Enterprises.
Ezra Miller, Jason Momoa, and Ray Fisher appear as Barry Allen / Flash, Arthur Curry / Aquaman, and Victor Stone / Cyborg respectively in brief appearances, which will lead to their inclusion in the Justice League film. Joe Morton appears in a role as Silas Stone, Victor 's father. U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy makes a cameo appearance as Senator Purrington, whilst U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow also makes a cameo as the Governor of New Jersey. Neil deGrasse Tyson, Soledad O'Brien, Anderson Cooper, Nancy Grace and Charlie Rose appear as themselves. Jena Malone was cast as S.T.A.R. Labs scientist Jenet Klyburn, but her scenes were cut from the theatrical release, along with Man of Steel characters Coburn Goss as Father Leone and Joseph Cranford as Pete Ross; they were restored for the Ultimate Edition home media release. Talk show host Jon Stewart has a cameo in the extended cut. To further establish the interconnection between the films of the shared universe, Chris Pine appears on Diana Prince 's photo as Steve Trevor, as well as Saïd Taghmaoui, Ewen Bremner, and Eugene Brave Rock as the members of his team: Sameer, Charlie, and Chief, which they reprised in Wonder Woman.
In June 2013, Warner Bros. announced that director Zack Snyder and screenwriter David S. Goyer would return for a Man of Steel sequel, with the studio considering the release for the film in 2015. The following month, Snyder confirmed at San Diego Comic - Con International that the sequel to Man of Steel would feature Superman and Batman meeting for the first time on film. Goyer and Snyder would co-write the story, with Goyer authoring the script, and Christopher Nolan involved in an advisory role as executive producer. According to Snyder, the film would take inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns.
In November 2013, Snyder clarified his film would not be based upon the aforementioned graphic novel. "If you were going to do that, you would need a different Superman. We 're bringing Batman into the universe that now this Superman lives in. '' Batman v Superman marks the first appearance of Wonder Woman in a live - action, theatrical film, which Warner Bros. had been developing as far back as 1996. In December 2013, Chris Terrio was hired to rewrite the script, due to Goyer 's commitments to other projects. Further commenting on the influences, Terrio revealed in an article published by the Wall Street Journal that the movie would draw inspiration from Nolan 's Batman trilogy, Italian semiotician Umberto Eco 's 1972 essay "The Myth of Superman '', and the W.H. Auden poem "Musée des Beaux Arts '' which contrasts the quotidian details of normal people 's lives with the epic struggles of mythological figures. According to him, "In superhero stories, Batman is Pluto, god of the underworld, and Superman is Apollo, god of the sky. That began to be really interesting to me -- that their conflict is not just due to manipulation, but their very existence. '' The Joker and the Riddler were supposed to appear in the film, but Snyder ultimately decided to cut them from the final script.
The film 's official title, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, was revealed in May 2014. Snyder stated that having the "v '' in the title instead of "vs. '' was a way "to keep it from being a straight ' versus ' movie, even in the most subtle way ''. Henry Cavill later stated, "I would n't call this a Superman sequel (...) This is Batman versus Superman. It 's a separate entity altogether. It 's introducing the Batman character and expanding upon the universe, which was kicked off by Man of Steel. '' Forbes noted that although the film originated as a sequel to Man of Steel, it was "revamped into a backdoor pilot for Justice League and / or an eventual stand - alone Batman movie. '' As part of a settlement with his heirs, this is the first Batman production that lists Bill Finger as a co-creator.
Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Kevin Costner, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Harry Lennix and Christina Wren reprise their roles from Man of Steel. Joining the cast are Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Jesse Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth, Ray Fisher as Cyborg, Jason Momoa as Aquaman, and Tao Okamoto as Luthor 's assistant Mercy Graves. Scoot McNairy and Callan Mulvey were cast as Wallace Keefe and Anatoli Knyazev, while Jena Malone was cast as Jenet Klyburn, a character that was featured exclusively in the Ultimate Edition home media release.
Dawn of Justice is Affleck 's second film as a comic book superhero; he played Daredevil in the 2003 film of the same name, and was initially reluctant to accept playing Batman, citing that he "felt (he) did n't fit the traditional mold. But once Zack (Snyder) showed (him) the concept, and that it would be both different from the great movies that Chris (topher Nolan) and Christian (Bale) made, but still in keeping with tradition, (he) was excited. '' Affleck previously stated in 2006 that Daredevil had "inoculated (him) from ever playing another superhero ''.
Snyder cast an older Batman to be a layered juxtaposition against a younger Superman; while "bear (ing) the scars of a seasoned crime fighter, but retain (ing) the charm that the world sees in billionaire Bruce Wayne. '' Nolan was involved with the casting of Affleck and he was the first actor Snyder approached for the part. The director had also discussed the part with Josh Brolin. Bale admitted he wanted to play Batman again after The Dark Knight Rises, though he stated that his Batman does not belong in any other film and he was never approached by Warner Bros. to play the role again.
On casting Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Snyder offered, "Having Jesse in the role allows us to explore that interesting dynamic, and also take the character in some new and unexpected directions ''. Bryan Cranston was considered for the role before Eisenberg was cast. Producer Charles Roven revealed that this incarnation of Wonder Woman would use the character 's origins in The New 52, wherein the character would be a demigoddess, and the daughter of Zeus. This deviates from the character 's original origins, where she was "a clay figure brought to life by the gods ''. Olga Kurylenko was considered for the role of Wonder Woman before Gadot was cast. Dawn of Justice is Ray Fisher 's feature film debut, and the first live - action film to feature Cyborg, whose role will become more significant in future DC Comics films. It is also the live - action theatrical debut of Aquaman.
The casting of Affleck, Gadot, and Eisenberg was criticized. Affleck 's casting caused significant backlash from comic book fans, with multiple online petitions demanding his removal from the role; unlike previous Batman actors, he was not considered intimidating enough for the role by the protesters. Conversely, PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III supported Affleck 's casting as Batman, stating, "Way back when the news was new I wrote a PopMatters article defending the choice of Ben Affleck as Batman. I 'll let that one speak for itself. '' Via social media, fans criticized Gadot 's small frame in contrast to Wonder Woman 's warrior - like build in the comics. Responding to this, Gadot stated that she had been participating in various training regimens to achieve a body that stays closer to the source material. Fans also criticized Eisenberg 's casting, feeling that the then - 30 - year - old was too young for the role, and not physically imposing enough. Upon the film 's release, both Affleck and Gadot received considerable praise for their performances, despite the overall negative reception of the film itself.
Michael Wilkinson reprised his duties as costume designer. He updated the Superman suit from Man of Steel so that it "feels fresh and right for this installment of Zack Snyder 's comic - book universe ''. The first Batsuit featured in the film is influenced by The Dark Knight Returns; unlike the suits seen in previous live - action Batman films, it is made of cloth instead of armor and is a cast of the physique of fitness model Rossano Rea. An image of the Wonder Woman costume was revealed at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con, in which the costume desaturates the red, blue, and gold colors that make up the costume of most versions of the character.
A second Batsuit was also unveiled at Comic - Con, and unlike the first, it is armored. Aquaman 's look in this film shows him "tattooed in Maori - like patterns '', and wearing a suit "decked out in shades of gold, black and silver armor ''. According to the Warner Bros. Studios lot, the next generation Batmobile combined inspiration from both the sleek, streamlined design of classic Batmobiles and the high - suspension, military build from the more recent Tumbler from The Dark Knight Trilogy. Designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos, the Batmobile is about 20 feet long and 12 feet wide. The glasses Cavill wears as Clark Kent are made by British spectacle designer Tom Davies.
In September 2013, Larry Fong joined the crew as cinematographer, having previously worked with Zack Snyder on 300, Watchmen, and Sucker Punch. Initial filming commenced on October 19, 2013, at East Los Angeles College, to shoot an American football game between Gotham City University and rival Metropolis State University. At the end of the month, construction began on the Kent farm seen in Man of Steel for the film. Principal photography involving the main cast of the film began on May 19, 2014, in Detroit, Michigan, with scenes featuring Gal Gadot as Diana Prince being filmed early on May 16. While filming in Michigan, the production spent a total of $199 million in the state. The scene of a state funeral at the Arlington National Cemetery, a tribute by the United States Army, was actually filmed in Michigan as well, using green screen.
Additional filming began in Chicago, Illinois in November 2014. Other locations included the Michigan Motion Picture Studios, the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum at Michigan State University, Yorkville, Illinois, and New Mexico. Sequences of the film, including a scene depicting the murder of Bruce Wayne 's parents, were filmed using IMAX cameras. The planned shoot in Morocco was shifted to New Mexico due to incidents related to the 2014 Ebola outbreak. Principal photography wrapped on December 5, 2014.
Hans Zimmer composed the film score, emphasizing a challenge to not reuse the themes he established with the Batman character from Christopher Nolan 's trilogy. Junkie XL, who provided additional music in Man of Steel, also returned for this film, helping to compose the theme for Batman. Originally, Zimmer enlisted Junkie XL to compose the Batman material, with Zimmer planning to focus solely on the Superman side of the score, but the final Batman theme was written by both composers as a collaboration. Zimmer noted that he had significant trouble in finding a new angle from which to tell the story and after the release of the film, Zimmer announced that he was retired from superhero films. The soundtrack album of the film was released on March 18, 2016 by WaterTower Music.
Songs featured in the film include: "Kang Ling (An Instrument Made From A Human Thigh Bone) '', a traditional song performed by the monks of the Dip Tse Chok Ling Monastery, Dharamshala; "Night and Day '' and "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye '' written by Cole Porter and performed by Richard Cheese; "Shostakovich: Waltz II (Jazz Suite No. 2) '' written by Dmitri Shostakovich performed by the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Chailly; and "Amazing Grace '' arranged and performed by John Allan and again performed by the Canadian Scottish Regiment Pipes and Drums and the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.
In November 2013, it was announced that the film would be released on July 17, 2015. In January 2014, Warner Bros. announced that Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice was delayed from its original release date of July 17, 2015, and moved to May 6, 2016, in order to give the filmmakers "time to realize fully their vision, given the complex visual nature of the story. '' The release date was moved once again in August 2014 from May 6, 2016, to March 25, 2016, with a Warner Bros. insider saying the studio was "not flinching '' in regards to the previous opening date being on the same day as Marvel Studios ' Captain America: Civil War, but instead stating that March 2016 was a "fantastic corridor '' for them. According to sources obtained by The Hollywood Reporter, Warner Bros. considered the possibility of having a 70mm release for the film, which was partially shot in the 65mm IMAX format.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, followed by a New York City premiere on March 20 at Radio City Music Hall. Following the Brussels attacks, Warner Bros. originally cancelled the red carpet of the London premiere, but decided to carry on with the premiere for the fans. The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on March 25 in 3D. It opened simultaneously in North America, China and Japan, the world 's three largest film markets, as well as additional international territories, with the exception of Poland, where theaters do not open on Good Friday. The film debuted simultaneously across 30,000 screens in nearly every major foreign territory across 61 markets, including China, with domestic open across roughly 4,242 locations of which 3,500 theaters (85 %) were in 3D, 390 IMAX screens, 470 PLF locations, 150 D - Box theaters and ten 70 mm prints.
An estimated $165 million marketing effort helped promote Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. At the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder introduced the film 's first footage intended to be exclusive to the event. A teaser trailer was scheduled to be screened in selected cinemas on April 20, 2015. However, on April 16, the trailer leaked online, and within a few hours Snyder officially released the trailer to Twitter. At the 2015 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder and the cast attended to present an initial trailer of the film. The trailer was, unlike the teaser, which received mixed response, positively received by attendees, who gave the trailer a standing ovation. Mark Hughes of Forbes said the trailers "both set the stage for a story about the world 's distrust and fear of Superman, Batman 's rage at Superman and intention to duke it out with the Man of Steel, and Wonder Woman 's participation in a big fight featuring the ' Trinity. ' ''
Warner Bros. Consumer Products partnered - up with "a powerhouse slate of global licensees for a broad, multi-category licensing and merchandising program '', including Mattel, Lego, Rubies, Funko, Thinkway Toys, Hot Toys, Junkfood, Bioworld, Pez, Seiko, Converse and among many other licensees to sell merchandise related to the film. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was also a licensee for the film, offering a special edition Jeep Renegade in exchange for a near - exclusive product placement deal; aside from Bruce Wayne 's Aston Martin, all vehicles in the film were either from Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, Ram, or Iveco. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Cross Fire, an original companion novel tied to the film, telling a tie - in story set before the events of the movie, was published by Scholastic Corporation.
A five - issue comic - book prelude exploring what happened in the weeks and months leading up to the events of the film was released as a tie - in with Dr Pepper 's character - branded bottles. Also, there are a series of four minicomics found in Batman v Superman - branded General Mills cereals. Additionally, those who purchased Batman v Superman - themed Doritos Family Fun Mix at Walmart received the comic book prequel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Upstairs / Downstairs. Rocksteady Studios released a downloadable content for the video game Batman: Arkham Knight that featured the Batmobile and Batsuit from the film.
The third trailer debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on December 3, 2015. It received positive responses, with Scott Mendelson of Forbes calling the trailer a "Saturday morning cartoon nerd 's wildest dreams. '' Molly Driscoll of CS Monitor stated that it looks like the film "will continue the trend of adapting comic book stories as timely tales. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter noted that based on the trailer 's content, the film might be the anti-Civil War, referring to Marvel 's Captain America: Civil War as "Superman and Batman complete the comic book trope by overcoming their differences to fight a common foe, alongside a third hero, who saves them both -- that feels the most fresh, especially in light of the Civil War trailer. While that ended with a showdown between three heroes, this trailer moves beyond that to show three heroes standing united. '' However, it was criticized for revealing that, with Rob Tornoe of NewsWorks pointing out that this trailer was targeting the "broadest audience '' rather than just fans, as studios try to "maximize a film 's opening day box office. ''
Warner Bros. did not buy a Super Bowl 50 commercial; instead, they worked with Turkish Airlines to put together a pair of Batman v Superman - themed airline commercials. McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the spots "inform interested parties about the culture, geography and history of Batman and Superman 's individual stomping grounds, each one filled with Easter eggs for the comic book faithful and newcomer alike. '' Jesse Eisenberg 's part as Lex Luthor in these commercials was praised, as Dirk Libbey of CinemaBlend noted that "he matches up well with Bruce Wayne by playing the welcoming billionaire business man. It 's a far cry from the somewhat cartoonish villain we 've seen in the clips from the film. ''
The final trailer was released to the public on February 11, 2016, which was described as "intense '' by Kwame Opam of The Verge. Mendelson of Forbes felt that Warner Bros. "probably would n't have even dropped this one had the prior trailer back in December been received better. So now we have this fourth and final sell, and at least they are going out on a high note. '' Jonathon Dornbush of Entertainment Weekly said that the footage "works to establish Batman as his own independent crime fighting force, while also providing a deeper look at his existential struggle against Superman. ''
In February 2016, Warner Bros. and Doritos formed a partnership, creating a website offering fans the opportunity to enter codes found on Doritos purchases branded with the film 's logo, and enter to win movie tickets, tech toys, and a trip the premiere in New York City. Warner Bros also partnered with Omaze to give fans who donated a chance to win "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '', while benefiting three nonprofit organizations nominated by Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill and Jesse Eisenberg. "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '' offered a fan and their friend the chance to win tickets to the premiere of the film, as well as fly on a helicopter with Cavill or ride in the Batmobile with Affleck. Hendrick Motorsports drivers Jimmie Johnson and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. drove cars based on Superman and Batman respectively, at Auto Club Speedway on March 20, 2016. A tie - in endless runner video game to the film, entitled Batman vs Superman -- Who Will Win?, debuted March 16, 2016, released by Warner Bros. International Enterprises.
The film grossed $166 million in the USA & Canada in its opening weekend, the eighth - biggest opening of all time, ahead of The Dark Knight Rises ' $160.9 million. The film had a worldwide opening of $422.5 million, which stands as the second - biggest for Warner Bros. and the fifth - biggest of all time. It became the fourth film to have a global opening above $400 million. It also had an IMAX worldwide opening weekend total of $36 million from 945 IMAX screens, the third - biggest ever, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($48 million) and Jurassic World ($44 million). However, both inside and outside of the United States, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a notable poor Friday - to - Sunday hold and set a new record for the worst Friday - to - Sunday drop for a superhero movie release in modern box office history with a 58 % decline, which was previously held by Fantastic Four.
In its second weekend, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a "historic '' box - office drop, with an 81.2 % decline on Friday that was "one of the biggest Friday - to - Friday drops any blockbuster has ever seen '', and an overall 68.4 % drop for the weekend despite not "facing any big competition at the box office '', making it the second largest decline for a marquee superhero title, behind only 2003 's Hulk. Brad Brevet, writing for Box Office Mojo, reported that "it appeared Batman v Superman was looking at a drop anywhere from 58 -- 68 % and it ended up settling in on the wrong side of those expectations. '' Scott Mendelson, writing for Forbes, said "Whether or not the movie is any good, and whether or not audiences respond to the picture, is best measured by the second and third weekends... Yes, we 're still talking about a $15.35 million second Friday and a $50 m+ second weekend, but in terms of legs, this film sadly does n't seem to have any. '' Continuing this trend, in its third weekend, the film dropped by 54.3 % in which Brad Brevet concluded in a follow - up for Box Office Mojo that "the legs on this one are proving quite short. ''
In the weeks leading up to the film 's release, advance ticket sales outpaced The Dark Knight Rises, The Avengers, and Furious 7. Worldwide, it was estimated to gross between $300 -- 340 million in over 35,000 screens in its opening weekend. It passed the $50 million mark in IMAX ticket sales on its second weekend, grossing a total of $53.4 million from 571 IMAX screens. Warner Bros. domestic distribution chief Jeff Goldstein described the film 's box office performance as a "fantastic result, by any measure. '' Box office analyst Jeff Bock said "Still, outside of Christopher Nolan 's two Dark Knight movies, and Tim Burton 's Batman films when you adjust for inflation, this is the highest - grossing property in DC 's bullpen thus far. It tops Man of Steel by more than $200 million, '' and that "overall, BvS successfully relaunched DC 's cinematic universe, but they are nowhere near Disney / Marvel in terms of critical reception and box office prowess. One can only hope that bigger and better is still on the way. '' The film needed to reach $800 million in revenue at the box office to "recoup its investment '' according to financial analysts. Despite surpassing this amount, it was considered "a disappointment '' for failing to reach $1 billion, This resulted in Warner Bros., in May 2016, creating DC Films, giving a dedicated executive team responsibility for films based on DC Comics, similar to the dedicated Marvel Comics focus of Marvel Studios within the larger Walt Disney Studios group. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice grossed $330.4 million in North America and $542.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $873.3 million, making it the seventh - highest - grossing film of 2016 behind Captain America: Civil War, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, Finding Dory, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, and The Secret Life of Pets. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $105.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Following reports of pre-tickets sales in both the United States and Canada on February 29, many insiders and analysts predicted an opening weekend haul between $120 -- 140 million for Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, with projections as high as $185 million. However, Warner Bros. insiders were more conservative in their estimates projecting in the lower range of $110 million. According to Deadline.com, an undisclosed rival studio box office analyst indicated that if the film is truly pacing in tandem with The Dark Knight Rises, then Dawn of Justice could possibly be looking at a $180 million+ debut. The film also became Fandango 's top pre-selling superhero film ever, beating The Dark Knight Rises and Avengers: Age of Ultron, representing 90 % of the site 's weekend 's ticket sales. A survey carried out showed that the introduction of Wonder Woman is a primary draw for moviegoers. It pre-sold around $20 -- 25 million worth of advance tickets. Dawn of Justice made $27.7 million in Thursday previews from around 3,800 theaters which is the biggest of 2016, the biggest Easter weekend preview, the second - biggest for a superhero film (behind The Dark Knight Rises), and the seventh - biggest of all time of which $3.6 million came from IMAX showings, also a new record for Easter weekend.
On its opening day, it earned $81.59 million from 4,242 theaters, including previews, marking the biggest pre-summer opening day of all time, the second - biggest superhero Friday opening and the fourth - biggest opening - day and fourth - biggest single - day gross, with $9 million coming from IMAX showings. Excluding the Thursday previews, it earned $53.89 million on Friday which is the fifth - biggest ever. It fell 37.8 % on Saturday, which is the second - worst superhero opening Friday - to - Saturday drop, only behind the 40 % drop of The Dark Knight Rises. In total, it earned $166 million for its debut weekend, setting records for the biggest March and pre-summer openings, (these have since been broken by Beauty and the Beast) the biggest Easter opening, the second - biggest opening for Warner Bros., the biggest for a DC Comics property, and the eighth - biggest opening of all time. Conversely, the film holds the record for the worst superhero Friday - to - Sunday drop with a 58 % decline, eclipsing the previous 48 % decline record held by Fantastic Four in 2015. IMAX comprised 11 % or $18 million of the weekend 's gross from 388 theaters which is the fifth - biggest of all time (a record it shares with Age of Ultron) and 3D represented 40 % ($68 million) of the total ticket sales. RealD 3D comprised $47 million of the opening gross. Premium large formats generated $17.6 million (10 %), with $3.6 million of that coming from Cinemark XD auditoriums from 475 theaters.
Following its record breaking opening weekend, it posted the biggest March Monday with $15.05 million, a drop of 55 % from its Sunday gross. This broke The Hunger Games ' previous record of $10.8 million, and also the biggest March Tuesday with $12.2 million. It made $209 million in its first week full which stands at the eleventh - biggest opening week of all time and surpassed the lifetime total Batman Begins. Despite earning $15.35 million in its second Friday, the film dropped 81.2 % and broke the record for the biggest Friday - to - Friday drop for a comic book adaptation film, not including $27.7 million worth of previews which represented an even larger decline. It fell precipitously by 69.1 % in its second weekend, grossing $51.3 million from 4,256 theaters (an addition of 14 cinemas) due to poor reviews and mixed word of mouth, establishing itself an infamous record for the seventh steepest drop for a superhero / comic book adapted film and the steepest decline since the - 69 % posted by X-Men Origins: Wolverine in 2009, despite facing little to no competition or new wide - releases and having the added benefit of 30 % K -- 12 schools off, and 9 % of colleges on break, per ComScore. The steep drop also marks the fourth - biggest for a film that opened above $100 million (tied with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2). In its third weekend it was overtaken by the comedy The Boss after falling 54 % with $23.3 million.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice proved to be front - loaded, failing to generate significant revenue after its opening weekend / week release. It earned just 1.99 times ($330 million) its opening weekend numbers ($166 million), which is lower than Man of Steel 's 2.28 multiplier. Like other DC films, such as Watchmen, Green Lantern and Man of Steel, it opened to record breaking numbers but then dropped the following weekend onward due largely to bad critical reception and mixed word of mouth from audiences. It earned just 1.99 times its opening weekend, the worst (multiplier) for a film opening above $100 million. A similar result was followed by DC 's third superhero film, Suicide Squad released in August 2016, although Suicide Squad became less front loaded than Dawn of Justice.
Internationally, it was projected to open between $180 -- 200 million; however, Deadline.com pointed out that these figures were only early predictions pegged to the performance of similar films in their respective territories. It opened in ten countries on Wednesday, March 23, 2016, earning $7 million and debuting at No. 1 in all markets on approximately 5,900 screens. The following day, the film was released in 38 additional countries, earning $33.1 million on 19,700 screens for a two - day total of $44 million. On March 25, it opened in the remaining 17 countries delivering $67.2 million in revenue, for a three - day total of $115.3 million in 62 countries on more than 30,000 screens. Through Sunday, March 27, it earned an opening - weekend total of $256.5 million from 66 countries on over 40,000 screens, making it the biggest superhero opening weekend of all time, the biggest overall March opening, the second - biggest opening ever for Warner Bros., and the fifth - biggest international opening on record. The film 's accomplishements also included the second - biggest IMAX opening record of $18 million, behind only Jurassic World which tallied $23.5 million. 3D accounted 59 % or $149.86 million of the weekend gross led by China (98 %), Germany (88 %), Brazil (81 %), Russia (55 %), and France (51 %). As with North America, the film witnessed a steep decline in its second Friday internationally, falling 72 % to $19.2 million, with the biggest decline in the U.K. (77 %) and China (87 %). Its second weekend earnings fell 66 % overall to $85.25 million. Despite the decline, the film topped the box office for three consecutive weekends.
In Mexico, it had the biggest opening day for Warner Bros. and the second - biggest of all time with $5.8 million, including record - breaking midnight showings. It also scored the biggest opening day of all time in Brazil ($3.5 million) and the biggest opening day for a superhero film in Germany ($2.8 million). Elsewhere, it opened in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($9 million), Australia ($2.5 million), India ($2.54 million), Russia ($1.9 million), South Korea ($1.7 million), Japan ($1.2 million), the United Arab Emirates and Hong Kong ($1.1 million respectively). In China, it earned $21.22 million on its opening day, including around $1.34 million worth of previews, which is the biggest for Warner Bros. and the sixth - biggest Hollywood opening day of all time. However, other Chinese sources have the film open to around $20 million. In terms of opening weekends, the biggest openings were recorded in China ($57.2 million), the United Kingdom and Ireland ($20.7 million), Mexico ($18.2 million), Brazil ($12 million), South Korea ($10.2 million), Australia ($9.9 million), France ($8.6 million), Germany ($8.1 million), Russia ($7.7 million), India ($6.6 million), Spain ($6.1 million) and Japan ($4.5 million). It broke all - time opening record in Brazil and Warner Bros. opening records in Mexico, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it benefited from the long Easter weekend holiday and despite a distinctly mixed bag of reviews in the U.K. press, it posted an opening £ 14.62 million or $20.7 million from 612 theaters, a record for 2016 so far and for a superhero title on straight Friday to Sunday, but fell short of The Avengers and Avengers: Age of Ultron, when accounting for previews.
In Japan, it opened in third place, behind two local films, Assassination Classroom: Graduation and Doraemon: Nobita and the Birth of Japan 2016. In South Korea, it scored the biggest March opening after opening on a Tuesday and dominating 68.3 % of the market share with $10.2 million. In China, after scoring the biggest Hollywood opening Friday (behind Transformers: Age of Extinction), it earned an estimated $57.2 million from approximately 16,000 screens in its opening weekend, besting all other DC Comics adaption film just by its weekend haul except for Man of Steel and gave Warner Bros. its biggest three day opening there with $7 million coming from 557 IMAX screens. However, the opening figure fell below analysts projections of $70 -- 80 million. It held the top spot for its first seven days only, after which it faced stiff competitions from local productions, and fell dramatically from then onwards in accruing revenue. As a result, it fell to third place in its second weekend after falling enormously by 78 % to $12.7 million, a record for a superhero film.
It became the Warner Bros. ' highest - grossing film of all time in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. It also crossed $100 million Latin American markets, making it Warner Bros. ' second highest - grossing film there. In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America are China ($95 million), which analysts predicted that it would not cross $100 million there, followed by the UK ($52.1 million), Mexico ($36 million) and Brazil ($35.5 million).
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice received generally negative reviews from film critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 27 % based on 367 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice smothers a potentially powerful story -- and some of America 's most iconic superheroes -- in a grim whirlwind of effects - driven action. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average to critics ' reviews, gave the film an average score of 44 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale. It earned "B -- '' from men, "B '' from women, a "B '' from those under 25 and a "B -- '' from those over 25. BBC News reported that, "the film had been widely praised by fans after its first screening in New York ''.
Critics were generally less enthusiastic. Lindy West in The Guardian described it as "153 minutes of a grown man whacking two dolls together '', asking "(h) as the definition of ' movie ' changed from ' motion picture story that a human wrote on purpose ' to ' 700 only tangentially related 12 - second grey and red vignettes '? '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote: "The point of Batman v Superman is n't fun, and it is n't thinking, either. It 's obedience. The theology is invoked... to buttress a spectacle of power. And in that way the film serves as a metaphor for its own aspirations. The corporations that produce movies like this one, and the ambitious hacks who sign up to make them, have no evident motive beyond their own aggrandizement. '' Writing in The Telegraph, Robbie Collin called the film "humourless '' and "the most incoherent blockbuster in years ''. Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters said, "As you 're watching this movie, you might also contemplate your own part, in being swayed into consuming so much of what you 've consumed before. '' Adding, "Wonder Woman 's remains Batman v Superman 's most compelling story, precisely because it 's untold. '' Matt Patches of Thrillist wrote "what Batman v Superman can do, it does, at the cost of coherency and thrills. The movie is bat - shit crazy. A dour, disdainful demeanor, plus a gluttony of complex plot twists, dissipates most of the contact high. '' Michael Philips of Chicago Tribune wrote, "A near - total drag, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice plays like a loose, unofficial quarter - billion - dollar remake of The Odd Couple, in which Oscar and Felix are literally trying to kill each other. '' On his podcast Hollywood Babble - On, film director Kevin Smith, a long - time friend and collaborator of Affleck, praised Affleck 's performance but panned the film, commenting that it "did n't really have a heart '' and was "humorless '', arguing that "there seems to be a fundamental lack of understanding of what those characters are about. It 's almost like Zack Snyder did n't read a bunch of comics, he read one comic once, and it was (The) Dark Knight Returns, and his favorite part was the last part where Batman and Superman fight. '' On a second viewing, however, Smith via his Instagram lightened his stance. Jeremy Irons expressed displeasure with the film, feeling it was "deservedly so '' savaged by critics and calling the feature "very muddled '' while expressing hope that the forthcoming Justice League (2017) would be better due to its story being "... a lot smaller, it 's more linear ''.
Conversely, David Betancourt of The Washington Post and Scott Mendelson of Forbes praised the film 's visual spectacle and performances from Affleck and Gadot, though Mendelson also called the film "an utter mess of thinly sketched characters, haphazard plotting, surprisingly jumbled action ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "better than Man of Steel but below the high bar set by Nolan 's Dark Knight, adding that "Dawn of Justice is still a colossus, the stuff that DC Comics dreams are made of for that kid in all of us who yearns to see Batman and Superman suit up and go in for the kill. '' Jake Coyle of Associated Press wrote, "it hurtles not with the kinetic momentum of Mad Max: Fury Road nor the comparatively spry skip of a Marvel movie, but with an operatic grandeur it sometimes earns and often does n't. '' Mark Hughes of Forbes called it "the follow - up to The Dark Knight that many viewers and fans wanted or hoped for '', adding that it 's "visually stunning, with powerful emotional storytelling and awe - inspiring action spectacle. '' Andrew Barker of Variety said "as a pure visual spectacle... Batman V Superman ably blows the hinges off the multiplex doors. '' Charles Koplinski of the Illinois Times called it "a brooding, but most importantly intelligent take on the seminal figures of our 20th century pop culture mythology, a movie that at once pays tribute to these characters ' roots while offering up modern incarnations of them that ring true for our times. '' Nicolas Barber of the BBC called the film "a four - star epic '' praising Affleck 's performance as Batman and the visual grandeur of Fong 's cinematography. Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave an ambivalent review; he especially criticized the "very bad writing '', but conceded "there are a lot of moments... that work '' and praised Affleck and Gadot 's performances, calling Gadot as Wonder Woman the best thing in the film.
Multiple commentators have criticized Eisenberg on the grounds that his interpretation of Lex Luthor hewed too close to character traits associated with another DC Comics villain, the Joker. Even before the film was released, Affleck compared Eisenberg 's performance to that of Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight. Once the film came out, critics lambasted Eisenberg 's take on Luthor. Sonny Bunch of The Washington Post lamented that "As the film progresses, Lex degenerates into a gibbering mad man, some strange mix of the Riddler and the Joker with a little bit of Mark Zuckerberg added for flair. '' Charlie Jane Anders of Gizmodo wrote that "Someone clearly told Jesse Eisenberg that this movie is the Dark Knight to Man of Steel 's Batman Begins, and he 's doing his damndest to give a Heath Ledger-esque performance... Watching the trailers, I had thought Eisenberg 's loopy acting might be this movie 's saving grace -- but a concentrated dose of his faux mania actually turns out to be the worst thing. '' Andy Scott of Grunge, in an article titled "How Jesse Eisenberg Ruined Batman v Superman, '' wrote that "Eisenberg 's speech patterns and mannerisms felt almost entirely lifted from Ledger 's iconic performance, to the point where he walked the dangerous grey line between respectful homage and downright thievery. ''
An extended cut of the film dubbed the Ultimate Edition was released on home media platforms, alongside the theatrical cut. This version received an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America, for more violence than the PG - 13 rated theatrical cut, and is longer by 31 minutes, totalling 182 minutes. The film debuted in first place on the home video sales chart for the week ending July 24, 2016. With the release of the Ultimate Edition, which was the director 's original version of the film before additional editing, critics noted that the film would have likely been better received with the additional footage. Ben Kendrick of Screen Rant stated that while it was more "intelligible '', character portrayal was not "fundamentally changed '' and "for viewers who did n't like Man of Steel or Batman v Superman for larger reasons, such as tone, approach, and the darker characterization of DC 's most iconic heroes, the Ultimate Edition is only a longer... version of a film that... is likely to remain divisive, even if the final product is a better film. ''
The film proved to be a financial success with its home video release. Making $20,524,500 in DVD sales, and $54,399,899 in Blu - Ray sales for a total of $74,924,399.
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who has the most points in the fifa world cup | List of FIFA World Cup records - wikipedia
This is a list of records of the FIFA World Cup and its qualification matches.
Teams having equal quantities in the tables below are ordered by the tournament the quantity was attained in (the teams that attained the quantity first are listed first). If the quantity was attained by more than one team in the same tournament, these teams are ordered alphabetically.
Note: There are no official records for cautions issued in tournaments before the introduction of yellow cards in 1970.
* one of the wins was after extra time
* one of the wins was after extra time
* one of the wins was after extra time
Teams eliminated by penalty shoot - outs are not considered as defeated.
Continental Records
Teams listed in bold won the tournament. Fewer than half of all World Cup tournaments have been won by the highest scoring team.
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where did lug sail technology originate in asia | Lug sail - wikipedia
The lug sail, or lugsail, is a fore - and - aft, four - cornered sail that is suspended from a spar, called a yard. When raised the sail area overlaps the mast. For "standing lug '' rigs, the sail remains on the same side of the mast on both the port and starboard tacks. For "dipping lug '' rigs, the sail is lowered partially to be brought around to the leeward side of the mast in order to optimize the efficiency of the sail on both tacks.
The lug sail is evolved from the square sail to improve how close the vessel can sail into the wind. Square sails, on the other hand, are symmetrically mounted in front of the mast and are manually angled to catch the wind on opposite tacks. Since it is difficult to orient square sails fore and aft or to tension their leading edges (luffs), they are not as efficient upwind, compared with lug sails. The lug rig differs from the gaff rig, also fore - and - aft, whose sail is instead attached at the luff to the mast and is suspended from a spar (gaff), which is attached to, and raised at an angle from, the mast.
The lug sail was one of the earliest fore - and - aft rigs. Campbell cites the lug sail as an intermediate step between the square sail and the lateen sail, developed for use on the Indian Ocean. McGrail notes the presence of temple carvings of vessels with lug sails, dating from the eighth - ninth century in Borobudur, Indonesia. Block reports a sixth - century depiction of a vessel with lug sails in the Ajanta Caves of India. Salamon suggests that the lateen may have evolved back towards a balanced lug rig, as used in the Adriatic.
The origin of its name is uncertain. According to Skeat, the name of the sail may derive from the ease with which it may be raised or "lugged '' or it may derive from the vessel type, "lugger '', on which the sail is used, which name may come from Dutch, logger meaning "slow ship '', and East Friesian, log meaning "slow ''.
Lug sails are divided into three types: standing lug, balanced lug and dipping lug.
Lug sail design also varies with the angle that the yard crosses the mast; a standing lug with the gaff parallel to the mast is called a "gunter '' rig.
Whereas a standing lug may be tacked conventionally by moving the sail across the vessel, as the wind crosses the bow, a dipping lug must be brought around to the leeward side by a multi-step procedure:
This procedure is also necessary for gybing a dipping lug. Reportedly, this action can be completed expeditiously on a larger boat with four hands. On smaller boats, the sail is simply lowered and the mast unstepped to allow the sail to be moved beneath it to the other side and the mast to be re-stepped and the sail raised.
There are other ways to tack or gybe a lugsail. Some methods use a downhaul to the forward end of the spar so that a sharp downward tug on the line will pull dip the forward end around the aft side of the mast. Generally the procedure, which may be feasible only on smaller sails, is to:
The Beer Luggers, which normally have the tack of the sail set to a small bowsprit where untacking it is difficult, will have the lazy sheet forward of the luff of the sail and will use it haul the whole sail around its own luff, leaving the old working but now lazy sheet again forwards around the luff of the sail.
On larger luggers, like the Fifie, large dipping lug sails were possible only with the introduction of steam - powered capstans to facilitate with dipping.
Block reports that the rig was widely used in Europe from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries for small fishing vessels and other coasters because of their good performance to windward. This popularity extended to smugglers and privateers and the French chasse - marée fishing boats.
Currently, lug rigs are used on certain small sailing craft, like the International Twelve Foot Dinghy, a dinghy, and the SCAMP, a pocket cruiser.
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who is the song killing me softly written about | Killing Me Softly with His song - wikipedia
"Killing Me Softly with His Song '' is a song composed by Charles Fox with lyrics by Norman Gimbel.
The song was written in collaboration with Lori Lieberman, who recorded the song in late 1971. In 1973 it became a number - one hit in the US and Canada for Roberta Flack, also reaching number six in the UK Singles Chart. The song has since been covered by numerous artists, including the version by the Fugees, which won the 1997 Grammy for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal.
According to Lori Lieberman, who performed the original recording in 1971, the song was born of a poem she wrote after experiencing a strong reaction to the Don McLean song ' Empty Chairs. ' She then related this information to Gimbel, who took her feelings and put them into words. Then Gimbel passed the words to Fox, who set them to music.
According to Norman Gimbel, Gimbel was introduced to the Argentinean - born composer Lalo Schifrin (then of Mission: Impossible fame) and began writing songs to a number of Schifrin 's films. Both Gimbel and Schifrin made a suggestion to write a Broadway musical together, and Schifrin gave Gimbel an Argentinean novel -- Hopscotch by Julio Cortázar -- to read as a possible idea. The book was never made into a musical, but in chapter two, the narrator describes himself as sitting in a bar listening to an American pianist friend "kill us softly with some blues ''. Gimbel put the phrase in his "idea book '' for use at a future time with a parenthesis around the word "blues '' and substituted the word "song '' instead.
Don McLean said he did n't know the song described him and, when asked about it, said "I 'm absolutely amazed. I 've heard both Lori 's and Roberta 's version and I must say I 'm very humbled about the whole thing. You ca n't help but feel that way about a song written and performed as well as this one is. ''
Nevertheless, Fox has repudiated Lieberman 's having input into the song 's creation, saying: "We (Gimbel and Fox) wrote the song and (Lieberman) heard it and said it reminded her of how she felt at (a Don McLean) concert. Don McLean did n't inspire Norman or me to write the song but even Don McLean thinks he 's the inspiration for the song. ''
Don McLean supported Lieberman both on his website and from the stage of a concert which he invited her to attend in 2010. However, the matter only reached an unequivocal conclusion when contemporaneous articles from the early 1970s were exhumed, all of them vindicating Lieberman. In an April 5, 1973 article in the Daily News, Norman Gimbel was quoted as follows: "She (Lori Lieberman) told us about this strong experience she had listening to McLean (' I felt all flushed with fever / Embarrassed by the crowd / I felt he had found my letters / And read each one out loud / I prayed that he would finish / But he just kept right on '). I had a notion this might make a good song so the three of us discussed it. We talked it over several times, just as we did for the rest of the numbers we wrote for this album and we all felt it had possibilities. ''
Lieberman was the first to record the song in late 1971, releasing it in early 1972. Helen Reddy has said she was sent the song, but "the demo... sat on my turntable for months without being played because I did n't like the title ''.
Roberta Flack first heard the song on an airline, when the Lieberman original was featured on the in - flight audio program. After scanning the listing of available audio selections, Flack would recall: "The title, of course, smacked me in the face. I immediately pulled out some scratch paper, made musical staves (then) play (ed) the song at least eight to ten times jotting down the melody that I heard. When I landed, I immediately called Quincy (Jones) at his house and asked him how to meet Charles Fox. Two days later I had the music. '' Shortly afterwards Flack rehearsed the song with her band in the Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston, Jamaica, but did not then record it.
In September 1972, Flack was opening for Marvin Gaye at the Greek Theater; after performing her prepared encore song, Flack was advised by Gaye to sing an additional song. Flack later said, "I said well, I got this song I 've been working on called ' Killing Me Softly... ' and he said ' Do it, baby. ' And I did it and the audience went crazy, and he walked over to me and put his arm around me and said, ' Baby, do n't ever do that song again live until you record it. ' ''
Released in January 1973, Flack 's version spent a total of five non-consecutive weeks at # 1 in February and March, more weeks than any other record in 1973, being bumped to number 2 by the O'Jays ' "Love Train '' after four straight weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100. Billboard ranked it as the No. 3 song for 1973.
Charles Fox suggested that Flack 's version was more successful than Lieberman 's because Flack 's "version was faster and she gave it a strong backbeat that was n't in the original ''. According to Flack: "My classical background made it possible for me to try a number of things with (the song 's arrangement). I changed parts of the chord structure and chose to end on a major chord. (The song) was n't written that way. '' Flack plays electric piano on the track. The bass is played by Ron Carter, the guitar by Hugh McCracken and the drums by Ray Lucas. The single appeared as the opening track of the album of the same name, issued in August 1973.
Flack won the 1973 Grammy Award for Record of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female, for the single, with Gimbel and Fox earning the Song of the Year Grammy.
In 1996 a house remix of Flack 's version went to number one on the US dance chart.
In 1999 Flack 's version was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. It ranked number 360 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and number 82 on Billboard 's greatest songs of all time.
Hip hop group Fugees covered the song (as simply "Killing Me Softly '') on their 1996 album The Score, with Lauryn Hill singing the lead vocals. Their version became a hit, reaching number two on the U.S. airplay chart. The song topped the charts in the United Kingdom, where it became the country 's biggest - selling single of 1996. It has since sold 1.36 million copies in Britain. The Fugees recording won the 1997 Grammy for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and their video earned the MTV Video Music Award for Best R&B Video.
This version sampled the 1990 song "Bonita Applebum '' by A Tribe Called Quest (ATCQ) from their debut album People 's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm. ATCQ themselves had sampled the riff from the song "Memory Band '' from psychedelic soul band Rotary Connection 's 1967 eponymous debut album. The Fugees single was so successful that the track was "deleted '' and thus no longer supplied to retailers whilst the track was still in the top 20 so that attention could be drawn to the next single, "Ready or Not ''. Propelled by the success of the Fugees track, the 1972 recording by Roberta Flack was remixed in 1996 with the vocalist adding some new vocal flourishes: this version topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart. Flack and the Fugees have performed the song together since then. In 2008, "Killing Me Softly '' was ranked number 25 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop and # 44 on its list of the "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 90s ''.
"Killing Me Softly '' was the last song the Fugees recorded for The Score, after member Pras Michael made the suggestion to cover it. They wanted to "see how we can create break beats. And of course, we all love A Tribe Called Quest and we went in like ' Okay, let 's cut that sample '. '' They then added a bass reggae drop. Initially, the Fugees wanted to change the lyrics of the song to make it anti-drugs and anti-poverty but the songwriters, Norman Gimbel and Charles Fox, refused.
The Fugees ' version features "percussive rhythms '' with "a synth sitar sound, Wyclef 's blurted chants, Hill 's vocal melisma on the scatted bridage, and a bombastic drum - loop track ''.
In January 1997, Spin called the song "an instant classic, pumped out of every passing car from coast to coast, with Lauryn Hill 's timeless voice never losing its poignant kick ''. Celebrating the album 's 20th anniversary in February 2016, Billboard reviewed the song, saying: "It 's a lovely cover that maintains the spirit of the original while taking the material in new directions. ''
The video, directed by Aswad Ayinde and based on Lauryn Hill 's ideas, never came out commercially in America. It features Roberta Flack.
The Fugees recorded a dancehall version with Bounty Killer rapping and Hill singing a rewritten chorus. However, they did not receive permission to release it on The Score.
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what is macchu pichu when was it discovered and why did it take so long to find it | Machu Picchu - wikipedia
Machu Picchu (/ ˈmɑːtʃuː ˈpiːktʃuː / or / - ˈpiːtʃuː /, Spanish pronunciation: (ˈmatʃu ˈpi (k) tʃu), Quechua: Machu Pikchu (ˈmɑtʃu ˈpiktʃu)) is a 15th - century Inca citadel situated on a mountain ridge 2,430 metres (7,970 ft) above sea level. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District in Peru, above the Sacred Valley, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of Cuzco and through which the Urubamba River flows.
Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was constructed as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438 -- 1472). Often mistakenly referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas '' (a title more accurately applied to Vilcabamba), it is the most familiar icon of Inca civilization. The Incas built the estate around 1450 but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Although known locally, it was not known to the Spanish during the colonial period and remained unknown to the outside world until American historian Hiram Bingham brought it to international attention in 1911.
Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry - stone walls. Its three primary structures are the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. Most of the outlying buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of how they originally appeared. By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had been restored and restoration continues.
Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historic Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll.
In the Quechua language, machu means "old '' or "old person '', while pikchu means "peak; mountain or prominence with a broad base that ends in sharp peaks '', hence the name of the site means "old peak ''.
Machu Picchu was built around 1450 -- 1460. Its construction appears to date to the period of the two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438 -- 71) and Túpac Inca Yupanqui (1472 -- 93). There is a consensus among archaeologists that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for himself, most likely after his successful military campaign. Though Machu Picchu is considered to be a "royal '' estate, surprisingly, the estate would not have been passed down in the line of succession. It was only used for approximately 80 years before being abandoned seemingly due to destruction of the Spanish Conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire. It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travellers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area.
During its use as a royal estate, it is estimated that no more than 750 people lived there at a time, most people being support staff (yanaconas, yana) who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec, religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (mayocs) lived there as well, most likely for the ruler 's well - being and enjoyment. During the harsher season, staff dropped down to around a hundred servants and a few religious specialists focused only on maintenance.
Studies show that according to their skeletal remains, most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. They lacked the chemical markers and osteological markers they would have if they had been living there their whole lives. Instead, there was bone damage from various species of water parasites indigenous to different areas of Peru. There were also varying osteological stressors and varying chemical densities suggesting varying long term diets characteristic of specific regions that were spaced apart. These diets are composed of varying levels of maize, potatoes, grains, legumes, and fish, but the overall most recent short - term diet for these people was composed of less fish and more corn. This suggests that several of the immigrants were from more coastal areas and moved to Machu Picchu where corn was a larger portion of food intake. The skeletal remains found at Machu Picchu are also unique in their level of natural bone damage from laborious activities. Most people found at the site had lower levels of arthritis and bone fractures found in most sites of the Inca Empire. Inca individuals that have arthritis and bone fractures are typically those who performed heavy physical labor (such as the Mit'a) and / or served in the Inca military.
Not only people were suspected to have immigrated to Machu Picchu, there were several animal bones found that were not native to the site. Most animal bones found were from llamas and alpacas. These animals naturally live in altitudes of 14000 ft above sea level rather than the mere 8000 ft Machu Picchu rests on. Most likely, these animals were brought in from the Puna region for meat consumption and for their pelts. Guinea pigs were also found at the site in special burial caves, suggesting that they were at least used for funerary rituals as it was common throughout the Inca Empire to use them for sacrifices and meat. Six dogs were also recovered from the site. Due to their placements among the human remains, it is believed that they served as companions of the dead.
Studies have shown that much of the farming done at Machu Picchu was done on the hundreds of man - made terraces there. These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure good drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. It can still be seen where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area.
It is estimated that the area around the site has received more than 72 inches of rain per year since A.D. 1450, which was more than needed to support crop growth there. Because of the large amount of rainfall at Machu Picchu, it was found that irrigation was not needed for the terraces. The terraces received so much rain that they were built specifically to allow for ample drainage of the extra water. Excavation and soil analyses done by Kenneth Wright in the 90 's showed that the terraces were built in layers, with a bottom layer of larger stones covered by loose gravel. On top of the gravel was a layer of mixed sand and gravel packed together, with rich topsoil covering all of that. It was proven that the topsoil was probably moved from the valley floor to the terraces because it was much more rich than the soil higher up the mountain.
However, it has been found that the terrace farming area makes up only about 12 acres of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support the 750 + people living at Machu Picchu. Therefore, when studies were done on the food that the Incas ate at Machu Picchu, it was found that much of what they ate was imported to the area from the surrounding valleys and farther.
Although it was located only about 80 kilometers (50 mi) from the Inca capital in Cusco, the Spanish never found Machu Picchu and so did not plunder or destroy it, as they did many other sites. The conquistadors had notes of a place called Piccho, although no record of a Spanish visit exists. The types of sacred rocks defaced by the conquistadors in other locations are untouched at Machu Picchu.
Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman, Augusto Berns. Some evidence indicates that German engineer J.M. von Hassel arrived earlier. Maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874.
In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham travelled the region looking for the old Inca capital and was led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the name Agustín Lizárraga and the date 1902 written in charcoal on one of the walls. Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.
In 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometres (125.84 sq mi) surrounding Machu Picchu a "historic sanctuary ''. In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a large portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas and Central Andean wet puna ecoregions.
In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage site, describing it as "an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization ''.
Bingham was a lecturer at Yale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in Santiago, he traveled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins at Choqquequirau in the Apurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of Vitcos. He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and Father Antonio de la Calancha 's Chronicle of the Augustinaians. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water. '' Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Pichu, '' though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens. '' Only later did Bingham learn that Charles Wiener also heard of the ruins at Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.
Armed with this information the expedition went down the Urubamba River. En route Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.
At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu. The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up the Huayna Picchu mountain. At the top of the mountain they came across a small hut occupied by a couple of Quechua, Richarte and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Alvarez 's 11 - year - old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.
The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements and photographs, noting the fine quality of Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unclear about the original purpose of the ruins, but decided that there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.
The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple of Chuquipalta. He then crossed a pass and into the Pampaconas Valley where he found more ruins heavily buried in the jungle undergrowth at Espíritu Pampa, which he named "Eromboni Pampa ''. As was the case with Machu Picchu, the site was so heavily overgrown that Bingham could only note a few of the buildings. In 1964, Gene Savoy further explored the ruins at Espiritu Pampa and revealed the full extent of the site, identifying it as Vilcabamba Viejo where the Incas fled after the Spanish drove them from Vitcos.
Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and National Geographic again and with full support of Peruvian President Leguia. The expedition undertook a four - month clearing of the site with local labor, which was expedited with the support of the Prefect of Cuzco. Excavation started in 1912 with further excavation undertaken in 1914 and 1915. Bingham focused on Machu Picchu because of its fine Inca stonework and well - preserved nature, which had lain undisturbed since the site was abandoned. None of Bingham 's several hypotheses explaining the site held up. During his studies, he carried various artifacts back to Yale. One prominent artifact was a set of 15th - century, ceremonial Incan knives made from bismuth bronze; they are the earliest known artifact containing this alloy.
Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice. Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru through Bolivia. (In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land. '' (Batievsky 100)) Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history. Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators. By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.
Little information describes human sacrifices at Machu Picchu, though many sacrifices were never given a proper burial, and their skeletal remains succumbed to the elements. However, there is evidence that retainers were sacrificed to accompany a deceased noble in the afterlife. Animal, liquid and dirt sacrifices to the gods were much more common, made at the Altar of the Condor. The tradition is upheld by members of the New Age Andean religion.
Machu Picchu lies in the southern hemisphere, 13.164 degrees south of the equator. It is 80 kilometres (50 miles) northwest of Cusco, on the crest of the mountain Machu Picchu, located about 2,430 metres (7,970 feet) above mean sea level, over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) lower than Cusco, which has an elevation of 3,600 metres (11,800 ft). As such, it had a milder climate than the Inca capital. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in South America, one of the most visited tourist attractions in Latin America and the most visited in Peru.
Machu Picchu has wet and dry seasons, with the majority of annual rain falling from October through to April.
Machu Picchu is situated above a bow of the Urubamba River, which surrounds the site on three sides, where cliffs drop vertically for 450 metres (1,480 ft) to the river at their base. The area is subject to morning mists rising from the river. The location of the city was a military secret, and its deep precipices and steep mountains provided natural defenses. The Inca Bridge, an Inca grass rope bridge, across the Urubamba River in the Pongo de Mainique, provided a secret entrance for the Inca army. Another Inca bridge was built to the west of Machu Picchu, the tree - trunk bridge, at a location where a gap occurs in the cliff that measures 6 metres (20 ft).
The city sits in a saddle between the two mountains Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu, with a commanding view down two valleys and a nearly impassable mountain at its back. It has a water supply from springs that can not be blocked easily. The hillsides leading to it were terraced, to provide more farmland to grow crops, and to steepen the slopes that invaders would have to ascend. The terraces reduced soil erosion and protected against landslides. Two high - altitude routes from Machu Picchu cross the mountains back to Cusco, one through the Sun Gate, and the other across the Inca bridge. Both could be blocked easily, should invaders approach along them.
The site is roughly divided into an urban sector and an agricultural sector, and into an upper town and a lower town. The temples are in the upper town, the warehouses in the lower.
The architecture is adapted to the mountains. Approximately 200 buildings are arranged on wide parallel terraces around an east - west central square. The various compounds, called kanchas, are long and narrow in order to exploit the terrain. Sophisticated channeling systems provided irrigation for the fields. Stone stairways set in the walls allowed access to the different levels across the site. The eastern section of the city was probably residential. The western, separated by the square, was for religious and ceremonial purposes. This section contains the Torreón, the massive tower which may have been used as an observatory.
Located in the first zone are the primary archaeological treasures: the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun and the Room of the Three Windows. These were dedicated to Inti, their sun god and greatest deity.
The Popular District, or Residential District, is the place where the lower - class people lived. It includes storage buildings and simple houses.
The royalty area, a sector for the nobility, is a group of houses located in rows over a slope; the residence of the amautas (wise persons) was characterized by its reddish walls, and the zone of the ñustas (princesses) had trapezoid - shaped rooms. The Monumental Mausoleum is a carved statue with a vaulted interior and carved drawings. It was used for rites or sacrifices.
The Guardhouse is a three - sided building, with one of its long sides opening onto the Terrace of the Ceremonial Rock. The three - sided style of Inca architecture is known as the wayrona style.
In 2005 and 2009, the University of Arkansas made detailed laser scans of the entire site and of the ruins at the top of the adjacent Huayna Picchu mountain. The scan data is available online for research purposes.
This semicircular temple is built on the same rock overlying Bingham 's "Royal Mausoleum '', and is similar to the Temple of the Sun found in Cusco and the Temple of the Sun found in Pisac, in having what Bingham described as a "parabolic enclosure wall ''. The stonework is of ashlar quality. Within the temple is a 1.2 m by 2.7 m rock platform, smooth on top except for a small platform on its southwest quadrant. A "Serpent 's Door '' faces 340 °, or just west of north, opening onto a series of 16 pools, and affording a view of Huana Picchu. The temple also has two trapezoidal windows, one facing 65 °, called the "Solstice Window '', and the other facing 132 °, called the "Qullqa Window ''. The northwest edge of the rock platform points out the Solstice Window to within 2 ' of the 15th century June solstice rising Sun. For comparison, the angular diameter of the Sun is 6 '. The Inca constellation Qullca, storehouse, can be viewed out the Qullqa Window at sunset during the 15th century June Solstice, hence the window 's name. At the same time, the Pleaides are in the opposite end of the sky. Also seen through this window on this night are the constellations Llamacnawin, Llama, Unallamacha, Machacuay, and the star Pachapacariq Chaska (Canopus).
The Intihuatana stone is one of many ritual stones in South America. These stones are arranged to point directly at the sun during the winter solstice. The name of the stone (perhaps coined by Bingham) derives from Quechua language: inti means "sun '', and wata -, "to tie, hitch (up) ''. The suffix - na derives nouns for tools or places. Hence Intihuatana is literally an instrument or place to "tie up the sun '', often expressed in English as "The Hitching Post of the Sun ''. The Inca believed the stone held the sun in its place along its annual path in the sky. The stone is situated at 13 ° 9'48 '' S. At midday on 11 November and 30 January, the sun stands almost exactly above the pillar, casting no shadow. On 21 June, the stone casts the longest shadow on its southern side, and on 21 December a much shorter shadow on its northern side.
Inti Mach'ay is a special cave used to observe the Royal Feast of the Sun. This festival was celebrated during the Incan month of Qhapaq Raymi. It began earlier in the month and concluded on the December solstice. On this day, noble boys were initiated into manhood by an ear - piercing ritual as they stood inside the cave and watched the sun rise.
Architecturally, Inti Mach'ay is the most significant structure at Machu Picchu. Its entrances, walls, steps and windows are some of the finest masonry in the Incan Empire. The cave also includes a tunnel - like window unique among Incan structures, which was constructed to only allow sunlight into the cave during several days around the December solstice. For this reason, the cave was inaccessible for much of the year. Inti Mach'ay is located on the eastern side of Machu Picchu, just north of the "Condor Stone. '' Many of the caves surrounding this area were prehistorically used as tombs, yet there is no evidence that Mach'ay was a burial ground.
The central buildings use the classical Inca architectural style of polished dry - stone walls of regular shape. The Incas were masters of this technique, called ashlar, in which blocks of stone are cut to fit together tightly without mortar.
The section of the mountain where Machu Picchu was built provided various challenges that the Incas solved with local materials. One issue was the seismic activity due to two fault lines. It made mortar and similar building methods nearly useless. Instead, the Inca mined stones from the quarry at the site, lined them up and shaped them to fit together perfectly, stabilizing the structures. Inca walls have many stabilizing features: doors and windows are trapezoidal, narrowing from bottom to top; corners usually are rounded; inside corners often incline slightly into the rooms; and outside corners were often tied together by "L '' - shaped blocks; walls are offset slightly from row to row rather than rising straight from bottom to top.
Heavy rainfall required terraces and stone chips to drain rain water and prevent mud slides, landslides, erosion and flooding. Terraces were layered with stone chips, sand, dirt and top soil, to absorb water and prevent it from running down the mountain. Similar layering protected the large city center from flooding. Multiple canals and reserves provide water throughout the city that could be supplied to the terraces for irrigation and to prevent erosion and flooding.
The Incas never used wheels in a practical way, although their use in toys shows that they knew the principle. The use of wheels in engineering may have been limited due to the lack of strong draft animals, steep terrain and dense vegetation. The approach to moving and placing the enormous stones remains uncertain, probably involving hundreds of men to push the stones up inclines. A few stones have knobs that could have been used to lever them into position; the knobs were generally sanded away, with a few overlooked.
The Inca road system included a route to the Machu Picchu region. The people of Machu Picchu were connected to long - distance trade, as shown by non-local artifacts found at the site. For example, Bingham found unmodified obsidian nodules at the entrance gateway. In the 1970s, Burger and Asaro determined that these obsidian samples were from the Titicaca or Chivay obsidian source, and that the samples from Machu Picchu showed long - distance transport of this obsidian type in pre-Hispanic Peru.
Thousands of tourists walk the Inca Trail to visit Machu Picchu each year. They congregate at Cusco before starting on the one -, two -, four - or five - day journey on foot from kilometer 82 (or 77 or 85, four / five - day trip) or kilometer 104 (one / two - day trip) near the town of Ollantaytambo in the Urubamba valley, walking up through the Andes to the isolated city.
Machu Picchu is both a cultural and natural UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since its discovery in 1911, growing numbers of tourists have visited the site each year, including 1,411,279 in 2017. As Peru 's most visited tourist attraction and major revenue generator, it is continually exposed to economic and commercial forces. In the late 1990s, the Peruvian government granted concessions to allow the construction of a cable car and a luxury hotel, including a tourist complex with boutiques and restaurants and a bridge to the site. Many people protested the plans, including Peruvians and foreign scientists, saying that more visitors would pose a physical burden on the ruins. A no - fly zone exists above the area. UNESCO is considering putting Machu Picchu on its List of World Heritage in Danger.
During the 1980s a large rock from Machu Picchu 's central plaza was moved to a different location to create a helicopter landing zone. In the 1990s, the government prohibited helicopter landings. In 2006, a Cusco - based company, Helicusco, sought approval for tourist flights over Machu Picchu. The resulting license was soon rescinded.
Authorities have struggled to maintain tourist safety. Tourist deaths have been linked to altitude sickness, floods and hiking accidents. UNESCO received criticism for allowing tourists at the location given high risks of landslides, earthquakes and injury due to decaying structures.
Nude tourism is a recent trend, to the dismay of Peruvian officials. In several incidents, tourists were detained for posing for nude pictures or streaking across the site. Peru 's Ministry of Culture denounced these acts for threatening Peru 's cultural heritage. Cusco 's Regional Director of Culture increased surveillance to end the practice.
In January 2010, heavy rain caused flooding that buried or washed away roads and railways to Machu Picchu, trapping more than 2,000 locals and more than 2,000 tourists, later airlifted out. Machu Picchu was temporarily closed, reopening on 1 April 2010.
In July 2011, the Dirección Regional de Cultura Cusco (DRC) introduced new entrance rules to the citadel of Machu Picchu. The tougher entrance rules attempted to reduce the effect of tourism. The entrance was limited to 2,500 visitors per day, and the entrance to Huayna Picchu (within the citadel) was further restricted to 400 visitors per day.
In May 2012, a team of UNESCO conservation experts called upon Peruvian authorities to take "emergency measures '' to further stabilize the site 's buffer zone and protect it from damage, particularly in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes, which had grown rapidly.
In 1912, 1914 and 1915, Bingham removed thousands of artifacts from Machu Picchu -- ceramic vessels, silver statues, jewelry and human bones -- and took them to Yale University for further study, supposedly for 18 months. Yale instead kept the artifacts until 2012, arguing that Peru lacked the infrastructure and systems to care for them. Eliane Karp, an anthropologist and wife of former Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo, accused Yale of profiting from Peru 's cultural heritage. Many of the articles were exhibited at Yale 's Peabody Museum.
In 2006, Yale returned some pieces but kept the rest, claiming this was supported by federal case law of Peruvian antiquities. In 2007, Peru and Yale had agreed on a joint traveling exhibition and construction of a new museum and research center in Cusco advised by Yale. Yale acknowledged Peru 's title to all the objects, but would share rights with Peru in the research collection, part of which would remain at Yale for continuing study. On 21 November 2010, Yale agreed to return the disputed artifacts. The third and final batch of artifacts was delivered November 2012. The artifacts are permanently exhibited at the Museo Machu Picchu, La Casa Concha ("The Shell House ''), close to Cusco 's colonial center. Owned by the National University of San Antonio Abad del Cusco, La Casa Concha also features a study area for local and foreign students.
The Paramount Pictures film Secret of the Incas (1955), with Charlton Heston and Ima Sumac, was filmed on location at Cusco and Machu Picchu, the first time that a major Hollywood studio filmed on site. Five hundred indigenous people were hired as extras in the film.
The opening sequence of the film Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972) was shot in the Machu Picchu area and on the stone stairway of Huayna Picchu.
Machu Picchu was featured prominently in the film The Motorcycle Diaries (2004), a biopic based on the 1952 youthful travel memoir of Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara.
The NOVA television documentary "Ghosts of Machu Picchu '' presents an elaborate documentary on the mysteries of Machu Picchu.
Contemporary multimedia artist Kimsooja used Macchu Picchu as the primary setting for the first episode of her film series Thread Routes, shot in 2010.
The song "Kilimanjaro '', from the South Indian Tamil film Enthiran (2010), was filmed in Machu Picchu. The sanction for filming was granted only after direct intervention from the Indian government.
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where did nod come from in the bible | Land of Nod - wikipedia
The Land of Nod (Hebrew: ארץ נוד , eretz - Nod) is a place mentioned in the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible, located "on the east of Eden '' (qidmat - ' Eden), where Cain was exiled by God after Cain had murdered his brother Abel. According to Genesis 4: 16:
And Cain went out from the presence of the LORD, and dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east of Eden. (וַיֵּ֥צֵא קַ֖יִן מִלִּפְנֵ֣י יְהוָ֑ה וַיֵּ֥שֶׁב בְּאֶֽרֶץ ־ נֹ֖וד קִדְמַת ־ עֵֽדֶן )
"Nod '' (נוד) is the Hebrew root of the verb "to wander '' (לנדוד). Therefore, to dwell in the land of Nod is usually taken to mean that one takes up a wandering life. Genesis 4: 17 relates that after arriving in the Land of Nod, Cain 's wife bore him a son, Enoch, in whose name he built the first city.
"Nod '' (נוד ) is the Hebrew root of the verb "to wander '' (לנדוד ). Therefore, to dwell in the land of Nod can mean to live a wandering life. Gesenius defines (נוּד ) as follows:
TO BE MOVED, TO BE AGITATED (Arab. ناد Med. Waw id.), used of a reed shaken by the wind, 1Ki. 14: 15; hence to wander, to be a fugitive, Jer. 4: 1; Gen. 4: 12, 14; Ps. 56: 9; to flee, Ps. 11: 1; Jer. 49: 30. Figuratively, Isa. 17: 11, נֵד קָצִיר "the harvest has fled '' ("but see נֵד , '' which some take in this place as the subst.).
Much as Cain 's name is connected to the verb meaning "to get '' in Genesis 4: 1, the name "Nod '' closely resembles the word "nad '' (נָ֖ד ), usually translated as "vagabond '', in Genesis 4: 12. (In the Septuagint 's rendering of the same verse God curses Cain to τρέμων, "trembling ''.)
A Greek version of Nod written as Ναίν appearing in the Onomastica Vaticana possibly derives from the plural נחים , which relates to resting and sleeping. This derivation, coincidentally or not, connects with the English pun on "nod ''.
Josephus wrote in Antiquities of the Jews (c. AD 93) that Cain continued his wickedness in Nod: resorting to violence and robbery; establishing weights and measures; transforming human culture from innocence into craftiness and deceit; establishing property lines; and building a fortified city.
Nod is said to be outside of the presence or face of God. Origen defined Nod as the land of trembling and wrote that it symbolized the condition of all who forsake God. Early commentators treated it as the opposite of Eden (worse still than the land of exile for the rest of humanity). In the English tradition Nod was sometimes described as a desert inhabited only by ferocious beasts or monsters. Others interpreted Nod as dark or even underground -- away from the face of God.
Augustine described unconverted Jews as dwellers in the land of Nod, which he defined as commotion and "carnal disquietude ''.
Land of Nod is the name of a small hamlet in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It is located at the far end of a two - mile - long road which joins the A614 road at Holme - on - Spalding - Moor (53 ° 49 ′ 07 '' N 0 ° 43 ′ 17 '' W / 53.8185 ° N 0.7215 ° W / 53.8185; - 0.7215 (Land of Nod, Holme - on - Spalding - Moor)).
Land of Nod Road is the name of a residential road in Windham, Maine, USA (43 ° 45 ′ 02 '' N 70 ° 22 ′ 43 '' W / 43.7506 ° N 70.3787 ° W / 43.7506; - 70.3787 (Land of Nod, Windham, Maine)), and a private road in Headley Down, Hampshire, UK (51 ° 07 ′ 16 '' N 0 ° 47 ′ 59 '' W / 51.1211 ° N 0.7998 ° W / 51.1211; - 0.7998 (Land of Nod, Headley Down)).
The Land of Nod can refer to the mythical land of sleep, a pun on Land of Nod (Gen. 4: 16). To "go off to the land of Nod '' plays with the phrase to "nod off '', meaning to go to sleep. The first recorded use of the phrase to mean "sleep '' comes from Jonathan Swift in his Complete Collection of Polite and Ingenious Conversation (1737) and Gulliver 's Travels. A later instance of this usage appears in the poem "The Land of Nod '' by Robert Louis Stevenson from the A Child 's Garden of Verses (1885) collection.
One of American writer John Steinbeck 's most famous novels is East of Eden. The betrayal of a brother is one of its central themes.
In The Sandman: Preludes & Nocturnes book, The Land of Nod is a pun on the mythical land of sleep, or The Dreaming, Cain 's destination after murdering his brother.
In Bad Monkeys, a psychological thriller by Matt Ruff, the main character frequently refers to apparent contradictions in her back story as "Nod problems. ''
In the Sabina Kane series by Jaye Wells, Cain lived in The Land of Nod with Lillith. There is a secret society called the Caste of Nod.
Nod is the name of a 2012 novel by Adrian Barnes in which humanity stops being able to sleep. The title refers both to the Land of Sleep and the place described in the Bible.
In the World of Darkness role - playing setting by White Wolf Game Studio, the land of Nod is the home in exile of Caine, the first vampire. God 's curse upon Caine is interpreted as transforming him and his line into vampires.
The biblical quote is mentioned in the Command & Conquer video game, and is thought to be the origin of the name for the Brotherhood of Nod, as the group 's charismatic leader is also known only as Kane. Kane 's command center, known as the Temple of Nod, also houses a coffin bearing the name Abel upon its surface, and the preserved body of his most trusted officer, Seth (in reference to the biblical Seth), whom Kane shot in the head after Seth 's attempted coup d'état. Their relationship is never explained; however, upon introducing himself to the player, Seth states that he is "Seth. Just Seth. From God, to Kane, to Seth. ''
Bruce Springsteen 's 1978 album Darkness on the Edge of Town includes the song "Adam Raised a Cain '' which references Cain, Abel, and East of Eden. The lyrics connect the imagery to an associated social issue where others may pay for a relative 's crime. "In the Bible Cain slew Abel, And East of Eden he was cast, You 're born into this life paying, for the sins of somebody else 's past... ''
On Tom Waits 1985 album Rain Dogs, the song Singapore has the lyrics; "I 've fallen for a tawny moor, took off to the Land of Nod ''.
Twelfth Night, a symphonic progressive rockband with Geoff Mann, made an album in 1981 called Smiling at Grief, including the song called "East of Eden ''. A second version was recorded in 1982 on the album Fact and Fiction.
Billy Thorpe closed his album Children of the Sun... Revisited with the song "East of Eden 's Gate. ''
The Sunliners, a 1960s garage band, released a song called "Land of Nod ''.
Contemporary Christian Music and country music artist Susan Ashton, in her debut album Wakened by the Wind, released a song called "The Land of Nod. '' It warned against being too comfortable slumbering in exile.
Canadian indie band Stars mentions the Land of Nod in the title track to their album The Comeback EP: "Just got back from the land of Nod... ''
Classic rock band Journey mentions the east of Eden in their song "Frontiers '' from their 1983 Frontiers: "And all the heroes have gone east of Eden, we all need new frontiers. ''
Trey Anastasio has a track named Land of Nod on the album Traveler.
Dead Can Dance named the sixth song of their 1984 self entitled debut Dead Can Dance "East of Eden ''.
Tom Waits mentions the land of Nod in his song "Singapore '' from the 1985 album Rain Dogs: "We sail tonight for Singapore, we 're all as mad as hatters here I 've fallen for a tawny Moor, took off to the land of Nod... ''
Bob Dylan 's song "Tweedle Dee & Tweedle Dum '' from the 2001 album Love and Theft refers to those "Livin ' in the Land of Nod, Trustin ' their fate to the hands of God ''.
The gothic rock band To / Die / For sings about the Land of Nod in the song "Vale of Tears '', in the verse "Sleep well my darling, and leave this vale of tears behind. Land of Nod is a better place ''.
English rocker Pete Doherty uses "East of Eden '' as the title for a song he wrote for his band Babyshambles. The opening lyric to the song states "I 've been wandering East of Eden ''
Musician / cartoonist Sean Hartter refers to "Nod '' as a place with his "The Man From Nod '' electronic / live music project. Here "Nod '' is meant to be a wilderness of jumbled ideas and disjointed notions, the opposite of Eden... much more like the state of a dreaming mind.
The heavy stoner metal band High on Fire included a song called "Return To Nod '' on their album Death Is This Communion.
The darkwave band The Crüxshadows refer to Nod in their song called "East '' from the 2003 album Ethernaut with the repetitive phrase "East of Eden ''.
The German rock group Unloved uses the phrase "heading nod '' in the corresponding song from the 2006 album Killersongs as a metaphor for dealing with unpardonable guilt. Nod becomes not a certain land but a state of self - forgiveness ("It only remains for me to leave, a ridiculous ' sorry ' on my lips. it only remains for me to live, telling, I did n't mean it '').
Serbian rock group Riblja Čorba (Fish Stew) mentions east of Eden in the song "Ostani đubre do kraja '' (Remain Scum to the End): "You 're not crazy to be ashamed for having exiled me east of Eden, just remain scum to the end ''.
Dave Matthews made popular a song written by Daniel Lanois called "The Maker ''. In it is a reference to the Land of Nod otherwise called East of Eden: "Brother John, have you seen the homeless daughters standing here with broken wings. I have seen the flaming swords there over east of Eden ''.
East of Eden was a British rock band from the 1960s / 1970s.
Classic rock group The Eagles titled their latest album Long Road Out of Eden.
Natalie Merchant sings "The Land of Nod '', based on the Robert Louis Stevenson poem, on her album Leave Your Sleep.
Gil Scott - Heron makes mention of an unknown subject 's "World of Nod '', playing on both meanings of ' nod ' with the line "... eyes half closed revealed his world of Nod, a world of... no God '' in ' The Crutch ' on his 2010 album I 'm New Here.
American hardcore punk act Trash Talk released a single titled "East of Eden '' in 2009.
Scottish rock band Big Country included a song "East of Eden '' on their album titled Steeltown.
Rapper Vinnie Paz refers to the land of nod in the song "Books Of Blood: The coming of the Tan '': "You have entered the Land Of Nod now, face the deafening thunders And the spiritual wonders ''.
Australian Black Metal band Lustration included the song "3061 BC Land of Nod Somewhere East of Eden '' on their 2012 album Psymbolik.
On their album The Whole World is Watching, Morning Glory includes a reference to the Land of Nod in their song Gimme Heroin, as a metaphor for the "nodding '' state achieved through heroin use.
In 2015 the bands Ramallah and Sinners & Saints released a split 12 '' entitled "Back from the Land of Nod ''.
The Jim 's Big Ego song "In my Cult mentions the Land of Nod.
Now Cain dwelt in the land of trembling, in keeping with what God had appointed for him after he killed Abel his brother. (Pseudo-Philo, L.A.B. 2: 1) The land of Nod is so called because it was the land in which Cain wandered about in fear and trembling. (Ephrem, Commentary on Genesis 3: 11) Cain left God 's presence and went to live in the land of Nod, opposite Eden, Nod means disturbance. (Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 2.51. 4 -- 5)
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what is meant by dma in stock market | Direct market access - wikipedia
Direct market access (DMA) is a term used in financial markets to describe electronic trading facilities that give investors wishing to trade in financial instruments a way to interact with the order book of an exchange. Normally, trading on the order book is restricted to broker - dealers and market making firms that are members of the exchange. Using DMA, investment companies (also known as buy side firms) and other private traders use the information technology infrastructure of sell side firms such as investment banks and the market access that those firms possess, but control the way a trading transaction is managed themselves rather than passing the order over to the broker 's own in - house traders for execution. Today, DMA is often combined with algorithmic trading giving access to many different trading strategies. Certain forms of DMA, most notably "sponsored access, '' have raised substantial regulatory concerns because of the possibility of a malfunction by an investor to cause widespread market disruption.
As financial markets moved on from traditional open outcry trading on exchange trading floors towards decentralised electronic, screen - based trading and information technology improved, the opportunity for investors and other buy side traders to trade for themselves rather than handing orders over to brokers for execution began to emerge. The implementation of the FIX protocol gave market participants the ability to route orders electronically to execution desks. Advances in the technology enabled more detailed instructions to be submitted electronically with the underlying order.
The logical conclusion to this, enabling investors to work their own orders directly on the order book without recourse to market makers, was first facilitated by electronic communication networks such as Instinet. Recognising the threat to their own businesses, investment banks began acquiring these companies (e.g. the purchase of Instinet in 2007 by Nomura Holdings) and developing their own DMA technologies. Most major sell - side brokers now provide DMA services to their clients alongside their traditional ' worked ' orders and algorithmic trading solutions giving access to many different trading strategies.
There are several motivations for why a trader may choose to use DMA rather than alternative forms of order placement:
Advanced trading platforms and market gateways are essential to the practice of high - frequency trading. Order flow can be routed directly to the line handler where it undergoes a strict set of Risk Filters before hitting the execution venue (s). The race for ultra-low latency direct market access is a hot topic amongst high frequency traders, Brokers and technology vendors such as Artha Financial Technology, Fusion Systems Raptor, Ullink or Fidessa. Typically, ULLDMA systems built specifically for HFT can currently handle high amounts of volume and incur no delay greater than 500 microseconds. One area in which low - latency systems can contribute to best execution is with functionality such as direct strategy access (DSA) and Smart Order Router.
Foreign exchange direct market access (FX DMA) refers to electronic facilities that match foreign exchange orders from individual investors and buy - side firms with bank market maker prices. FX DMA infrastructures, provided by independent FX agency desks such as DMALINK, consist of a front - end, API or FIX trading interfaces that disseminate price and available quantity data from multiple bank contributors and enables buy - side traders, both institutions in the interbank market and individuals trading retail forex in a low latency environment.
Other defining criteria of FX DMA:
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who is playing the half time super bowl 2018 | Super Bowl LII halftime show - Wikipedia
The Super Bowl LII Halftime Show (officially known as the Pepsi Super Bowl LII Halftime Show) took place on February 4, 2018 at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota, as part of Super Bowl LII. Justin Timberlake was the featured performer, as confirmed by the National Football League (NFL) on October 22, 2017. It was televised nationally by NBC.
The show began with Jimmy Fallon introducing Justin Timberlake, followed by a video screen depicting Timberlake performing "Filthy '' in a club setting below the field level of the stadium. He then walked up a staircase and appeared on a ramp stage extending outward into the field, descending into a series of stages surrounded by a crowd. Timberlake proceeded to move through the crowd performing "Rock Your Body '' with a troupe of female backup dancers, abruptly stopping short of the end of the song and shifting to "Señorita '' on a small stage with his backing dancers. Upon reaching the main stage, he performed a number of songs, including "SexyBack '', "My Love '', and "Cry Me a River '', which featured a dance break mid-field. Upon reaching the next stage, Timberlake performed his hit song "Suit & Tie '' as the University of Minnesota Marching Band, wearing black tuxedos, played backup instrumentals and marched out to meet him.
Timberlake proceeded to walk up to a white grand piano while performing "Until the End of Time '', then segued into "I Would Die 4 U '' as a tribute to Minneapolis - native Prince. A video of Prince performing the song played in the background, projected onto on a large multi-story sheet. An aerial shot showed downtown Minneapolis covered in purple lighting that morphed into Prince 's trademark Love Symbol, with the stadium at the center. He then returned to the main stage to perform "Mirrors '', as hundreds of dancers and members of the marching band performed choreography with large mirrors, creating bright reflections in the broadcast and across the roof of the stadium. Timberlake closed the show with "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '', entering the stands at the conclusion of the song.
For the first time since the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show in Indianapolis in 2012, no pyrotechnics were used throughout the performance. The show relied mostly on lasers and video screens for visual effects.
In July 2017, multiple media outlets reported that Britney Spears was in talks to perform at Halftime, but Pepsi quickly denied it a few days later. During August and September 2017, several publications informed that Timberlake was the frontrunner to performer at the Super Bowl LII halftime, first along with his frequent - collaborator Jay - Z as co-headliner, and then as the solo performer. A spokesperson from the NFL stated at the time, "along with Pepsi, we know that we will put on a spectacular show. When it is time to announce her name we will do it. Or his name. Or their names. '' The NFL confirmed the announcement on October 22 with a video starring Timberlake and Jimmy Fallon.
This was Timberlake 's third appearance in a Super Bowl halftime show. As a member of NSYNC, Timberlake appeared in the Super Bowl XXXV (2001) halftime show, and as a guest artist in the Super Bowl XXXVIII (2004), which performance featured a controversial incident where Timberlake accidentally exposed one of Janet Jackson 's breasts on national television, described as a wardrobe malfunction. The Parents Television Council penned an open letter to Timberlake asking to keep the performance "family - friendly. '' While the organization acknowledged that Timberlake apologized for the 2004 incident, they asked him to stay true to his word, saying "we are heartened by your response that the events of 2004 are not going to happen in 2018, '' as the singer stated in a prior interview that "we are not going to do that again. ''
In an interview with Billboard, Pepsi executives expressed:
We are all big fans of Justin Timberlake. We 've kind of felt that Justin deserves, and has for a number of years, to be the main artist for the halftime show because previously he was n't the main artist. It was just about the timing. To be honest, we have discussed Justin for the last number of years for coming and doing halftime, and this year just felt really right to us. He is hands down one of the greatest entertainers currently alive, it was a no - brainer. We know he 's gon na bring it.
The Halftime Show included a remembrance for Indianapolis Colts linebacker Edwin Jackson, who died just hours before Super Bowl LII after being struck by a vehicle.
During the performance, Timberlake wore an outfit designed by Stella McCartney, which consists of "alter nappa fringed jacket with a shirt, featuring a landscape artwork by British artist Martin Ridley, '' according to a press release. Also part of the look is a Prince of Wales - check and camouflage splatter - print suit and matching jacket. As usual for McCartney, these pieces were made from animal - free leather and organic cotton.
Timberlake stated in a press conference that there would be no guest musicians in the halftime show and that the event would focus solely on himself and his backing band, the Tennessee Kids. Regarding the Prince tribute, the performance 's creative visual lead, Fireplay 's Nick Whitehouse, told Rolling Stone:
Paying tribute to Prince was something JT highlighted as an important moment for this show, and we spent quite a bit of time ensuring this moment would be true to his legacy. Ultimately, Justin decided that the only person who could do Prince justice is Prince. The band held 50 - hours worth of rehearsals in preparation for the show.
Prince had previously stated he did not want to be included in new music after death in a 1998 interview, citing The Beatles ' "Free as a Bird '' as an example of a practice he considered to be "demonic. '' His family granted permission to use Prince 's likeness on the condition that it not be used in a hologram, and they approved of the final result. Sheila E, a former bandmate of Prince 's who was involved in negotiations over the use of his likeness, stated that "a bigger company '' (she declined to specify whether it was Pepsi or the NFL) had insisted on including the Prince apparition and that the notion was not originally Timberlake 's idea.
Despite the lack of an individual guest artist, the more than 300 - member University of Minnesota Marching Band was featured in the show. The band 's drumline, brass, and saxophone sections pre-recorded and performed with Timberlake during his performance of "Suit & Tie. '' The upper woodwind and auxiliary sections led drill formations and held large mirrors during Timberlake 's performance of his song "Mirrors '', and acted as fans and dancers throughout other portions of the show, including the club scene at the show 's opening. All members of the band were featured on the field in the show 's finale, "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! ''. The band had previously performed in the halftime show of Super Bowl XXVI.
Timberlake 's performance received mixed reviews. In a positive review, Bruce R. Miller of Sioux City Journal wrote "Timberlake is a masterful live performer -- which made Sunday 's Super Bowl performance about the only sure bet, '' he continued commenting the performer "did a lot of infectious dancing and managed to play with the crowd like no other. '' Although it did not have a moment that "stuck, '' he considered the Prince tribute the best moment of the show. In a similarly positive review, Taylor Weatherby of Billboard said "there is no denying that Timberlake absolutely rocked his first headlining (halftime) '', further adding "Timberlake 's halftime show was undeniably mesmerizing. From starting in the concourse to making his way into the crowd (and making # SelfieKid an instant superstar) for the ending. '' She also considered it "is made for a TV experience '' rather than for the public in the stadium, mainly for the sound quality difficulties, but also criticized him for including Rock Your Body in the set list. From the same magazine, Nina Braca wrote "his moves were on point, '' and Andrew Ubterberger said two things were "relatively certain '' about the performance. "most of America would love it, and most of the Internet would hate it, '' and added Timberlake was "in a situation that was both a ca n't - lose and a ca n't - win. It would 've been virtually impossible for him to please the critics he 'd alienated over the last couple years. '' Also from Billboard, Andrew Unterberge wrote, "Timberlake 's audio was somewhat lacking throughout... but the choreography, live - band energy and song selection were all pretty impeccable ''.
Chris Willman of Variety stated that, "Timberlake turned in a more enjoyably physical performance than just about anybody else who 's done the Bowl show... and if it was more a feat of athleticism than aestheticism, you ca n't say that 's entirely inappropriate for the occasion. '' Willman also wrote that the show, "was n't one for the ages, but was impressive as a show of athleticism ''
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times wrote that Timberlake 's performance was, "heavy on dance spectacle, light on vocal authority ''. Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called the show, "energetic, but also entirely lacking in live excitement. '' Feinberg criticized the show for largely lacking spontaneity and live vocals. Feinberg wrote that Timberlake delivered, "one of the most over-planned, least surprising performances imaginable. '' Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly graded Timberlake 's performance a "C '', calling it, "dutiful, and empty ''. Franich faulted Timberlake for playing too safe with his performance. Similarly, Fran Guan of Vulture.com wrote, "Technically speaking, Timberlake 's set was a testament to precision ''. Guan, however, criticized Timberlake 's performance from lacking in personality, and regarded his performance as unmemorable.
The Guardian gave Timberlake 3 out of 5 stars, calling his performance forgettable but flashy. In an interview with NPR, Ann Powers said that "the entire performance was shrouded in the sense of Timberlake not being right for this moment -- and the Janet Jackson controversy haunted it. '' Daniel D'Addarrio of Time.com gave the performance a negative review, criticizing Timberlake for singing Cry Me A River in addition to Rock Your Body, calling the song 's lyrics about an evil promiscuous woman out of step with the national mood, and said that the only message from Timberlake 's performance was that he loves his back catalog Deadline felt "but you could see the motions more than you felt the music. '' Chris Richards of The Washington Post regarded Timberlake 's performance as, "unambiguously underwhelming ''.
USA Today and Vulture compared Timberlake 's performance unfavorably to Prince 's own 2007 halftime show. Amanda Petrusich of The New Yorker wrote that Timberlake 's decision to omit the end of "Rock Your Body '' (which was performed during the controversial 2004 halftime) felt, "less like an apology than yet more spineless deflection ''. However, Andrew Unterberge of Billboard considered Timberlake 's decision to cut the song short to be wise. Timberlake 's Stella McCartney - designed outfit received negative reviews, with some critics regarding it as "tacky ''. The LA Times also gave a very critical review, one which also stated that Timberlake had nothing to say in his performance, and said that it lacked soul and meaning. The Digital Journal gave him 2 / 5 stars and called it lackluster.
The Super Bowl LII halftime show was seen by 106.6 million television viewers in the United States, 9 % less than Lady Gaga 's in 2017. It had higher average viewership than the game itself, and the decline for the halftime show was roughly in line with that of the game as a whole, which had lost 7 % compared to the previous year.
According to initial sales reports from Nielsen Music, sales of the songs Timberlake performed during the halftime show gained 534 % in the United States on February 4, the day of the Super Bowl, compared to Feb. 3, while his streams on Spotify gained 214 %. Janet Jackson likewise gained 150 % on Spotify.
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which of the following is an example of regulatory capture | Regulatory capture - wikipedia
Regulatory capture is a form of government failure which occurs when a regulatory agency, created to act in the public interest, instead advances the commercial or political concerns of special interest groups that dominate the industry or sector it is charged with regulating. When regulatory capture occurs, the interests of firms or political groups are prioritized over the interests of the public, leading to a net loss for society. Government agencies suffering regulatory capture are called "captured agencies ''.
For public choice theorists, regulatory capture occurs because groups or individuals with a high - stakes interest in the outcome of policy or regulatory decisions can be expected to focus their resources and energies in attempting to gain the policy outcomes they prefer, while members of the public, each with only a tiny individual stake in the outcome, will ignore it altogether. Regulatory capture refers to the actions by interest groups when this imbalance of focused resources devoted to a particular policy outcome is successful at "capturing '' influence with the staff or commission members of the regulatory agency, so that the preferred policy outcomes of the special interest groups are implemented.
Regulatory capture theory is a core focus of the branch of public choice referred to as the economics of regulation; economists in this specialty are critical of conceptualizations of governmental regulatory intervention as being motivated to protect public good. Often cited articles include Bernstein (1955), Huntington (1952), Laffont & Tirole (1991), and Levine & Forrence (1990). The theory of regulatory capture is associated with Nobel laureate economist George Stigler, one of its main developers.
Likelihood of regulatory capture is a risk to which an agency is exposed by its very nature. This suggests that a regulatory agency should be protected from outside influence as much as possible. Alternatively, it may be better to not create a given agency at all lest the agency become victim, in which case it may serve its regulated subjects rather than those whom the agency was designed to protect. A captured regulatory agency is often worse than no regulation, because it wields the authority of government. However, increased transparency of the agency may mitigate the effects of capture. Recent evidence suggests that, even in mature democracies with high levels of transparency and media freedom, more extensive and complex regulatory environments are associated with higher levels of corruption (including regulatory capture).
There is substantial academic literature suggesting that smaller government units are easier for small, concentrated industries to capture than large ones. For example, a group of states or provinces with a large timber industry might have their legislature and / or their delegation to the national legislature captured by lumber companies. These states or provinces then becomes the voice of the industry, even to the point of blocking national policies that would be preferred by the majority across the whole federation. Moore and Giovinazzo (2012) call this "distortion gap ''.
The opposite scenario is possible with very large industries, however. Very large and powerful industries (e.g. energy, banking, weapon system construction) can capture national governments, and then use that power to block policies at the federal, state or provincial level that the voters may want, although even local interests can thwart national priorities.
The idea of regulatory capture has an obvious economic basis, in that vested interests in an industry have the greatest financial stake in regulatory activity and are more likely to be motivated to influence the regulatory body than dispersed individual consumers, each of whom has little particular incentive to try to influence regulators. When regulators form expert bodies to examine policy, this invariably features current or former industry members, or at the very least, individuals with contacts in the industry. Capture is also facilitated in situations where consumers or taxpayers have a poor understanding of underlying issues and businesses enjoy a knowledge advantage.
Some economists, such as Jon Hanson and his co-authors, argue that the phenomenon extends beyond just political agencies and organizations. Businesses have an incentive to control anything that has power over them, including institutions from the media, academia and popular culture, thus they will try to capture them as well. This phenomenon is called "deep capture ''.
Regulatory public interest is based on market failure and welfare economics. It holds that regulation is the response of the government to public needs. Its purpose is to make up for market failures, improve the efficiency of resource allocation, and maximize social welfare. Posner pointed out that the public interest theory contains the assumption that the market is fragile, and that if left unchecked, it will tend to be unfair and inefficient, and government regulation is a costless and effective way to meet the needs of social justice and efficiency. Mimik believes that government regulation is a public administration policy that focuses on private behavior. It is a rule drawn from the public interest. Irving and Brouhingan saw regulation as a way of obeying public needs and weakening the risk of market operations. It also expressed the view that regulation reflects the public interest.
The review of the United States ' regulation of history at the end of the 19th century, especially the regulation of railway tariffs by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) in 1887, revealed that regulations and market failures are not relevant. At least until the 1960s, in terms of regulatory experience, regulation was developed in the direction of favoring producers, and regulation increased the profits of manufacturers within the industry. In potentially competitive industries such as the trucking industry and the taxi industry, regulations allow pricing to be higher than cost and prevent entrants.In the natural monopoly industries such as the electric power industry, there are facts that regulation has little effect on prices, so the industry can earn profits above normal profits. Empirical evidence proves that regulation is beneficial to producers.
These empirical observations have led to the emergence and development of regulatory capture theory. Contrary to regulatory public interest theory, regulation capture theory holds that the provision of regulation is adapting to the industry 's need for regulation, that is, the legislator is controlled and captured by the industry in regulation, and the regulation institution is gradually controlled by the industry. That is, the regulator is captured by the industry. The basic view of the regulatory capture theory is that no matter how the regulatory scheme is designed, the regulation of an industry by a regulatory agency is actually "captured '' by the industry. The implication is that regulation increases the profits of the industry rather than social welfare.
The above - mentioned regulatory capture theory is essentially a purely capture theory in the early days, that is, the regulators and legislators were captured and controlled by the industry. The later regulatory models such as Stiegler (Stigler Model) - Pelzmann (Pelzmann Model) - Becker (Becker Model) belong to the regulatory capture theory in the eyes of Posner (1974) and others. Because these models all reflect that regulators and legislators are not pursuing the maximization of public interests, but the maximization of private interests, that is, using "private interest '' theory to explain the origin and purpose of regulation. Aton (1986) argues that Stigler 's theoretical logic is clear and more central than the previous "capture theory '' hypothesis, but it is difficult to distinguish between the two.
Regulatory capture theory has a specific meaning, that is, an experience statement that regulations are beneficial for producers in real life. In fact, it is essentially not a true regulatory theory. Although the analysis results are similar to the Stigler model provide interpretation and support for the regulatory capture theory is beneficial for producers, however the analysis methods of the latter are completely different. Stigler used standard economic analysis methods to analyze the regulation behavior, then created a new regulatory theory - regulatory economic theory. Of course, different divisions depend on the criteria for division, and they essentially depend on the researchers ' different understanding of specific concepts.
Justice Douglas ' dissent in Sierra Club v Morton describes concern that regulatory agencies become too favorable with their regulated industries.
There are two basic types of regulatory capture:
Another distinction can be made between capture retained by big firms and by small firms. While Stigler mainly referred, in his work, to large firms capturing regulators by bartering their vast resources (materialist capture) -- small firms are more prone to retain non-materialist capture via a special underdog rhetoric.
Regulatory capture theory is very much in line with the history of regulation and is therefore more convincing than the regulatory public interest. Nevertheless, the regulatory capture theory also faces the same criticism as the regulatory public interest theory, such as the lack of a solid theoretical basis. The reason is that the regulatory capture theory does not explain how the regulation is gradually controlled and captured by the industry. There are many interest groups affected by regulation, including consumers, labor organizations, and manufacturers. Why is regulation controlled by manufacturers and not influenced by other interest groups? The original form of the regulatory capture theory did not provide some explanation for this; it simply assumes that regulation is biased towards producers.
Although there is much evidence to support the regulatory capture theory, there are still some contradictory rules of thumb. The two characteristics of regulation are cross-subsidization and preference for small - scale producers. Cross-subsidy refers to the fact that a product diversified company sets the price of certain commodities under the average cost, and compensates the loss of the former by the sales income of other commodities whose price is higher than the average cost. Such pricing behavior contradicts the maximization of profits. Therefore, it can not be said that regulation is biased towards producers. Cross-subsidies usually appear in the following regulated industries: railways, aviation, and inter-city communications. It usually takes the form of charging the same price to different consumers, although the marginal cost of delivering products to different consumers varies. Another characteristic of regulation is that it usually favors small - scale producers. Small - scale production companies often obtain higher profits under regulatory conditions than large - scale manufacturers, and under non-regulation, they often earn very little.
The most powerful evidence against the regulatory capture theory lies in the fact that there are many regulations in real life that are not supported by industry. The level of industrial profits has been reduced because of regulations, including the regulation of oil and gas prices, and the social regulation of the environment, product safety, and worker safety. Magat (1981) commented that, assuming that the regulatory capture theory of was very correct, a series of deregulation rules such as aviation, cable television, natural gas and petroleum pricing would not have taken place in the late 1970s, and people would not see the passage of the tax reform bill in 1986, the bill transferred considerable household tax burdens to companies. This shows that the theory of captive prisoners is difficult to explain the internal reasons why many industries are regulated and later loosened.
In the aftermath of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the Minerals Management Service (MMS), which had regulatory responsibility for offshore oil drilling, was widely cited as an example of regulatory capture. The MMS then became the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) and on October 1, 2010, the collection of mineral leases was split off from the agency and placed under the Department of the Interior as the Office of Natural Resources Revenue (ONRR). On October 1, 2011, BOEMRE was then split into two bureaus, the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM).
The three - stage reorganization, including the name change to BOEMRE, was part of a re-organization by Ken Salazar, who was sworn into office as the new Secretary of the Interior on the same day the name change was announced. Salazar 's appointment was controversial because of his ties to the energy industry. As a senator, Salazar voted against an amendment to repeal tax breaks for ExxonMobil and other major petroleum companies and in 2006, he voted to end protections that limit offshore oil drilling in Florida 's Gulf Coast. One of Salazar 's immediate tasks was to "(end) the department 's coziness with the industries it regulates '' but Daniel R. Patterson, a member of the Arizona House of Representatives, said "Salazar has a disturbingly weak conservation record, particularly on energy development, global warming, endangered wildlife and protecting scientific integrity. It 's no surprise oil and gas, mining, agribusiness and other polluting industries that have dominated Interior are supporting rancher Salazar -- he 's their friend. '' Indeed, a spokesman for the National Mining Association, which lobbies for the mining industry, praised Salazar, saying that he was not doctrinaire about the use of public lands.
MMS had allowed BP and dozens of other companies to drill in the Gulf of Mexico without first attaining permits to assess threats to endangered species, as required by law. BP and other companies were also given a blanket exemption (categorical exclusion) from having to provide environmental impact statements. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issued strong warnings about the risks posed by such drilling and in a 2009 letter, accused MMS of understating the likelihood and potential consequences of a major spill in the Gulf of Mexico. The letter further accused MMS of highlighting the safety of offshore drilling while understating the risks and impact of spills and playing down the fact that spills had been increasing. Both current and former MMS staff scientists said their reports were overruled and altered if they found high risk of accident or environmental impact. Kieran Suckling, director of the Center for Biological Diversity, said, "MMS has given up any pretense of regulating the offshore oil industry. The agency seems to think its mission is to help the oil industry evade environmental laws. ''
After the Deepwater accident occurred, Salazar said he would delay granting any further drilling permits. Three weeks later, at least five more permits had been issued by the minerals agency. In March 2011, BOEMRE began issuing more offshore drilling permits in the Gulf of Mexico. Michael Bromwich, head of BOEMRE, said he was disturbed by the speed at which some oil and gas companies were shrugging off Deepwater Horizon as "a complete aberration, a perfect storm, one in a million, '' but would nonetheless soon be granting more permits to drill for oil and gas in the gulf.
In October 2010, George H. Painter, one of the two Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) administrative law judges, retired, and in the process requested that his cases not be assigned to the other judge, Bruce C. Levine. Painter wrote, "On Judge Levine 's first week on the job, nearly twenty years ago, he came into my office and stated that he had promised Wendy Gramm, then Chairwoman of the Commission, that we would never rule in a complainant 's favor, '' Painter wrote. "A review of his rulings will confirm that he fulfilled his vow. '' In further explaining his request, he wrote, "Judge Levine, in the cynical guise of enforcing the rules, forces pro se complainants to run a hostile procedural gauntlet until they lose hope, and either withdraw their complaint or settle for a pittance, regardless of the merits of the case. '' Gramm, wife of former Senator Phil Gramm, was accused of helping Goldman Sachs, Enron and other large firms gain influence over the commodity markets. After leaving the CFTC, Wendy Gramm joined the board of Enron.
Natural gas drilling increased in the United States after the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said in 2004 that hydraulic fracturing "posed little or no threat '' to drinking water. Also known as "fracking '', the process was invented by Halliburton in the 1940s. Whistleblower Weston Wilson says that the EPA 's conclusions were "unsupportable '' and that five of the seven - member review panel that made the decision had conflicts of interest. A New York Times editorial said the 2004 study "whitewashed the industry and was dismissed by experts as superficial and politically motivated. '' The EPA is currently prohibited by law from regulating fracking, the result of the "Halliburton Loophole, '' a clause added to the 2005 energy bill at the request of then - vice president Dick Cheney, who was CEO of Halliburton before becoming vice president. Legislation to close the loophole and restore the EPA 's authority to regulate hydraulic fracturing has been referred to committee in both the House and the Senate.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has a dual - mandate both to promote aviation and to regulate its safety. A report by the Department of Transportation that found FAA managers had allowed Southwest Airlines to fly 46 airplanes in 2006 and 2007 that were overdue for safety inspections, ignoring concerns raised by inspectors. Audits of other airlines resulted in two airlines grounding hundreds of planes, causing thousands of flight cancellations. The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee investigated the matter after two FAA whistleblowers, inspectors Charalambe "Bobby '' Boutris and Douglas E. Peters, contacted them. Boutris said he attempted to ground Southwest after finding cracks in the fuselage, but was prevented by supervisors he said were friendly with the airline. The committee subsequently held hearings in April 2008. James Oberstar, former chairman of the committee said its investigation uncovered a pattern of regulatory abuse and widespread regulatory lapses, allowing 117 aircraft to be operated commercially although not in compliance with FAA safety rules. Oberstar said there was a "culture of coziness '' between senior FAA officials and the airlines and "a systematic breakdown '' in the FAA 's culture that resulted in "malfeasance, bordering on corruption. ''
On July 22, 2008, a bill was unanimously approved in the House to tighten regulations concerning airplane maintenance procedures, including the establishment of a whistleblower office and a two - year "cooling off '' period that FAA inspectors or supervisors of inspectors must wait before they can work for those they regulated. The bill also required rotation of principal maintenance inspectors and stipulated that the word "customer '' properly applies to the flying public, not those entities regulated by the FAA. The bill died in a Senate committee that year. In 2008 the FAA proposed to fine Southwest $10.2 million for failing to inspect older planes for cracks, and in 2009 Southwest and the FAA agreed that Southwest would pay a $7.5 million penalty and would adapt new safety procedures, with the fine doubling if Southwest failed to follow through. In September 2009, the FAA administrator issued a directive mandating that the agency use the term "customers '' only to refer to the flying public.
Prior to the deregulation of the US air industry, the Civil Aeronautics Board served to maintain an oligopoly of US airlines.
In a June 2010 article on regulatory capture, the FAA was cited as an example of "old - style '' regulatory capture, "in which the airline industry openly dictates to its regulators its governing rules, arranging for not only beneficial regulation but placing key people to head these regulators. ''
Legal scholars have pointed to the possibility that federal agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) had been captured by media conglomerates. Peter Schuck of Yale Law School has argued that the FCC is subject to capture by the media industries ' leaders and therefore reinforce the operation of corporate cartels in a form of "corporate socialism '' that serves to "regressively tax consumers, impoverish small firms, inhibit new entry, stifle innovation, and diminish consumer choice ''. The FCC selectively granted communications licenses to some radio and television stations in a process that excludes other citizens and little stations from having access to the public.
Michael K. Powell, who served on the FCC for eight years and was chairman for four, was appointed president and chief executive officer of the National Cable & Telecommunications Association, a lobby group. As of April 25, 2011, he will be the chief lobbyist and the industry 's liaison with Congress, the White House, the FCC and other federal agencies.
Meredith Attwell Baker was one of the FCC commissioners who approved a controversial merger between NBC Universal and Comcast. Four months later, she announced her resignation from the FCC to join Comcast 's Washington, D.C. lobbying office. Legally, she is prevented from lobbying anyone at the FCC for two years and an agreement made by Comcast with the FCC as a condition of approving the merger will ban her from lobbying any executive branch agency for life. Nonetheless, Craig Aaron, of Free Press, who opposed the merger, complained that "the complete capture of government by industry barely raises any eyebrows '' and said public policy would continue to suffer from the "continuously revolving door at the FCC ''.
Ajit V. Pai, a former lawyer for Verizon, is the current FCC chairman.
The Federal Reserve Bank of New York (New York Fed) is the most influential of the Federal Reserve Banking System. Part of the New York Fed 's responsibilities is the regulation of Wall Street, but its president is selected by and reports to a board dominated by the chief executives of some of the banks it oversees. While the New York Fed has always had a closer relationship with Wall Street, during the years that Timothy Geithner was president, he became unusually close with the scions of Wall Street banks, a time when banks and hedge funds were pursuing investment strategies that caused the 2008 financial crisis, which the Fed failed to stop.
During the financial crisis, several major banks that were on the verge of collapse were rescued with government emergency funding. Geithner engineered the New York Fed 's purchase of $30 billion of credit default swaps from American International Group (AIG), which it had sold to Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, Deutsche Bank and Société Générale. By purchasing these contracts, the banks received a "back - door bailout '' of 100 cents on the dollar for the contracts. Had the New York Fed allowed AIG to fail, the contracts would have been worth much less, resulting in much lower costs for any taxpayer - funded bailout. Geithner defended his use of unprecedented amounts of taxpayer funds to save the banks from their own mistakes, saying the financial system would have been threatened. At the January 2010 congressional hearing into the AIG bailout, the New York Fed initially refused to identify the counterparties that benefited from AIG 's bailout, claiming the information would harm AIG. When it became apparent this information would become public, a legal staffer at the New York Fed e-mailed colleagues to warn them, lamenting the difficulty of continuing to keep Congress in the dark. Jim Rickards calls the bailout a crime and says "the regulatory system has become captive to the banks and the non-banks ''.
Some have accused the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of acting in the interests of the agricultural, food and pharmaceutical industries at the expense of consumer health interests. One example cited by critics is the approval of recombinant Bovine somatotropin, in which were involved three FDA employees with ties to Monsanto, the company that was seeking approval, namely Margaret Miller, Michael R. Taylor, and Suzanne Sechen. However, in response to a lawsuit that was brought by Jeremy Rifkin with respect to potential conflicts of interest, the FDA released the results of an internal audit that found no conflicts and in 1992 the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) conducted an investigation and found ' no conflicting financial interests with respect to the drug 's approval ' and only ' one minor deviation from now superseded FDA regulations '. (Quotations are from the 1994 GAO report) ".
Historians, political scientists, and economists have often used the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), a now - defunct federal regulatory body in the United States, as a classic example of regulatory capture. The creation of the ICC was the result of widespread and longstanding anti-railroad agitation. Richard Olney joined the Grover Cleveland administration as attorney general not long after the ICC was established. Olney, formerly a prominent railroad lawyer, was asked if he could do something to get rid of the ICC. He replied,
The Commission... is, or can be made, of great use to the railroads. It satisfies the popular clamor for a government supervision of the railroads, at the same time that supervision is almost entirely nominal. Further, the older such a commission gets to be, the more inclined it will be found to take the business and railroad view of things.... The part of wisdom is not to destroy the Commission, but to utilize it.
While the Interstate Commerce Act forbade "undue and unreasonable prejudice '' against interstate passengers, in the sixty - six years before Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company (1955) the ICC had ruled against every black petitioner bringing a racial segregation complaint, earning the nickname "The Supreme Court of the Confederacy ''. The ICC then failed to enforce Keys vs. Carolina Coach, attempting to justify segregation on a separate but equal basis for six years before being forced by the Department of Justice under then Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to act in response to the Freedom Riders protests of 1961.
According to Frank N. von Hippel, despite the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in Pennsylvania, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has often been too timid in ensuring that America 's 104 commercial reactors are operated safely:
Nuclear power is a textbook example of the problem of "regulatory capture '' -- in which an industry gains control of an agency meant to regulate it. Regulatory capture can be countered only by vigorous public scrutiny and Congressional oversight, but in the 32 years since Three Mile Island, interest in nuclear regulation has declined precipitously.
Then - candidate Barack Obama said in 2007 that the five - member NRC had become "captive of the industries that it regulates '' and Joe Biden indicated he had absolutely no confidence in the agency.
The NRC has given a license to "every single reactor requesting one '', according to Greenpeace USA nuclear policy analyst Jim Riccio to refer to the agency approval process as a "rubber stamp ''. In Vermont, ten days after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that damaged Japan 's Daiichi plant in Fukushima, the NRC approved a 20 - year extension for the license of Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant, although the Vermont state legislature had voted overwhelmingly to deny such an extension. The Vermont plant uses the same GE Mark 1 reactor design as the Fukushima Daiichi plant. The plant had been found to be leaking radioactive materials through a network of underground pipes, which Entergy, the company running the plant, had denied under oath even existed. Representative Tony Klein, who chaired the Vermont House Natural Resources and Energy Committee, said that when he asked the NRC about the pipes at a hearing in 2009, the NRC did n't know about their existence, much less that they were leaking. On March 17, 2011, the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) released a study critical of the NRC 's 2010 performance as a regulator. The UCS said that through the years, it had found the NRC 's enforcement of safety rules has not been "timely, consistent, or effective '' and it cited 14 "near - misses '' at U.S. plants in 2010 alone. Tyson Slocum, an energy expert at Public Citizen said the nuclear industry has "embedded itself in the political establishment '' through "reliable friends from George Bush to Barack Obama '', that the government "has really just become cheerleaders for the industry. ''
Although the exception, there have been instances of a revolving door. Jeffrey Merrifield, who was on the NRC from 1997 to 2008 and was appointed by presidents Clinton and Bush, left the NRC to take an executive position at The Shaw Group, which has a nuclear division regulated by the NRC. However, most former commissioners return to academia or public service in other agencies.
A year - long Associated Press (AP) investigation showed that the NRC, working with the industry, has relaxed regulations so that aging reactors can remain in operation. The AP found that wear and tear of plants, such as clogged lines, cracked parts, leaky seals, rust and other deterioration resulted in 26 alerts about emerging safety problems and may have been a factor in 113 of the 226 alerts issued by the NRC between 2005 and June 2011. The NRC repeatedly granted the industry permission to delay repairs and problems often grew worse before they were fixed.
However, a paper by Stanford University economics professors John B. Taylor and Frank A. Wolak compared the financial services and nuclear industries. While acknowledging both are susceptible in principle to regulatory capture, they concluded regulatory failure -- including through regulatory capture -- has been much more of a problem in the financial industry and even suggested the financial industry create an analog to the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations to reduce regulatory risk.
The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) has strongly opposed the efforts of the 50 state attorneys general, who have banded together to penalize banks and reform the mortgage modification process, following the subprime mortgage crisis and the financial crisis of 2008. This example was cited in The New York Times as evidence that the OCC is "a captive of the banks it is supposed to regulate ''.
The United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has also been accused of acting in the interests of Wall Street banks and hedge funds and of dragging its feet or refusing to investigate cases or bring charges for fraud and insider trading. Financial analyst Harry Markopolos, who spent ten years trying to get the SEC to investigate Bernie Madoff, called the agency "nonfunctional, captive to the industry. ''
Similarly in the case of the Allen Stanford Ponzi scheme, there were repeated warnings of fraud from both inside and outside the SEC for more than a decade. But the agency did not stop the fraud until 2009, after the Madoff scandal became public in 2008.
The SEC has been found by the U.S. Senate Committee on Finance, the Senate Judiciary Committee and a federal district court to have illegally dismissed an employee in September 2005 who was critical of superiors ' refusal to pursue Wall Street titan John Mack. Mack was suspected of giving insider information to Arthur J. Samberg, head of Pequot Capital Management, once one of the world 's largest hedge funds. After more than four years of legal battles, former SEC investigator Gary J. Aguirre filed papers in a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) case he had against the SEC, seeking an order to force the SEC to turn over Pequot investigation records to him on the grounds that they had not charged anyone. Aguirre had already provided incriminating evidence of Pequot 's insider trading involving Microsoft trades to the SEC in a letter on January 2, 2009. The morning after Aguirre 's FOIA papers were filed, the SEC announced they had filed charges against Pequot and Pequot had agreed to disgorge $18 million in illegal gains and pay $10 million in penalties. A month later, the SEC settled Aguirre 's wrongful termination lawsuit for $755,000.
The list of officials who have left the SEC for highly lucrative jobs in the private sector and who sometimes have returned to the SEC includes Arthur Levitt, Robert Khuzami, Linda Chatman Thomsen, Richard H. Walker, Gary Lynch and Paul R. Berger. The Project on Government Oversight (POGO) released a report on May 13, 2011, which found that between 2006 and 2010, 219 former SEC employees sought to represent clients before the SEC. Former employees filed 789 statements notifying the SEC of their intent to represent outside clients before the commission, some filing within days of leaving the SEC.
Reporter Matt Taibbi calls the SEC a classic case of regulatory capture and the SEC has been described as an agency that was set up to protect the public from Wall Street, but now protects Wall Street from the public. On August 17, 2011, Taibbi reported that in July 2001, a preliminary fraud investigation against Deutsche Bank was stymied by Richard H. Walker, then SEC enforcement director, who began working as general counsel for Deutsche Bank in October 2001. Darcy Flynn, an SEC lawyer, the whistleblower who exposed this case also revealed that for 20 years, the SEC had been routinely destroying all documents related to thousands of preliminary inquiries that were closed rather than proceeding to formal investigation. The SEC is legally required to keep files for 25 years and destruction is supposed to be done by the National Archives and Records Administration. The lack of files deprives investigators of possible background when investigating cases involving those firms. Documents were destroyed for inquiries into Bernard Madoff, Goldman Sachs, Lehman Brothers, Citigroup, Bank of America and other major Wall Street firms that played key roles in the 2008 financial crisis. The SEC has since changed its policy on destroying those documents and the SEC investigator general is investigating the matter.
The decision known as In re Amway Corp., and popularly called Amway ' 79, made the FTC a captive regulator of the nascent Multi-Level Marketing industry. The situation came to a head in December 2012 when hedge fund Pershing Square Capital Management announced an $1 billion short position against the company, and evidently expected the FTC to act, which to date it did not. From a forensic accounting standpoint, there is no difference between a Ponzi - scheme like the Madoff scandal, and a pyramid scheme, except that in the latter the money is laundered through product sales, not investment. The press has widely reported on why the FTC wo n't act, e.g. Forbes though legal opinion has been very supportive in some quarters, such as Prof. William K. Black, who was instrumental in bringing thousands of criminal prosecutions in the S&L scandal, which was also rife with problems of regulatory capture.
The District of Columbia Taxicab Commission has been criticized for being beholden to taxi companies and drivers rather than ensuring that the District has access to a "safe, comfortable, efficient and affordable taxicab experience in well - equipped vehicles ''. In particular, the sedan service Uber has faced impediments from the commission and the city council that have prevented it from competing with taxis. Uber 's plan to roll out a less expensive service called UberX was called off after the city council proposed an amendment that would force sedan services to charge at least five times the drop rate of taxis as well as higher time and distance charges, explicitly to prevent Uber from competing with taxis.
Some commentators have acknowledged that while Washington State 's Initiative I - 502 "legalized '' marijuana, it did so in a manner that led to a State run monopoly on legal marijuana stores with prices far above that of the existing medical dispensaries, which the State is now trying to close down in favor of the recreational stores, where prices are 2 to 5 times higher than the product can be obtained elsewhere.
In August 2009, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) provisionally granted a request by Bell Canada to impose usage - based billing on Internet wholesalers, igniting protest from both the wholesalers and consumers, who claimed that the CRTC was "kow - towing to Bell ''.
On February 2, 2011, CRTC chair Konrad von Finckenstein testified before the House of Commons Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology to defend the agency 's decision. Critic Steve Anderson said, "The CRTC 's stubbornness in the face of a mass public outcry demonstrates the strength of the Big Telecom lobby 's influence. While government officials have recognized the need to protect citizens ' communications interests, the CRTC has made it clear that their priorities lie elsewhere. ''
In Japan, the line may be blurred between the goal of solving a problem and the somewhat different goal of making it look as if the problem is being addressed.
Despite warnings about its safety, Japanese regulators from the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) approved a 10 - year extension for the oldest of the six reactors at Fukushima Daiichi just one month before a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami damaged reactors and caused a meltdown. The conclusion to the Diet of Japan 's report on Fukushima attributed this directly to regulatory capture.
Nuclear opponent Eisaku Sato, governor of Fukushima Prefecture from 1988 -- 2006, said a conflict of interest is responsible for NISA 's lack of effectiveness as a watchdog. The agency is under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, which encourages the development of Japan 's nuclear industry. Inadequate inspections are reviewed by expert panels drawn primarily from academia and rarely challenge the agency. Critics say the main weakness in Japan 's nuclear industry is weak oversight. Seismologist Takashi Nakata said, "The regulators just rubber - stamp the utilities ' reports. ''
Both the ministry and the agency have ties with nuclear plant operators, such as Tokyo Electric. Some former ministry officials have been offered lucrative jobs in a practice called amakudari, "descent from heaven ''. A panel responsible for re-writing Japan 's nuclear safety rules was dominated by experts and advisers from utility companies, said seismology professor Katsuhiko Ishibashi who quit the panel in protest, saying it was rigged and "unscientific ''. The new guidelines, established in 2006, did not set stringent industry - wide earthquake standards, rather nuclear plant operators were left to do their own inspections to ensure their plants were compliant. In 2008, the NISA found all of Japan 's reactors to be in compliance with the new earthquake guidelines.
Yoshihiro Kinugasa helped write Japan 's nuclear safety rules, later conducted inspections and still in another position at another date, served on a licensing panel, signing off on inspections.
In 1996, the Ministry of Health and Welfare (now combined with the Ministry of Labour) came under fire over the scandal of HIV - tainted blood being used to treat hemophiliacs.
Although warned about HIV contamination of blood products imported from the U.S., the ministry abruptly changed its position on heated and unheated blood products from the U.S., protecting the Green Cross and the Japanese pharmaceutical industry, keeping the Japanese market from being inundated with heat - treated blood from the United States. Because the unheated blood was not taken off the market, 400 people died and over 3,000 people were infected with HIV.
No senior officials were indicted and only one lower - level manager was indicted and convicted. Critics say the major task of the ministry is the protection of industry, rather than of the population. In addition, bureaucrats get amakudari jobs at related industries in their field upon retirement, a system which serves to inhibit regulators. Moriyo Kimura, a critic who works at MHLW, says the ministry does not look after the interests of the public.
Tobacco control in the Philippines is largely vested in the Inter-Agency Committee on Tobacco (IACT) under Republic Act No. 9211 (Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003). The IACT 's membership includes pro-tobacco groups in the Department of Agriculture and National Tobacco Administration, as well as "a representative from the Tobacco Industry to be nominated by the legitimate and recognized associations of the industry, '' the Philippine Tobacco Institute (composed of the largest local cigarette producers and distributors). In a 2015 Philippine Supreme Court case, the Court ruled that the IACT as the "exclusive authority '' in regulating various aspects tobacco control including access restrictions and tobacco advertisement, promotion, and sponsorships. In this case, the Department of Health, which is the primary technical agency for disease control and prevention, was held to be without authority to create tobacco control regulations unless the IACT delegates this function. The IACT 's organization also limits the Philippines ' enforcement of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.
The academic Thomas Alured Faunce has argued the World Trade Organisation non-violation nullification of benefits claims, particularly when inserted in bilateral trade agreements, can facilitate intense lobbying by industry which can result in effective regulatory capture of large areas of governmental policy.
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where do north korea and south korea meet | Korean Demilitarized Zone - wikipedia
The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ; Hangul: 한반도 비무장 지대; Hanja: 韓 半島 非 武裝 地帶), informally known as the 38th Parallel, is a strip of land running across the Korean Peninsula. It is established by the provisions of the Korean Armistice Agreement to serve as a buffer zone between the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). The Demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border barrier that divides the Korean Peninsula roughly in half. It was created by agreement between North Korea, China and the United Nations in 1953. The DMZ is 250 kilometres (160 miles) long, and about 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) wide.
Within the DMZ is a meeting - point between the two nations in the small Joint Security Area near the western end of the zone, where negotiations take place. There have been various incidents in and around the DMZ, with military and civilian casualties on both sides.
The Korean Demilitarized Zone intersects but does not follow the 38th parallel north, which was the border before the Korean War. It crosses the parallel on an angle, with the west end of the DMZ lying south of the parallel and the east end lying north of it.
The DMZ is 250 kilometres (160 miles) long, approximately 4 km (2.5 mi) wide. Though the zone separating both sides is demilitarized, beyond that strip the border is one of the most heavily militarized borders in the world. The Northern Limit Line, or NLL, is the disputed maritime demarcation line between North and South Korea in the Yellow Sea, not agreed in the armistice. The coastline and islands on both sides of the NLL are also heavily militarized.
The 38th parallel north -- which divides the Korean Peninsula roughly in half -- was the original boundary between the United States and Soviet Union 's brief administration areas of Korea at the end of World War II. Upon the creation of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (DPRK, informally North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (ROK, informally South Korea) in 1948, it became a de facto international border and one of the most tense fronts in the Cold War.
Both the North and the South remained dependent on their sponsor states from 1948 to the outbreak of the Korean War. That conflict, which claimed over three million lives and divided the Korean Peninsula along ideological lines, commenced on 25 June 1950, with a full - front DPRK invasion across the 38th parallel, and ended in 1953 after international intervention pushed the front of the war back to near the 38th parallel.
In the Armistice Agreement of 27 July 1953, the DMZ was created as each side agreed to move their troops back 2,000 m (2,200 yards) from the front line, creating a buffer zone 4 km (2.5 mi) wide. The Military Demarcation Line (MDL) goes through the center of the DMZ and indicates where the front was when the agreement was signed.
Owing to this theoretical stalemate, and genuine hostility between the North and the South, large numbers of troops are still stationed along both sides of the line, each side guarding against potential aggression from the other side. The armistice agreement explains exactly how many military personnel and what kind of weapons are allowed in the DMZ. Soldiers from both sides may patrol inside the DMZ, but they may not cross the MDL; ROK soldiers, however heavily armed, patrol under the aegis of military police, and have memorized each line of the armistice. Sporadic outbreaks of violence have killed over 500 South Korean soldiers, 50 US soldiers and 250 soldiers from DPRK along the DMZ between 1953 and 1999.
Daeseong - dong (also written Tae Sung Dong) and Kijŏng - dong are the only settlements allowed by the armistice committee to remain within the boundaries of the DMZ. Residents of Tae Sung Dong are governed and protected by the United Nations Command and are generally required to spend at least 240 nights per year in the village to maintain their residency. In 2008, the village had a population of 218 people. The villagers of Tae Sung Dong are direct descendants of people who owned the land before the 1950 -- 53 Korean War.
To continue to deter North Korean incursion, in 2014 the United States government exempted the Korean DMZ from its pledge to eliminate anti-personnel landmines.
Inside the DMZ, near the western coast of the peninsula, Panmunjom is the home of the Joint Security Area (JSA). Originally, it was the only connection between North and South Korea but that changed on May 17, 2007 when a Korail train went through the DMZ to the North on the new Donghae Bukbu Line built on the east coast of Korea. However, the resurrection of this line was short lived, as it closed again in July 2008 following an incident where a South Korean tourist was shot to death.
There are several buildings on both the north and the south side of the Military Demarcation Line (MDL), and there have been some built on top of it. The JSA is the location where all negotiations since 1953 have been held, including statements of Korean solidarity, which have generally amounted to little except a slight decline of tensions. The MDL goes through the conference rooms and down the middle of the conference tables where the North Koreans and the United Nations Command (primarily South Koreans and Americans) meet face to face.
Within the JSA are a number of buildings for joint meetings called Conference Row. These are used for direct talks between the Korean War participants and parties to the armistice. Facing the Conference Row buildings are the North Korean Panmungak (English: Panmun Hall) and the South Korean Freedom House. In 1994, North Korea enlarged Panmungak by adding a third floor. In 1998, South Korea built a new Freedom House for its Red Cross staff and to possibly host reunions of families separated by the Korean War. The new building incorporated the old Freedom House Pagoda within its design.
Since 1953 there have been occasional confrontations and skirmishes within the JSA. The Axe murder incident in August 1976 involved the attempted trimming of a tree which resulted in two deaths (Captain Arthur Bonifas and First Lieutenant Mark Barrett). Another incident occurred on 23 November 1984, when a Soviet tourist named Vasily Matuzok (sometimes spelled Matusak), who was part of an official trip to the JSA (hosted by the North), ran across the MDL shouting that he wanted to defect. North Korean troops immediately chased after him opening fire. Border guards on the South Korean side returned fire eventually surrounding the North Koreans as they pursued Matusak. One South Korean and three North Korean soldiers were killed in the action, and Matusak was not captured.
In late 2009, South Korean forces in conjunction with the United Nations Command began renovation of its three guard posts and two checkpoint buildings within the JSA compound. Construction was designed to enlarge and modernize the structures. Work was undertaken a year after North Korea finished replacing four JSA guard posts on its side of the MDL.
Both North and South Korea maintain peace villages in sight of each other 's side of the DMZ. In the South, Daeseong - dong is administered under the terms of the DMZ. Villagers are classed as Republic of Korea citizens, but are exempt from paying tax and other civic requirements such as military service. In the North, Kijŏng - dong features a number of brightly painted, poured - concrete multi-story buildings and apartments with electric lighting. These features represented an unheard - of level of luxury for rural Koreans, north or south, in the 1950s. The town was oriented so that the bright blue roofs and white sides of the buildings would be the most distinguishing features when viewed from the border. However, based on scrutiny with modern telescopic lenses, it has been claimed the buildings are mere concrete shells lacking window glass or even interior rooms, with the building lights turned on and off at set times and the empty sidewalks swept by a skeleton crew of caretakers in an effort to preserve the illusion of activity.
In the 1980s, the South Korean government built a 98.4 m (323 ft) flagpole in Daeseong - dong, which flies a South Korean flag weighing 130 kilograms (287 pounds). In what some have called the "flagpole war, '' the North Korean government responded by building the 160 m (525 ft) Panmunjeom flagpole in Kijŏng - dong, only 1.2 km (0.7 mi) west of the border with South Korea. It flies a 270 kg (595 lb) flag of North Korea. As of 2014, the Panmunjom flagpole is the fourth tallest in the world, after the Jeddah Flagpole in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, at 170 m (558 ft), the Dushanbe Flagpole in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, at 165 m (541 ft) and the pole at the National Flag Square in Baku, Azerbaijan, which is 162 m (531 ft).
Since demarcation, the DMZ has had numerous cases of incidents and incursions by the North Koreans, although the North Korean government typically never acknowledges direct responsibility for any of these incidents (there are exceptions, such as the axe incident). This was particularly intense during the Korean DMZ Conflict (1966 -- 1969) when a series of skirmishes along the DMZ resulted in the deaths of 43 American, 299 South Korean and 397 North Korean soldiers. This included the Blue House Raid in 1968, an attempt to assassinate President Park Chung Hee at the Blue House.
In 1976, in now declassified meeting minutes, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense William Clements told Henry Kissinger that there had been 200 raids or incursions into North Korea from the south, though not by the U.S. military. Details of only a few of these incursions have become public, including raids by South Korean forces in 1967 that had sabotaged about 50 North Korean facilities.
Since 15 November 1974, South Korea has discovered four tunnels crossing the DMZ that had been dug by North Korea; the orientation of the blasting lines within each tunnel indicated they were dug by North Korea. North Korea claimed that the tunnels were for coal mining; however no coal was found in the tunnels, which were dug through granite. Some of the tunnel walls were painted black to give the appearance of anthracite.
The tunnels are believed to have been planned as a military invasion route by North Korea. They run in a north - south direction and do not have branches. Following each discovery, engineering within the tunnels has become progressively more advanced. For example, the third tunnel sloped slightly upwards as it progressed southward, to prevent water stagnation. Today, visitors from the south may visit the second, third and fourth tunnels through guided tours.
The first of the tunnels was discovered on 20 November 1974, by a South Korean Army patrol, noticing steam rising from the ground. The initial discovery was met with automatic fire from North Korean soldiers. Five days later, during a subsequent exploration of this tunnel, US Navy Commander Robert M. Ballinger and ROK Marine Corps Major Kim Hah Chul were killed in the tunnel by a North Korean explosive device. The blast also wounded five Americans and one South Korean from the United Nations Command.
The tunnel, which was about 0.9 by 1.2 m (3 by 4 ft), extended more than 1 km (0.62 mi) beyond the MDL into South Korea. The tunnel was reinforced with concrete slabs and had electric power and lighting. There were weapon storage and sleeping areas. A narrow gauge railway with carts had also been installed. Estimates based on the tunnel 's size suggest it would have allowed approximately 20,000 soldiers to pass through it per hour.
The second tunnel was discovered on 19 March 1975. It is of similar length to the first tunnel. It is located between 50 and 160 m (160 and 520 ft) below ground, but is larger than the first, approximately 2 by 2 m (7 by 7 feet).
The third tunnel was discovered on 17 October 1978. Unlike the previous two, the third tunnel was discovered following a tip from a North Korean defector. This tunnel is about 1,600 m (5,200 ft) long and about 73 m (240 ft) below ground. Foreign visitors touring the South Korean DMZ may view inside this tunnel using a sloped access shaft.
A fourth tunnel was discovered on 3 March 1990, north of Haean town in the former Punchbowl battlefield. The tunnel 's dimensions are 2 by 2 m (7 by 7 feet), and it is 145 metres (476 ft) deep. The method of construction is almost identical in structure to the second and the third tunnels.
According to the DPRK, between 1977 and 1979 the South Korean and United States authorities constructed a concrete wall along the DMZ. The DPRK, however, began to propagate information about the wall only after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, when the symbolism of a wall unjustly dividing a people became more apparent.
Various organisations, such as the DPRK tour guide company Korea Konsult claimed a wall was dividing Korea, saying that:
In the area south of the Military Demarcation Line, which cuts across Korea at its waist, there is a concrete wall which... stretches more than 240 km (149 mi) from east to west, is 5 -- 8 m (16 -- 26 ft) high, 10 -- 19 m (33 -- 62 ft) thick at the bottom, and 3 -- 7 m (10 -- 23 ft) wide in the upper part. It is set with wire entanglements and dotted with gun embrasures, look - outs and varieties of military establishments.
In December 1999, Chu Chang - jun, North Korea 's ambassador to China, repeated claims that a "wall '' divided Korea. He said the south side of the wall is packed with soil, which permits access to the top of the wall and makes it effectively invisible from the south side. He also claimed that it served as a bridgehead for any northward invasion.
The United States and South Korea deny the wall 's existence, although they do claim there are anti-tank barriers along some sections of the DMZ.
In the RT documentary 10 Days in North Korea, the crew shot footage of a wall as seen from the North and described it as a "5 metre high wall stretching from east to west ''. Dutch journalist and filmmaker Peter Tetteroo, too, shot footage of a barrier which his North Korean guides said was the Korean Wall.
The North Korean side of the DMZ primarily serves to defend North Korea from invasion by South Korean forces. However, it also serves a similar function as the Berlin Wall and the inner German border did against its own citizens in the former East Germany in that it stops North Korean citizens from defecting to South Korea.
From the armistice until 1972, approximately 7,700 South Korean soldiers and agents infiltrated North Korea to sabotage military bases and industrial areas.
North Korea has thousands of artillery pieces near the DMZ. Experts believe that 60 percent of its total artillery is positioned within a few kilometers of the DMZ acting as a deterrent against any South Korean invasion because of the damage they could inflict on Seoul and suburbs like Gimpo (population 300,000) and Paju (population 427,668) which is only 10 kilometers from the DMZ. In the event of all - out war it is believed that North Korea could fire 500,000 rounds of artillery on northern Seoul within the first hour.
From 1953 until 2004 both sides broadcast audio propaganda across the DMZ. Massive loudspeakers mounted on several of the buildings delivered DPRK propaganda broadcasts directed towards the south as well as propaganda radio broadcasts across the border. In 2004, the North and South agreed to end the broadcasts.
In August 2015, a border incident occurred where two South Korean soldiers were wounded after stepping on landmines that had allegedly been laid on the southern side of the DMZ by North Korean forces near an ROK guard post. Both North Korea and South Korea then resumed broadcasting propaganda by loudspeaker. After four days of negotiations, on August 25, 2015 South Korea agreed to discontinue the broadcasts following a statement from North Korea 's government expressing "regret '' for the landmine incident.
On 8 January 2016, in response to North Korea 's supposed successful testing of a hydrogen bomb, South Korea resumed broadcasts directed at the north. On April 15th 2016, it was reported that the South Koreans purchased a new stereo system to combat the North 's broadcasts.
Both North and South Korea have held balloon propaganda leaflet campaigns since the Korean War.
In recent years, mainly South Korean non-governmental organizations have been involved in launching balloons targeted at the DMZ and beyond. Due to the winds, the balloons tend to fall near the DMZ where there are mostly North Korean soldiers to see the leaflets. As with the loudspeakers, balloon operations were mutually agreed to be halted between 2004 and 2010. It has been assessed that the activists ' balloons may contribute to the decay of remaining cooperation between the Korean governments, and the DMZ has become more militarized in recent years.
Many North Korean leaflets during the Cold War gave instructions and maps to help the targeted South Korean soldiers in defecting. One of the leaflets found on the DMZ included a map of Cho Dae - hum 's route of defection to North Korea across the DMZ. In addition to using balloons as a means of delivery, North Koreans have also used rockets to send leaflets to the DMZ.
The Civilian Control Line is a line that designates an additional buffer zone to the DMZ within an area of 5 to 20km from the Southern Limit Line of the DMZ. Its purpose is to limit and control the entrance of civilians into the area in order to protect and maintain the security of military facilities and operations near the DMZ. The commander of the 8th US Army ordered the creation of the CCL and it was activated and first became effective in February 1954.
The buffer zone that falls south of the Southern Limit Line is called the Civilian Control Zone. Barbed wire fences and manned military guard posts mark the Civilian Control Line. The Civilian Control Zone is necessary for the military to monitor civilian travel to tourist destinations close to the Southern Limit Line of the DMZ like the discovered infiltration tunnels and tourist observatories. Usually when traveling within the Civilian Control Zone South Korean soldiers accompany tourist buses and cars as armed guards to monitor the civilians as well as to protect them from North Korean intruders.
Right after the ceasefire, the civilian control zone outside the DMZ encompassed 100 or so empty villages. The government implemented migration measures to attract settlers into the area. As a result, in 1983, when the area delineated by the civilian control line was at its largest, a total of 39,725 residents in 8,799 households were living in the 81 villages located within the civilian control zone.
Most of the tourist and media photos of the ' DMZ fence ' are actually photos of the CCL fence. The actual DMZ fence on the Southern Limit Line is completely off - limits to everybody except soldiers and it is illegal to take pictures of the DMZ fence. The CCL fence acts more like a deterrence for South Korean civilians to get too close to the dangerous DMZ and is also the final barrier for North Korean infiltrators if they get past the Southern Limit Line DMZ fence.
The whole estuary of the Han River is deemed a ' Neutral Zone ' and is off - limits to all civilian vessels and is treated like the rest of the DMZ. Only military vessels are allowed within this neutral zone.
According to the July 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement civil shipping was supposed to be permissible in the Han River estuary and allow Seoul to be connected to the Yellow Sea (West Sea) via the Han River. Unfortunately, both Koreas and the UNC failed to make this happen. The South Korean government ordered the construction of the Ara Canal to finally connect Seoul to the Yellow Sea (West Sea), which was completed in 2012. Seoul was effectively landlocked from the ocean until 2012. The biggest limitation of the Ara Canal is it is too narrow to handle any vessels except small tourist boats and recreational boats, so Seoul still ca n't receive large commercial ships or passenger ships in its port.
In recent years Chinese fishing vessels have taken advantage of the tense situation in the Han River Estuary Neutral Zone and illegally fished in this area due to both the North Korean and South Korean navies never patrolling this area due to the fear of naval battles breaking out. This has led to firefights and sinkings of boats between Chinese fishermen and the South Korean Coast Guard.
Within the DMZ itself, in the town of Cheorwon, is the old capital of the kingdom of Taebong (901 - 918), a regional upstart that became Goryeo, the dynasty that ruled a united Korea from 918 to 1392.
Taebong was founded by the charismatic leader Gung Ye, a brilliant if tyrannical one - eyed ex-Buddhist monk. Rebelling against the kingdom of Silla, Korea 's then ruling dynasty, he proclaimed the kingdom of Taebong -- also called Later Goguryeo, in reference to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37BC - 668AD) -- in 901, with himself as king. The kingdom consisted of much of central Korea, including areas around the DMZ. He placed his capital in Cheorwon, a mountainous region that was easily defensible (in the Korean War, this same region would earn the name "the Iron Triangle '').
As a former Buddhist monk, Gung Ye actively promoted the religion of Buddhism and incorporated Buddhist ceremonies into the new kingdom. Even after Gung Ye was dethroned by his own generals and replaced by Wang Geon, the man who would rule over a united Korea as the first king of Goryeo, this Buddhist influence would continue, playing a major role in shaping the culture of medieval Korea.
As the ruins of Gung Ye 's capital lie in the DMZ itself, visitors can not see them. Moreover, excavation work and research have been hampered by political realities. In the future, inter-Korean peace may allow for proper archaeological studies to be conducted on the castle site and other historical sites within and underneath the DMZ.
The ruins of the capital city of Taebong, the ruins of the castle of Gung Ye, and King Gung Ye 's tomb all lie within the DMZ and are off - limits to everybody except soldiers who patrol the DMZ.
Panmunjeom is the site of the negotiations that ended the Korean War and is the main center of human activity in the DMZ. The village is located on the main highway and near a railroad connecting the two Koreas.
The railway, which connects Seoul and Pyongyang, was called the Gyeongui Line before division in the 1940s. Currently the South uses the original name, but the North refers to the route as the P'yŏngbu Line. The railway line has been mainly used to carry materials and South Korean workers to the Kaesong Industrial Region. Its reconnection has been seen as part of the general improvement in the relations between North and South in the early part of this century. However, in November 2008 North Korean authorities closed the railway amid growing tensions with the South. Following the death of former South Korean President, Kim Dae - jung, conciliatory talks were held between South Korean officials and a North Korean delegation who attended Kim 's funeral. In September 2009, the Kaesong rail and road crossing was reopened.
The road at Panmunjeom, which was known historically as Highway One in the South, was originally the only access point between the two countries on the Korean Peninsula. Passage is comparable to the strict movements that occurred at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin at the height of the Cold War. Both North and South Korea 's roads end in the JSA; the highways do not quite join as there is a 20 cm (8 in) concrete line that divides the entire site. People given the rare permission to cross this border must do so on foot before continuing their journey by road.
In 2007, on the east coast of Korea, the first train crossed the DMZ on the new Donghae Bukbu (Tonghae Pukpu) Line. The new rail crossing was built adjacent to the road which took South Koreans to Mount Kumgang Tourist Region, a region that has significant cultural importance for all Koreans. More than one million civilian visitors crossed the DMZ until the route was closed following the shooting of a 53 - year - old South Korean tourist in July 2008. After a joint investigation was rebuffed by the North, the Republic of Korea government suspended tours to the resort. Since then the resort and the Donghae Bukbu Line have effectively been closed by the North.
Currently, The South Korean Railway (Korail) organizes tours to DMZ with special DMZ themed trains.
In the past half century, the Korean DMZ has been a deadly place for humans, making habitation impossible. Only around the village of Panmunjeom and more recently the Dong Bukbu Line on Korea 's east coast have there been regular incursions by people.
This natural isolation along the 250 km (160 mi) length of the DMZ has created an involuntary park which is now recognized as one of the most well - preserved areas of temperate habitat in the world.
Several endangered animal and plant species now exist among the heavily fortified fences, landmines and listening posts. These include the endangered red - crowned crane (a staple of Asian art), the white - naped crane, and, potentially, the extremely rare Siberian tiger, Amur leopard, and Asiatic black bear. Ecologists have identified some 2,900 plant species, 70 types of mammals and 320 kinds of birds within the narrow buffer zone. Additional surveys are now being conducted throughout the region.
The DMZ owes its varied biodiversity to its geography, which crosses mountains, prairies, swamps, lakes, and tidal marshes. Environmentalists hope that the DMZ will be conserved as a wildlife refuge, with a well - developed set of objective and management plans vetted and in place. In 2005, CNN founder and media mogul Ted Turner, on a visit to North Korea, said that he would financially support any plans to turn the DMZ into a peace park and a UN-protected World Heritage Site.
In September 2011, South Korea submitted a nomination form to Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) in UNESCO for designation of 435 km (168 sq mi) in the southern part of the DMZ below the Military Demarcation Line, as well as 2,979 km (1,150 sq mi) in privately controlled areas, as a Biosphere Reserve according to the Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. MAB National Committee of the Republic of Korea mentioned only southern part of DMZ to be nominated since there was no response from Pyongyang when it requested Pyongyang to push jointly. North Korea is a member nation of the international coordinating council of UNESCO 's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, which designates Biosphere Reserves.
North Korea opposed the application as a violation of the armistice agreement during the council 's meeting in Paris on July 9 to 13. The South Korean government 's attempt to designate the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve was turned down at UNESCO 's MAB council meeting in Paris in July 2012. Pyongyang expressed its opposition by sending letters to 32 council member countries, except for South Korea, and the UNESCO headquarters a month prior to the meeting. At the council meeting, Pyongyang said the designation violated the Armistice Agreement. It also said that DMZ is under jurisdiction of South Korea and UNC, therefore it is necessary to gain consent from UNC over the designation. Despite the effort put by Republic of Korea, on 12 July, the MAB International Coordinating Council (ICC) deferred South Korea 's September 2011 application.
Coordinates: 38 ° 19 ′ 44 '' N 127 ° 15 ′ 00 '' E / 38.329 ° N 127.250 ° E / 38.329; 127.250
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who plays kendra in buffy the vampire slayer | Bianca Lawson - wikipedia
Bianca Jasmine Lawson (born March 20, 1979) is an American film and television actress. She is perhaps best known for her regular roles in the television series Saved by the Bell: The New Class, Goode Behavior, Pretty Little Liars, and Rogue. She has also had recurring roles in the series Sister, Sister, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, The Steve Harvey Show, Dawson 's Creek, The Secret Life of the American Teenager, The Vampire Diaries, Teen Wolf, and Witches of East End. In 2016, Lawson began starring in the Oprah Winfrey Network drama series, Queen Sugar.
Lawson was born in Los Angeles, California. She is the daughter of Denise (née Gordy) and actor Richard Lawson, making her the step - daughter to Lawson 's second wife Tina Knowles, and step - sister to singers Beyoncé and Solange Knowles. Lawson is also the great - niece of Motown founder Berry Gordy. She attended the Stella Adler Studio of Acting and graduated from Marymount High School, a Catholic school in Los Angeles. She then went on to study film and psychology at University of Southern California. Lawson 's parents are both African - American, and she also has Italian, Native American, Portuguese, and Creole ancestry.
Lawson began acting at the age of nine, having appeared in commercials for Barbie and Revlon. In 1993, she was cast in the television series Saved by the Bell: The New Class as series regular Megan Jones. She appeared in multiple episodes of The WB sitcoms Sister, Sister as Rhonda Coley and The Steve Harvey Show as Rosalind. In 1996, she co-starred in the UPN sitcom Goode Behavior as family sub-title character Bianca Goode, which lasted for just one season. In 1997, she appeared in Buffy the Vampire Slayer as vampire slayer Kendra Young. In 1999, she appeared in The WB 's Dawson 's Creek as rival character Nikki Green.
In 2009, Lawson was cast as Shawna in The Secret Life of the American Teenager. That same year, she was cast in the CW television series The Vampire Diaries, as witch Emily Bennett. In December 2009, she was cast as Maya St. Germain in the ABC Family series Pretty Little Liars, based on the book series by Sara Shepard. She appeared in that show from June 2010 through August 2012. Since 2012, she has had a recurring role as Ms. Morell in the MTV television series Teen Wolf, based on the original film from 1985. In 2014, Lawson had a recurring role as Eva in Witches of East End. In 2015, she was cast as series regular Talia Freeman in season three of Rogue.
Lawson has made appearances in two different television miniseries. In 1998, she appeared in The Temptations as Diana Ross (whom Lawson is related to through Ross 's daughter Rhonda Ross Kendrick); and in 2001, she was cast as Anna Bella Monroe in Anne Rice 's The Feast of All Saints.
Some of Lawson 's film credits to date include Primary Colors (1998), Save the Last Dance (2001), Bones (2001) and Breakin ' All the Rules (2004).
Aside from film and television, Lawson provided her voice to the 2011 video game Star Wars: The Old Republic.
In 2016, Lawson was cast in the Oprah Winfrey Network drama series, Queen Sugar created by Ava DuVernay.
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what three modern countries are on the northern border of greece | Greece - wikipedia
-- in Europe (green & dark grey) -- in the European Union (green) -- (Legend)
Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία), historically also known as Hellas, is a country in Southern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2016. Athens is the nation 's capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki.
Greece is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Situated on the southern tip of the Balkan Peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a large number of islands, of which 227 are inhabited. Eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres (9,573 ft). The country consists of nine geographic regions: Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands (including the Dodecanese and Cyclades), Thrace, Crete, and the Ionian Islands.
Greece is considered the cradle of Western civilization, being the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, the Olympic Games, Western literature, historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles, and Western drama. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city - states, known as poleis (singular polis), which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Philip of Macedon united most of the Greek mainland in the fourth century BC, with his son Alexander the Great rapidly conquering much of the ancient world, spreading Greek culture and science from the eastern Mediterranean to India. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming an integral part of the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, wherein the Greek language and culture were dominant. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World. Falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greece 's rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe and the world.
Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high - income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the tenth member to join the European Communities (precursor to the European Union) and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. It is also a member of numerous other international institutions, including the Council of Europe, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF). Greece 's unique cultural heritage, large tourism industry, prominent shipping sector and geostrategic importance classify it as a middle power. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor.
The names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The Greek name of the country is Hellas (/ ˈhɛləs /) or Ellada (Greek: Ελλάς or Ελλάδα; in polytonic: Ἑλλάς ((eˈlas), Ancient Greek: (heˈlas)) or Ἑλλάδα Elláda (eˈlaða)), and its official name is the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Ellinikí Dimokratía (eliniˈci ðimokraˈti. a)). In English, however, the country is usually called Greece, which comes from Latin Graecia (as used by the Romans) and literally means ' the land of the Greeks '.
The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, in the Greek province of Macedonia. All three stages of the stone age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries, as Greece lies on the route via which farming spread from the Near East to Europe.
Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilization, beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea at around 3200 BC, the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700 -- 1500 BC), and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1900 -- 1100 BC). These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, during a time of regional upheaval known as the Bronze Age collapse. This ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent.
The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the year of the first Olympic Games. The Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city - states across the Greek peninsula, which spread to the shores of the Black Sea, Southern Italy ("Magna Graecia '') and Asia Minor. These states and their colonies reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, that of classical Greece, expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics and philosophy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world 's first democratic system of government in Athens.
By 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city states in Asia Minor and Macedonia. Attempts by some of the Greek city - states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after a defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. A second invasion by the Persians followed in 480 BC. Following decisive Greek victories in 480 and 479 BC at Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale, the Persians were forced to withdraw for a second time, marking their eventual withdrawal from all of their European territories. Led by Athens and Sparta, the Greek victories in the Greco - Persian Wars are considered a pivotal moment in world history, as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as the Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greek development that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization.
Lack of political unity within Greece resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states. The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War (431 -- 404 BC), won by Sparta and marking the demise of the Athenian Empire as the leading power in ancient Greece. Both Athens and Sparta were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter uniting the Greek world in the League of Corinth (also known as the Hellenic League or Greek League) under the guidance of Phillip II, who was elected leader of the first unified Greek state in history.
Following the assassination of Phillip II, his son Alexander III ("The Great '') assumed the leadership of the League of Corinth and launched an invasion of the Persian Empire with the combined forces of all Greek states in 334 BC. Undefeated in battle, Alexander had conquered the Persian Empire in its entirety by 330 BC. By the time of his death in 323 BC, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to India. His empire split into several kingdoms upon his death, the most famous of which were the Seleucid Empire, Ptolemaic Egypt, the Greco - Bactrian Kingdom, and the Indo - Greek Kingdom. Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia, and the many other new Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa. Although the political unity of Alexander 's empire could not be maintained, it resulted in the Hellenistic civilization and spread the Greek language and Greek culture in the territories conquered by Alexander. Greek science, technology, and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.
After a period of confusion following Alexander 's death, the Antigonid dynasty, descended from one of Alexander 's generals, established its control over Macedon and most of the Greek city - states by 276 BC. From about 200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek affairs and engaged in a series of wars with Macedon. Macedon 's defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signalled the end of Antigonid power in Greece. In 146 BC, Macedonia was annexed as a province by Rome, and the rest of Greece became a Roman protectorate.
The process was completed in 27 BC when the Roman Emperor Augustus annexed the rest of Greece and constituted it as the senatorial province of Achaea. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture, hence Horace 's famous statement: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive ''). The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid of Virgil, and authors such as Seneca the younger wrote using Greek styles. Roman heroes such as Scipio Africanus, tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed. Similarly, most Roman emperors maintained an admiration for things Greek in nature. The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games, despite the rules against non-Greek participation. Hadrian was also particularly fond of the Greeks. Before becoming emperor, he served as an eponymous archon of Athens.
Greek - speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and Christianity 's early leaders and writers (notably St Paul) were mostly Greek - speaking, though generally not from Greece itself. The New Testament was written in Greek, and some of its sections (Corinthians, Thessalonians, Philippians, Revelation of St. John of Patmos) attest to the importance of churches in Greece in early Christianity. Nevertheless, much of Greece clung tenaciously to paganism, and ancient Greek religious practices were still in vogue in the late 4th century AD, when they were outlawed by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 391 -- 392. The last recorded Olympic games were held in 393, and many temples were destroyed or damaged in the century that followed. In Athens and rural areas, paganism is attested well into the sixth century AD and even later. The closure of the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens by the emperor Justinian in 529 is considered by many to mark the end of antiquity, although there is evidence that the Academy continued its activities for some time after that. Some remote areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remained pagan until well into the 10th century AD.
The Roman Empire in the east, following the fall of the Empire in the west in the 5th century, is conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire (but was simply called "Roman Empire '' in its own time) and lasted until 1453. With its capital in Constantinople, its language and literary culture was Greek and its religion was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian.
From the 4th century, the Empire 's Balkan territories, including Greece, suffered from the dislocation of the Barbarian Invasions. The raids and devastation of the Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion of Greece in the 7th century resulted in a dramatic collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula. Following the Slavic invasion, the imperial government retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the densely populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica, while some mountainous areas in the interior held out on their own and continued to recognize imperial authority. Outside of these areas, a limited amount of Slavic settlement is generally thought to have occurred, although on a much smaller scale than previously thought.
The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces began toward the end of the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again, in stages, during the 9th century. This process was facilitated by a large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula, while at the same time many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor and the few that remained were assimilated. During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from strong economic growth -- much stronger than that of the Anatolian territories of the Empire.
Following the Fourth Crusade and the fall of Constantinople to the "Latins '' in 1204 mainland Greece was split between the Greek Despotate of Epirus (a Byzantine successor state) and French rule (known as the Frankokratia), while some islands came under Venetian rule. The re-establishment of the Byzantine imperial capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by the empire 's recovery of much of the Greek peninsula, although the Frankish Principality of Achaea in the Peloponnese and the rival Greek Despotate of Epirus in the north both remained important regional powers into the 14th century, while the islands remained largely under Genoese and Venetian control.
In the 14th century, much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and then to the Ottomans. By the beginning of the 15th century, the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its then - largest city, Thessaloniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea). After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Morea was the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans. However, this, too, fell to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece. With the Turkish conquest, many Byzantine Greek scholars, who up until then were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, fled to the West, taking with them a large body of literature and thereby significantly contributing to the Renaissance.
While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian territory and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively. The only part of the Greek - speaking world that escaped long - term Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands, which remained Venetian until their capture by the First French Republic in 1797, then passed to the United Kingdom in 1809 until their unification with Greece in 1864.
While some Greeks in the Ionian Islands and Constantinople lived in prosperity, and Greeks of Constantinople (Phanariotes) achieved positions of power within the Ottoman administration, much of the population of mainland Greece suffered the economic consequences of the Ottoman conquest. Heavy taxes were enforced, and in later years the Ottoman Empire enacted a policy of creation of hereditary estates, effectively turning the rural Greek populations into serfs.
The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman Empire. Discrimination against Christians, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many "crypto - Christians '' returned to their old religious allegiance.
The nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied, though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh. Some cities had governors appointed by the Sultan, while others (like Athens) were self - governed municipalities. Mountainous regions in the interior and many islands remained effectively autonomous from the central Ottoman state for many centuries.
When military conflicts broke out between the Ottoman Empire and enemies, Greeks usually took arms against the empire, with few exceptions. Prior to the Greek Revolution of 1821, there had been a number of wars which saw Greeks fight against the Ottomans, such as the Greek participation in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Epirus peasants ' revolts of 1600 -- 1601 (led by the Orthodox bishop Dionysios Skylosophos), the Morean War of 1684 -- 1699, and the Russian - instigated Orlov Revolt in 1770, which aimed at breaking up the Ottoman Empire in favor of Russian interests. These uprisings were put down by the Ottomans with great bloodshed. On the other side, many Greeks were conscripted as Ottoman citizens to serve in the Ottoman army (and especially the Ottoman navy), while also the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, responsible for the Orthodox, remained in general loyal to the empire.
The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as something of a "dark age '' in Greek history, with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote with only the Ionian islands remaining free of Turkish domination. Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537, 1571 and 1716 all of which resulted in the repulsion of the Ottomans. However, in the 18th century, due to their mastery of shipping and commerce, a wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class arose. These merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire, establishing communities throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Western Europe. Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from significant European intellectual movements such as the Reformation and the Enlightenment, these ideas together with the ideals of the French Revolution and romantic nationalism began to penetrate the Greek world via the mercantile diaspora. In the late 18th century, Rigas Feraios, the first revolutionary to envision an independent Greek state, published a series of documents relating to Greek independence, including but not limited to a national anthem and the first detailed map of Greece, in Vienna, and was murdered by Ottoman agents in 1798.
In the late eighteenth century, an increase in secular learning during the Modern Greek Enlightenment led to the revival among Greeks of the diaspora of the notion of a Greek nation tracing its existence to ancient Greece, distinct from the other Orthodox peoples, and having a right to political autonomy. One of the organizations formed in this intellectual milieu was the Filiki Eteria, a secret organization formed by merchants in Odessa in 1814. Appropriating a long - standing tradition of Orthodox messianic prophecy aspiring to the resurrection of the eastern Roman empire and creating the impression they had the backing of Tsarist Russia, they managed amidst a crisis of Ottoman trade, from 1815 onwards, to engage traditional strata of the Greek Orthodox world in their liberal nationalist cause. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolution in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. The first of these revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities under the leadership of Alexandros Ypsilantis, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. The events in the north spurred the Greeks of the Peloponnese into action and on 17 March 1821 the Maniots declared war on the Ottomans.
By the end of the month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt against the Ottomans and by October 1821 the Greeks under Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured Tripolitsa. The Peloponnesian revolt was quickly followed by revolts in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece, which would soon be suppressed. Meanwhile, the makeshift Greek navy was achieving success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea. In 1822 and 1824 the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands, including Chios and Psara, committing wholesale massacres of the population. This had the effect of galvanizing public opinion in western Europe in favor of the Greek rebels.
Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Sultan negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain. Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and had immediate success: by the end of 1825, most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control, and the city of Missolonghi -- put under siege by the Turks since April 1825 -- fell in April 1826. Although Ibrahim was defeated in Mani, he had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and Athens had been retaken.
After years of negotiation, three Great Powers, Russia, the United Kingdom, and France, decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece. Following news that combined Ottoman -- Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra, the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman -- Egyptian fleet at Navarino. After a week - long standoff, a battle began which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman -- Egyptian fleet. A French expeditionary force was dispatched to supervise the evacuation of the Egyptian army from the Peloponnese, while the Greeks proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828. As a result of years of negotiation, the nascent Greek state was finally recognized under the London Protocol in 1830.
In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Corfu, was chosen by the Third National Assembly at Troezen as the first governor of the First Hellenic Republic. Kapodistrias established a series of state, economic and military institutions. Soon tensions appeared between him and local interests. Following his assassination in 1831 and the subsequent conference a year later, the Great Powers of Britain, France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von Wittelsbach as monarch. One of his first actions was to transfer the capital from Nafplio to Athens. In 1843 an uprising forced the king to grant a constitution and a representative assembly.
Due to his authoritarian rule, he was eventually dethroned in 1862 and a year later replaced by Prince Wilhelm (William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain. In 1877 Charilaos Trikoupis, who is credited with significant improvement of the country 's infrastructure, curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere in the assembly by issuing the rule of vote of confidence to any potential prime minister.
Corruption and Trikoupis ' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like the Corinth Canal overtaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Control authority to pay off the country 's debtors. Another political issue in 19th - century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called Demotic. Many of the educated elite saw this as a peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek.
Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, a form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the extent that, when the New Testament was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka). This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s.
All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek - speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire, regardless of the dialect they spoke. Especially in Crete, a prolonged revolt in 1866 -- 1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russia 's side, but Greece was too poor, and too concerned about British intervention, to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the Treaty of Berlin, while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete.
Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco - Turkish War of 1897, the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece. With state coffers empty, fiscal policy came under International Financial Control. In the next decade, Greek efforts were focused on the Macedonian Struggle, a state - sponsored guerilla campaign against pro-Bulgarian rebel gangs in Ottoman - ruled Macedonia, which ended inconclusively with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.
Amidst general dissatisfaction with the state of the nation, a group of military officers organized a coup in August 1909 and shortly thereafter called to power Cretan politician Eleftherios Venizelos. After winning two elections and becoming Prime Minister, Venizelos initiated wide - ranging fiscal, social, and constitutional reforms, reorganized the military, made Greece a member of the Balkan League, and led the country through the Balkan Wars. By 1913, Greece 's territory and population had almost doubled, annexing Crete, Epirus, and Macedonia. In the following years, the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Venizelos over the country 's foreign policy on the eve of World War I dominated the country 's political scene, and divided the country into two opposing groups. During parts of World War I, Greece had two governments: A royalist pro-German one in Athens and a Venizelist pro-Entente one in Thessaloniki. The two governments were united in 1917, when Greece officially entered the war on the side of the Entente.
In the aftermath of World War I, Greece attempted further expansion into Asia Minor, a region with a large native Greek population at the time, but was defeated in the Greco - Turkish War of 1919 -- 1922, contributing to a massive flight of Asia Minor Greeks. These events overlapped, with both happening during the Greek genocide (1914 -- 1922), a period during which, according to various sources, Ottoman and Turkish officials contributed to the death of several hundred thousand Asia Minor Greeks. The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an official Population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The exchange was part of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the war.
The following era was marked by instability, as over 1.5 million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey had to be integrated into Greek society. Cappadocian Greeks, Pontian Greeks, and non-Greek followers of Greek Orthodoxy were all subject to the exchange as well. Some of the refugees could not speak the language, and were from what had been unfamiliar environments to mainland Greeks, such as in the case of the Cappadocians and non-Greeks. The refugees also made a dramatic post-war population boost, as the number of refugees was more than a quarter of Greece 's prior population.
Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the monarchy was abolished via a referendum in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was declared. In 1935, a royalist general - turned - politician Georgios Kondylis took power after a coup d'état and abolished the republic, holding a rigged referendum, after which King George II returned to Greece and was restored to the throne.
An agreement between Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas and the head of state George II followed in 1936, which installed Metaxas as the head of a dictatorial regime known as the 4th of August Regime, inaugurating a period of authoritarian rule that would last, with short breaks, until 1974. Although a dictatorship, Greece remained on good terms with Britain and was not allied with the Axis.
On 28 October 1940, Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but the Greek administration refused, and, in the following Greco - Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania, giving the Allies their first victory over Axis forces on land. The Greek struggle and victory against the Italians received exuberant praise at the time. Most prominent is the quote attributed to Winston Churchill: "Hence we will not say that Greeks fight like heroes, but we will say that heroes fight like Greeks. '' French general Charles de Gaulle was among those who praised the fierceness of the Greek resistance. In an official notice released to coincide with the Greek national celebration of the Day of Independence, De Gaulle expressed his admiration for the Greek resistance:
In the name of the captured yet still alive French people, France wants to send her greetings to the Greek people who are fighting for their freedom. The 25 March 1941 finds Greece in the peak of their heroic struggle and in the top of their glory. Since the Battle of Salamis, Greece had not achieved the greatness and the glory which today holds.
The country would eventually fall to urgently dispatched German forces during the Battle of Greece, despite the fierce Greek resistance, particularly in the Battle of the Metaxas Line. Adolf Hitler himself recognised the bravery and the courage of the Greek army, stating in his address to the Reichstag on 11 December 1941, that: "Historical justice obliges me to state that of the enemies who took up positions against us, the Greek soldier particularly fought with the highest courage. He capitulated only when further resistance had become impossible and useless. ''
The Nazis proceeded to administer Athens and Thessaloniki, while other regions of the country were given to Nazi Germany 's partners, Fascist Italy and Bulgaria. The occupation brought about terrible hardships for the Greek civilian population. Over 100,000 civilians died of starvation during the winter of 1941 -- 1942, tens of thousands more died because of reprisals by Nazis and collaborators, the country 's economy was ruined, and the great majority of Greek Jews were deported and murdered in Nazi concentration camps. The Greek Resistance, one of the most effective resistance movements in Europe, fought vehemently against the Nazis and their collaborators. The German occupiers committed numerous atrocities, mass executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages in reprisals. In the course of the concerted anti-guerilla campaign, hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost 1,000,000 Greeks left homeless. In total, the Germans executed some 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000, and the Italians 9,000.
Following liberation and the Allied victory over the Axis, Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy and regained Western Thrace from Bulgaria. The country almost immediately descended into a bloody civil war between communist forces and the anti-communist Greek government, which lasted until 1949 with the latter 's victory. The conflict, considered one of the earliest struggles of the Cold War, resulted in further economic devastation, mass population displacement and severe political polarisation for the next thirty years.
Although the post-war decades were characterized by social strife and widespread marginalisation of the left in political and social spheres, Greece nonetheless experienced rapid economic growth and recovery, propelled in part by the U.S. - administered Marshall Plan. In 1952, Greece joined NATO, reinforcing its membership in the Western Bloc of the Cold War.
King Constantine II 's dismissal of George Papandreou 's centrist government in July 1965 prompted a prolonged period of political turbulence, which culminated in a coup d'état on 21 April 1967 by the Regime of the Colonels. Under the junta, civil rights were suspended, political repression was intensified, and human rights abuses, including state - sanctioned torture, were rampant. Economic growth remained rapid before plateauing in 1972. The brutal suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising on 17 November 1973 is claimed to have sent shockwaves through the regime, and a counter-coup overthrew Georgios Papadopoulos to establish brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis as leader. On 20 July 1974, Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus in response to a Greek - backed Cypriot coup, triggering a political crisis that led to the regime 's collapse.
The former prime minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was invited back from Paris where he had lived in self - exile since 1963, marking the beginning of the Metapolitefsi era. The first multiparty elections since 1964 were held on the first anniversary of the Polytechnic uprising. A democratic and republican constitution was promulgated on 11 June 1975 following a referendum which chose to not restore the monarchy.
Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou, George Papandreou 's son, founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis 's conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating in government over the next four decades. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities (subsequently subsumed by the European Union) on 1 January 1981, ushering in a period of sustained growth. Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, and a fast - growing service sector raised the country 's standard of living to unprecedented levels. Traditionally strained relations with neighbouring Turkey improved when successive earthquakes hit both nations in 1999, leading to the lifting of the Greek veto against Turkey 's bid for EU membership.
The country adopted the euro in 2001 and successfully hosted the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens. More recently, Greece has suffered greatly from the late - 2000s recession and has been central to the related European sovereign debt crisis. Due to the adoption of the euro, when Greece experienced financial crisis, it could no longer devalue its currency to regain competitiveness. Youth unemployment was especially high during the 2000s. The Greek government - debt crisis, and subsequent austerity policies, have resulted in protests.
Located in Southern Europe, Greece is a transcontinental country that consists of a mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Due to its highly indented coastline and numerous islands, Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world with 13,676 km (8,498 mi); its land boundary is 1,160 km (721 mi). The country lies approximately between latitudes 34 ° and 42 ° N, and longitudes 19 ° and 30 ° E, with the extreme points being:
Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe. Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek Gods, culminates at Mytikas peak 2,918 metres (9,573 ft), the highest in the country. Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range. The Pindus, a continuation of the Dinaric Alps, reaches a maximum elevation of 2,637 m (8,652 ft) at Mt. Smolikas (the second - highest in Greece) and historically has been a significant barrier to east - west travel.
The Pindus range continues through the central Peloponnese, crosses the islands of Kythera and Antikythera and finds its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of Crete where it eventually ends. The islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once constituted an extension of the mainland. Pindus is characterized by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes. The spectacular Vikos Gorge, part of the Vikos - Aoos National Park in the Pindus range, is listed by the Guinness book of World Records as the deepest gorge in the world. Another notable formation are the Meteora rock pillars, atop which have been built medieval Greek Orthodox monasteries.
Northeastern Greece features another high - altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the region of East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests, including the famous Dadia forest in the Evros regional unit, in the far northeast of the country.
Extensive plains are primarily located in the regions of Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country. Rare marine species such as the pinniped seals and the loggerhead sea turtle live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endangered brown bear, the Eurasian lynx, the roe deer and the wild goat.
Greece features a vast number of islands, between 1,200 and 6,000, depending on the definition, 227 of which are inhabited. Crete is the largest and most populous island; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60m - wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by Lesbos and Rhodes.
The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: the Argo - Saronic Islands in the Saronic gulf near Athens, the Cyclades, a large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea, the North Aegean islands, a loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey, the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey, the Sporades, a small tight group off the coast of northeast Euboea, and the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea.
The climate of Greece is primarily Mediterranean, featuring mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. This climate occurs at all coastal locations, including Athens, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands and parts of the Central Continental Greece region. The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater exposure to south - westerly systems bringing in moisture) than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to a rain shadow effect).
The mountainous areas of Northwestern Greece (parts of Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia) as well as in the mountainous central parts of Peloponnese -- including parts of the regional units of Achaea, Arcadia and Laconia -- feature an Alpine climate with heavy snowfalls. The inland parts of northern Greece, in Central Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace feature a temperate climate with cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers with frequent thunderstorms. Snowfalls occur every year in the mountains and northern areas, and brief snowfalls are not unknown even in low - lying southern areas, such as Athens.
Phytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the East Mediterranean province of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodope montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests and Crete Mediterranean forests.
Greece is a unitary parliamentary republic. The nominal head of state is the President of the Republic, who is elected by the Parliament for a five - year term. The current Constitution was drawn up and adopted by the Fifth Revisionary Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into force in 1975 after the fall of the military junta of 1967 -- 1974. It has been revised three times since, in 1986, 2001 and 2008. The Constitution, which consists of 120 articles, provides for a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive specific guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil liberties and social rights. Women 's suffrage was guaranteed with an amendment to the 1952 Constitution.
According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government. From the Constitutional amendment of 1986 the President 's duties were curtailed to a significant extent, and they are now largely ceremonial; most political power thus lies in the hands of the Prime Minister. The position of Prime Minister, Greece 's head of government, belongs to the current leader of the political party that can obtain a vote of confidence by the Parliament. The President of the Republic formally appoints the Prime Minister and, on his recommendation, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet.
Legislative powers are exercised by a 300 - member elective unicameral Parliament. Statutes passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the President of the Republic. Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with a national issue of exceptional importance. The President is also obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier, if the opposition manages to pass a motion of no confidence.
According to a 2016 report by the OECD, Greeks display a moderate level of civic participation compared to most other developed countries; voter turnout was 64 percent during recent elections, lower than the OECD average of 69 percent.
Since the restoration of democracy, the Greek party system has been dominated by the liberal - conservative New Democracy (ND) and the social - democratic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). Other significant parties include the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) the Popular Orthodox Rally (LAOS) and the Popular Association -- Golden Dawn.
PASOK and ND largely alternated in power until the outbreak of the government - debt crisis in 2009. Since then, the two major parties, New Democracy and PASOK, have seen a sharp decline in popularity. In November 2011, the two major parties joined the smaller Popular Orthodox Rally in a grand coalition, pledging their parliamentary support for a government of national unity headed by former European Central Bank vice-president Lucas Papademos. Panos Kammenos voted against this government and he split off from ND forming the right - wing populist Independent Greeks.
The coalition government led the country to the parliamentary elections of May 2012. The power of the traditional Greek political parties, PASOK and New Democracy, declined from 43 % to 13 % and from 33 % to 18 %, respectively, due to their support for austerity measures. The leftist party SYRIZA became the second major party, with an increase from 4 % to 16 %. No party could form a sustainable government, which led to the parliamentary elections of June 2012. The result of the second elections was the formation of a coalition government composed of New Democracy (29 %), PASOK (12 %) and Democratic Left (6 %) parties.
Alexis Tsipras led Syriza to victory in the general election held on 25 January 2015, falling short of an outright majority in Parliament by just two seats. The following morning, Tsipras reached an agreement with Independent Greeks party to form a coalition, and he was sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece. Tsipras called snap elections in August 2015, resigning from his post, which led to a month - long caretaker administration headed by judge Vassiliki Thanou - Christophilou, Greece 's first female prime minister. In the September 2015 general election, Tsipras led Syriza to another victory, winning 145 out of 300 seats and re-forming the coalition with the Independent Greeks.
Greece 's foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its head, the Minister for Foreign Affairs. The current minister is Nikos Kotzias. According to the official website, the main aims of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs are to represent Greece before other states and international organizations; safeguarding the interests of the Greek state and of its citizens abroad; the promotion of Greek culture; the fostering of closer relations with the Greek diaspora; and the promotion of international cooperation. Additionally, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Greece is a country of significant geostrategic importance and is considered to be a middle power and has developed a regional policy to help promote peace and stability in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East.
The Ministry identifies three issues of particular importance to the Greek state: Turkish challenges to Greek sovereignty rights in the Aegean Sea and corresponding airspace; the Cyprus dispute; and the Macedonia naming dispute with the small Balkan country which shares a name with Greece 's largest and second-most - populous region, also called Macedonia.
Greece is a member of numerous international organizations, including the Council of Europe, the European Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Organisation internationale de la francophonie and the United Nations, of which it is a founding member.
The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Court of Auditors (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο). The Judiciary system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between the citizens and the Greek administrative authorities.
The Hellenic Police (Greek: Ελληνική Αστυνομία) is the national police force of Greece. It is a very large agency with its responsibilities ranging from road traffic control to counter-terrorism. It was established in 1984 under Law 1481 / 1 - 10 - 1984 (Government Gazette 152 A) as the result of the fusion of the Gendarmerie (Χωροφυλακή, Chorofylaki) and the Cities Police (Αστυνομία Πόλεων, Astynomia Poleon) forces.
The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the Hellenic National Defense General Staff (Greek: Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας -- ΓΕΕΘΑ), with civilian authority vested in the Ministry of National Defence. It consists of three branches:
Moreover, Greece maintains the Hellenic Coast Guard for law enforcement at sea, search and rescue, and port operations. Though it can support the navy during wartime, it resides under the authority of the Ministry of Shipping.
Greek military personnel total 367,450, of whom 142,950 are active and 220,500 are reserve. Greece ranks 15th in the world in the number of citizens serving in the armed forces, due largely to compulsory military service for males between the ages of 19 and 45 (females are exempted from conscription but may otherwise serve in the military). Mandatory military service is one year for the Army and nine months for the Navy and Air Force. Additionally, Greek males between the ages of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part - time in the National Guard. However, as the military has sought to become a completely professional force, the government has promised to reduce mandatory military service or abolish it completely.
As a member of NATO, the Greek military participates in exercises and deployments under the auspices of the alliance, although its involvement in NATO missions is minimal. Greece spends over 7 billion USD annually on its military, or 2.3 percent of GDP, the 24th - highest in the world in absolute terms, the seventh - highest on a per capita basis, and the second - highest in NATO after the United States. Moreover, Greece is one of only five NATO countries to meet or surpass the minimum defence spending target of 2 percent of GDP.
Since the Kallikratis programme reform entered into effect on 1 January 2011, Greece has consisted of thirteen regions subdivided into a total of 325 municipalities. The 54 old prefectures and prefecture - level administrations have been largely retained as sub-units of the regions. Seven decentralized administrations group one to three regions for administrative purposes on a regional basis. There is also one autonomous area, Mount Athos (Greek: Agio Oros, "Holy Mountain ''), which borders the region of Central Macedonia.
According to World Bank statistics for the year 2013, the economy of Greece is the 43rd largest by nominal gross domestic product at $242 billion and 52nd largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) at $284 billion. Additionally, Greece is the 15th largest economy in the 27 - member European Union. In terms of per capita income, Greece is ranked 38th or 40th in the world at $21,910 and $25,705 for nominal GDP and PPP respectively. The Greek economy is classified as advanced and high - income.
Greece is a developed country with a high standard of living and a high ranking in the Human Development Index. Its economy mainly comprises the service sector (85.0 %) and industry (12.0 %), while agriculture makes up 3.0 % of the national economic output. Important Greek industries include tourism (with 14.9 million international tourists in 2009, it is ranked as the 7th most visited country in the European Union and 16th in the world by the United Nations World Tourism Organization) and merchant shipping (at 16.2 % of the world 's total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is the largest in the world), while the country is also a considerable agricultural producer (including fisheries) within the union.
With an economy larger than all the Balkan economies combined, Greece is the largest economy in the Balkans, and an important regional investor. Greece is the number - two foreign investor of capital in Albania, the number - three foreign investor in Bulgaria, at the top - three of foreign investors in Romania and Serbia and the most important trading partner and largest foreign investor of the Republic of Macedonia. Greek banks open a new branch somewhere in the Balkans on an almost weekly basis. The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become a strong investor in Yugoslavia and other Balkan countries.
Greece was a founding member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). In 1979 the accession of the country in the European Communities and the single market was signed, and the process was completed in 1982. Greece was accepted into the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union on 19 June 2000, and in January 2001 adopted the Euro as its currency, replacing the Greek drachma at an exchange rate of 340.75 drachma to the Euro. Greece is also a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization, and is ranked 24th on the KOF Globalization Index for 2013.
By the end of 2009, as a result of a combination of international and local factors the Greek economy faced its most - severe crisis since the restoration of democracy in 1974 as the Greek government revised its deficit from an estimated 6 % to 12.7 % of gross domestic product (GDP).
In early 2010, it was revealed that through the assistance of Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase and numerous other banks, financial products were developed which enabled the governments of Greece, Italy and many other European countries to hide their borrowing. Dozens of similar agreements were concluded across Europe whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for future payments by the governments involved; in turn, the liabilities of the involved countries were "kept off the books ''.
According to Der Spiegel credits given to European governments were disguised as "swaps '' and consequently did not get registered as debt. As Eurostat at the time ignored statistics involving financial derivatives, a German derivatives dealer had commented to Der Spiegel that "The Maastricht rules can be circumvented quite legally through swaps, '' and "In previous years, Italy used a similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of a different US bank. '' These conditions had enabled Greek as well as many other European governments to spend beyond their means, while meeting the deficit targets of the European Union.
In May 2010, the Greek government deficit was again revised and estimated to be 13.6 % which was the second highest in the world relative to GDP with Iceland in first place at 15.7 % and the United Kingdom third with 12.6 %. Public debt was forecast, according to some estimates, to hit 120 % of GDP during 2010.
As a consequence, there was a crisis in international confidence in Greece 's ability to repay its sovereign debt. To avert such a default, in May 2010 the other Eurozone countries, and the IMF, agreed to a rescue package which involved giving Greece an immediate € 45 billion in loans, with more funds to follow, totaling € 110 billion. To secure the funding, Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its deficit under control.
In 2011, it became apparent that the bail - out would be insufficient and a second bail - out amounting to € 130 billion ($ 173 billion) was agreed in 2012, subject to strict conditions, including financial reforms and further austerity measures. As part of the deal, there was to be a 53 % reduction in the Greek debt burden to private creditors and any profits made by Eurozone central banks on their holdings of Greek debt are to be repatriated back to Greece. Greece achieved a primary government budget surplus in 2013. In April 2014, Greece returned to the global bond market as it successfully sold € 3 billion worth of five - year government bonds at a yield of 4.95 %. Greece returned to growth after six years of economic decline in the second quarter of 2014, and was the Eurozone 's fastest - growing economy in the third quarter.
In 2010, Greece was the European Union 's largest producer of cotton (183,800 tons) and pistachios (8,000 tons) and ranked second in the production of rice (229,500 tons) and olives (147,500 tons), third in the production of figs (11,000 tons), almonds (44,000 tons), tomatoes (1,400,000 tons), and watermelons (578,400 tons) and fourth in the production of tobacco (22,000 tons). Agriculture contributes 3.8 % of the country 's GDP and employs 12.4 % of the country 's labor force.
Greece is a major beneficiary of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. As a result of the country 's entry to the European Community, much of its agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and agricultural output increased. Between 2000 and 2007 organic farming in Greece increased by 885 %, the highest change percentage in the EU.
Electricity production in Greece is dominated by the state - owned Public Power Corporation (known mostly by its acronym ΔΕΗ, or in English DEI). In 2009 DEI supplied for 85.6 % of all electric energy demand in Greece, while the number fell to 77.3 % in 2010. Almost half (48 %) of DEI 's power output is generated using lignite, a drop from the 51.6 % in 2009.
Twelve percent of Greece 's electricity comes from hydroelectric power plants and another 20 % from natural gas. Between 2009 and 2010, independent companies ' energy production increased by 56 %, from 2,709 Gigawatt hour in 2009 to 4,232 GWh in 2010.
In 2012, renewable energy accounted for 13.8 % of the country 's total energy consumption, a rise from the 10.6 % it accounted for in 2011, a figure almost equal to the EU average of 14.1 % in 2012. 10 % of the country 's renewable energy comes from solar power, while most comes from biomass and waste recycling. In line with the European Commission 's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18 % of its energy from renewable sources by 2020.
In 2013, according to the independent power transmission operator in Greece (ΑΔΜΗΕ) more than 20 % of the electricity in Greece has been produced from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric powerplants. This percentage in April reached 42 %. Greece currently does not have any nuclear power plants in operation; however, in 2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.
The shipping industry has been a key element of Greek economic activity since ancient times. Shipping remains one of the country 's most important industries, accounting for 4.5 percent of GDP, employing about 160,000 people (4 percent of the workforce), and representing a third of the trade deficit.
According to a 2011 report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the Greek Merchant Navy is the largest in the world at 16.2 percent of total global capacity, up from 15.96 percent in 2010 but below the peak of 18.2 percent in 2006. The country 's merchant fleet ranks first in total tonnage (202 million dwt), fourth in total number of ships (at 3,150), first in both tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth in the number of containers, and fifth in other ships. However, today 's fleet roster is smaller than an all - time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s. Additionally, the total number of ships flying a Greek flag (includes non-Greek fleets) is 1,517, or 5.3 percent of the world 's dwt (ranked fifth globally).
During the 1960s, the size of the Greek fleet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos. The basis of the modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold to them by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.
Greece has a significant shipbuilding and ship maintenance industry. The six shipyards around the port of Piraeus are among the largest in Europe. In recent years, Greece has also become a leader in the construction and maintenance of luxury yachts.
Tourism has been a key element of the economic activity in the country and one of the country 's most important sectors, contributing 18 % of the gross domestic product. Greece welcomed over 28 million visitors in 2016, which is an increase from the 26.5 million tourists it welcomed in 2015 and the 19.5 million in 2009, and the 17.7 million tourists in 2007, making Greece one of the most visited countries in Europe in the recent years.
The vast majority of visitors in Greece in 2007 came from the European continent, numbering 12.7 million, while the most visitors from a single nationality were those from the United Kingdom, (2.6 million), followed closely by those from Germany (2.3 million). In 2010, the most visited region of Greece was that of Central Macedonia, with 18 % of the country 's total tourist flow (amounting to 3.6 million tourists), followed by Attica with 2.6 million and the Peloponnese with 1.8 million. Northern Greece is the country 's most - visited geographical region, with 6.5 million tourists, while Central Greece is second with 6.3 million.
In 2010, Lonely Planet ranked Greece 's northern and second - largest city of Thessaloniki as the world 's fifth - best party town worldwide, comparable to other cities such as Dubai and Montreal. In 2011, Santorini was voted as "The World 's Best Island '' in Travel + Leisure. Its neighboring island Mykonos, came in fifth in the European category.
Since the 1980s, the road and rail network of Greece has been significantly modernized. Important works include the A2 (Egnatia Odos) motorway, that connects northwestern Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern Greece (Thessaloniki) and northeastern Greece (Kipoi); the Rio -- Antirrio bridge, the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe (2,250 m (7,382 ft) long), connecting the Peloponnese (Rio, 7 km (4 mi) from Patras) with Aetolia - Akarnania (Antirrio) in western Greece.
Also completed are the A5 (Ionia Odos) motorway that connects northwestern Greece (Ioannina) with western Greece (Antirrio); the last sections of the A1 motorway, connecting Athens to Thessaloniki and Evzonoi in northern Greece; as well as the A8 motorway (part of the Olympia Odos) in Peloponnese, connecting Athens to Patras. The remaining section of Olympia Odos, connecting Patras with Pyrgos, is under planning.
Other important projects that are currently underway, include the construction of the Thessaloniki Metro.
The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by some of the most modern and efficient transport infrastructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airport, the privately run A6 (Attiki Odos) motorway network and the expanded Athens Metro system.
Most of the Greek islands and many main cities of Greece are connected by air mainly from the two major Greek airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines. Maritime connections have been improved with modern high - speed craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans.
Railway connections play a somewhat lesser role in Greece than in many other European countries, but they too have also been expanded, with new suburban / commuter rail connections, serviced by Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras. A modern intercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki has also been established, while an upgrade to double lines in many parts of the 2,500 km (1,600 mi) network is underway. International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey.
Modern digital information and communication networks reach all areas. There are over 35,000 km (21,748 mi) of fiber optics and an extensive open - wire network. Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece: there were a total of 2,252,653 broadband connections as of early 2011, translating to 20 % broadband penetration. According to 2017 data, around 82 % of the general population used the internet regularly.
Internet cafés that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are also a common sight in the country, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G - LTE cellphone networks and Wi - Fi connections can be found almost everywhere. 3G / 4G mobile internet usage has been on a sharp increase in recent years. Based on 2016 data 70 % of Greek internet users have access via 3G / 4G mobile. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks Greece among the top 30 countries with a highly developed information and communications infrastructure.
The General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Ministry of Development and Competitiveness is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy. In 2003, public spending on research and development (R&D) was 456.37 million euros, a 12.6 percent increase from 2002. Total R&D spending (both public and private) as a percentage of GDP has more than doubled since 1989, from 0.38 percent to 0.83 percent as of 2014.
Although R&D spending in Greece remains lower than the EU average of 1.93 percent, between 1990 and 1998, total R&D expenditure in Greece enjoyed the third - highest increase in Europe, after Finland and Ireland. Because of its strategic location, qualified workforce, and political and economic stability, many multinational companies such as Ericsson, Siemens, Motorola, Coca - Cola, and Tesla have their regional research and development headquarters in Greece.
Greece has several major technology parks with incubator facilities, including the Science and Technology Park of Crete (Heraklion), the Thessaloniki Technology Park, the Lavrio Technology Park and the Patras Science Park, the Science and Technology Park of Epirus (Ioannina). Greece has been a member of the European Space Agency (ESA) since 2005. Cooperation between ESA and the Hellenic National Space Committee began in the early 1990s. In 1994, Greece and ESA signed their first cooperation agreement. Having formally applied for full membership in 2003, Greece became the ESA 's sixteenth member on 16 March 2005. Greece participates in the ESA 's telecommunication and technology activities, and the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative.
The National Centre of Scientific Research "Demokritos '' was founded in 1959. The original objective of the center was the advancement of nuclear research and technology. Today, its activities cover several fields of science and engineering.
Greece has one of the highest rates of tertiary enrollment in the world, while Greeks are well represented in academia worldwide; many leading Western universities employ a disproportionately high number of Greek faculty.
Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (known for the Carathéodory theorems and Carathéodory conjecture), astronomer E.M. Antoniadi, archaeologists Ioannis Svoronos, Valerios Stais, Spyridon Marinatos, Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina), Indologist Dimitrios Galanos, botanist Theodoros G. Orphanides, such as Michael Dertouzos, Nicholas Negroponte, John Argyris, John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark, a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern theory of Elementary Particles), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the "Nobel Prize '' of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize) and physicist Dimitri Nanopoulos.
The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates is considered the "father of western medicine '', who laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence ''. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Today the country is a medical services centre and an evolving destination of medical tourism.
Notable modern Greek physicians include Andreas Anagnostakis, Panayotis Potagos, Constantin von Economo, Georg N. Koskinas, Grigoris Lambrakis, Amalia Fleming, Benediktos Adamantiades, Petros Kokkalis, Dimitrios Trichopoulos, while the most known worldwide is Georgios Papanikolaou, inventor also of the "Pap test ''.
According to the official statistical body of Greece, the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT), the country 's total population in 2011 was 10,816,286. The birth rate in 2003 stood at 9.5 per 1,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the rate of 14.5 per 1,000 in 1981. At the same time, the mortality rate increased slightly from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2003. Estimates from 2016 show the birth rate decreasing further still to 8.5 per 1,000 and mortality climbing to 11.2 per 1,000.
Greek society has changed rapidly over the last several decades, coinciding with the wider European trend of declining fertility and rapid aging. The fertility rate of 1.41 is below replacement levels and is one of the lowest in the world, subsequently leading to an increase in the median age to 44.2 years, the seventh - highest in the world. In 2001, 16.71 percent of the population were 65 years old and older, 68.12 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15.18 percent were 14 years old and younger. By 2016, the proportion of the population age 65 and older rose to 20.68 percent, while those age 14 and younger declined to slightly below 14 percent.
Marriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 until 2002, only to increase slightly in 2003 to 61 per 1,000 and then fall again to 51 in 2004. Moreover, divorce rates have seen an increase from 191.2 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 239.5 per 1,000 marriages in 2004. As a result of these trends, the average Greek household is smaller and older than in previous generations.
Almost two - thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece 's largest and most influential metropolitan centres are those of Athens and Thessaloniki, which is commonly referred to in Greek as the "συμπρωτεύουσα '' (lit. "co-capital ''), with metropolitan populations of approximately 4 million and 1 million inhabitants respectively. Other prominent cities with urban populations above 100,000 inhabitants include those of Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes, Ioannina, Agrinio, Chania, and Chalcis.
The table below lists the largest cities in Greece, by population contained in their respective contiguous built up urban areas, which are either made up of many municipalities, evident in the cases of Athens and Thessaloniki, or are contained within a larger single municipality, case evident in most of the smaller cities of the country. The results come from the preliminary figures of the population census that took place in Greece in May 2011.
The Greek Constitution recognizes Eastern Orthodoxy as the "prevailing '' faith of the country, while guaranteeing freedom of religious belief for all. The Greek government does not keep statistics on religious groups and censuses do not ask for religious affiliation. According to the U.S. State Department, an estimated 97 % of Greek citizens identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church, which uses the Byzantine rite and the Greek language, the original language of the New Testament. The administration of the Greek territory is shared between the Church of Greece and the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
In a Eurostat -- Eurobarometer 2010 poll, 79 % of Greek citizens responded that they "believe there is a God ''. According to other sources, 15.8 % of Greeks describe themselves as "very religious '', which is the highest among all European countries. The survey also found that just 3.5 % never attend a church, compared to 4.9 % in Poland and 59.1 % in the Czech Republic.
Estimates of the recognized Greek Muslim minority, which is mostly located in Thrace, range around 100,000, (about 1 % of the population). Some of the Albanian immigrants to Greece come from a nominally Muslim background, although most are secular in orientation. Following the 1919 -- 1922 Greco - Turkish War and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece and Turkey agreed to a population transfer based on cultural and religious identity. About 500,000 Muslims from Greece, predominantly those defined as Turks, but also Greek Muslims like the Vallahades of western Macedonia, were exchanged with approximately 1,500,000 Greeks from Turkey. However, many refugees who settled in former Ottoman Muslim villages in Central Macedonia and were defined as Christian Orthodox Caucasus Greeks arrived from the former Russian Transcaucasus province of Kars Oblast after it had been retroceded to Turkey but in the few years before the official population exchange.
Religiosity in Greece (2015)
Judaism has been present in Greece for more than 2,000 years. The ancient community of Greek Jews are called Romaniotes, while the Sephardi Jews were once a prominent community in the city of Thessaloniki, numbering some 80,000, or more than half of the population, by 1900. However, after the German occupation of Greece and the Holocaust during World War II, is estimated to number around 5,500 people.
The Roman Catholic community is estimated to be around 250,000 of which 50,000 are Greek citizens. Their community is nominally separate from the smaller Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, which recognizes the primacy of the Pope but maintains the liturgy of the Byzantine Rite. Old Calendarists account for 500,000 followers. Protestants, including the Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000. Other Christian minorities, such as Assemblies of God, International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and various Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church total about 12,000 members. The independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches. There are no official statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000. The Jehovah 's Witnesses report having 28,874 active members.
In recent years there has been a small - scale revival of the ancient Greek religion, with estimates of 2,000 active practitioners and an additional 100,000 "sympathisers ''.
The first textual evidence of the Greek language dates back to 15th century BC and the Linear B script which is associated with the Mycenaean Civilization. Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and beyond during Classical Antiquity, and would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire.
During the 19th and 20th centuries there was a major dispute known as the Greek language question, on whether the official language of Greece should be the archaic Katharevousa, created in the 19th century and used as the state and scholarly language, or the Dimotiki, the form of the Greek language which evolved naturally from Byzantine Greek and was the language of the people. The dispute was finally resolved in 1976, when Dimotiki was made the only official variation of the Greek language, and Katharevousa fell to disuse.
Greece is today relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their first or only language. Among the Greek - speaking population, speakers of the distinctive Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after the Greek genocide and constitute a sizable group. The Cappadocian dialect came to Greece due to the genocide as well, but is endangered and is barely spoken now. Indigenous Greek dialects include the archaic Greek spoken by the Sarakatsani, traditionally transhument mountain shepherds of Greek Macedonia and other parts of Northern Greece. The Tsakonian language, a distinct Greek language deriving from Doric Greek instead of Koine Greek, is still spoken in some villages in the southeastern Peloponnese.
The Muslim minority in Thrace, which amounts to approximately 0.95 % of the total population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks) and Romani. Romani is also spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various parts of the country. Their use has decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek - speaking majority.
Today they are only maintained by the older generations and are on the verge of extinction. This goes for the Arvanites, an Albanian - speaking group mostly located in the rural areas around the capital Athens, and for the Aromanians and Moglenites, also known as Vlachs, whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across several areas of mountainous central Greece. Members of these groups ethnically identify as Greeks and are today all at least bilingual in Greek.
Near the northern Greek borders there are also some Slavic -- speaking groups, locally known as Slavomacedonian - speaking, most of whose members identify ethnically as Greeks. It is estimated that after the population exchanges of 1923, Macedonia had 200,000 to 400,000 Slavic speakers. The Jewish community in Greece traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo - Spanish), today maintained only by a few thousand speakers. Other notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, and the Greco - Turkic dialect spoken by the Urums, a community of Caucasus Greeks from the Tsalka region of central Georgia and ethnic Greeks from southeastern Ukraine who arrived in mainly Northern Greece as economic migrants in the 1990s.
Throughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and Germany, creating a large Greek diaspora. Net migration started to show positive numbers from the 1970s, but until the beginning of the 1990s, the main influx was that of returning Greek migrants or of Pontic Greeks and others from Russia, Georgia, Turkey the Czech Republic, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Bloc.
A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7 % of total population. Of the non-citizen residents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Association nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged status. The majority come from Eastern European countries: Albania (56 %), Bulgaria (5 %) and Romania (3 %), while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.) comprise 10 % of the total. Some of the immigrants from Albania are from the Greek minority in Albania centred on the region of Northern Epirus. In addition the total Albanian national population which includes temporary migrants and undocumented persons is around 600,000.
The 2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens (91, 56 %), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4, 44 %), 75,915 Bulgarian citizens (0, 7 %), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0, 43 %), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0, 32 %), 27,400 Georgian citizens (0, 25 %) and 247,090 people had other or unidentified citizenship (2, 3 %). 189,000 people of the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in 2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.
The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are the larger urban centers, especially the Municipality of Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17 % of the local population, and then Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7 % of the local population. There is also a considerable number of co-ethnics that came from the Greek communities of Albania and the former Soviet Union.
Greece, together with Italy and Spain, is a major entry point for illegal immigrants trying to enter the EU. Illegal immigrants entering Greece mostly do so from the border with Turkey at the Evros River and the islands of the eastern Aegean across from Turkey (mainly Lesbos, Chios, Kos, and Samos). In 2012, the majority of illegal immigrants entering Greece came from Afghanistan, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, arrivals of refugees by sea had increased dramatically mainly due to the ongoing Syrian civil war. There were 856,723 arrivals by sea in Greece, an almost fivefold increase to the same period of 2014, of which the Syrians represent almost 45 %. The majority of refugees and migrants use Greece as a transit country, while their intended destinations are northern European Nations such as Austria, Germany and Sweden.
Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education), which was upheld as one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world. The first European institution described as a university was founded in fifth century Constantinople and continued operating in various incarnations until the city 's fall to the Ottomans in 1453. The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe 's first secular institution of higher learning, and by some measures was the world 's first university.
Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, Nipiagogeío) are now compulsory for any child above four years of age. Children start primary school aged six and remain there for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and lasts for three years.
Greece 's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό Λύκειο, Genikό Lykeiό) and technical -- vocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, "TEE ''). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, "IEK '') which provide a formal but unclassified level of education. As they can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education.
According to the Framework Law (3549 / 2007), Public higher education "Highest Educational Institutions '' (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ΑΕΙ '') consists of two parallel sectors: the University sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are also State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students over twenty - two years old may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through a form of lottery. The Capodistrian University of Athens is the oldest university in the eastern Mediterranean.
The Greek education system also provides special kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. There are also specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological, and physical education.
Seventy - two percent of Greek adults aged 25 - 64 have completed upper secondary education, which is slightly less than the OECD average of 74 percent. The average Greek pupil scored 458 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD 's 2015 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). This score is lower than the OECD average of 486. On average, girls outperformed boys by 15 points, much more than the average OECD gap of two points.
Greece has universal health care. In a 2000 World Health Organization report, its health care system ranked 14th in overall performance of 191 countries surveyed. In a 2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the 19th best country (out of 176 countries surveyed) for the state of mothers and newborn babies. In 2010, there were 138 hospitals with 31,000 beds in the country, but on 1 July 2011, the Ministry for Health and Social Solidarity announced its plans to decrease the number to 77 hospitals with 36,035 beds, as a necessary reform to reduce expenses and further enhance healthcare standards. Greece 's healthcare expenditures as a percentage of GDP were 9.6 % in 2007 according to a 2011 OECD report, just above the OECD average of 9.5 %. The country has the largest number of doctors - to - population ratio of any OECD country.
Life expectancy in Greece is 80.3 years, above the OECD average of 79.5, and among the highest in the world. The island of Icaria has the highest percentage of 90 - year - olds in the world; approximately 33 % of the islanders make it to 90 (and beyond). Blue Zones author Dan Buettner wrote an article in The New York Times about the longevity of Icarians under the title "The Island Where People Forget to Die ''.
The 2011 OECD report showed that Greece had the largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the 34 OECD members. The country 's obesity rate is 18.1 %, which is above the OECD average of 15.1 %, but considerably lower than the American rate of 27.7 %. In 2008, Greece had the highest rate of perceived good health in the OECD, at 98.5 %. Infant mortality, with a rate of 3.6 deaths per 1,000 live births, was below the 2007 OECD average of 4.9.
The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture.
In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of Western culture. Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history, philosophy, physics and mathematics. They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.
Artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt.
There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae. Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome.
Ancient Greek sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th century, that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact.
The art production continued also during the Byzantine era. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract, '' or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies. The Macedonian art (Byzantine) was the artistic expression of Macedonian Renaissance, a label sometimes used to describe the period of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867 -- 1056), especially the 10th century, which some scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork.
Post Byzantine art schools include the Cretan School and Heptanese School. The first artistic movement in the Greek Kingdom can be considered the Greek academic art of the 19th century (Munich School). Notable modern Greek painters include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Theodoros Vryzakis, Nikiforos Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Nikos Engonopoulos and Yannis Tsarouchis, while some notable sculptors are Pavlos Prosalentis, Ioannis Kossos, Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos and Yannoulis Chalepas.
Nike by Paeonius at the Archaeological Museum of Olympia (5th BC)
The Lion of Amphipolis, erected in 4th BC in honour of Laomedon of Mytilene, admiral of Alexander the Great
The Stag Hunt Mosaic at the Archaeological Museum of Pella (3rd BC)
Byzantine mosaics of Hosios Loukas (11th century), artistic example of the Macedonian Renaissance
Statue of Andreas Miaoulis in Ermoupoli by Georgios Bonanos
The architecture of ancient Greece was produced by the ancient Greeks (Hellenes), whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Aegean Islands and their colonies, for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture of later periods.
Byzantine architecture is the architecture promoted by the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, which dominated Greece and the Greek speaking world during the Middle Ages. The empire endured for more than a millennium, dramatically influencing Medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and becoming the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.
After the Greek Independence, the modern Greek architects tried to combine traditional Greek and Byzantine elements and motives with the western European movements and styles. Patras was the first city of the modern Greek state to develop a city plan. In January 1829, Stamatis Voulgaris, a Greek engineer of the French army, presented the plan of the new city to the Governor Kapodistrias, who approved it. Voulgaris applied the orthogonal rule in the urban complex of Patras.
Two special genres can be considered the Cycladic architecture, featuring white - coloured houses, in the Cyclades and the Epirotic architecture in the region of Epirus.
After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, the architecture of Athens and other cities was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto of Greece, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for the capital of a state. As for Thessaloniki, after the fire of 1917, the government ordered for a new city plan under the supervision of Ernest Hébrard. Other modern Greek architects include Anastasios Metaxas, Panagis Kalkos, Ernst Ziller, Dimitris Pikionis and Georges Candilis.
Theatre in its western form was born in Greece. The city - state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there.
During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state. Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.
The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas ' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.
The National Theatre of Greece was opened in 1900 as Royal Theatre. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.
Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek literature.
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey. Though dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 800 BC or after. In the classical period many of the genres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. The Classical era also saw the dawn of drama.
Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are also a treasure trove of comic presentation, while Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the most influential historians in this period. The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy with the works of the three great philosophers.
Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern Greek, and it is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages. Although popular Byzantine literature and early Modern Greek literature both began in the 11th century, the two are indistinguishable.
Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common Modern Greek, emerging from late Byzantine times in the 11th century. The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this period of Greek literature. It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553 -- 1613). Later, during the period of Greek enlightenment (Diafotismos), writers such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios prepared with their works the Greek Revolution (1821 -- 1830).
Leading figures of modern Greek literature include Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Demetrius Vikelas, Kostis Palamas, Penelope Delta, Yannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, Nikos Kavvadias, Kostas Varnalis and Kiki Dimoula. Two Greek authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: George Seferis in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis in 1979.
Most western philosophical traditions began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. The first philosophers are called "Presocratics, '' which designates that they came before Socrates, whose contributions mark a turning point in western thought. The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments of their original writings survive, in some cases merely a single sentence.
A new period of philosophy started with Socrates. Like the Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made the thoughts and opinions of people his starting - point. Aspects of Socrates were first united from Plato, who also combined with them many of the principles established by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this material into the unity of a comprehensive system.
Aristotle of Stagira, the most important disciple of Plato, shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosopher of antiquity. But while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra - sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the facts given us by experience. Except from these three most significant Greek philosophers other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism.
Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. It was characterised by a Christian world - view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists.
On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople, Gemistus Pletho tried to restore the use of the term "Hellene '' and advocated the return to the Olympian Gods of the ancient world. After 1453 a number of Greek Byzantine scholars who fled to western Europe contributed to the Renaissance.
In modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, "enlightenment '', "illumination '') was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas. Some notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis.
Other modern era Greek philosophers or political scientists include Cornelius Castoriadis, Nicos Poulantzas and Christos Yannaras.
Greek vocal music extends far back into ancient times where mixed - gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments during that period included the double - reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music played an important role in the education system during ancient times. Boys were taught music from the age of six. Later influences from the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire also had effect on Greek music.
While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted any type of change. Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment. As a result, and despite certain attempts by certain Greek chanters (such as Manouel Gazis, Ioannis Plousiadinos or the Cypriot Ieronimos o Tragoudistis), Byzantine music was deprived of elements of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art. However, this method which kept music away from polyphony, along with centuries of continuous culture, enabled monophonic music to develop to the greatest heights of perfection. Byzantium presented the monophonic Byzantine chant; a melodic treasury of inestimable value for its rhythmical variety and expressive power.
Along with the Byzantine (Church) chant and music, the Greek people also cultivated the Greek folk song (Demotiko) which is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic. The akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (frontier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known being the stories associated with Digenes Akritas. The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and the start of the Greek War of Independence. The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs, mantinades, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks. There is a unity between the Greek people 's struggles for freedom, their joys and sorrow and attitudes towards love and death.
The Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες ' serenades '; sing.: καντάδα) became the forerunners of the Greek modern urban popular song, influencing its development to a considerable degree. For the first part of the next century, several Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style. The most successful songs during the period 1870 -- 1930 were the so - called Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια ' theatrical revue songs ') in revue, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens ' theater scene.
Rebetiko, initially a music associated with the lower classes, later (and especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey) reached greater general acceptance as the rough edges of its overt subcultural character were softened and polished, sometimes to the point of unrecognizability. It was the base of the later laïkó (song of the people). The leading performers of the genre include Vassilis Tsitsanis, Grigoris Bithikotsis, Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and Glykeria.
Regarding the classical music, it was through the Ionian islands (which were under western rule and influence) that all the major advances of the western European classical music were introduced to mainland Greeks. The region is notable for the birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή), established in 1815. Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer. Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School of Music.
In the 20th century, Greek composers have had a significant impact on the development of avant garde and modern classical music, with figures such as Iannis Xenakis, Nikos Skalkottas, and Dimitri Mitropoulos achieving international prominence. At the same time, composers and musicians such as Mikis Theodorakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Eleni Karaindrou, Vangelis and Demis Roussos garnered an international following for their music, which include famous film scores such as Zorba the Greek, Serpico, Never on Sunday, America America, Eternity and a Day, Chariots of Fire, Blade Runner, among others. Greek American composers known for their film scores include also Yanni and Basil Poledouris. Notable Greek opera singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros and others.
During the dictatorship of the Colonels, the music of Mikis Theodorakis was banned by the junta and the composer was jailed, internally exiled, and put in a concentration camp, before finally being allowed to leave Greece due to international reaction to his detention. Released during the junta years, Anthrope Agapa, ti Fotia Stamata (Make Love, Stop the Gunfire), by the pop group Poll is considered the first anti-war protest song in the history of Greek rock. The song was echoing the hippie slogan Make love, not war and was inspired directly by the Vietnam War, becoming a "smash hit '' in Greece.
Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35 times after its debut at the 1974 Contest. In 2005, Greece won with the song "My Number One '', performed by Greek - Swedish singer Elena Paparizou. The song received 230 points with 10 sets of 12 points from Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Albania, Cyprus, Serbia & Montenegro, Sweden and Germany and also became a smash hit in different countries and especially in Greece. The 51st Eurovision Song Contest was held in Athens at the Olympic Indoor Hall of the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Maroussi, with hosted by Maria Menounos and Sakis Rouvas.
Greek cuisine is characteristic of the healthy Mediterranean diet, which is epitomized by dishes of Crete. Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into a variety of local dishes such as moussaka, pastitsio, classic Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like skordalia (a thick purée of walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey). Throughout Greece people often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze with various dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese. Olive oil is added to almost every dish.
Some sweet desserts include melomakarona, diples and galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and a variety of wines including retsina. Greek cuisine differs widely from different parts of the mainland and from island to island. It uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet '' spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.
Greek taverna
Spanakopita
Retsina
Assyrtiko grapes
Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first actual cine - theatre was opened in 1907 in Athens. In 1914 the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films began. Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is considered the first Greek feature film, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931 Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), containing one of the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944 Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls.
The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many to be a "golden age '' of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: George Tzavellas, Irene Papas, Melina Mercouri, Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti and others. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements. Some notable films include The Drunkard (1950, directed by George Tzavellas), The Counterfeit Coin (1955, by Giorgos Tzavellas), Πικρό Ψωμί (1951, by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956, by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis), Woe to the Young (1961, by Alekos Sakellarios), Glory Sky (1962, by Takis Kanellopoulos) and The Red Lanterns (1963, by Vasilis Georgiadis)
Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed in this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο, Madalena, I theia ap ' to Chicago, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more.
During the 1970s and 1980s, Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There are also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora, such as the Greek - French Costa - Gavras and the Greek - Americans Elia Kazan, John Cassavetes and Alexander Payne.
Greece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations Greece is always called first, as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics. The nation has competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so. Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in the all - time Summer Olympic medal count. Their best ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals.
The Greek national football team, ranking 12th in the world in 2014 (and having reached a high of 8th in the world in 2008 and 2011), were crowned European Champions in Euro 2004 in one of the biggest upsets in the history of the sport. The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league in the country, comprising sixteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, AEK Athens, PAOK, Larissa and Aris Thessaloniki.
The Greek national basketball team has a decades - long tradition of excellence in the sport, being considered among the world 's top basketball powers. As of 2012, it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe. They have won the European Championship twice in 1987 and 2005, and have reached the final four in two of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking the second place in the world in 2006 FIBA World Championship, after a 101 -- 95 win against Team USA in the tournament 's semifinal. The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed of fourteen teams. The most successful Greek teams are Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens and P.A.O.K. Greek basketball teams are the most successful in European basketball the last 25 years, having won 9 Euroleagues since the establishment of the modern era Euroleague Final Four format in 1988, while no other nation has won more than 4 Euroleague championships in this period. Besides the 9 Euroleagues, Greek basketball teams (Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens, P.A.O.K, Maroussi) have won 3 Triple Crowns, 5 Saporta Cups, 2 Korać Cups and 1 FIBA Europe Champions Cup. After the 2005 European Championship triumph of the Greek national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball.
The Greece women 's national water polo team have emerged as one of the leading powers in the world, becoming World Champions after their gold medal win against the hosts China at the 2011 World Championship. They also won the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics, the gold medal at the 2005 World League and the silver medals at the 2010 and 2012 European Championships. The Greece men 's national water polo team became the third best water polo team in the world in 2005, after their win against Croatia in the bronze medal game at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Canada. The domestic top water polo leagues, Greek Men 's Water Polo League and Greek Women 's Water Polo League are considered amongst the top national leagues in European water polo, as its clubs have made significant success in European competitions. In men 's European competitions, Olympiacos has won the Champions League, the European Super Cup and the Triple Crown in 2002 becoming the first club in water polo history to win every title in which it has competed within a single year (National championship, National cup, Champions League and European Super Cup), while NC Vouliagmeni has won the LEN Cup Winners ' Cup in 1997. In women 's European competitions, Greek water polo teams (NC Vouliagmeni, Glyfada NSC, Olympiacos, Ethnikos Piraeus) are amongst the most successful in European water polο, having won 4 LEN Champions Cups, 3 LEN Trophies and 2 European Supercups.
The Greek men 's national volleyball team has won two bronze medals, one in the European Volleyball Championship and another one in the Men 's European Volleyball League, a 5th place in the Olympic Games and a 6th place in the FIVB Volleyball Men 's World Championship. The Greek league, the A1 Ethniki, is considered one of the top volleyball leagues in Europe and the Greek clubs have had significant success in European competitions. Olympiacos is the most successful volleyball club in the country having won the most domestic titles and being the only Greek club to have won European titles; they have won two CEV Cups, they have been CEV Champions League runners - up twice and they have played in 12 Final Fours in the European competitions, making them one of the most traditional volleyball clubs in Europe. Iraklis have also seen significant success in European competitions, having been three times runners - up of the CEV Champions League.
In handball, AC Diomidis Argous is the only Greek club to have won a European Cup.
Apart from these, cricket is relatively popular in Corfu.
The numerous gods of the ancient Greek religion as well as the mythical heroes and events of the ancient Greek epics (The Odyssey and The Iliad) and other pieces of art and literature from the time make up what is nowadays colloquially referred to as Greek mythology. Apart from serving a religious function, the mythology of the ancient Greek world also served a cosmological role as it was meant to try to explain how the world was formed and operated.
The principal gods of the ancient Greek religion were the Dodekatheon, or the Twelve Gods, who lived on the top of Mount Olympus. The most important of all ancient Greek gods was Zeus, the king of the gods, who was married to Hera, who was also Zeus 's sister. The other Greek gods that made up the Twelve Olympians were Ares, Poseidon, Athena, Demeter, Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hephaestus and Hermes. Apart from these twelve gods, Greeks also had a variety of other mystical beliefs, such as nymphs and other magical creatures.
According to Greek law, every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. Since the late ' 70s, Saturday also is a non school and not working day. In addition, there are four mandatory official public holidays: 25 March (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, 15 August (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin), and 25 December (Christmas). 1 May (Labour Day) and 28 October (Ohi Day) are regulated by law as being optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed national holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven national holidays each year.
In addition to the national holidays, there are public holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint '' parallel to "Name Days '', or a "Liberation Day ''. On such days it is customary for schools to take the day off.
Notable festivals, beyond the religious fests, include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe.
Trade
Coordinates: 39 ° N 22 ° E / 39 ° N 22 ° E / 39; 22
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what are you making those eyes at me for | What Do You Want to Make Those Eyes at Me for? - Wikipedia
"What Do You Want to Make Those Eyes at Me For? '' is a song written by Joseph McCarthy, Howard Johnson and James V. Monaco in 1916. It was released in 1917 by Ada Jones and Billy Murray on Victor Records (catalogue number 18224).
It became a UK hit in 1959 when a doo - wop version, produced by Michael Barclay, became a number one hit for Emile Ford & the Checkmates over the Christmas and New Year of 1959 / 60, having overtaken Adam Faith 's ' What Do You Want? '. Its stay in the UK Singles Chart began on 31 October 1959 and lasted 17 weeks. The last chart - topper of the 1950s, it retained the number one position for the first three weeks of 1960 until it was replaced by Michael Holliday 's ' Starry Eyed ' on 29 January 1960.
The 1945 film Nob Hill, starring George Raft, Joan Bennett and Peggy Ann Garner, featured Vivian Blaine singing this song. The 1950 film Wabash Avanue, starring Betty Grable, Victor Mature and Phil Harris, had used the chorus as a transition between scenes, following "I 've Been Floating Down the Old Green River ''
In 1960, Danish rock singer Otto Brandenburg recorded a cover of the song that gave him his breakthrough on the Danish music scene. The song was also successfully covered by Shakin ' Stevens in 1987. This version first entered the charts on 28 November 1987. It spent eight weeks there and peaked at No. 5.
In 1963, Italian singer Don Backy recorded another cover of the song, using Italian lyrics, under the title "Ho rimasto ''. The title is intentionally grammatically wrong (it should have been "Sono rimasto '') to catch public attention.
Les Gray 's 1977 recording is on Warner Bros. Records K 17007.
Swedish singer Christer Sjögren released recorded the song on his 2008 album Mitt sköna sextiotal.
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who is the killer in slasher season 2 | Slasher (TV series) - wikipedia
Slasher is a Canadian television horror anthology series created by Aaron Martin.
The first season, retroactively subtitled The Executioner, was produced in association with the Canadian network Super Channel, Slasher was the first original series by U.S. TV channel Chiller, which premiered the series on Friday, March 4, 2016, at 9: 00 pm EST. Super Channel aired the show 's Canadian premiere on April 1, 2016. The series first season, which centered on a mysterious figure billed as "The Executioner '' terrorizing the fictional town of Waterbury, Canada, was filmed between July and October 2015 in Sudbury, Parry Sound, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
On May 1, 2017, Slasher began filming a second season in Orangeville, Ontario, Canada. The licensing rights for the second season was acquired by Netflix. The season was released as a "Netflix Original '' title in various countries on October 17, 2017. The second season titled Slasher: Guilty Party is centered on a group of former summer camp counselors who return to an isolated campground in order to bury their sins of the past, before being targeted, one by one, by an unknown killer.
Slasher employs a season - long anthology format, with an overarching mystery storyline that will be resolved upon the season 's conclusion. Aaron Martin, the series ' creator / producer, acknowledged gaining inspiration for the format from American Horror Story, stating that, should Slasher have subsequent seasons, the AHS style of self - contained storylines would be used along with, ideally, the reliance on as many actors from previous seasons as possible to portray brand new roles.
Martin aims to tell "a modern - day monster story '' in Slasher, combining three of his favorite genres: The contemporary murder mystery (a la Broadchurch), the works of Agatha Christie (one of Martin 's favorite crime writers), and the classic slasher films he grew up with. In terms of the latter, Martin has specifically cited the influences of Halloween and It Follows in Slasher 's use of a mysterious singular embodiment that is responsible for a series of killings. Not wanting to have the show 's killer be "a mythological creature '' (as he feels the killers in most slasher films do not have much mystery surrounding them), Martin also uses elements of the traditional whodunit in Slasher: The show 's characters, many of whom have mysterious backgrounds -- and their own reasons for possibly being the killer -- are featured, explored, and eliminated from consideration, one by one (either through death or the natural deductive process), until the "all too human '' killer and their motivations for their actions are revealed.
Slasher 's 8 - episode first season centers around Sarah Bennett who, with husband Dylan, moves back to the town of her birth, Waterbury (a fictional town in Canada), and into her parents ' former home. It was in that house on Halloween Night 1988 where both of her parents, Bryan and Rachel, were murdered. Rachel was pregnant with Sarah at the time of her murder, with police discovering the killer holding Rachel 's newborn baby after the slayings. Sarah 's return to Waterbury is greeted with the start of a series of copycat murders, all appearing to be at the hands of "The Executioner ''.
Seeking insight on her sightings of "The Executioner '' and the slayings he or she has committed, Sarah has paid visits to her parents ' imprisoned murderer, Tom Winston. Tom suggests to Sarah that though most of Waterbury 's residents project a veneer of friendship, innocence, and self - righteousness, many of them harbor dark secrets, including her late parents. During these conversations, Tom expresses thoughts on what is a common theme of Slasher 's first season -- the seven deadly sins. Gaining information from Sarah on the victims ' backgrounds and the nature of their deaths, Tom provides suggestions as to what sin the victims may have violated; Sarah would begin to employ this approach herself without Tom 's assistance in later episodes.
Just as Tom declared himself "the Lord 's messenger '' in a 1988 police interrogation video after murdering Sarah 's parents (seen in Episode 1), he believes in the present day that the new Executioner has become a self - appointed deliverer of "Biblical '' punishment towards those he or she believes have committed one of the seven deadly sins in their past, employing methods that are apropos to the individual natures of the deadly sins. Future victim Alison Sutherland would get The Executioner to admit this in their Episode 5 interview: Alison asks why The Executioner would be as much a sinner as everyone else and violate one of God 's commandments to not kill; The Executioner counters that God only commanded not to murder the innocent, and that his / her victims are not innocent. Tom has suggested to Sarah, in Episode 3, that The Executioner him / herself has committed a deadly sin of their own, being blinded by pride ("the greatest of sins '').
The police chief is found harboring Ariel, a missing teenager that he kidnapped, and a child they had together, in a enclosed locked room in his basement. Sarah 's grandmother put her best friend in a coma over a spite about her high school prom by dropping a cinder block on her head. Bryan and Rachel (Sarahs parents) were cuckolding multiple men and video taping them into service to support them, including Tom Winston. Tom decided to kill Bryan and Rachel after falling in love with Rachel and being blackmailed, but saved Sarah after Rachel told him she was pregnant and that the child was his.
Eventually, it 's revealed that the deputy Cam is the Executioner, suffering under an abusive mother whom he pushed down the stairs, killing her. Cam 's father, the town priest, discovered that Cam was the Executioner, and Cam killed him as well. After finding his father 's body parts in his home, Sarah kills Cam with a machete.
Slasher 's 8 - episode second season centers around a horrific secret that a group of former summer camp counselors have buried long ago. Due to a changing circumstance, they must return to their resort in the dead of winter to retrieve the body of Talvinder, whom they murdered while they were camp counsellors, five years earlier. They get surprised when they ca n't find the body at the campsite. Later, the group start dying one by one at the hands of a mysterious person wearing a hoodie, which also alerts the second group of counselors at the resort.
Eventually, it 's revealed that Judith is the killer, and another character, Wren, is actually Owen "Wren '' Turnbull, her son who committed suicide after being framed for Talvinder 's murder, and is a figment of Judith 's imagination. Owen wrote a letter to his mother, asking her to get justice for him before hanging himself. Judith killed several members of the commune for their complicity after the fact, as Antoine discovered Talvinder 's body and hid it to avoid jeopardizing a real estate deal. Dawn and Keira are the only ones to escape her wrath and the former finally turns herself in for her crime during the epilogue. Judith can be seen watching them along with the hallucination of Owen, who says they 'll be waiting for Dawn after she is released from prison.
Aaron Martin was inspired to write Slasher after his work on the first season of the medical series Saving Hope, including his writing of two Hope episodes where, in his words, "people got chopped up. '' Martin would write the first episode of Slasher as a spec script, with two intentions for doing so: To offer it to prospective studios, and to show a writing style that was different from his previous work (e.g. Saving Hope, Degrassi: The Next Generation, Being Erica). Though the script did not receive immediate interest, Shaftesbury Films would discover and option it to prospective broadcasters. The script would land at Canadian premium network Super Channel, who, their interest piqued in part by Slasher 's fixed - end format, would order it as a series. The American network Chiller, which specializes in the horror / thriller genre, would join in production sometime after Super Channel; Slasher would be Chiller 's first foray into original scripted series content.
Production on Slasher 's 8 - episode first season was announced on July 28, 2015, with filming taking place between then and October 2015. Three Northern Ontario municipalities -- the cities of Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie and the town of Parry Sound -- would stand in for the show 's fictitious location, the town of Waterbury. A first trailer for the series would be released on November 26, 2015.
Unlike most TV series that film their episodes in order, Slasher, under the direction of Craig David Wallace, was shot as if it were a "super-sized '' movie: Scenes from multiple episodes were shot at the same time, with the availability of locations and cast being factored in. The out - of - order schedule allowed the actors to know of their characters ' fates, especially those who had to film their death scenes one day but return later to film earlier scenes as necessary. As an example of this, Martin cited Mark Ghanimé 's first day on set, when his character, Justin Faysal, was laid out in a casket for a scene early in Slasher 's third episode (Justin 's death, which took place in Episode 2, would be filmed later on).
On May 1, 2017, Slasher began filming a second season in Orangeville, Ontario, Canada. Shaftesbury Films confirmed that the series will not be returning to Super Channel or Chiller for a second season. However, Netflix acquired the rights to the second season. The second season was released via Netflix on October 17, 2017.
Slasher has received positive reviews. Zap2it called the series "a whole lot of fun '' and "something for everyone, '' praising the series ' anthology nature, its cast of characters, storyline, plot twists, bloody violence, and even the series - within - the - series Falcon Husbandry (shown as a favorite of Robin and Justin 's in Episode 2). Bloody Disgusting awarded the show four skulls out of five, praising Katie McGrath as a great "protagonist and possible final girl '' and the series ' decision to feature an adult cast, rather than teenagers, with well - developed characters and a "decidedly classic '' presentation. On the occasion of Slasher 's Super Channel premiere, The Globe and Mail 's John Doyle, while remarking that it "is no masterpiece of horror, nor was it meant to be, '' called the show "very well - crafted, '' praising its "exceptional cast '' and tight pacing, and noting fans of gory horror will appreciate its bloody scenes.
On May 25, 2016, the entire first season of Slasher became available to stream instantly on Netflix US. On October 17, 2017, the full second season of Slasher became available to stream on Netflix in various countries.
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the standing committee of the national people's congress | Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress - wikipedia
Wan Exiang, RCKMT Chen Zhu, CPWDP Ding Zhongli, CDL Hao Mingjin, CDNCA Cai Dafeng, CAPD
Since March 2013: Government (115):
United Front and Independent (51):
The Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC; Chinese: 全国 人民 代表 大会 常务 委员会) is a committee of about 150 members of the National People 's Congress (NPC) of the People 's Republic of China (PRC), which is convened between plenary sessions of the NPC. It has the constitutional authority to modify legislation within limits set by the NPC, and thus acts as a de facto legislative body. It is led by a Chairman, China 's top legislator, who is conventionally ranked third in China 's political ranking system, after the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Premier of the People 's Republic of China. The current Chairman is Li Zhanshu.
The NPCSC also has the power to interpret the laws of the PRC, including its constitution. In contrast to other countries in which stare decisis gives the power of both final interpretation and adjudication to a supreme court, within the People 's Republic of China constitutional and legal interpretation is considered to be a legislative activity rather than a judicial one, and the functions are split so that the NPCSC provides legal interpretations while the Supreme People 's Court actually decides cases. Because an interpretation of the NPCSC is legislative in nature and not judicial, it does not affect cases which have already been decided.
A notable use of the constitutional interpretation power occurred in 1999 over the Right of Abode issue in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in Lau Kong Yung v. Director of Immigration. The NPCSC interpreted the Basic Law of Hong Kong in accordance with the position taken by the Hong Kong government with respect to the eligibility of permanent residency in Hong Kong.
Elected by the 13th National People 's Congress at its 1st session 's 4th plenary meeting on March 17, 2018:
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when was the first rocket launched into space | Timeline of rocket and missile technology - wikipedia
This article gives a concise timeline of rocket and missile technology.
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why did france build us the statue of liberty | Statue of Liberty - wikipedia
The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.
The Statue of Liberty is a figure of a robed woman representing Libertas, a Roman goddess. She holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' (July 4, 1776), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.
Bartholdi was inspired by a French law professor and politician, Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. independence would properly be a joint project of the French and American peoples. Because of the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the U.S. provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch - bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.
The torch - bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island. The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker - tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. Public access to the balcony around the torch has been barred for safety since 1916.
According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after - dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort -- a common work of both our nations. '' The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy. ''
According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, a plan to build Progress or Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia, a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco - Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.
Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government -- it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states. '' As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's, American artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830, a half - clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.
Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet. Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.
Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor 's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact. He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:
The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half - hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet - le - Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet - le - Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet - le - Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.
By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco - American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue 's announced name.
Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 kilos (128,000 pounds) of copper.
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm '' or "Bartholdi Electric Light ''. The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.
During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco - American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee ''. One of its members was 19 - year - old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.
On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet - le - Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles '', that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor - intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.
Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret.
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on - site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island.
In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors -- one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.
The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three - and - a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works -- the selection of Italian - born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once. '' The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances. '' Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.
The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven - point star. The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean. In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m).
Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty ''. The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 - foot - deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt 's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money - raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus '', including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free '', is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 -- the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world '' donated "60 cents, the result of self denial. '' One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund. '' A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with. '' Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman. '' Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn -- the cities would not merge until 1898 -- donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new - found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.
Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I - beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch -- which was covered with gold leaf -- and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication.
A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker - tape parade.
A nautical parade began at 12: 45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue 's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world ''. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he declined. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.
Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality '':
"Liberty enlightening the world, '' indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty '' of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku - kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty '' of this country "enlightening the world, '' or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon. '' Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.
The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled,
I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you 're such a beautiful! (sic) You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America. '' And always that statue was on my mind.
Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized US $62,800 (equivalent to $1,673,969 in 2016) for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful. '' The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.
On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe 's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch - bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about US $100,000 (equivalent to $2,200,917 in 2016). The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public - safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.
That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise US $30,000 (equivalent to $660,275 in 2016) for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors, but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor -- a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose -- to secure liberty -- and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base.
In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island. With the Army 's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast - iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.
During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D - Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot - dot - dot - dash '', the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944 -- 1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.
In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue 's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.
In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue where she and others from the National Organization for Women 's New York chapter draped an enormous banner over a railing which read "WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE! ''
Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.
In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world 's largest free - standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos - based substance that Bartholdi had used -- ineffectively, as inspections showed -- to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits '', with self - contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24 - carat gold. The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and is lighted by floodlights at night.
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low - carbon corrosion - resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced -- night - time illumination subsequently came from metal - halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.
July 3 -- 6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend '', marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan 's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see. ''
Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off - limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift '' to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.
The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012, only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically... months '' before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings.
On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The original torch will be relocated here, and in addition to exhibits relating to the statue 's construction and history, there will be a theater where visitors can watch an aerial view of the statue. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca - Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, Mellody Hobson, and George Lucas. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras -- lockers are provided for other items -- and must undergo a second security screening.
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty.
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans -- Pulitzer and Lazarus -- and three Frenchmen -- Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye -- are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.
In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance '' describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit '' that "endures as a highly potent symbol -- inspiring contemplation, debate and protest -- of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. ''
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one - fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 -- 1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2,500 mm) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions -- the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York - New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.
As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten - dollar bill. The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue to either the front or the side of the serial number. The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith 's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American) '', and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half - buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science - fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney 's time - travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979,
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted (E) arth -- giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future.
Notes
Bibliography
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who won and placed in the kentucky derby | Kentucky Derby top four finishers - wikipedia
This is a listing of first - place, second - place, third - place and fourth - place finishers, and the number of starters in the Kentucky Derby, a Grade I American Thoroughbred race run at 1 ⁄ miles on dirt for three - year - olds. It is the first leg of the American Triple Crown, run at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky.
A † designates a Triple Crown Winner.
Note: D. Wayne Lukas swept the 1995 Triple Crown with two different horses.
In 1968, Dancer 's Image finished first, but was disqualified after a post-race urine sample revealed traces of a banned drug in the horse. The drug in question - phenylbutazone - illegal at the time, is now legal for use on racehorses in many states, including Kentucky. Forward Pass is now the 1968 winner of the Kentucky Derby.
In 1984, Gate Dancer finished fourth, but was disqualified for fouling Fali Time, who was then moved up from 5th to 4th place.
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who was the school of athens painted for | The School of Athens - wikipedia
The School of Athens (Italian: Scuola di Atene) is one of the most famous frescoes by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. It was painted between 1509 and 1511 as a part of Raphael 's commission to decorate the rooms now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. The Stanza della Segnatura was the first of the rooms to be decorated, and The School of Athens, representing Philosophy, was probably the second painting to be finished there, after La Disputa (Theology) on the opposite wall, and the Parnassus (Literature). The picture has long been seen as "Raphael 's masterpiece and the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the Renaissance ''.
The School of Athens is one of a group of four main frescoes on the walls of the Stanza (those on either side centrally interrupted by windows) that depict distinct branches of knowledge. Each theme is identified above by a separate tondo containing a majestic female figure seated in the clouds, with putti bearing the phrases: "Seek Knowledge of Causes, '' "Divine Inspiration, '' "Knowledge of Things Divine '' (Disputa), "To Each What Is Due. '' Accordingly, the figures on the walls below exemplify Philosophy, Poetry (including Music), Theology, and Law. The traditional title is not Raphael 's. The subject of the "School '' is actually "Philosophy, '' or at least ancient Greek philosophy, and its overhead tondo - label, "Causarum Cognitio '', tells us what kind, as it appears to echo Aristotle 's emphasis on wisdom as knowing why, hence knowing the causes, in Metaphysics Book I and Physics Book II. Indeed, Plato and Aristotle appear to be the central figures in the scene. However, all the philosophers depicted sought knowledge of first causes. Many lived before Plato and Aristotle, and hardly a third were Athenians. The architecture contains Roman elements, but the general semi-circular setting having Plato and Aristotle at its centre might be alluding to Pythagoras ' circumpunct.
Commentators have suggested that nearly every great ancient Greek philosopher can be found in the painting, but determining which are depicted is difficult, since Raphael made no designations outside possible likenesses, and no contemporary documents explain the painting. Compounding the problem, Raphael had to invent a system of iconography to allude to various figures for whom there were no traditional visual types. For example, while the Socrates figure is immediately recognizable from Classical busts, the alleged Epicurus is far removed from his standard type. Aside from the identities of the figures depicted, many aspects of the fresco have been variously interpreted, but few such interpretations are unanimously accepted among scholars.
The popular idea that the rhetorical gestures of Plato and Aristotle are kinds of pointing (to the heavens, and down to earth) is very likely. But Plato 's Timaeus -- which is the book Raphael places in his hand -- was a sophisticated treatment of space, time, and change, including the Earth, which guided mathematical sciences for over a millennium. Aristotle, with his four - elements theory, held that all change on Earth was owing to motions of the heavens. In the painting Aristotle carries his Ethics, which he denied could be reduced to a mathematical science. It is not certain how much the young Raphael knew of ancient philosophy, what guidance he might have had from people such as Bramante, or whether a detailed program was dictated by his sponsor, Pope Julius II.
Nevertheless, the fresco has even recently been interpreted as an exhortation to philosophy and, in a deeper way, as a visual representation of the role of Love in elevating people toward upper knowledge, largely in consonance with contemporary theories of Marsilio Ficino and other neo-Platonic thinkers linked to Raphael.
Finally, according to Vasari, the scene includes Raphael himself, the Duke of Mantua, Zoroaster and some Evangelists.
However, as Heinrich Wölfflin observed, "it is quite wrong to attempt interpretations of the School of Athens as an esoteric treatise... The all - important thing was the artistic motive which expressed a physical or spiritual state, and the name of the person was a matter of indifference '' in Raphael 's time. What is evident is Raphael 's artistry in orchestrating a beautiful space, continuous with that of viewers in the Stanza, in which a great variety of human figures, each one expressing "mental states by physical actions, '' interact, in a "polyphony '' unlike anything in earlier art, in the ongoing dialogue of Philosophy.
An interpretation of the fresco relating to hidden symmetries of the figures and the star constructed by Bramante was given by Guerino Mazzola and collaborators. The main basis are two mirrored triangles on the drawing from Bramante (Euclid), which correspond to the feet positions of certain figures.
The identities of some of the philosophers in the picture, such as Plato and Aristotle, are certain. Beyond that, identifications of Raphael 's figures have always been hypothetical. To complicate matters, beginning from Vasari 's efforts, some have received multiple identifications, not only as ancients but also as figures contemporary with Raphael. Vasari mentions portraits of the young Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, leaning over Bramante with his hands raised near the bottom right, and Raphael himself. He was writing over 40 years after the painting, and never knew Raphael, but no doubt reflects what was believed in his time. Many other popular identifications of portraits are very dubious.
Luitpold Dussler (de) counts among those who can be identified with some certainty: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Pythagoras, Euclid, Ptolemy, Zoroaster, Raphael, Sodoma and Diogenes of Sinope. Other identifications he holds to be "more or less speculative ''.
A more comprehensive list of proposed identifications is given below:
1: Zeno of Citium 2: Epicurus 3: unknown 4: Boethius or Anaximander? 5: Averroes 6: Pythagoras 7: Alcibiades or Alexander the Great? 8: Antisthenes or Xenophon? 9: unknown or Fornarina as a personification of Love (Francesco Maria della Rovere?) 10: Aeschines 11: Parmenides or Nicomachus? 12: Socrates 13: Heraclitus (Michelangelo?) 14: Plato (Leonardo da Vinci?) 15: Aristotle (Giuliano da Sangallo?) 16: Diogenes of Sinope 17: Plotinus? 18: Euclid or Archimedes (Bramante?) 19: Strabo or Zoroaster? (Baldassare Castiglione?) 20: Ptolemy R: Apelles (Raphael) 21: Protogenes (Il Sodoma or Timoteo Viti)
In the center of the fresco, at its architecture 's central vanishing point, are the two undisputed main subjects: Plato on the left and Aristotle, his student, on the right. Both figures hold modern (of the time), bound copies of their books in their left hands, while gesturing with their right. Plato holds Timaeus, Aristotle his Nicomachean Ethics. Plato is depicted as old, grey, wise - looking, and bare - foot. By contrast Aristotle, slightly ahead of him, is in mature manhood, handsome, well - shod and dressed with gold, and the youth about them seem to look his way. In addition, these two central figures gesture along different dimensions: Plato vertically, upward along the picture - plane, into the beautiful vault above; Aristotle on the horizontal plane at right - angles to the picture - plane (hence in strong foreshortening), initiating a powerful flow of space toward viewers.
It is popularly thought that their gestures indicate central aspects of their philosophies, for Plato, his Theory of Forms, and for Aristotle, his empiricist views, with an emphasis on concrete particulars. Many interpret the painting to show a divergence of the two philosophical schools. Plato argues a sense of timelessness whilst Aristotle looks into the physicality of life and the present realm.
The building is in the shape of a Greek cross, which some have suggested was intended to show a harmony between pagan philosophy and Christian theology (see Christianity and Paganism and Christian philosophy). The architecture of the building was inspired by the work of Bramante, who, according to Vasari, helped Raphael with the architecture in the picture. Some have suggested that the building itself was intended to be an advance view of St. Peter 's Basilica.
There are two sculptures in the background. The one on the left is the god Apollo, god of light, archery and music, holding a lyre. The sculpture on the right is Athena, goddess of wisdom, in her Roman guise as Minerva.
The main arch, above the characters, shows a meander (also known as a Greek fret or Greek key design), a design using continuous lines that repeat in a "series of rectangular bends '' which originated on pottery of the Greek Geometric period and then become widely used in ancient Greek architectural friezes.
A number of drawings made by Raphael as studies for the School of Athens are extant. A study for the Diogenes is in the Städel in Frankfurt while a study for the group around Pythagoras, in the lower left of the painting, is preserved in the Albertina Museum in Vienna. Several drawings, showing the two men talking while walking up the steps on the right and the Medusa on Athena 's shield, the statue of Athena (Minerva) and three other statues, a study for the combat - scene in the relief below Apollo and "Euclid '' teaching his pupils are in the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology at Oxford University.
The cartoon for the painting is in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in Milan.
The Victoria and Albert Museum has a rectangular version over 4 metres by 8 metres in size, painted on canvas, dated 1755 by Anton Raphael Mengs on display in the eastern Cast Court.
Modern reproductions of the fresco abound. For example, a full - size one can be seen in the auditorium of Old Cabell Hall at the University of Virginia. Produced in 1902 by George W. Breck to replace an older reproduction that was destroyed in a fire in 1895, it is four inches off scale from the original, because the Vatican would not allow identical reproductions of its art works.
Other reproductions include: by Neide, in Königsberg Cathedral, Kaliningrad, in the University of North Carolina at Asheville 's Highsmith University Student Union, and a recent one in the seminar room at Baylor University 's Brooks College. A copy of Raphael 's School of Athens was painted on the wall of the ceremonial stairwell that leads to the famous, main - floor reading room of the Bibliothèque Sainte - Geneviève in Paris.
The two figures at the left of Plotinus were used as part of the cover art of both Use Your Illusion I and II albums of Guns N ' Roses.
A similar theme is known as Plato 's Academy mosaic, and perhaps emerged in form of statues at the Serapeum of Alexandria and Memphis Saqqara. Mimaut mentioned in the 19th century, nine statues at Serapeum of Alexandria holding rolls. Eleven statues were found at Saqqara. A review of Les Statues Ptolémaïques du Sarapieion de Memphis noted they were probably build in the 3rd Century with limestone and stucco, some standing others sitting. Rowe and Rees 1956 suggested that both scenes in Serapeum of Alexandria and Saqqara, share a similar theme, such as with Plato 's Academy mosaic, with Saqqara figures attributed to, Pindar (seated, identified per a graffiti), a inscription at the back of his chair reads Dionysi, Demetrios de Phalere, Orphic, aux oiseaux, Hesiode, Homer seated in the center (head was recovered), Protagoras, Thales, Heraclite, Platon (per inscription), and Aristote. However, there have been other suggestions, see for instance Mattusch 2008, a common identification seems to be Plato as a central figure and Thales.
Zeno of Citium
Epicurus
Averroes and Pythagoras
Pythagoras
Alcibiades or Alexander the Great and Antisthenes or Xenophon
Parmenides
Aeschines and Socrates
Michelangelo as Heraclitus
Leonardo da Vinci as Plato
Aristotle
Diogenes
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where did the element neon get its name | Neon - wikipedia
Neon is a chemical element with symbol Ne and atomic number 10. It is a noble gas. Neon is a colorless, odorless, inert monatomic gas under standard conditions, with about two - thirds the density of air. It was discovered (along with krypton and xenon) in 1898 as one of the three residual rare inert elements remaining in dry air, after nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide were removed. Neon was the second of these three rare gases to be discovered and was immediately recognized as a new element from its bright red emission spectrum. The name neon is derived from the Greek word, νέον, neuter singular form of νέος (neos), meaning new. Neon is chemically inert, and no uncharged neon compounds are known. The compounds of neon currently known include ionic molecules, molecules held together by van der Waals forces and clathrates.
During cosmic nucleogenesis of the elements, large amounts of neon are built up from the alpha - capture fusion process in stars. Although neon is a very common element in the universe and solar system (it is fifth in cosmic abundance after hydrogen, helium, oxygen and carbon), it is rare on Earth. It composes about 18.2 ppm of air by volume (this is about the same as the molecular or mole fraction) and a smaller fraction in Earth 's crust. The reason for neon 's relative scarcity on Earth and the inner (terrestrial) planets is that neon is highly volatile and forms no compounds to fix it to solids. As a result, it escaped from the planetesimals under the warmth of the newly ignited Sun in the early Solar System. Even the outer atmosphere of Jupiter is somewhat depleted of neon, although for a different reason. It is also lighter than air, causing it to escape even from Earth 's atmosphere.
Neon gives a distinct reddish - orange glow when used in low - voltage neon glow lamps, high - voltage discharge tubes and neon advertising signs. The red emission line from neon also causes the well known red light of helium -- neon lasers. Neon is used in some plasma tube and refrigerant applications but has few other commercial uses. It is commercially extracted by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Since air is the only source, it is considerably more expensive than helium.
Neon (Greek νέον (néon), neuter singular form of νέος meaning "new ''), was discovered in 1898 by the British chemists Sir William Ramsay (1852 -- 1916) and Morris W. Travers (1872 -- 1961) in London. Neon was discovered when Ramsay chilled a sample of air until it became a liquid, then warmed the liquid and captured the gases as they boiled off. The gases nitrogen, oxygen, and argon had been identified, but the remaining gases were isolated in roughly their order of abundance, in a six - week period beginning at the end of May 1898. First to be identified was krypton. The next, after krypton had been removed, was a gas which gave a brilliant red light under spectroscopic discharge. This gas, identified in June, was named neon, the Greek analogue of "novum '', (new), suggested by Ramsay 's son. The characteristic brilliant red - orange color emitted by gaseous neon when excited electrically was noted immediately; Travers later wrote, "the blaze of crimson light from the tube told its own story and was a sight to dwell upon and never forget. ''
A second gas was also reported along with neon, having approximately the same density as argon but with a different spectrum -- Ramsay and Travers named it metargon. '' However, subsequent spectroscopic analysis revealed it to be argon contaminated with carbon monoxide. Finally, the same team discovered xenon by the same process, in September 1898.
Neon 's scarcity precluded its prompt application for lighting along the lines of Moore tubes, which used nitrogen and which were commercialized in the early 1900s. After 1902, Georges Claude 's company, Air Liquide, produced industrial quantities of neon as a byproduct of his air liquefaction business. In December 1910 Claude demonstrated modern neon lighting based on a sealed tube of neon. Claude tried briefly to sell neon tubes for indoor domestic lighting, due to their intensity, but the market failed because homeowners objected to the color. In 1912, Claude 's associate began selling neon discharge tubes as eye - catching advertising signs and was instantly more successful. Neon tubes were introduced to the U.S. in 1923 with two large neon signs bought by a Los Angeles Packard car dealership. The glow and arresting red color made neon advertising completely different from the competition. The intense color and vibrancy of neon equated with American society at the time, suggesting a "century of progress '' and transforming cities into sensational new environments filled with radiating advertisements and "electro - graphic architecture. ''
Neon played a role in the basic understanding of the nature of atoms in 1913, when J.J. Thomson, as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays, channeled streams of neon ions through a magnetic and an electric field and measured the deflection of the streams with a photographic plate. Thomson observed two separate patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested two different parabolas of deflection. Thomson eventually concluded that some of the atoms in the neon gas were of higher mass than the rest. Though not understood at the time by Thomson, this was the first discovery of isotopes of stable atoms. Thomson 's device was a crude version of the instrument we now term a mass spectrometer.
Neon is the second lightest inert gas. Neon has three stable isotopes: Ne (90.48 %), Ne (0.27 %) and Ne (9.25 %). Ne and Ne are partly primordial and partly nucleogenic (i.e. made by nuclear reactions of other nuclides with neutrons or other particles in the environment) and their variations in natural abundance are well understood. In contrast, Ne (the chief primordial isotope made in stellar nucleosynthesis) is not known to be nucleogenic or radiogenic. The causes of the variation of Ne in the Earth have thus been hotly debated.
The principal nuclear reactions which generate nucleogenic neon isotopes start from Mg and Mg, which produce Ne and Ne, respectively, after neutron capture and immediate emission of an alpha particle. The neutrons that produce the reactions are mostly produced by secondary spallation reactions from alpha particles, in turn derived from uranium - series decay chains. The net result yields a trend towards lower Ne / Ne and higher Ne / Ne ratios observed in uranium - rich rocks such as granites. Ne may also be produced in a nucleogenic reaction, when Ne absorbs a neutron from various natural terrestrial neutron sources.
In addition, isotopic analysis of exposed terrestrial rocks has demonstrated the cosmogenic (cosmic ray) production of Ne. This isotope is generated by spallation reactions on magnesium, sodium, silicon, and aluminium. By analyzing all three isotopes, the cosmogenic component can be resolved from magmatic neon and nucleogenic neon. This suggests that neon will be a useful tool in determining cosmic exposure ages of surface rocks and meteorites.
Similar to xenon, neon content observed in samples of volcanic gases is enriched in Ne, as well as nucleogenic Ne, relative to Ne content. The neon isotopic content of these mantle - derived samples represents a non-atmospheric source of neon. The Ne - enriched components are attributed to exotic primordial rare gas components in the Earth, possibly representing solar neon. Elevated Ne abundances are found in diamonds, further suggesting a solar neon reservoir in the Earth.
Neon is the second - lightest noble gas, after helium. It glows reddish - orange in a vacuum discharge tube. Also, neon has the narrowest liquid range of any element: from 24.55 K to 27.05 K (− 248.45 ° C to − 245.95 ° C, or − 415.21 ° F to − 410.71 ° F). It has over 40 times the refrigerating capacity of liquid helium and three times that of liquid hydrogen (on a per unit volume basis). In most applications it is a less expensive refrigerant than helium.
Neon plasma has the most intense light discharge at normal voltages and currents of all the noble gases. The average color of this light to the human eye is red - orange due to many lines in this range; it also contains a strong green line which is hidden, unless the visual components are dispersed by a spectroscope.
Two quite different kinds of neon lighting are in common use. Neon glow lamps are generally tiny, with most operating between 100 and 250 volts. They have been widely used as power - on indicators and in circuit - testing equipment, but light - emitting diodes (LEDs) now dominate in those applications. These simple neon devices were the forerunners of plasma displays and plasma television screens. Neon signs typically operate at much higher voltages (2 -- 15 kilovolts), and the luminous tubes are commonly meters long. The glass tubing is often formed into shapes and letters for signage as well as architectural and artistic applications.
Stable isotopes of neon are produced in stars. Ne is created in fusing helium and oxygen in the alpha process. This requires temperatures above 100 mega kelvin, which are only available in the cores of stars of more than 3 solar masses.
Neon is abundant on a universal scale; it is the fifth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass, after hydrogen, helium, oxygen, and carbon (see chemical element). Its relative rarity on Earth, like that of helium, is due to its relative lightness, high vapor pressure at very low temperatures, and chemical inertness, all properties which tend to keep it from being trapped in the condensing gas and dust clouds that formed the smaller and warmer solid planets like Earth.
Neon is monatomic, making it lighter than the molecules of diatomic nitrogen and oxygen which form the bulk of Earth 's atmosphere; a balloon filled with neon will rise in air, albeit more slowly than a helium balloon.
Neon 's abundance in the universe is about 1 part in 750; in the Sun and presumably in the proto - solar system nebula, about 1 part in 600. The Galileo spacecraft atmospheric entry probe found that even in the upper atmosphere of Jupiter, the abundance of neon is reduced (depleted) by about a factor of 10, to a level of 1 part in 6,000 by mass. This may indicate that even the ice - planetesimals which brought neon into Jupiter from the outer solar system, formed in a region which was too warm to retain the neon atmospheric component (abundances of heavier inert gases on Jupiter are several times that found in the Sun).
Neon comprises 1 part in 55,000 in the Earth 's atmosphere, or 18.2 ppm by volume (this is about the same as the molecule or mole fraction), or 1 part in 79,000 of air by mass. It comprises a smaller fraction in the crust. It is industrially produced by cryogenic fractional distillation of liquefied air.
On 17 August 2015, based on studies with the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) spacecraft, NASA scientists reported the detection of neon in the exosphere of the moon.
Neon is the first p - block noble gas, and the first element with a true octet of electrons. It is inert: as is the case with its lighter analogue, helium, no strongly bound neutral molecules containing neon have been identified. The ions (Ne Ar), (Ne H), and (HeNe) have been observed from optical and mass spectrometric studies. Solid neon clathrate hydrate was produced from water ice and neon gas at pressures 0.35 -- 0.48 GPa and temperatures ca. -- 30 ° C. Ne atoms are not bonded to water and can freely move through this material. They can be extracted by placing the clathrate into a vacuum chamber for several days, yielding ice XVI, the least dense crystalline form of water.
The familiar Pauling electronegativity scale relies upon chemical bond energies, but such values have obviously not been measured for inert helium and neon. The Allen electronegativity scale, which relies only upon (measurable) atomic energies, identifies neon as the most electronegative element, closely followed by fluorine and helium.
Neon is often used in signs and produces an unmistakable bright reddish - orange light. Although tube lights with other colors are often called "neon '', they use different noble gases or varied colors of fluorescent lighting.
Neon is used in vacuum tubes, high - voltage indicators, lightning arresters, wave meter tubes, television tubes, and helium -- neon lasers. Liquefied neon is commercially used as a cryogenic refrigerant in applications not requiring the lower temperature range attainable with more extreme liquid helium refrigeration.
Neon, as liquid or gas, is relatively expensive -- for small quantities, the price of liquid neon can be more than 55 times that of liquid helium. Driving neon 's expense is the rarity of neon, which unlike helium, can only be obtained from air.
The triple point temperature of neon (24.5561 K) is a defining fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990.
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what is the difference between earlier computer and modern computer | Computer - wikipedia
A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out arbitrary sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs, enables them to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.
Such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer assisted design, but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers.
Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then.
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input / output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s - era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of the word "computer '' was in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: "I haue (sic) read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer (sic) breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number. '' This usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.
The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of "computer '' in the "1640s, (meaning) "one who calculates, ''; this is an "... agent noun from compute (v.) ''. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean "calculating machine '' (of any type) is from 1897. '' The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the "modern use '' of the term, to mean "programmable digital electronic computer '' dates from "... 1945 under this name; (in a) theoretical (sense) from 1937, as Turing machine ''.
Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one - to - one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example.
The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer '', according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear - wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed - wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear - wheels, circa 1000 AD.
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.
The slide rule was invented around 1620 -- 1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand - operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time -- distance problems in light aircraft. To save space and for ease of reading, these are typically circular devices rather than the classic linear slide rule shape. A popular example is the E6B.
In the 1770s Pierre Jaquet - Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automata) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed '' to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.
The tide - predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel - and - disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball - and - disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer '', he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general - purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing - complete.
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand -- this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage 's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine 's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The first modern analog computer was a tide - predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel - and - disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H.L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H.W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).
By 1938 the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.
Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all - electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.
In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world 's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5 -- 10 Hz. Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Rather than the harder - to - implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage 's earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse 's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was Turing complete.
Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes. In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff -- Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer ''. This design was also all - electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.
During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro - mechanical bombes. To crack the more sophisticated German Lorenz SZ 40 / 42 machine, used for high - level Army communications, Max Newman and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the Colossus. He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus. After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February.
Colossus was the world 's first electronic digital programmable computer. It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper - tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing - complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.
The U.S. - built ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing - complete. Like the Colossus, a "program '' on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC 's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal 1936 paper, On Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine '' and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing 's design is the stored program, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing - complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.
Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine. With the proposal of the stored - program computer this changed. A stored - program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation. The theoretical basis for the stored - program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In 1945 Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored - program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator '' was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.
The Manchester Small - Scale Experimental Machine, nicknamed Baby, was the world 's first stored - program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948. It was designed as a testbed for the Williams tube, the first random - access digital storage device. Although the computer was considered "small and primitive '' by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As soon as the SSEM had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1.
The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world 's first commercially available general - purpose computer. Built by Ferranti, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam. In October 1947, the directors of British catering company J. Lyons & Company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The LEO I computer became operational in April 1951 and ran the world 's first regular routine office computer job.
The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation '' of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.
At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. Their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955, built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell.
The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit. The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on 7 May 1952.
The first practical ICs were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated ''. Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby 's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas Kilby 's chip was made of germanium.
This new development heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers and led to the invention of the microprocessor. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor '', it is largely undisputed that the first single - chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, designed and realized by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, and Stanley Mazor at Intel.
With the continued miniaturization of computing resources, and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s. The same developments that spurred the growth of laptop computers and other portable computers allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular phones. These so - called smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and have become the dominant computing device on the market, with manufacturers reporting having shipped an estimated 237 million devices in 2Q 2013.
Computers are typically classified based on their uses:
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects. Circuits, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice '' input devices are all hardware.
A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I / O). These parts are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1 '', and when off it represents a "0 '' (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand - operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:
The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer 's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.
The control system 's function is as follows -- note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps '' and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation -- although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65? ''). Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
A computer 's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address '' and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357 '' or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595. '' The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software 's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or − 128 to + 127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two 's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer 's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer 's initial start - up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer 's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.
In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer 's part.
I / O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I / O. I / O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I / O. A 2016 - era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn. One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time ''. then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time - sharing '' since each program is allocated a "slice '' of time in turn.
Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input / output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice '' until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.
Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower - end markets as a result.
Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored - program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high - speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large - scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so - called "embarrassingly parallel '' tasks.
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that can not easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible computer, it is sometimes called "firmware ''.
There are thousands of different programming languages -- some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.
This section applies to most common RAM machine - based computers.
In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer 's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump '' instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers '' the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language:
Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer 's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer 's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious and potentially error - prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember -- a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer 's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.
Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low - level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand - held videogame) can not understand the machine language of an x86 CPU that might be in a PC.
Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high - level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled '' into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler. High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem (s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.
These 4G languages are less procedural than 3G languages. The benefit of 4GL is that they provide ways to obtain information without requiring the direct help of a programmer. An example of a 4GL is SQL.
Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object - oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.
Errors in computer programs are called "bugs ''. They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to "hang '', becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer 's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program 's design. Admiral Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist and developer of the first compiler, is credited for having first used the term "bugs '' in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the Harvard Mark II computer in September 1947.
Firmware is the technology which has the combination of both hardware and software such as BIOS chip inside a computer. This chip (hardware) is located on the motherboard and has the BIOS set up (software) stored in it.
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military 's SAGE system was the first large - scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special - purpose commercial systems such as Sabre. In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that resulted was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high - tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless '' networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.
A computer does not need to be electronic, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word "computer '' is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, the modern definition of a computer is literally: "A device that computes, especially a programmable (usually) electronic machine that performs high - speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information. '' Any device which processes information qualifies as a computer, especially if the processing is purposeful.
Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors. However, conceptually computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); an often quoted example. More realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by quantum factoring) very quickly.
There are many types of computer architectures:
Of all these abstract machines, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church -- Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing - complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
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when did the 1st planet of the apes come out | Planet of the Apes - wikipedia
Original series
Remake
Reboot series
Planet of the Apes is an American science fiction media franchise consisting of films, books, television series, comics, and other media about a world in which humans and intelligent apes clash for control. The series began with French author Pierre Boulle 's 1963 novel La Planète des Singes, translated into English as Planet of the Apes or Monkey Planet. The 1968 film adaptation, Planet of the Apes, was a critical and commercial hit, initiating a series of sequels, tie - ins, and derivative works. Arthur P. Jacobs produced the series under APJAC Productions until his death in 1973; since then 20th Century Fox has owned the franchise.
Four sequels followed the original film between 1970 and 1973: Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, and Battle for the Planet of the Apes. They did not approach the critical acclaim of the original, but were commercially successful. The series also spawned two television series in 1974 and 1975. Plans for a film remake stalled in "development hell '' for over ten years before Tim Burton 's Planet of the Apes was released in 2001. A new reboot film series commenced in 2011 with Rise of the Planet of the Apes, which was followed by Dawn of the Planet of the Apes in 2014 and War for the Planet of the Apes in 2017. The films have grossed a total of over $2 billion worldwide, against a combined budget of $567.5 million. Other media and merchandising tie - ins include books, comics, video games, and toys.
Planet of the Apes has received particular attention for its treatment of race, which critics consider its primary theme. Critics have also written on its Cold War and animal rights themes. The series has had a wide influence on subsequent films, media, and art, as well as popular culture and political discourse.
The series began with French author Pierre Boulle 's 1963 novel La Planète des Singes. Boulle wrote the novel in six months after the "humanlike expressions '' of gorillas at the zoo inspired him to contemplate the relationship between man and ape. La Planète des Singes was heavily influenced by 18th - and 19th - century fantastical travel narratives, especially Jonathan Swift 's satirical Gulliver 's Travels. It is one of several of Boulle 's works to use science fiction tropes and plot devices to comment on the failings of human nature and mankind 's overreliance on technology. However, Boulle rejected the science fiction label for his work, instead terming it "social fantasy ''.
The novel is a social satire following French journalist Ulysse Mérou, who participates in a voyage to a distant planet where speechless, animalistic humans are hunted and enslaved by an advanced society of apes. Eventually Mérou discovers that humans once dominated the planet until their complacency allowed the more industrious apes to overthrow them. The novel 's central message is that human intelligence is not a fixed quality and could atrophy if taken for granted. Boulle considered the novel one of his minor works, though it proved to be a hit. Xan Fielding translated it into English; it was published in the United Kingdom as Monkey Planet and in the United States as Planet of the Apes.
Boulle 's literary agent Allain Bernheim brought the novel to the attention of American film producer Arthur P. Jacobs, who had come to Paris looking for new properties to adapt with his new company, APJAC Productions. To explain his interests, Jacobs had mentioned to agents, "I wish King Kong had n't been made so I could make it. '' Bernheim initially approached Jacobs about a Françoise Sagan novel, which Jacobs turned down. Remembering Jacobs ' earlier comment about King Kong, Bernheim mentioned La Planète des Singes, not expecting Jacobs would be interested. However, the story intrigued Jacobs, who bought the film rights immediately.
After optioning the novel 's film rights, Arthur P. Jacobs spent over three years trying to convince filmmakers to take on the project. He hired a succession of artists to create test sketches, and hired veteran television writer Rod Serling, creator of The Twilight Zone, to pen the script. Serling 's script changed elements of Boulle 's novel, introducing Cold War themes; notably he wrote a new twist ending that revealed the planet to be a future Earth where humans had destroyed themselves through nuclear warfare. As production costs were estimated at over $10 million, no studio in either Hollywood or Europe would assume the risk. Jacobs and associate producer Mort Abrahams persevered, and eventually persuaded Charlton Heston to star; Heston in turn recommended director Franklin J. Schaffner. The team recorded a brief screen test featuring Heston, which ultimately convinced 20th Century Fox the film could succeed.
Fox insisted on changes to reduce the budget to a more manageable $5.8 million. The producers hired veteran writer Michael Wilson, who had previously adapted Boulle 's novel The Bridge over the River Kwai, to rewrite Serling 's script. To save on special effects costs, Wilson 's script described an ape society more primitive than that which appeared in the novel. The new script changed much of the plot and dialogue, but retained the Cold War themes and Serling 's ending. John Chambers created the innovative makeup effects.
Heston played 20th - century American astronaut George Taylor, who travels to a strange planet where intelligent apes dominate mute, primitive humans. Kim Hunter and Roddy McDowall played the sympathetic chimpanzees Zira and Cornelius, and Linda Harrison portrayed Taylor 's love interest Nova. Maurice Evans played the villain, orangutan science minister Dr. Zaius. The finale, in which Taylor comes upon a ruined Statue of Liberty and realizes he has been on Earth all along, became the series ' defining scene and one of the most iconic images in 1960s film. The film was released on February 8, 1968, and was a smash success with both critics and audiences, breaking contemporary box office records and earning rave reviews. John Chambers received an honorary Oscar at the 41st Academy Awards for his make - up effects, the first ever given to a make - up artist. Jerry Goldsmith 's score and Morton Haack 's costume design also earned Oscar nominations. Fox approached Jacobs and Abrahams about filming a sequel. Though they had not made the film with sequels in mind, its success led them to consider the prospect.
Planning for the sequel, eventually titled Beneath the Planet of the Apes, began two months after the original film 's release. Jacobs and Abrahams initially considered several treatments by Rod Serling and Pierre Boulle, but ultimately turned them down. In fall 1968 the producers hired Paul Dehn to write the script; he would become the primary writer for the franchise. Charlton Heston was uninterested in a sequel, but agreed to shoot a few scenes if his character were killed off and his salary donated to charity. In one of many major rewrites, Dehn altered the script to center on a new character, Brent, played by James Franciscus. With director Franklin J. Shaffner unavailable, owing to his work on Patton, the producers hired Ted Post on January 8, 1969. Post struggled with the material, especially after the studio cut the budget to $3.4 million.
The story follows Franciscus ' character Brent, an astronaut who inadvertently follows Taylor into the future while searching for him. After encountering the apes from the first film, Brent finds Taylor imprisoned by a colony of subterranean human mutants who worship an ancient nuclear bomb. Kim Hunter, Maurice Evans, and Linda Harrison returned as Zira, Zaius, and Nova. David Watson replaced Roddy McDowall as Cornelius, as McDowall was unavailable due to a scheduling conflict. James Gregory played gorilla General Ursus and Paul Richards played mutant leader Méndez. The film opened on May 26, 1970. Unlike the first film, Beneath was poorly reviewed; critics typically regard it as the worst of the Apes sequels other than the fifth film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes. However, it was a major box office hit, nearing the original 's numbers. Despite a conclusion depicting the planet 's nuclear destruction, Fox requested another sequel, creating a series.
Following the financial success of Beneath, Arthur P. Jacobs recruited Paul Dehn to write a new script with a brief telegram: "Apes exist, Sequel required. '' Dehn immediately started work on what became Escape from the Planet of the Apes. The producers hired a new director, Don Taylor. Fox gave the production a greatly diminished budget ($2.5 million), which required a tight production schedule.
To work around the budget, as well as Beneath 's seemingly definitive ending, the film took the series in a new direction by transporting Zira (Kim Hunter) and Cornelius (Roddy McDowall, returning to the role after being absent from Beneath) back in time to the contemporary United States, reducing the need for expensive sets and ape make - up effects. In the film, Zira and Cornelius are initially accepted by American society, but fears that their child will bring about the domination of the human race by evolved apes leads to conflict. Jacob 's wife Natalie Trundy, who appeared as a mutant in Beneath and later played the ape Lisa in the next two sequels, was cast as Dr. Stephanie Branton. Bradford Dillman played Dr. Lewis Dixon, Ricardo Montalbán played Armando, and Eric Braeden portrayed the villain, the President 's Science Advisor Otto Hasslein.
Compared to its predecessors, Escape dwelt more heavily on themes of racial conflict, which became a primary focus through the rest of the series. The film opened on May 21, 1971, less than a year after Beneath. It was well received by critics. From this point critics began seeing the films less as independent units and more as installments in a greater work; Frederick S. Clarke wrote that the burgeoning series had "the promise of being the first epic of filmed science fiction. '' It also performed well at the box office, though not as strongly as its predecessors. Fox ordered a third sequel.
Based on the strong positive response to Escape, Fox ordered Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, though it provided a comparatively low budget of $1.7 million. Paul Dehn returned as the scriptwriter, and producer Jacobs hired J. Lee Thompson to direct. Thompson had worked with Jacobs on two earlier films as well as during the initial stages of Planet, but scheduling conflicts had made him unavailable during its long development process. For Conquest, Thompson and Dehn focused heavily on the racial conflict theme, an ancillary concern in the early films that became a major theme in Escape. In particular, Dehn associated the apes with African - Americans and modeled the plot after the 1966 Watts Riots and other episodes from the Civil Rights Movement. Roddy McDowall signed on to play Caesar, the son of his previous character Cornelius. Ricardo Montalban returned as Armando, while Don Murray played Governor Breck, Severn Darden played Kolp, and Hari Rhodes played MacDonald.
Following Escape, Conquest is set in a near future where humans have turned apes into slaves; Caesar rises from bondage to lead an ape rebellion. The film opened June 30, 1972. Reviews were mixed. However, the ending left the series open to another sequel, and Conquest was successful enough at the box office that Fox greenlit another film.
Fox approved Battle for the Planet of the Apes with a $1.2 million budget, the lowest of the series. The filmmakers went into the project knowing it would be the last of the series. J. Lee Thompson returned as director. Series writer Paul Dehn submitted a treatment, but illness forced him to leave the film before completing the script. The producers subsequently hired John William Corrington and Joyce Hooper Corrington to write the screenplay. Battle continued Conquest 's focus on racial conflict and domination. However, likely based in part on the studio 's wishes, the Corringtons discarded Dehn 's pessimistic treatment in favor of a story with a more hopeful, though ambiguous, resolution.
Battle follows Caesar as he leads the apes and their human subjects after a devastating war that destroyed much of the planet. He contends with both an attack by radiation - scarred human mutants and a coup attempt as he attempts to build a better society for both apes and humans. McDowall returned as Caesar, and Severn Darden returned as Kolp. Paul Williams played the orangutan Virgil, Austin Stoker played MacDonald (the brother of Hari Rhodes ' character), and Claude Akins played the evil gorilla general Aldo. John Huston played the orangutan Lawgiver in a frame narrative. The film opened May 2, 1973. It made a profit over production costs, but received poor reviews from critics, who regard it as the weakest of the five films.
Critics have offered various interpretations of the film 's message and its significance for the series. Particular attention has been paid to the ambiguous imagery in the ending: set 700 years after the main events, the last scene depicts a statue of Caesar shedding a single tear as the Lawgiver recounts Caesar 's story to an integrated audience of ape and human children. By one interpretation, the statue cries tears of joy because the species have broken the cycle of oppression, giving the series an optimistic finale. By another, the statue weeps because racial strife still exists, implying the dystopian future of Planet and Beneath is unavoidable.
In addition to their box office grosses, the films earned very high ratings when broadcast on television after their theatrical run. To capitalize on this success, Arthur P. Jacobs conceived of an hour - long live action television series to follow the films. He originally thought of the idea in 1971 during the production of Conquest, which he then anticipated would be the final film. However, he shelved the project once Fox ordered a fifth film. Jacobs died on June 27, 1973, bringing an end to the APJAC Productions era of the Planet of the Apes franchise. Former Fox executive Stan Hough took over as producer for the television project, titled Planet of the Apes. CBS picked up the series for its 1974 fall lineup.
Ron Harper and James Naughton played Alan Virdon and Peter Burke, two 20th - century American astronauts who pass through a time warp to a future where apes subjugate humans (unlike the original film, the humans can speak). Roddy McDowall returned to the franchise as Galen, a chimpanzee who joins the astronauts. Booth Coleman played orangutan Councillor Zaius and Mark Lenard played gorilla General Urko. The episodes portray Virdon, Burke, and Galen as they look for answers, aid downtrodden humans and apes, and avoid the authorities. The show premiered on September 13, 1974, filling CBS ' 8 -- 9 p.m. time slot on Fridays. It earned low ratings during its run, a fact the production team attributed to repetitive storytelling and too little screen time for the apes who made the series famous. Given the considerable production costs, CBS cancelled the show after 14 episodes, the last airing on December 20, 1974.
In 1981, Fox reedited ten of the episodes into five television films. Each film combined two episodes and (in some markets) added new introductory and concluding segments starring Roddy McDowall as an aged Galen. The films were given what scholar Eric Greene called "the most outlandish titles of the Apes corpus '': Back to the Planet of the Apes; Forgotten City of the Planet of the Apes; Treachery and Greed on the Planet of the Apes; Life, Liberty and Pursuit on the Planet of the Apes; and Farewell to the Planet of the Apes.
Greene finds the show 's timeline significant: set in 3085, it occurs about 900 years before Taylor 's crash in the original film, and 400 years after the Lawgiver 's sermon in Battle. By depicting a future where apes dominate humans, it implies the Lawgiver 's message of equality between man and ape has failed, giving weight to the more pessimistic interpretation of Battle 's ending. Greene writes that the show emphasized the theme of racial conflict less than the films had, though the episodes "The Trap '' and "The Liberator '' made it the central focus. However, the show is actually set in the original timeline, before Caesar came to exist.
In 1975, after the failure of the live - action series, NBC decided to adapt Planet of the Apes for an animated series. The network contracted DePatie - Freleng Enterprises to produce a half - hour Saturday morning cartoon titled Return to the Planet of the Apes. Doug Wildey, co-creator of Jonny Quest, took on most creative control as associate producer, storyboard director, and supervising director. Wildey had only watched the original film and Beneath, and thus based his interpretation on them. As such, the show relied less on the themes and plot developments from Escape, Conquest, and Battle and instead returned to the Vietnam War and Cold War themes prominent in the first two films.
The plot concerns three American astronauts, Bill Hudson (Tom Williams), Jeff Allen (Austin Stoker, who played MacDonald in Battle), and Judy Franklin (Claudette Nevins), who inadvertently journey to Earth 's far future. They find the world populated by three groups: mute humans who inhabit desert caves, subterranean human "Underdwellers '' fashioned after the mutants of Beneath, and civilized apes who subjugate the humans. Through the show, the astronauts become increasingly involved in the planet 's affairs and in defending the humans against an ape invasion. The cast featured characters based on those from the previous films and TV series, including Nova (Claudette Nevis), General Urko (Henry Cordin), Zira (Philippa Harris), Cornelius (Edwin Mills), and Dr. Zaius (Richard Blackburn). NBC broadcast thirteen episodes between September 6 and November 21, 1975. The show did not achieve particularly strong ratings. The network considered producing a second three - episode season to complete the story, but this never materialized.
Fox initiated plans to relaunch the Planet of the Apes series in the 1980s, but the project fell into "development hell '' for over ten years, experiencing one of the most protracted development periods in film history. It began in 1988, when Fox announced Adam Rifkin, then a 21 - year - old independent film director, would develop a new Apes film. At a Fox executive 's invitation, Rifkin pitched a concept for Return to the Planet of the Apes, an alternative sequel to Planet that ignored the other four films. In Rifkin 's initial concept, Taylor 's descendant Duke launches a Spartacus - like uprising against Roman - inspired ape oppressors led by General Izan. The project nearly entered pre-production, but days before, Fox brought in new studio executives who sent the project back to development. They commissioned Rifkin to rewrite the script through several drafts, but found them unsatisfactory and ultimately scrapped the project.
After several years in limbo, Fox returned to the Apes concept, this time with Oliver Stone as a producer. Stone brought in Terry Hayes as screenwriter, and they developed a script titled Return of the Apes. In their script, humanity is threatened by an ailment encoded in their DNA, so two scientists go back in time thousands of years to stop it at its origin. They discover the disease was engineered by advanced apes to ensure humanity 's eventual destruction. Arnold Schwarzenegger committed to star as scientist Will Robinson, while Philip Noyce agreed to direct. The draft impressed Fox president Peter Chernin, but other executives were ambivalent about the action script, believing it should be lighter. Notably, executive Dylan Sellers insisted the script include a comic scene involving apes playing baseball as his "stamp '' on the film, and fired Hayes when he left it out. This move caused Noyce to quit as well, and subsequently almost everyone involved in the project left for one reason or another.
After the collapse of the Stone - Hayes project, Fox brought on Chris Columbus to develop a new Apes concept. Columbus hired Sam Hamm to write a new draft taking elements from Boulle 's novel and various unused scripts. In Hamm 's script, an ape astronaut from a distant planet unleashes a devastating virus on Earth. Scientists go to the astronaut 's planet, where apes hunt humans; they locate a cure, but return to find Earth overrun by simians. Schwarzenegger remained attached, but Fox found the script underwhelming. Columbus left the project in 1995 after his mother 's death, and James Cameron stepped in to produce. Cameron intended to go in a "very different direction '' with the script, but following the critical and financial success of his film Titanic, he dropped out of the project. Fox approached a series of directors to take over, without success. By 1999 the studio decided once again to go in a new direction.
In 1999, Fox hired William Broyles, Jr. to write a new script. Fox insisted on a July 2001 release date, but otherwise offered considerable creative control. This prospect attracted director Tim Burton, who hoped to do a "re-imagining '' of Planet of the Apes. However, Burton found the production arduous, largely due to Fox 's strict release schedule. The studio budgeted the film at $100 million, meaning Broyles ' ambitious script had to be rewritten to reduce costs; Lawrence Konner and Mark Rosenthal worked on rewrites even as the film entered production. The tight schedule meant all stages of production were rushed.
The film stars Mark Wahlberg as astronaut Leo Davidson, who accidentally travels through a wormhole to a distant planet where talking apes enslave humans. He leads a human revolt and upends ape civilization by discovering that the apes evolved from the normal earth primates who had accompanied his mission, and arrived years before. Helena Bonham Carter played chimpanzee Ari, while Tim Roth played the human - hating chimpanzee General Thade. The film received mixed reviews, with critics generally believing it failed to compare to the original. Much criticism focused on the confusing plot and twist ending, though many reviewers praised the special effects. The film succeeded in the box office, taking in a total of $362,211,740. Fox had initially hoped for a second film, but the difficult production made Burton disinclined to participate, and the film failed to generate enough interest for Fox to pursue a sequel.
In 2005, screenwriters Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver developed a concept for a new Planet of the Apes film, eventually titled Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Inspired by news articles on apes raised as humans and advances in genetics, Jaffa conceived an idea for a film about a genetically enhanced chimp raised in a human household. He and Silver pitched the concept to Fox as a way to reboot the Apes franchise by reinventing the story of the chimpanzee Caesar, the lead character of Conquest. Fox was impressed and bought the pitch, but development struggled for five years as the production cycled through scripts, writers, directors, and producers. In 2010, producers Peter Chernin and Dylan Clark of Chernin Entertainment stepped in to move the film forward, retaining Jaffa and Silver as writers.
In the final script, Caesar receives enhanced cognition from a viral drug created by Will Rodman, who raises him. After being imprisoned in a primate sanctuary, Caesar uses his ingenuity to launch an uprising. The screenplay contains numerous complex connections to other entries in the series, causing some confusion as to its exact relation to them. Oliver Lindler writes that while the film 's premise might identify it as a remake of Conquest, official dispatches and professional reviewers typically avoided the term, instead calling the film a prequel or "origin story '' to the original Planet of the Apes film, and / or a reboot of the series, although fans and bloggers were more apt to make the "remake '' connection. The completed script attracted director Rupert Wyatt. To portray ape characters realistically, the production avoided practical effects and animal actors in favor of performance capture acting, partnering with New Zealand visual effects company Weta Digital. Wyatt cast James Franco as Will Rodman, while veteran performance capture actor Andy Serkis signed on to star as Caesar.
Rise debuted on August 5, 2011. Critics reviewed it positively, especially praising the visual effects and Serkis ' performance. It was a major box office hit, taking in $481,801,049 over its $93 million budget. Weta 's special effects earned the film two Visual Effects Society Awards and an Oscar nomination at the 84th Academy Awards, among other accolades. The strength of Serkis 's performance also inspired Fox to promote him for Oscar consideration, though the Academy did not nominate him. Following this success, Fox immediately planned for a sequel.
Producers Peter Chernin and Dylan Clark started planning the film eventually titled Dawn of the Planet of the Apes just after Rise 's release in 2011. Fox gave the film a budget of $170 million and a release date of July 11, 2014. Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver returned to pen the script and produce, and the studio quickly signed Andy Serkis to reprise his role as Caesar. Director Rupert Wyatt withdrew from the project due to production and scheduling issues, and was replaced by Matt Reeves.
Set ten years after Rise, the film establishes that the "Simian Flu '' that increased the intelligence of the apes has killed most humans. Caesar struggles to maintain peace as his ape community is drawn into a war with nearby human survivors. Weta Digital again provided special effects work, which combined practical sets, digitally manipulated backgrounds, and performance capture ape characters. The human cast included Jason Clarke as Malcolm, Keri Russell as Ellie, and Gary Oldman as Dreyfus. The film debuted on July 11, 2014. It was met with critical acclaim; reviewers found it a strong followup to Rise and lauded the combination of an engaging script with impressive special effects. It also performed very strongly at the box office, taking in $707,498,744 in worldwide grosses. Its special effects received several accolades, including three Visual Effects Society Awards and an Oscar nomination at the 87th Academy Awards.
The producers were confident enough in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes that they started planning for the next installment before production had completed. They contracted Matt Reeves to return as director after seeing his cut of Dawn; he also wrote the script with Mark Bomback. Peter Chernin, Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver serve as producers. The film, War for the Planet of the Apes, was released on July 14, 2017. Woody Harrelson and Gabriel Chavarria played human characters, while Steve Zahn played Bad Ape. The film received overwhelmingly positive reviews.
In October 2016, it was announced that a fourth Planet of the Apes film is already being planned.
Pierre Boulle 's novel La Planète des Singes was translated and reprinted several times after its original publication in 1963. In addition, all of the original sequels spawned novelizations by established science fiction writers of the day, each of which went through multiple reprintings of their own. Michael Avallone wrote the novelization for Beneath the Planet of the Apes in 1970. Jerry Pournelle, who later co-authored Lucifer 's Hammer and The Mote in God 's Eye, wrote the Escape from the Planet of the Apes novelization. John Jakes, former Science Fiction Writers of America president, wrote Conquest of the Planet of the Apes. David Gerrold, scriptwriter for the Star Trek episode "The Trouble with Tribbles '', novelized Battle for the Planet of the Apes. Novelizations of the live action and animated television series were also produced. William T. Quick novelized the 2001 Planet of the Apes; he also wrote two prequel novels, and several other book tie - ins were published.
Planet of the Apes - based comics have been published regularly since 1968. Among the most notable is Marvel Comics ' Planet of the Apes magazine, published from 1974 to 1977. The black - and - white series featured comics adaptations of each of the films, new Apes stories by Doug Moench, series news, essays, interviews and other material. It became one of Marvel 's most successful titles, attracting 300 to 400 fan letters with every issue, so many that the studio had to suspend its practice of writing personal responses. Marvel also published the monthly title Adventures on the Planet of the Apes from 1975 to 1976, comprising color reprints of the Planet and Beneath adaptations.
In 1990, during a resurgence of interest in the series, Malibu Comics launched a new monthly black - and - white Planet of the Apes comic through its Adventure Comics studio. The debut issue sold 40,000, a record for black - and - white comics, leading to a successful run of 24 issues over two years. The series follows Caesar 's grandson and heir Alexander as he struggles to govern ape civilization. The comic 's success led Malibu to publish five four - issue spin - off miniseries: Ape City, Planet of the Apes: Urchak 's Folly, the Alien Nation crossover Ape Nation, Planet of the Apes: Blood of the Apes, and Planet of the Apes: The Forbidden Zone. Malibu also published two one - shots: A Day on the Planet of the Apes and Planet prequel Planet of the Apes: Sins of the Fathers; a trade paperback collecting the first four issues of the main series, titled Monkey Planet; and reissues of stories from Marvel 's earlier Apes series.
Other companies producing Planet of the Apes comics include Gold Key Comics, Dark Horse Comics, and Boom! Studios. In 2014, Boom! collaborated with IDW Publishing on the Star Trek crossover Star Trek / Planet of the Apes: The Primate Directive.
The series, and particularly the live - action Apes television show and the Return to the Planet of the Apes cartoon, generated numerous toy and merchandising tie - ins. During the 1970s, Fox licensed around 60 companies to produce about 300 different Apes products, including action figures and playsets, model building kits, coloring books, book - and - record sets, trading cards, toy weapons, costumes, apparel, branded tableware, and lunch boxes. This level of merchandising was unusual for the time, and the success of Apes merchandise may have inspired the campaigns that later became commonplace for films and television series. The action figures, sold by Mego beginning in 1973, were the first such toys sold as film tie - ins; they proved popular and inspired the rise of action figure series based on popular culture franchises. Eric Greene writes that Apes toys were popular enough to lead some contemporary children to engage in apes - vs. - humans role - playing make believe games that simulated the series ' conflicts in a manner similar to "Cowboys and Indians ''. With the release of the 21st - century films, Fox licensed several companies to manufacture new Apes toys, including detailed action figures of new and "classic '' characters sold as collectibles.
A Planet of the Apes ride is planned for the 20th Century Fox World theme park under construction in Malaysia.
In 1983, 20th Century Fox Videogames developed a Planet of the Apes game for the Atari 2600, which was to be the first computer game based on the series. However, the game was still in the prototype phase when Fox shuttered its game division during the video game crash of 1983, and never saw release. It was assumed lost until 2002, when collectors identified a prototype, found earlier in a case labeled Alligator People, as the missing Apes game. Independent designers Retrodesign completed and released the game as Revenge of the Apes in 2003. In the game, the player controls Taylor as he fights apes across several levels inspired by the film to reach the Statue of Liberty.
A video game based on the series did not appear until 2001. Fox Interactive began developing the Planet of the Apes game in 1998 for PC and PlayStation as a tie - in to the long - gestating remake film. Fox and developer Visiware proceeded with the game when the film went into limbo, creating their own story based on Boulle 's novel and the original films. The game is an action - adventure in which players control astronaut Ulysses as he explores an ape - ruled future Earth. Setbacks with the film project and Fox Interactive 's decision to co-publish with another company (Ubisoft) delayed the game three years. Despite its long development, the game missed the debut of Tim Burton 's Planet of the Apes film by two months; it finally appeared on September 20, 2001, to mostly negative reviews. Additionally, Ubisoft produced a substantially different Planet of the Apes game for Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Color, a side - scroller following the first two films.
In 2014, Fox partnered with Ndemic Creations on a substantial Dawn of the Planet of the Apes - themed update to the mobile game Plague Inc. Players create and spread a "Simian Flu '' virus to eradicate humans while helping apes survive.
Andy Serkis has mentioned that War for the Planet of the Apes would be accompanied by a video game, for which he performed motion capture. Titled Planet of the Apes: Last Frontier, the game is set for release for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One and PC in fall 2017.
Critics consider race to be the Planet of the Apes series ' primary theme. Eric Greene, author of a book on the role of race in the original films and spinoff material, writes that "when seen as one epic work, the Apes saga emerges as a liberal allegory of racial conflict. '' In Greene 's interpretation, the franchise 's plot arc is founded in the conflict between humans and apes, who alternately subjugate one another in a destructive cycle. Difference between human and ape manifests primarily in physical appearance, and dominance derives from social power rather than innate superiority. Each film shifts the power balance so that the audience identifies sometimes with the humans, and other times with the apes. According to Greene, this arc 's central message is that unresolved racial discord inevitably leads to cataclysm. Other critics have followed Greene 's interpretations. Producers Abrahams and Jacobs did not consciously intend the first film 's racial undertones, and did not appreciate them until Sammy Davis Jr. pointed them out in 1968. Subsequently, the filmmakers incorporated the theme more overtly in later installments; as a result, race moves from being a secondary theme in the first two films, to becoming the major concern of the last three.
Several critics have written that the reboot films downplay the original series ' theme of race, generally arguing that this is to their detriment. Others, however, write that the films incorporate racial themes in subtler ways.
The Cold War and the threat of nuclear holocaust are major themes introduced in Rod Serling 's original Planet of the Apes script. The films are apocalyptic and dystopian, and portray the era 's tensions leading to world destruction. The films critique both sides of the war, with the oppressive ape society and the mutant city featuring traits of both Western culture and the Soviet bloc. According to Greene, Cold War themes were central to the first two films and some spinoff media, but were less significant in the later sequels, which foregrounded racial conflict instead.
Questions of animal rights also figure heavily in the series; Greene considers this related to the racial themes. The first film portrays Taylor treated cruelly by apes who consider him an animal; in later films humans abuse apes for the same reason. The primate rights theme is much more dominant in the reboot films, which directly invoke the question of great ape personhood in portraying Caesar and his friends struggling for their rights in a society that does not consider them legal persons.
Planet of the Apes received popular and critical attention well after production ended on the original films and television series. Fans ' interest in the franchise continued through publications like Marvel Comics ' Planet of the Apes magazine and science fiction conventions, where the series was sufficiently popular to inspire "apecons '' -- conventions devoted entirely to films involving apes -- in the 1970s. The series ' distinctive ape costumes were employed in live appearances, including by musician Paul Williams (Virgil from Battle) on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and by Mike Douglas on The Mike Douglas Show. In the 1970s, fans Bill Blake and Paula Crist created Cornelius and Zira costumes; their routine was convincing enough that Fox licensed them to portray the characters at events. The films earned strong ratings when they aired on television after their releases, and various stations rebroadcast them together in marathons in later years. The live - action television series was re-formatted into five TV movies for further broadcast in 1981, and the Sci - Fi Channel ran both it and the cartoon in the 1990s.
Planet of the Apes had a wide impact on subsequent popular media. In terms of production, the series ' success with sequelization, spinoffs, and merchandising established a new model of media franchising in Hollywood filmmaking, in which studios develop films specifically to generate multi-media franchises. In terms of content, the series influenced various films and television productions during the 1970s and ' 80s that used science fiction settings and characters to explore race relations, including Alien Nation, Enemy Mine, and V. More direct influence can be seen in DC Comics ' 1972 -- 1978 series Kamandi: The Last Boy on Earth and the Japanese franchise Time of the Apes, which concern human protagonists in post-apocalyptic worlds ruled by talking animals. Mel Brooks ' 1987 science fiction spoof Spaceballs lampooned the Statue of Liberty ending from the original Planet.
Interest in the series resurged in the 1990s, as plans for a new film and other media circulated. Greene attributes this renewed interest to a combination of "pop culture nostalgia and baby boomer economics '', as well as a "political ferment '' rising at the time that hearkened back to the period when the films were first released. Inspired particularly by the publication of the Malibu Comics series, during this period fans founded new clubs, websites, and fanzines active in the U.S., Canada, Brazil, and other countries. Companies began producing new branded merchandise, including clothing, toys, and costumes.
Especially after the 1990s, artists in diverse media referenced, incorporated, or were otherwise influenced by the series. Planet of the Apes turned up in songs by various musicians, references in films, comedy bits by Dennis Miller and Paul Mooney, and an episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Charlton Heston. The Simpsons parodied the series several times. Notably, the episode "A Fish Called Selma '' features the washed - up actor Troy McClure starring in a Broadway musical adaptation called Stop the Planet of the Apes, I Want to Get Off! Artist Martha Rosler incorporated footage of Cornelius and Zira 's interrogation from Escape in her installation "Global Taste: A Meal in Three Courses '', while Guillermo Gómez - Peña and Coco Fusco employed video from Planet in a 1993 performance art piece at the Whitney Museum of American Art.
The series ' impact has also extended to the political sphere, and groups of various leanings have employed its themes and imagery in their discourse. The phrase "planet of the apes '' has been used for an overturning of the political or racial status quo. Eric Greene writes that it is especially popular among racial nationalists and reactionaries of different stripes, who use it in reference to race conflict. According to Greene, white supremacists liken minority advancement to the films ' world in which supposed "inferiors '' seize control, while black nationalists subvert the reference to celebrate the "racial apocalypse ''; in this spirit, gangsta rap group Da Lench Mob titled their 1994 album Planet of da Apes. Greene writes that these uses invert the anti-racist message of the films. Planet 's final image of the ruined Statue of Liberty has become a common political reference; for example, Greenpeace used it in an advertising campaign against nuclear testing. The series ' themes and imagery have been invoked in political discussions on topics as varied as Sixties culture, urban decay, contemporary wars, and gun violence.
The following table shows the cast members who played the primary characters in the film series.
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where is the tennis hall of fame located | International Tennis Hall of Fame - wikipedia
Coordinates: 41 ° 28 ′ 58 '' N 71 ° 18 ′ 30 '' W / 41.482774 ° N 71.308243 ° W / 41.482774; - 71.308243
The International Tennis Hall of Fame is located in Newport, Rhode Island, United States. It honors players and contributors to the sport of tennis and includes a museum, grass tennis courts, an indoor tennis facility, and a court tennis (or real tennis) facility.
The hall of fame and museum are located in the Newport Casino, which was commissioned in 1879 by James Gordon Bennett, Jr. as an exclusive resort for wealthy Newport summer residents, and was designed by Charles McKim along with Stanford White, who did the interiors. In 1881, the Real Tennis Court (housing the National Tennis Club) and the Casino Theatre were constructed at the east end of the campus. The club was opened on July 1, 1880 after just a six month construction period and quickly became a fashionable venue for Newport Summer residents. The United States Lawn Tennis Association had held its first championships at the Newport Casino in 1881, an event that would continue through 1914, by which time tennis had become the key attraction at the resort.
However, by the 1950s, the retreat was struggling financially and was in danger of being demolished for modern retail space, but the building was purchased and saved by Jimmy Van Alen, a wealthy Newport summer resident and sportsman, and his wife Candy. In 1954, Jimmy Van Alen established the Tennis Hall of Fame and Museum in the Casino. The combination of tennis matches and the museum allowed the building to be saved. It is an example of Victorian Shingle Style architecture.
Van Alen intended the facility to be "a shrine to the ideals of the game '', and was elected president of the hall in 1957. The International Tennis Hall of Fame was officially sanctioned by the United States Tennis Association on its foundation in 1954, and recognized by the International Tennis Federation in 1986. The first Hall of Fame members were inducted in 1955; as of 2017, there are 252 inductees from 23 countries.
Martina Hingis became the first Global Ambassador for the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2015.
The museum houses a vast collection of artifacts and memorabilia -- including videos, photographs, audio recordings, tennis equipment and apparel, trophies, and art -- highlighting the history of tennis from its origins up through the modern era. The collection is displayed year - round in the museum 's 13,000 square feet (1,200 m) of exhibit space.
The Hall of Fame hosts several tournaments, including the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships. Part of the men 's ATP World Tour, the tournament is the only grass court event in North America. Top male players come to Newport directly from Wimbledon to compete for the Van Alen Cup at the International Tennis Hall of Fame. Past champions include Americans John Isner, and Mardy Fish, as well as two - time champion Fabrice Santoro of France.
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when did 3 inch shotgun shells come out | Shotgun shell - wikipedia
A shotgun shell is a self - contained cartridge typically loaded with multiple metallic "shot '', which are small, generally spherical projectiles. The shells consist of a case mounted on a brass base holding a primer. The shot is typically contained in a small container inside the shell casing. Shot has traditionally been made of lead, but steel, tungsten or bismuth is frequently used due to restrictions on lead. A shotgun shell can contain a single, large projectile known as a shotgun slug. They can also be made with specialty non-lethal rounds such as beanbag rounds, flechette rounds, and rubber. An old non-lethal round consisted of a shotgun shell loaded with rock salt, which could inflict very painful, but rarely deadly, wounds, and was popular for scaring away trespassers.
Most shotgun shells are designed to be fired from a smoothbore barrel, but dedicated shotguns with rifled barrels are limited to sabot slugs. A rifled barrel will increase the accuracy of sabot slugs, but makes it unsuitable for firing shot, as it imparts a spin to the shot cup, causing the shot cluster to disperse. A rifled slug uses rifling on the slug itself so it can be used in a smoothbore shotgun.
Early shotgun shells used brass cases, not unlike rifle and pistol cartridge cases of the same era. These brass shotgun hulls or cases closely resembled rifle cartridges, in terms of both the head and primer portions of the shotgun shell, as well as in their dimensions. Card wads, made of felt, leather, and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times. Waterglass was commonly used to cement the top overshot wad into these brass shell casings. No roll crimp or fold crimp was used on these early brass cases, although roll crimps were eventually used by some manufacturers to hold the overshot wad in place securely. The primers on these early shotgun shells were identical to pistol primers of the same diameter.
Starting in about 1877, paper hulls started to replace brass shotgun shells. Paper hulls remained popular for nearly a century, until the late 1960s. These shotgun shells using paper hulls were nearly always roll crimped, although fold crimping also eventually became popular. The primers on these paper hull shotgun shells also changed from the pistol primers used on the early brass shotgun shells to a primer containing both the priming charge and an anvil, unlike rifle and pistol ammunition, making the shotgun shell primer taller. Card wads, made of felt and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times, gradually giving way to plastic over powder wads, with card wads, and, eventually, to all plastic wads. Starting in the 1960s, plastic cases started to replace paper hulls for shotgun shells; by the 1980s, plastic cases had become almost universal.
Today, modern shotgun shells typically consist of a plastic case, with the base covered in a thin brass plated steel covering. As noted previously, paper shells used to be common, and are still made, as are solid brass shells. Some companies have produced what appear to be all - plastic shells, although in these there is a small metal ring cast into the rim of the shell to provide strength. Often the more powerful loads will use "high brass '' shells, with the brass extended up further along the sides of the shell, while light loads will use "low brass '' shells. The brass does not actually provide a significant amount of strength, but the difference in appearance provides shooters with a way to quickly differentiate between high and low powered ammunition.
The base of the shotshell is fairly thick to hold the large shotgun primer, which is longer than primers used for rifle and pistol ammunition. Modern smokeless powders are far more efficient than the original black powder used in shotgun shells, so very little space is actually taken by powder; shotguns use small quantities of double base powders, equivalent to quick - burning pistol powders, with up to 50 % nitroglycerin. After the powder comes the wadding or wad. The primary purpose of a wad is to prevent the shot and powder from mixing, and to provide a seal that prevents gas from blowing through the shot rather than propelling it. The wad design may also encompass a shock absorber and a cup that holds the shot together until it is out of the barrel.
A modern wad consists of three parts, the powder wad, the cushion, and the shot cup, which may be separate pieces or be one part. The powder wad acts as the gas seal (known as obturation), and is placed firmly over the powder; it may be a paper or plastic part. The cushion comes next, and it is designed to compress under pressure, to act as a shock absorber and minimize the deformation of the shot; it also serves to take up as much space as is needed between the powder wad and the shot. Cushions are almost universally made of plastic with crumple zones, although for game shooting in areas grazed by farm stock or wildlife biodegradable fibre wads are often preferred. The shot cup is the last part of the shell, and it serves to hold the shot together as it moves down the barrel. Shot cups have slits on the sides so that they peel open after leaving the barrel, allowing the shot to continue on in flight undisturbed. Shot cups, where used, are also almost universally plastic. The shot fills the shot cup (which must be of the correct length to hold the desired quantity of shot), and the shotgun shell is then crimped, or rolled closed.
Shotgun shells are generally measured by "gauge '', which is the weight, in fractions of a pound, of a pure lead round ball that is the same diameter as the internal diameter of the barrel; in Britain and some other locations outside the United States the term "bore '' is used with the same meaning. This contrasts with rifles and handguns, which are almost always measured in "caliber '', a measurement of the internal diameter of the barrel measured in millimeters or inches and, consequently, is approximately equal to the diameter of the projectile that is fired.
For example, a shotgun is called "12 - gauge '' because a lead sphere that just fits the inside diameter of the barrel weighs ⁄ of a pound. This measurement comes from the time when early cannons were designated in a similar manner -- a "12 pounder '' would be a cannon that fired a 12 - pound (5.5 kg) cannonball; inversely, an individual "12 - gauge '' shot would in fact be a ⁄ pounder (38 g). Thus, a 10 - gauge shotgun has a larger - diameter barrel than a 12 - gauge shotgun, which has a larger - diameter barrel than a 20 - gauge shotgun, and so forth.
The most popular shotgun gauge by far is 12 - gauge. The larger 10 - gauge, once popular for hunting larger birds such as goose and turkey, is in the decline with the advent of longer, "magnum '' 12 - gauge shells, which offer similar performance. The mid-size 20 - gauge is also a very popular chambering for smaller - framed shooters who favor its reduced recoil, those hunting smaller game, and experienced trap and skeet shooters who like the additional challenge of hitting their targets with a smaller shot charge. Other less - common, but commercially available gauges are 16 and 28. Several other gauges may be encountered but are considered obsolete. The 4, 8, 24, and 32 gauge guns are collector items. There are also some shotguns measured by diameter, rather than gauge. These are the. 410 (10 mm),. 380 (9 mm), and. 22 (5.5 mm); these are correctly called ``. 410 bore '', not ``. 410 - gauge ''.
The. 410 bore is the smallest shotgun size which is widely available commercially. In the UK, 9 mm shotguns are quite common for use in "GardenGuns '' and folding shotguns. For size comparison purposes, the. 410, when measured by gauge, would be around 67 - or 68 - gauge (it is 67.62 - gauge), The. 410 is often mistakenly assigned 36 - gauge. The 36 gauge was in fact a. 360 diameter cartridge which was 1.5 '' in length and is now obsolete.
Shotshells are also available in non-shotgun calibers, for use in rifled barrels from. 22 Long Rifle upwards through. 38 Special to. 44 Magnum; these are often used in revolvers to kill snakes at very close ranges, or for killing small pests such as rats. A number of single shot pistols and rifles are made in. 45 Colt with special screw - in chokes allowing the use of. 410 shells -- usually the chokes are designed with deep grooves parallel to the bore designed to stop the spin of the shot column, as the. 45 Colt barrel is rifled. Taurus sells a model called The Judge, which accommodates both. 45 Colt and. 410 shotshells. Smith & Wesson also makes a similar revolver dubbed the "Governor, '' which not only shoots. 45 Colt and. 410 shotshells but also. 45 ACP with the aid of moon clips.
The standard definition of shotgun gauge assumes that a pure lead ball is used. The following formulas relate the bore diameter d (in inches) to the gauge n:
For example, the common bore diameter d = 0.410 inches (. 410 bore) is effectively gauge n = 67.6.
At the beginning of the 21st century lead - free shotshell ammunition loaded with steel, bismuth, or tungsten composite pellets instead of more traditional lead - based pellets was introduced.
Due to environmental regulations, lead - loaded ammunition must be used carefully by hunters in Europe. For instance, in France, it can not be fired in the vicinity of a pond. In fact, the laws are so complex that some hunters in Europe prefer not to risk getting into problems for firing lead pellets in the wrong places, so they opt for composite pellets in all situations. The use of lead shot is banned in Canada and the United States when hunting migratory game birds, such as ducks and geese, forcing the use of non-toxic shot in these countries for waterfowl hunting (lead shot can still legally be used in the United States for hunting game other than waterfowl). This means that manufacturers need to market new types of lead - free shotgun ammunition loaded with alternative pellets to meet environmental restrictions on the use of lead, as well as lead - based and cheaper shotshell ammunition, to remain competitive worldwide.
The C.I.P. enforces approval of all ammunition a manufacturer or importer intends to sell in any of the (mainly European) C.I.P. member states. The ammunition manufacturing plants are obliged to test their products during production against the C.I.P. pressure specifications. A compliance report must be issued for each production lot and archived for later verification if needed.
Besides pressure testing, shotshells containing steel pellets require an additional Vickers hardness test. The hardness VH1 must be below 100 for the steel pellets used but, even so, steel is known to wear the barrel excessively over time if the steel pellet velocities become too high, leading to potentially harmful situations for the user. As a result, the measurement of pellet velocity is also an additional obligation for shotshells in 12 -, 16 -, and 20 - gauges in both standard and high performance versions sold in Europe. The velocity of pellets must be below 425 m / s (1,390 ft / s), 390 m / s (1,300 ft / s) and 390 m / s (1,300 ft / s) respectively for the standard versions. Another disadvantage of steel pellets is their tendency to ricochet unpredictably after striking any hard surface. This poses a major hazard at indoor ranges or whenever metal targets or hard backstops (e.g. concrete wall vs. a dirt berm) are used. For this reason, steel shot is explicitly banned at most indoor shooting ranges. Any shooters who are considering buying ammo loaded with steel for anything other than hunting purposes should first find out if using it wo n't cause undue hazard to themselves and others.
However, it should be noted that data supporting the danger of firing high velocity shells loaded with steel shot causing barrel wear has not been published and the US equivalent of CIP, SAAMI, does not have any such restrictive limitations on the velocity of commercial steel shotshells sold in the United States. Similarly, shotgun manufacturers selling shotguns in the United States select their own appropriate standards for setting steel hardness for shotgun barrels and for velocities of steel shotshell loaded ammunition.
Some indoor shooting ranges prohibit the use of steel shot over concern of it causing a spark when hitting an object down range and causing a fire. Another problem is ricochet. Steel is very elastic and can reflect back to the shooter.
Shotshells are loaded with different sizes of shot depending on the target. For skeet shooting, a small shot such as a No. 8 or No. 9 would be used, because range is short and a high density pattern is desirable. Trap shooting requires longer shots, and so a larger shot, usually # 71⁄2 is used. For hunting game, the range and penetration needed to assure a clean kill is considered. Shot loses its velocity very quickly due to its low sectional density and ballistic coefficient (see external ballistics). Small shot, like that used for skeet and trap, will have lost all appreciable energy by around 100 yards (91 m), which is why trap and skeet ranges can be located in relatively close proximity to inhabited areas with negligible risk of injury to those outside the range.
Birdshot sizes are numbered similar to the shotgun gauges. The smaller the number, the larger the shot (except in the Swedish system, in which it is reversed). Generally birdshot is just called "shot '', such as "number 9 shot '' or "BB shot ''.
There are small differences in size of American, Standard (European), Belgian, Italian, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish, British, and Australian shot to make matters more complex. That is because some systems go by diameter in inches (American), some go by diameter in millimeters (European), and the British system goes by the number of lead shot per ounce. Australia has a hybrid system due to its market being flooded with a mixture of British, American, and European shells.
For American shot, a useful method for remembering the diameter of numbered shot in inches is simply to subtract the shot size from 17. The resulting answer is the diameter of the shot in hundredths of an inch. For example, # 2 shot gives 17 - 2 = 15, meaning that the diameter of # 2 shot is 15 / 100 or 0.15 ". B shot is. 170 inches, and sizes go up in. 01 increments for BB and BBB sizes.
In metric measurement, it is easy to remember that # 5 shot is 3 mm; each number up or down represents a 0.25 mm change in diameter, so e.g. # 7 shot is 2.5 mm.
Number 11 and number 12 lead shot also exists. Shot of these sizes is used in specialized shotshells designed to be fired at close range (less than four yards) for killing snakes, rats and similar - sized animals. Such shells are typically intended to be fired from handguns, particularly revolvers. This type of ammunition is produced by Federal and CCI, among others.
For hunting, shot size must be chosen not only for the range, but also for the game. The shot must reach the target with enough energy to penetrate to a depth sufficient to kill the game. Lead shot is still the best ballistic performer, but environmental restrictions on the use of lead, especially with waterfowl, require steel, bismuth, or tungsten composites. Steel, being significantly less dense than lead, requires larger shot sizes, but is a good choice when lead is not legal and cost is a consideration. It is argued that steel shot can not safely be used in some older shotguns without causing damage to either the bore or to the choke due to the hardness of steel shot. However, the increased pressure in most steel cartridges is a far greater problem, causing more strain to the breech of the gun. Since tungsten is very hard, it must also be used with care in older guns. Tungsten shot is often alloyed with nickel and iron, softening the base metal. That alloy is approximately 1 / 3 denser than lead, but far more expensive. Bismuth shot falls between steel and tungsten shot in both density and cost. The rule of thumb in converting appropriate steel shot is to go up by two numbers when switching from lead. However, there are different views on dense patterns versus higher pellet energies.
Larger sizes of shot, large enough that they must be carefully packed into the shell rather than simply dumped or poured in, are called "buckshot '' or just "buck ''. Buckshot is used for hunting larger game, such as deer. Buckshot size is designated by actual diameter or (traditionally) by letter or number, with smaller numbers being larger shot. Sizes larger than "0 '' ("aught '') are designated by multiple zeros. "00 '' ("double - aught '') is the most commonly used size.
The British system is based on the amount of shot per ounce. The sizes are LG (Large Grape - from grape shot derived from musket shooting), MG (Medium Grape), and SG (Small Grape). For smaller game SSG shot is half the weight of SG, SSSG shot is half the weight of SSG, SSSSG shot is half the weight of SSSG, and so on. The Australian system is similar except they have 00 - SG, a Small Game shell filled with # 00 Buck.
The most commonly produced buckshot shell is a 12 gauge, 00 buck shell that holds 9 pellets. Buckshot is generally used for two purposes: self - defense and hunting medium to large game. Loads can be tailored through altering the size of the shot, pellet count, length of the shell, powder charge, and in other ways to fit individual weapons and purposes. For instance, loads of 12 gauge 00 buck are commonly available in 8 to 18 pellets in vendor - stated lengths from 2 3 / 4 '' to 3 1 / 2 ". On packaging, vendors state the length of the cartridge as expanded after firing. Before firing, the crimped cartridge starts off approximately one half inch shorter. Also, precise length varies depending on manufacturer and model. Reduced - recoil shells are becoming increasingly available. Low - recoil 00 buckshot allows the shooter to make fast follow - up shots, which may be needed in a combat situation. They are also useful for training shooters who are not yet used to the recoil of full - power shells.
Most modern sporting shotguns have interchangeable choke tubes to allow the shooter to change the spread of shot that comes out of the gun. In some cases, it is not practical to do this; the gun might have fixed choke, or a shooter firing at receding targets may want to fire a wide pattern immediately followed by a narrower pattern out of a single barrelled shotgun. The spread of the shot can also be altered by changing the characteristics of the shell.
A buffering material, such as granulated plastic, sawdust, or similar material can be mixed with the shot to fill the spaces between the individual pellets. When fired, the buffering material compresses and supports the shot, reducing the deformation the shot pellets experience under the extreme acceleration. Antimony - lead alloys, copper plated lead shot, steel, bismuth, and tungsten composite shot all have a hardness greater than that of plain lead shot, and will deform less as well. Reducing the deformation will result in tighter patterns, as the spherical pellets tend to fly straighter. One improvised method for achieving the same effect involves pouring molten wax or tar into the mass of shot. Another is a partial ring cut around the case intended to ensure that the shot comes out tightly bunched along with the portion of the case forward of the cut, creating a ' cut - shell '. This can be dangerous, as it is thought to cause higher chamber pressures -- especially if part of the shell remains behind in the barrel and is not cleared before another shot is fired.
Shooting the softest possible shot will result in more shot deformation and a wider pattern. This is often the case with cheap ammunition, as the lead used will have minimal alloying elements such as antimony and be very soft. Spreader wads are wads that have a small plastic or paper insert in the middle of the shot cup, usually a cylinder or "X '' cross-section. When the shot exits the barrel, the insert helps to push the shot out from the center, opening up the pattern. Often these result in inconsistent performance, though modern designs are doing much better than the traditional improvised solutions. Intentionally deformed shot (hammered into ellipsoidal shape) or cubical shot will also result in a wider pattern, much wider than spherical shot, with more consistency than spreader wads. Spreader wads and non-spherical shot are disallowed in some competitions. Hunting loads that use either spreaders or non-spherical shot are usually called "brush loads '', and are favored for hunting in areas where dense cover keeps shot distances very short.
Most shotgun shells contain multiple pellets in order to increase the likelihood of a target being hit. A shotgun 's shot spread refers to the two - dimensional pattern that these projectiles (or shot) leave behind on a target. Another less important dimension of spread concerns the length of the in - flight shot string from the leading pellet to the trailing one. The use of multiple pellets is especially useful for hunting small game such as birds, rabbits, and other animals that fly or move quickly and can unpredictably change their direction of travel. However, some shotgun shells only contain one metal shot, known as a slug, for hunting large game such as deer.
As the shot leaves the barrel upon firing, the three - dimensional shot string is close together. But as the shot moves farther away, the individual pellets increasingly spread out and disperse. Because of this, the effective range of a shotgun, when firing a multitude of shot, is limited to approximately 20 to 50 m (22 to 55 yd). To control this effect, shooters may use a constriction within the barrel of a shotgun called a choke. The choke, whether selectable or fixed within a barrel, effectively reduces the diameter of the end of the barrel, forcing the shot even closer together as it leaves the barrel, thereby increasing the effective range. The tighter the choke, the narrower the end of the barrel. Consequentially, the effective range of a shotgun is increased with a tighter choke, as the shot column is held tighter over longer ranges. Hunters or target shooters can install several types of chokes, on guns having selectable chokes, depending on the range at which their intended targets will be located. For fixed choke shotguns, different shotguns or barrels are often selected for the intended hunting application at hand. From tightest to loosest, the various choke sizes are: full choke, improved modified, modified, improved cylinder, skeet, and cylinder bore.
A hunter who intends to hunt an animal such as rabbit or grouse, knows that the animal will be encountered at a close range -- usually within 20 m (22 yd) -- and will be moving very quickly. So, an ideal choke would be a cylinder bore (the loosest) as the hunter wants the shot to spread out as quickly as possible. If this hunter was using a full choke (the tightest) at 20 m (22 yd), the shot would be very close together and cause an unnecessarily large amount of damage to the rabbit, or, alternatively, a complete miss of the rabbit. This would waste virtually all of the meat for a hit, as the little amount of meat remaining would be overly - laden with shot and rendered inedible. By using a cylinder bore, this hunter would maximize the likelihood of a kill, and maximize the amount of edible meat. Contrarily, a hunter who intends to hunt geese knows that a goose will likely be approximately 50 m (55 yd) away, so, that hunter would want to delay the spread of the shot as much as possible by using a full choke. By using a full choke for targets that are farther away, the shooter again maximizes the likelihood of a kill, and maximizes the amount of edible meat. Also, this guarantees a swift and humane kill as the target would be hit with enough shot to kill quickly instead of only wounding the animal.
For older shotguns having only one fixed choke, intended primarily for equally - likely use against rabbits, squirrels, quail, doves, and pheasant, an often - chosen choke is the improved cylinder, in a 28 inches (710 mm) barrel, making the shotgun suitable for use as a general all - round hunting shotgun, without having excess weight. Shotguns having fixed chokes intended for geese, in contrast, are often found with full choke barrels, in longer lengths, and are much heavier, being intended for fixed use within a blind against distant targets. Defensive shotguns with fixed chokes generally have a cylinder bore choke. Likewise, shotguns intended primarily for use with slugs invariably also are found with a choke that is a cylinder bore.
"Dram '' equivalence is sometimes still used as a measure of the powder charge power in a shotgun shell. Today, it is an anachronistic equivalence that represents the equivalent power of a shotgun shell containing this equivalent amount of black - powder measured in drams avoirdupois. A dram in the avoirdupois system is the mass of ⁄ pound or ⁄ ounce or 27.3 grains. The reasoning behind this archaic equivalence is that when smokeless powder first came out, some method of establishing an equivalence with common shotgun shell loads was needed in order to sell a box of shotgun shells. For example, a shotgun shell containing a 3 or 3 1 / 2 dram load of black - powder was a common hunting field load, and a heavy full power load would have contained about a 4 to 4 - 1 / 2 dram load, whereas a shotgun shell containing only a 2 dram load of black - powder was a common target practice load. A hunter looking for a field or full power load familiar with black - powder shotgun loads would have known exactly what the equivalence of the shotgun shells would have been in the newly introduced smokeless powder. Today, however, this represents a poorly understood equivalence of the powder charge power in a shotgun shell. To further complicate matters, "dram '' equivalence was only defined for 12 gauge shotgun shells, and only for lead shot, although it has often been used for describing other gauges of shells, and even steel shot loaded shells. Furthermore, "dram '' equivalence only came around about 15 years after smokeless powder had been introduced, long after the need for an equivalence had started to fade, and actual black - powder loaded shotshells had largely vanished. In practice, "dram '' equivalence today most commonly equates just to a velocity rating equivalence in fps (feet - per - second), while assuming lead shot.
A secondary impact of this equivalence was that common shotgun shells needed to stay the same size, physically, e.g., 2 - 1 / 2 or 2 - 3 / 4 - inch shells, in order to be used in pre-existing shotguns when smokeless powder started being used to load shotgun shells in the place of black - powder. As smokeless powder did not have to be loaded in the same volume as black - powder to achieve the same power, being more powerful, the volumes of wads had to increase, to fill the shotgun shell enough to permit proper crimps still to be made. Initially, this meant that increased numbers of over powder card wads had to be stacked to achieve the same stack - up length. Eventually, this also lead to the introduction of one - piece plastic wads in the late 1950s through the early 1960s, to add additional wad volumes, in order to maintain the same overall shotgun shell length.
Dram equivalence has no bearing on the reloading of shotgun shells with smokeless powder; loading a shotgun shell with an equivalent dram weight of smokeless powder would cause a shotgun to explode. It only has an equivalence in the reloading of shotgun shells with black - powder.
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who sang all that's left is a band of gold | Band of Gold (Freda Payne song) - wikipedia
"Band of Gold '' is a popular song written by former Motown producers Holland -- Dozier -- Holland (under the pseudonym of Edythe Wayne) and Ron Dunbar. It was a major hit when first recorded by Freda Payne in 1970 for the Invictus label, owned by H-D-H. The song has been recorded by numerous artists, notably competing 1986 versions by contrasting pop singers Belinda Carlisle and Bonnie Tyler, and a 2007 version by Kimberley Locke.
The legendary songwriting team of Holland -- Dozier -- Holland used the name Edythe Wayne because of a lawsuit they had with Motown. Ron Dunbar was a staff employee and producer for Invictus. According to Freda Payne, Dunbar actually contributed to the song. When they first offered the song to Freda Payne, she balked at the idea of recording it, finding the material more appropriate for a teenager or very young woman. Payne reluctantly gave in after much persuasion by Dunbar. Almost immediately following its release, the Payne record became an instant pop smash, reaching number three in the US and number one on the UK singles chart and remaining there for six weeks in September 1970, giving Payne her first gold record.
After Holland / Dozier / Holland left Motown in 1967, they were still in contact with Motown 's house band, the Funk Brothers. When Holland / Dozier / Holland started their own recording company, with the intention of self - producing the songs they wrote, they asked the Funk Brothers to play on those songs.
Golden World / Motown session singers Pamela Wilson, Joyce Vincent Wilson, and Telma Hopkins provided the background vocals on the record. Joyce and Telma would later go on to form the group Tony Orlando & Dawn. Also singing in the background is Freda Payne 's sister and future member of the Supremes, Scherrie Payne, who was also signed to Invictus at the time as a member of the Glass House group.
The distinctive electric sitar part is played by New York studio musician Vinnie Bell. Lead guitar on the track is by Ray Parker, Jr.
In 2004, Freda Payne 's "Band of Gold '' was voted number 391 in Rolling Stone magazine 's listing of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
The song tells a story which is open to a number of interpretations - based on the lyrics in the most commonly heard version of the song, which is the seven - inch single, the story is of a recently married woman whose husband is incapable of loving her (even though he tried), resulting in the couple sleeping in separate rooms on their honeymoon, to her dismay. It would appear that the marriage ended in the husband 's abandoning his bride, leaving her with no more than the ' band of gold ' of the title (and the dreams she invested in it). Controversial allusions to the husband either being impotent or gay have been suggested as the cause of the breakdown of the relationship. Steve Huey 's article on Allmusic.com deciphers the song as being about the man being impotent - "being unable to perform ''.
An earlier studio recorded version of the song includes some lyrics which were cut from the seven - inch single, which reveal the story as somewhat different. The couple were young, the girl was either a virgin or sexually inexperienced. She was still living at home ("You took me from the shelter of my mother ''), the boy was her first boyfriend ("I had never known or loved any other ''), and the relationship was probably unconsummated ("and love me like you tried before ''.) The couple rush into marriage and the relationship crashes on the wedding night, when the woman rejects her groom 's advance ("And the night I turned you away '' - an allusion that she was frigid), emotionally wounding him, resulting in him leaving her. After the hurt she had caused, they spend their wedding night in separate rooms. She then expresses her regret at her mistake ("And the dream of what love could be, if you were still here with me '').
According to Ron Dunbar, when interviewed in the documentary Band of Gold - The Invictus Story, he encouraged Payne to learn the lyrics to the song despite her reluctance, Payne saying "this makes no sense to me. '' Dunbar told her, "you do n't have to like it, just sing it! '' Dunbar continues, "I dubbed that tune 25, maybe 30 times just to get enough parts of it that we could edit to get the song. ''
Dunbar continued, "They said this song is a smash in the gay community. And I said, gay community? They said, yeah man, it 's a smash. And I says, why is it that? And they said, well it 's what the lyrics are saying. She said the guy could n't make love to her so they figured he had to be gay! And I said oh no! And I remembered when they said that to me and I listened back to the song and there was a part in there... because I remembered when we were editing that tune, it was too long, so we had to cut a section out of the tune so the section we cut out of the song really brought the whole song (story) together. ''
The lyrics which Dunbar cut in the final edit which he was referring to were made to reduce the length of the single from three minutes 43 seconds down to the final two minutes 53 seconds. These were taken from the first verse - "And the memories of our wedding day, and the night I turned you away '' - these were effectively substituted with, "And the memories of what love could be, if you were still here with me ''; and a larger bridge - "Each night, I lie awake and I tell myself, the vows we made gave you the right, to have a love each night. '' - which is repeated again later in the song, cutting 18 seconds twice over from the song. With further refinements in the arrangements, including a heavier, richer bassline, and a different vocal take, a further 14 seconds were shaved off the final released seven - inch single.
Despite both coming off major hits and working with noted musicians, neither the Belinda Carlisle nor the Bonnie Tyler versions were major hits. Tyler 's was produced by Jim Steinman, the man behind earlier hits by Tyler and Meat Loaf, and later hits by Celine Dion, and the track was given a slew of Hi - NRG remixes. The song was the third single off her Secret Dreams and Forbidden Fire, which also features the hit "Holding Out for a Hero ''. Carlisle 's version was also given dance remixes featuring vocals by Freda Payne herself, that appear on a 2003 CD re-issue of the album Belinda, which features the hit "Mad About You ''.
In 1983, "Band of Gold '' was recorded by Disco / Hi - NRG singer Sylvester on Megatone Records and released as a 12 '' single. Sylvester 's version reached number 18 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart and number 67 on the UK Singles Chart.
In 1983, country singer Charly McClain recorded a country version of "Band of Gold '' for her album The Woman in Me. McClain 's version reached No. 22 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in June 1984.
In September 2005, singer - songwriter Anna Nalick recorded "Band of Gold ''. Nalick would perform the song live, despite the fact that it would not appear on any of her studio efforts. It was later included for release as part of the Desperate Housewives soundtrack (Music from and Inspired by Desperate Housewives).
Kimberley Locke released her version of "Band of Gold '' to radio on August 13, 2007 as the second single from her album Based on a True Story. It became Locke 's second single to hit number one on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play chart and her seventh to go top 10 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart. In December 2009, Billboard included Kimberley 's version of the song at number 45 on their list of the top 50 Dance Club Play songs of the decade. Locke had previously performed the song alongside Frenchie Davis during "Hollywood week '' on the second season of American Idol, and later performed it again during her final performance week on the show.
An additional remix by Piper was later released in the digital remix package for Locke 's next single, "Fall ''.
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how many species of recluse spiders are there | Recluse spider - wikipedia
see article
The recluse spiders or brown spiders, genus Loxosceles (/ ˌlɒkˈsɒsɪliz /), also known as fiddle - backs, violin spiders, or reapers, are a genus of venomous spiders known for their bite, which sometimes produces a characteristic set of symptoms known as loxoscelism. Recluse spiders are now identified as members of the family Sicariidae, having formerly been placed in their own family, the Loxoscelidae. Although recluse spiders have a bad reputation, they are usually not aggressive.
Sicariidae are of the superfamily Scytodoidea. Other families in the Scytodoidea include Drymusidae, Scytodidae, and Periegopidae.
Loxosceles is distributed nearly worldwide in warmer areas. All have six eyes arranged in three groups of two (dyads) and some are brownish with a darker brown characteristic violin marking on the cephalothorax. However, the "violin marking '' can not be used as a reliable way to identify the spider as thousands of species of spider have similar markings. Spiders come with many markings varying greatly within the same species. Most Loxosceles can live for one and a half to two years. Many species of this genus can live for very long times without food or water. They are about 7 -- 12 mm long.
The most common and most famous species in the United States is the brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa). It is found in a large area of the Midwest, west to Colorado and the New Mexico state line and east to northern Georgia. Sporadic records from other locations only represent incidental introductions, not established populations. The brown recluse feeds on whatever small prey is available, and has been observed to prefer scavenging over actively hunting. Other notable members of this genus include the Chilean recluse spider (L. laeta) and the Mediterranean recluse spider (L. rufescens).
Recently, concerns have been raised regarding recluses spreading faster due to warmer air carrying them farther as a result of changing climate. On the contrary, newly hatched recluses do not travel via ballooning and thus the populations are confined to very tight spaces with dense populations.
Loxosceles spiders, like Sicarius species, have potent tissue - destroying venoms containing the dermonecrotic agent, sphingomyelinase D, which is otherwise found only in a few pathogenic bacteria. Recent research has indicated the venom is composed largely of sulfated nucleosides, though these compounds are relatively new discoveries, so little is known about them. The venom produces necrotic lesions that are slow to heal and may require skin grafts. Rarely, the venom is carried by the bloodstream, causing red blood cell destruction.
The venom is identical in male and female spiders, but females can have almost twice the concentration of toxins. For unknown reasons, the toxicity of the venom to mammalian species varies; recluse bites may cause necrosis in humans, rabbits, and guinea pigs, but not in mice or rats.
The Chilean recluse (L. laeta) supposedly has a more potent venom, which results in systemic involvement more often. This spider was introduced to the Los Angeles area (Alhambra, Sierra Madre, and Monterey Park). No verified bites and the subsequent systemic hemolysis have been documented, even though it has been known there for over 30 years. All Loxosceles species that have been tested have venoms similar to that of the brown recluse and all should be avoided. In general, though, they are not aggressive and commonly occupy human dwellings without causing problems.
Many types of skin wounds are mistaken for or assumed to be the result of a recluse spider bite. Several diseases can mimic the lesions of the bite, including Lyme disease, various fungal and bacterial infections, and the first sore of syphilis. It is important to associate the spider directly with the bite to avoid improper treatment, and to successfully treat common infections or other conditions if no spider was seen.
Bites most often occur as a defense when the spider is trapped against the skin, in clothing, for example. Insecticides often fail to kill the spider, instead intoxicating its nervous system and inducing erratic behavior.
The bite of a recluse spider can generally be categorized into one of the following groups:
Most bites are unremarkable or mild.
There are about 100 species of Loxosceles.
Species include:
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how many season of madam secretary are there | Madam Secretary (TV series) - wikipedia
Madam Secretary is an American political drama television series created by Barbara Hall and executive produced by Lori McCreary and Morgan Freeman. It stars Téa Leoni as Elizabeth McCord. The series premiered on September 21, 2014. On October 27, 2014, CBS placed a full season order consisting of 22 episodes for the first season. On March 23, 2017, CBS renewed the series for a fourth season. In 2017, CBS sealed a multi-platform syndication deal worth an estimated $2 million per episode.
Madam Secretary explores Secretary Elizabeth McCord 's life as the determined United States Secretary of State. McCord drives international diplomacy, battles office politics, and circumvents protocol if needed as she negotiates worldwide issues. The show also focuses on the personal lives of the characters. McCord is also a college professor and a former CIA analyst who left the agency for ethical and personal reasons. The President values her apolitical leanings, deep knowledge of the Middle East, flair for languages, and ability to not just think outside the box, but to not even know there is a box.
In Canada, the series airs on Global at the same time as the original broadcast. In Finland, it premiered 1 January, 2016 on MTV3. The series has been popular in Finland: 11 % of Finnish people watched the first episode. In Australia, it premiered on October 2, 2014 on Network Ten. On October 23, 2014, it was announced that it will air on Sky Living in the United Kingdom, along with new formats to air TV3 in Ireland, and other international channels. The series launched in the United Kingdom on 23 April 2015. It is broadcast on Sony Channel Asia.
Madam Secretary has been met with generally positive reviews from TV critics. On Metacritic, the show has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the show holds a rating of 66 %, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "Bolstered by Tea Leoni 's strong central performance, Madam Secretary is a solid but unspectacular political drama. ''
Three women have served as Secretary of State to date: Madeleine Albright from 1997 to 2001 under Bill Clinton, Condoleezza Rice from 2005 to 2009 under George W. Bush, and Hillary Clinton from 2009 to 2013 under Barack Obama. Shortly after the series ' debut, Fox News asked if the show therefore served as a campaign ad supporting Hillary Clinton, but quoted the Los Angeles Times saying the lead character was "no Hillary knockoff '' and a New York publicist calling the casting of a woman "simple business and smart on CBS ' behalf ''. Conservative activist organization Culture and Media Institute, however, said the connection was clear, citing the women 's blond hair and pantsuits.
When the trailer of the fifteenth episode of Season 3 (Break in Diplomacy) was released showing McCord punching fictional Philippine president Datu Andrada to the face as a response to the latter making sexual advancements to the protagonist, it became controversial in the Philippines due to what was seen as Andrada having parallelism with real - life President Rodrigo Duterte who was known for making inappropriate and sexist remarks. The Philippine Embassy in Washington even published a statement protesting the negative depiction on its Facebook page.
The first episode of the fourth season News Cycle led to a hard protest from East Timor 's Minister of State and Nobel Peace Prize laureate José Ramos - Horta. "It 's a slander against a country that only shows ignorance and racism, '' he explained. The TV show used the border dispute between Australia and East Timor in the Timor Sea (The dispute is transferred in the TV show to the South China Sea, although neither Australia nor East Timor is bordering to it) as background story. East Timor is shown as a country controlled by a Mexican drug cartel and used for drug transfer. US Secretary of State McCord is asking China to take measures to prevent the leader of the drug cartel from making a narco - state out of East Timor.
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who is described as the foundation rock of christianity | Foundation Stone - wikipedia
The Foundation Stone (Hebrew: אבן השתייה Even ha - Shtiyya or Hebrew: סֶּלַע Selā ‛, Arabic: صخرة Sakhrah "Rock '') is the name of the rock at the centre of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. It is also known as the Pierced Stone because it has a small hole on the southeastern corner that enters a cavern beneath the rock, known as the Well of Souls. There is a difference of opinion in classical Jewish sources as to whether this was the location of the Holy of Holies or of the Outer Altar. According to those that hold it was the site of the Holy of Holies, that would make this the holiest site in Judaism (Tanhuma, chapter 10).
Jewish tradition views the Holy of Holies as the spiritual junction of Heaven and Earth, the axis mundi, and is therefore the direction that Jews face when praying the Amidah. The other view, that this was the site of the Outer Altar, would explain the holes in the stone which served various sacrificial purposes in the Outer Altar. From a classical Jewish textual standpoint, there is no conclusive opinion on the matter.
The rock is located towards the centre of the Temple Mount, an artificial platform built and expanded over many centuries. The current shape is the result of an expansion by Herod the Great on top of vaults over a summit called Mount Moriah which three millennia ago was the highest elevation in early Jerusalem 's proximity to the City of David.
There is some controversy among secular scholars about equating Mount Moriah, the Temple Mount and the Foundation Stone as the location where events occurred according to the Biblical narrative.
Early Jewish writings assist in confirming that the Dome of the Rock, completed in 691, is the site of the Holy of Holies and therefore the location of the Foundation Stone. Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, a midrashic narrative of the more important events of the Torah believed to have been compiled in Italy shortly after 833 CE, writes: "Rabbi Ishmael said: In the future, the sons of Ishmael (the Arabs) will do fifteen things in the Land of Israel... They will fence in the breaches of the walls of the Temple and construct a building on the site of the sanctuary ''.
Rabbis have discussed the precise location of the rock. David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra was convinced that "under the dome on the Temple Mount, which the Arabs call El - Sakhrah, without a doubt is the location of the Foundation Stone ''. The Travels of Petachia of Ratisbon, c. 1180, The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela and The Travels of the Student of the Ramban all equally state that "on the Temple Mount stands a beautiful sanctuary which an Arab king built long ago, over the place of the Temple sanctuary and courtyard ''. Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura, who wrote a letter from Jerusalem in 1488, says that "I sought the place of the Foundation Stone where the Ark of the Covenant was placed, and many people told me it is under a tall and beautiful dome which the Arabs built in the Temple precinct ''.
Other traditional sources disagreed; operating under the belief that the Southern Wall of the Temple Mount as it stood in their time was the Southern Wall of the Biblical era, they argued that the measurements given in the Talmud do not reconcile. The Holy of Holies ends up being too far north and they therefore locate the Foundation Stone as being directly opposite the current exposed section of the Western Wall, where no building currently stands. This is the view of Isaac Luria and the Maharsha, who state the prophecy that "Zion will become a ploughed field '' indicates that no dwelling will be established there until the time of the Redemption. It therefore follows that the footprint of the Temple courtyard and Holy of Holies is situated in the unbuilt area between the Dome of the Rock and al - Aqsa Mosque.
Some believe the position is north of the Dome of the Rock, opposite the Gate of Mercy, which Emmanuel Hai Ricci identifies as the Shushan Gate mentioned in the Talmud. This gate was described as being opposite the opening of the sanctuary.
Modern Jewish academics list four possible locations of the Foundation Stone:
Although the rock is part of the surrounding 90 - million - year - old, Upper Turonian Stage, Late Cretaceous karsted limestone, the southern side forms a ledge, with a gap between it and the surrounding ground; a set of steps currently uses this gap to provide access from the Dome of the Rock to the Well of Souls beneath it.
The rock has several artificial cuts in its surface generally attributed to the Crusaders whose frequent damage to the rock was so severe that the Christian kings of Jerusalem placed a protective marble slab over the rock. The marble slab was removed by Saladin. More recently, there has been speculation that several artificial features of the rock 's surface may substantially predate the Crusades. Archaeologist Leen Ritmeyer reports that there are sections of the rock cut completely flat, which north - to - south have a width of 6 cubits, precisely the width that the Mishnah credits to the wall of the Holy of Holies, and hence Ritmeyer proposed that these flat sections constitute foundation trenches on top of which the walls of the original temple were laid. However, according to Josephus there were 31 steps up to the Holy of Holies from the lower level of the Temple Mount, and the Mishnah identifies 29 steps in total, and each step was half a cubit in height (according to the Mishnah); this is a height of at least 22 feet -- the height of the Sakhra is 21 feet above the lower level of the Temple Mount, and should therefore have been under the floor.
Measuring the flat surface as the position of the southern wall of a square enclosure, the west and north sides of which are formed by the low clean - cut scarp at these edges of the rock, at the position of the hypothetical centre is a rectangular cut in the rock that is about 2.5 cubits (min. 120.4 cm SI) long and 1.5 cubits (min. 72.24 cm SI) wide, which are the dimensions of the Ark of the Covenant (according to the Book of Exodus).
The Mishnah gives the height of the rock as three thumb - breadths (min. 6 cm SI) above the ground. Radbaz discusses the apparent contradiction of the Mishnah 's measurements and the actual measurement of the rock within the Dome he estimates as a "height of two men '' above the ground. He concluded that many changes in the natural configuration of the Temple Mount have taken place which can be attributed to excavations made by the various occupiers of Jerusalem since the Second Temple construction.
This is the holiest site in Judaism. Jews all over the world pray towards the Foundation Stone.
The Roman - Era midrash Tanhuma sums up the centrality of and holiness of this site in Judaism:
According to the sages of the Talmud, it was from this rock that the world was created, itself being the first part of the Earth to come into existence. In the words of the Zohar, "The world was not created until God took a stone called Even haShetiya and threw it into the depths where it was fixed from above till below, and from it the world expanded. It is the centre point of the world and on this spot stood the Holy of Holies. ''
According to the Talmud, it was close to here, on the site of the altar, that God gathered the earth that was formed into Adam. It was on this rock that Adam -- and later Cain and Abel and Noah -- offered sacrifices to God. Jewish sources identify this rock as the place of the Binding of Isaac mentioned in the Bible, where Abraham fulfilled God 's test to see if he would be willing to sacrifice his son. The mountain is identified as Moriah in Genesis 22. It is also identified as the rock upon which Jacob dreamt about angels ascending and descending on a ladder and consequently consecrating and offering a sacrifice upon.
When, according to the Bible, King David purchased a threshing floor owned by Araunah the Jebusite, it is believed that it was upon this rock that he offered the sacrifice mentioned in the verse. He wanted to construct a permanent temple there, but as his hands were "bloodied '', he was forbidden to do so himself. The task was left to his son Solomon, who completed the Temple in c. 950 BCE.
The Mishnah in tractate Yoma mentions a stone situated in the Holy of Holies that was called Shetiya and had been revealed by the early prophets (i.e. David and Samuel.).
An early Christian source noting Jewish attachment to the rock may be found in the Itinerarium Burdigalense, written between 333 -- 334 CE when Jerusalem was under Roman rule, which describes a "perforated stone to which the Jews come every year and anoint it, bewail themselves with groans, rend their garments, and so depart. ''
Situated inside the Holy of Holies, this was the rock upon which the Ark of the Covenant was placed in Solomon 's Temple. During the Second Temple period when the Ark of the Covenant was not present, the stone was used by the High Priest who offered up the incense and sprinkled the blood of the sacrifices on it during the Yom Kippur service.
The Jerusalem Talmud states:
"נשייא דנהגן דלא למי שתייה עמרא מן דאב עליל מנהג -- שבו פסקה אבן שתייה ''.
Women are accustomed not to prepare or attach warp threads to a weaving loom from Rosh Chodesh Av onwards (till after Tisha B'Av), because during the month of Av the Foundation Stone (and the Temple) was destroyed.
Citing this, the Mishnah Berurah rules that not only are women not to prepare or attach warp threads to a weaving loom, but it is forbidden for anyone to make, buy or wear new clothes or shoes from the beginning of the week in which Tisha B'Av falls until after the fast, and that people should ideally not do so from the beginning of Av.
In further commemoration of the Foundation Stone, it is also forbidden to eat meat or drink wine from the beginning of the week in which Tisha B'av falls until after the fast. Some have the custom to refrain from these foodstuffs from Rosh Chodesh Av, while others do so from the Seventeenth of Tammuz.
In the days when Selichot are recited, in the days leading up to Rosh Hashanah until Yom Kippur, the supplications include the following references:
טענתנו גפי קרת נתונים, ישבתנו שן סלע איתנים
You carried us and placed us on the (Holy) City 's height, You settled us on the Patriarch 's rocky peak.
רבוצה עליו אבן שתית חטובים... שמה בתוך לפני מזיב מאשנבים
Upon it lying the stone from which the foundation was hewn... Who gives ear from which the waters flow (i.e. the foundation stone "from which flow all the waters of the world '').
During Sukkot, the following references to the Foundation Stone are mentioned in the Hoshanot recital:
הושענא! -- אבן שתיה -- הושענא
Please save! -- Foundation Stone -- Please save!
הושענא! -- תאדרנו באבן תלולה -- הושענא
Please save! -- Adorn us with the elevated Stone -- Please save!
The Temple Mount, where the Foundation Stone is located, is thought by commentators of the Qur'an to be the place to which Muhammad traveled in the Night Journey. Although the Qur'an does not specifically mention Jerusalem in name as the ascension site, labelling the site as the Al - Aqsa Mosque, the Hadith, the recorded sayings of Muhammad, specify that the site is indeed the Foundation Stone in Jerusalem. According to Islamic belief, angels visited the site 2,000 years before the creation of Adam. It is also thought to be the place where Israfil, the angel of the trumpet, will sound his horn on Resurrection Day.
Beneath the Foundation Stone is a cavern known as the Well of Souls. It is sometimes thought of as the traditional hiding place of the Ark of the Covenant.
Coordinates: 31 ° 46 ′ 41 '' N 35 ° 14 ′ 07 '' E / 31.7780 ° N 35.2354 ° E / 31.7780; 35.2354
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when did the jeep grand cherokee come out | Jeep Grand Cherokee - wikipedia
The Jeep Grand Cherokee is a mid-size luxury SUV produced by the American manufacturer Jeep. While some other SUVs were manufactured with body - on - frame construction, the Jeep Grand Cherokee has always used a unibody chassis.
The Grand Cherokee 's origins date back to 1983 when American Motors Corporation (AMC) was designing a successor to the smaller Jeep Cherokee (XJ). Three outside (non-AMC) designers -- Larry Shinoda, Alain Clenet, and Giorgetto Giugiaro -- were also under contract with AMC to create and build a clay model of the Cherokee XJ replacement, then known as the "XJC '' project. However, the basic design for the Cherokee 's replacement was well under way by AMC 's in - house designers and the 1989 Jeep Concept 1 show car foretold the basic design.
As AMC began development of the next Jeep in 1985, management created a business process that is now known as product lifecycle management (PLM). According to François Castaing, Vice President for Product Engineering and Development, the smallest U.S. automaker was looking for a way to speed up its product development process to compete better against its larger competitors. The XJC 's development was aided by computer - aided design (CAD) software systems making the engineers more productive while new communication allowed potential conflicts to be resolved faster thus reducing costly engineering changes because all drawings and documents were in a central database. The system was so effective that after Chrysler purchased AMC in 1987, it expanded the system throughout its enterprise, thus connecting everyone involved in designing and building products.
The Grand Cherokee thus became the first Chrysler - badged Jeep product. Development work for the new Jeep model continued and Chrysler 's employees (after the 1987 buyout of AMC) were eager for a late - 1980s release date; however, CEO Lee Iacocca was pushing for redesigned Chrysler minivans, thus delaying the Grand Cherokee 's release until late - 1992 as an Explorer competitor. Unlike the Explorer, the Grand Cherokee utilized monocoque (unibody) construction, whereas the Explorer was a derivative of the Ranger pickup with a separate body - on - frame.
The Grand Cherokee debuted in grand fashion at the 1992 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan. The vehicle that was driven was a Poppy Red Clear Coat 1993 Grand Cherokee ZJ Laredo with a quartz cloth interior and high - back bucket seats. Then Chrysler president Robert Lutz drove Detroit mayor, Coleman Young, from the Jefferson North Assembly Plant on North Jefferson Avenue via a police escort to Cobo Hall, up the steps of Cobo Hall and through a plate glass window to show off the new vehicle. Sales of the 1993 model year Grand Cherokee began in April 1992.
Production of the Grand Cherokee started shortly afterward in the purpose - built Jefferson North Assembly in Detroit, Michigan. European Grand Cherokees are manufactured in Austria by Magna Steyr. The Grand Cherokee "played a significant part in reviving Chrysler 's fortunes by moving it into the then nascent market for high - margin sports utility vehicles. ''
Upon its introduction, it was the first USA - manufactured automobile using HFC - 134a refrigerant in place of HCFC - 12 for the HVAC system.
The original Grand Cherokee was launched in 1992 as a 1993 model year vehicle in the luxury SUV segment. The "ZJ '' models, manufactured from 1992 to 1998, originally came in three trim levels: base (also known as SE), Laredo, and Limited, subsequent trims were added, included Orvis (95 -- 98), TSI (97 -- 98). The base model included features such as full instrumentation, cloth interior, and a standard five - speed manual transmission, while gaining the moniker "SE '' name for the 1994 model year. Power windows and locks were not standard equipment on the base trim. The minimal price tag differential resulted in low consumer demand, and as a result, the low - line model was eventually discontinued. Additional standard features included a driver - side air bag (starting in 96) and four - wheel anti-lock braking system (ABS). The Laredo was the mid-scale model with standard features that included power windows, power door locks, cruise control, and a leather wrapped steering wheel. Exterior features included medium - grey plastic paneling on the lower body and five - spoke alloy wheels. The Limited was the premium model, featuring body color lower body paneling, and gold exterior accents. The Limited also boasted standard features such as leather seating, heated mirrors, front power seats, a keyless entry system, wood grain interior appliqué, lace style alloy wheels, a driver information center with compass, digitized climate control, and electrochromic rearview mirror, and Jensen brand stereo with multi-band equalizer. By 1996 the option list grew to include heated seats. Standard was the 4.0, with the 5.2 V8 (and 5.9 in 1998) being optional. As with other models. Package groups with the various trim levels included: fog lamps, skid plates, as well as convenience, lighting, luxury, power, security, and trailer towing packages.
When it was first introduced in April 1992 as an early 1993 model year vehicle, the Grand Cherokee only had one powertrain choice: the 4.0 L AMC - derived straight - six engine that made 190 horsepower. This became the "volume '' engine for the Grand Cherokee. Transmission choices included a four - speed automatic transmission (early production ZJs used the AW4 -- the A500SE (later 42RE) replaced the AW4 during the latter half of the 1993 model year) or an Aisin AX15 manual transmission. Low demand for the manual transmission resulted in its discontinuation after 1994, but European - market ZJs retained it when coupled to the diesel engine (which was unavailable in North America). The drive train choices included rear - wheel drive or four - wheel - drive. In 1995, the engine dropped 5 horsepower to 185 due to new EPA regulations imposed on the 1996 model year.
In 1998, a variant of the top - level Grand Cherokee Limited, the "5.9 Limited '' was introduced. Jeep ads claimed it to be the "world 's fastest sport utility vehicle '', verified by third - party testing. The primary improvements in the 5.9 Limited version included a 245 - horsepower 5.9 L OHV V8 engine, heavy - duty 46RE automatic transmission, functional heat - extracting hood louvers, unique wide - slot body - colored grille with mesh inserts, special rocker moldings, low - restriction exhaust with three - inch chrome tip, a low - profile roof rack, and special 16 '' Ultra-Star wheels. The 5.9 Limited also received a 150 amp alternator and a 2 - speed electric cooling fan. Other features include a standard 180 - watt, 10 - speaker Infinity Gold sound system with rear roof - mounted sound bar, standard sunroof, and an interior swaddled with unique "calf 's nap '' soft leather and faux wood trim. The 5.9 Limited was awarded "4x4 of the Year '' for 1998 by Petersen 's 4 - Wheel & Off - Road magazine. Production of this model was 14,286 units.
Export models produced at the plant in Graz, Austria, were given the vehicle designation of "ZG ''.
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The redesigned WJ 1999 Grand Cherokee shared just 127 parts with its predecessor (mostly fasteners). The European model was coded WG. The spare tire was relocated from the side of the cargo compartment to under the floor. (Like the 1998 ZJ, the rear tailgate glass opened separately.) The two heavy pushrod V8 engines were replaced by Chrysler 's then - new PowerTech. The new V8 engine produced less torque than the old pushrods, but was lighter, offered better fuel economy, and provided similar on road performance figures (the 23 - gallon fuel tank was replaced with one of a 20.5 - gallon capacity). The straight - six engine was also updated in 1999. A redesign of the intake manifold added 10 horsepower (7.5 kW). While other Jeep vehicles used the Mopar 5 x 4.5 bolt circle, this was the first Jeep following the 1987 Chrysler buyout to receive a wider bolt pattern: -- 5 x 5.
A notable feature available in this generation was the automatic four wheel drive option called Quadra - Drive, which employed the New Venture Gear NV247 transfer case. This two - speed chain - driven transfer case uses a gerotor, a clutch pack coupled to a hydraulic pump, to transfer torque between the front and rear axles. The transfer case contains three modes, 4 - All Time, Neutral, and 4 - Lo. In 4 - All Time, 100 % of torque is sent to the rear axle in normal conditions. If the rear axle starts spinning at a higher rate than the front axle, hydraulic pressure builds up in the gerotor and causes the clutch pack to progressively transfer torque to the front axle until both axles return to the same speed. Neutral mode is intended for towing the vehicle. In 4 - Lo, the front and rear axles are locked together through a 2.72 reduction gear ratio. The NV247 transfer case is mated to front and rear axles containing Jeep 's Vari - Lok differentials. Vari - Lok differentials also use a gerotor to transfer torque between the wheels on either side of the axle. The major advantage of Quadra - Drive was that the combined transfer case and progressive locking differentials in each axle could automatically control traction between all four wheels. However, only the center differential could be permanently locked, and only in 4Lo. The Quadra - Trac II system included the NV247 transfer case with the standard open front and rear differentials.
The 45RFE and 545RFE automatic transmission in the WJ was notable. It included three planetary gear sets rather than the two normally used in a four - speed automatic. This gave it six theoretical speeds, and it would have been the first six - speed transmission ever produced in volume, but it was programmed to only use five of these ratios. Four were used for upshifts, with a different second gear for downshifts. Although five of the six ratios were used, Chrysler decided to call it a "4 - speed automatic ''. In 2001, the programming was changed to make use of all six ratios. Rather than have six forward gears, the transmission was programmed to act as a five - speed with the alternate second gear for downshifts. The rpm at 70 miles per hour (110 km / h) on a 545RFE is 2000 rpm, 200 rpm less than the 45RFE programming. 1999 and 2000 model year WJ owners can have their 45RFE transmission 's programming flashed to enable the extra gear as both transmissions are physically the same. (Must purchase new PCM and ABS module and program them with a fake VIN to make this work.) The 42RE 4 - speed automatic remained the transmission for the Inline 6 engine. It had slight changes from the previous model Grand Cherokee.
The interior was also completely redesigned in 1999. The redesign allowed for larger rear doors, and more space for rear passengers. Controls for various items like headlights, heated seats, and rear wiper were moved to more convenient locations. The electronic Vehicle Information center was moved from below the radio to above the windshield, and was standard on all 2000 and up models. Limited models included automatic dual - zone climate control. A 10 CD - Changer was also available with the Infinity Audio package.
In addition to Jeep 's UniFrame construction, Daimler Chrysler partnered with Porsche to further strengthen the frame. This was done to reduce NVH. UniFrame is an unusual construction scheme, it incorporates all of the strength and durability of a body - on - frame construction into a unitized construction. By adding stiffness and rigidity to the structure, they enhanced the ride and strengthened the network of steel beams, rails and pillars (or "safety cage '') that surround and protect occupants. More than 70 percent of the underbody is high - strength steel. All Jeep Grand Cherokees feature UniFrame construction.
The Grand Cherokee received a minor facelift for 2004 including round fog lamps, a lower front fascia and a new body - color matched inset grille design.
Export models produced at the plant in Graz, Austria, were given the vehicle designation of "WG ''.
The all - new WK Grand Cherokee debuted in 2004 for the 2005 model year. It was first unveiled at the 2004 New York International Auto Show. Features available for the first time in a Jeep included Quadra - Drive II four - wheel drive, rear - seat DVD player and optional 5.7 L Hemi V8. The 3.7 L V6 engine replaced the 4.0 L Straight - 6. A Mercedes Benz sourced 3.0 V6 Common Rail Diesel (CRD) was available outside of North America from launch.
The design still emphasizes power and luxury, with significant work done on improving noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). However, for the first time, Jeep also emphasized on - road performance to a similar extent as the cornerstone of its brand, off - road capability.
This newfound emphasis on on - road refinement led Jeep to replace the XJ - era live - axle with leading - arms front suspension (found in the ZJ and WJ) with a new design: an independent double - wishbone setup like that which debuted in the 2002 Liberty. The new Jeep changed its philosophy due to what it perceived as increasing demand in the SUV marketplace for on - road performance and decreasing demand for off - road capability. Although classed as a truck - based SUV, the WH / WK Grand Cherokee has more luxuries than a "crossover '' especially refinement, capability and NVH.
The 2007 Jeep Grand Cherokee made its European debut at the Euro Camp Jeep held in Ardèche, France. This Jeep has gained 5 stars in the Euro Ncap crash safety tests conducted in 2005.
The Grand Cherokee received a minor facelift for 2008. The bottom part of the headlights became rounded and High Intensity Discharge (HID) Headlamps with auto leveling were added. The lower portion of the front bumper was still removable as it was from launch to increase the approach angle for off - road use. The 4.7 L was refined, now producing 305 hp (227 kW; 309 PS), and 334 lb ⋅ ft (453 N ⋅ m).
The 2009 Jeep Grand Cherokee is available with an improved 5.7 L Hemi engine rated at 357 hp (266 kW; 362 PS) and 389 lb ⋅ ft (527 N ⋅ m) of torque. The engine uses variable valve timing to increase fuel economy.
The fourth - generation WK2 Grand Cherokee went on sale in summer 2010 as a 2011 model. It was unveiled at the 2009 New York Auto Show. In 2009, during its development, Chrysler management used it as an example of future products to convince United States federal regulators of Chrysler 's future viability for the purpose of requesting a federal loan. This culminated in the Chrysler Chapter 11 reorganization that same year.
The fourth - generation Grand Cherokee retains its classic Jeep styling combined with a modern and sleek body style. The interior features leather trim and real wood accents, plus Bluetooth and uConnect electronics options. With the additional awards for the 2011 Grand Cherokee, the Jeep Grand Cherokee has won 30 awards for off - road capability, luxury, value, best - in - class, and safety, making it the most awarded SUV ever. Among the awards are: Top Safety Pick for 2011 from the IIHS, listed as a Consumers Digest Best Buy for 2011, Safest SUV in America by MSN Autos, and Truck of the Year for 2011 by The Detroit News.
Like previous generations, the WK2 Grand Cherokee chassis is a steel unibody. Unlike previous generations, it features four - wheel independent suspension for better on - road handling. The WK2 and 2011 Durango use a Chrysler designed and engineered platform / chassis that Mercedes - Benz later used for the Mercedes - Benz W166 series. The Chrysler designed platform was part of the DaimerChrysler engineering projects that were to launch the WK2 Grand Cherokee with the Mercedes - Benz ML to follow. However, due to the subsequent sale and bankruptcy of Chrysler, the Grand Cherokee launch was delayed and the ML launched before the Grand Cherokee.
Four wheel drive systems include Quadra - Trac I, Quadra - Trac II, and Quadra - Drive II. Using Selec - Terrain, the driver can select modes for Auto, Sport, Snow, Sand / Mud, and Rock.
Optional Quadra - Lift height adjustable air suspension can raise the vehicle 's ground clearance up to 11.1 in (282 mm). Lift modes include Park, Aero, Normal Ride Height, Off - Road 1, and Off - Road 2.
Engine choices include the all new 3.6 L Pentastar V6 and 5.7 L Hemi V8. The Hemi V8 retains the Multiple Displacement System (MDS) that shuts down four cylinders in low - power driving situations. The V8 comes with the multi-speed automatic transmission that includes Electronic Range Selection (ERS) to manually limit the high gear operating range. Trailer towing is rated 7,400 lb (3,400 kg) for Hemi models and 6,800 lb (3,100 kg) for Pentastar models. A 3.0 L turbocharged diesel V6 developed and built by Fiat Powertrain Technologies and VM Motori (with Multijet II injection) rated at 177 kW (241 PS; 237 hp) and 550 N ⋅ m (410 lb ⋅ ft) of torque offered in export markets from mid-2011. The new 3.0 L CRD turbodiesel engine is available in European markets as 140 kW (190 PS; 188 hp) low - power version.
The new Grand Cherokee SRT8, which started production on July 16, 2011, is equipped with a 470 hp (350 kW; 480 PS) 6.4 L Hemi V8 engine. Jeep claims the new SRT8 gets 13 percent better fuel economy than its predecessor. To keep the gas mileage respectable, Jeep has employed a new active exhaust system that lets Chrysler 's cylinder - deactivating Fuel Saver Technology operate over a wider rpm band. Chrysler claims that with the larger gas tank, the SUV can now travel up to 500 miles (800 km) on a single tank, while other sources estimate range to be 450 miles (720 km).
The Jeep Grand Cherokee was released in India on 30 August 2016. Alongside the Wrangler, the Grand Cherokee was the first model to be sold directly by Jeep in the country. Jeeps have been built under licence by Mahindra in India since the 1960s.
In 2010, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) launched an investigation into 1993 -- 2004 model year Jeep Grand Cherokees which involves the fuel tanks of these SUVs. Because the gas tanks are mounted between the bumper and rear axle, a rear collision could cause the fuel tank to leak, causing a fire. The NHTSA claims that it has reports of 157 deaths resulting from fires caused by Grand Cherokees crashing. Also affected are 2002 -- 2007 Jeep Liberty models and 1986 -- 2001 Jeep Cherokee models, which totals about 5.1 million affected vehicles.
In June, 2013, Chrysler Corporation responded to the recall, agreeing to recall 2.7 million Jeeps, though eliminating both the 1986 -- 2001 Jeep Cherokee XJ and 1999 -- 2004 Jeep Grand Cherokee WJ from the recall. The recall will include 2.7 million 1993 -- 1998 Jeep Grand Cherokee ZJ and 2002 -- 2007 Jeep Liberty KJ vehicles.
Two weeks prior to this recall, Chrysler Corporation claimed that the affected Jeep vehicles were safe, though agreed to recall the affected vehicles later.
To remedy the problem, Jeep dealerships will install a trailer hitch onto the rear bumpers of Jeep vehicles that will protect the fuel tank if the vehicle is involved in a rear impact. If an affected vehicle is not currently equipped with a trailer hitch, one will be installed onto it, and older Jeep and non-factory aftermarket trailer hitches will be replaced with one from Chrysler Corporation. Despite the recall, the market for these Jeep vehicles has not suffered.
In May 2013 there was a recall of WKs with the Quadra - Drive II and Quadra - Trac II systems. This followed cases of cars rolling away due the transfer case moving into neutral of its own accord, and the owner not having applied the parking brake. The recall revised the Final Drive Control Module (FDCM) software. However, following the recall there were widespread reports on enthusiast web sites of both the neutral and low ratio modes of the transfer case ceasing to function, and a survey showed that fewer than 10 % of respondents had experienced no issues with the recall. Attempting to resolve these issues, some dealers subsequently replaced the transfer case actuator, FDCM, and even the transfer case itself, often at customer expense and usually to no avail.
The cause of the roll - aways was faulty soldering in the transfer case actuator. It has been deduced that the revised software detects this by noting any deviation in resistance, and thereupon locks the transfer case in high ratio for safety; but that it is over-reacting to minor resistance variations from other causes. Originally Chrysler dealers claimed that the loss of neutral and low ratio following the recall was co-incidence; then it claimed that the revised software was revealing pre-existing faults in the system, despite it occurring even with new parts. Chrysler have also claimed that only a small fraction of cars have issues following the recall; but most users never have occasion to use the low ratio and may never discover the fault. Four years after this recall its issues remain unresolved.
In April 2016, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) ordered a recall of 2014 and 2015 Jeep Grand Cherokees and other cars that use an electronic gear shifter because it sometimes does not go into (or does not remain in) the park position, despite the operator 's best intentions. Consumers reported that they put the car in park and left the engine running, and then were surprised when the car rolled away under power.
An investigation by FCA US and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found some drivers have exited their vehicles without first selecting "PARK. '' Such behavior may pose a safety risk if a vehicle 's engine is still running. The Company is aware of 41 injuries that are potentially related. The vehicles involved in these events were inspected and no evidence of equipment failure was found. The vehicles also deliver warning chimes and alert messages if their driver - side doors are opened while their engines are still running and "PARK '' is not engaged. However, investigation suggested these measures may be insufficient to deter some drivers from exiting their vehicles without selecting "PARK, '' so FCA US will enhance the warnings and transmission - shift strategy on these vehicles. The enhancements will combine warnings with a transmission - shift strategy to automatically prevent a vehicle from moving, under certain circumstances, even if the driver fails to select "PARK. ''
Jeep has now replaced the shifter with a conventional lever which stays in position for late 2016 models.
In October 2017, 2011 - 14 model year Grand Cherokees were recalled due to improperly installed brake shields in some vehicles.
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what was one effect of new britain taxes on colonists | Sugar Act - wikipedia
The Sugar Act, also known as the American Revenue Act or the American Duties Act, was a revenue - raising act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on April 5, 1764. The preamble to the act stated: "it is expedient that new provisions and regulations should be established for improving the revenue of this Kingdom... and... it is just and necessary that a revenue should be raised... for defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same. '' The earlier Molasses Act of 1733, which had imposed a tax of six pence per gallon of molasses, had never been effectively collected due to colonial evasion. By reducing the rate by half and increasing measures to enforce the tax, the British hoped that the tax would actually be collected. These incidents increased the colonists ' concerns about the intent of the British Parliament and helped the growing movement that became the American Revolution.
The Molasses Act of 1733 was passed by Parliament largely at the insistence of large plantation owners in the British West Indies. Molasses from French, Dutch, and Spanish West Indian possessions was inexpensive. Sugar (from the British West Indies) was priced much higher than its competitors and they also had no need for the large quantities of lumber, fish, and other items offered by the colonies in exchange. Sometimes colonists would pay Molasses Act taxes because they were rather low depending on where they resided and how much money they had. In the first part of the 18th Century, the British West Indies were Great Britain 's most important trading partner, so Parliament was attentive to their requests. However, rather than acceding to the demands to prohibit the colonies from trading with the non-British islands, Parliament passed the prohibitively high tax on the colonies on molasses imported from those islands. If actually collected, the tax would have effectively closed that source to New England and destroyed much of the rum industry. Instead, smuggling, bribery or intimidation of customs officials effectively nullified the law.
During the Seven Years ' War, known in Colonial America as the French and Indian War, the British government substantially increased the national debt to pay for the war. In February 1763, as the war ended, the ministry headed by John Stuart, the Earl of Bute, decided to maintain a standing army of ten thousand British regular troops in the colonies. Shortly thereafter, George Grenville replaced Bute. Grenville supported his predecessor 's policy, even more so after the outbreak of Pontiac 's Rebellion in May 1763. Grenville faced the problem of not only paying for these troops but servicing the national debt. The debt grew from £ 75,000,000 before the war to £ 122,600,000 in January 1763, and almost £ 130,000,000 by the beginning of 1764.
George Grenville did not expect the colonies to contribute to the interest or the retirement of the debt, but he did expect the Americans to pay a portion of the expenses for colonial defense. Estimating the expenses of maintaining an army in the Continental colonies and the West Indies to be approximately £ 200,000 annually, Grenville devised a revenue - raising program that would raise an estimated £ 79,000 per year.
The Molasses Act was set to expire in 1763. The Commissioners of Customs anticipated greater demand for both molasses and rum as a result of the end of the war and the acquisition of Canada. They believed that the increased demand would make a sharply reduced rate both affordable and collectible. When passed by Parliament, the new Sugar Act of 1764 halved the previous tax on molasses. In addition to promising stricter enforcement, the language of the bill made it clear that the purpose of the legislation was not to simply regulate the trade (as the Molasses Act had attempted to do by effectively closing the legal trade to non-British suppliers) but to raise revenue.
The new act listed specific goods, the most important being lumber, which could only be exported to Britain. Ship captains were required to maintain detailed manifests of their cargo and the papers were subject to verification before anything could be unloaded from the ships. Customs officials were empowered to have all violations tried in vice admiralty courts rather than by jury trials in local colonial courts, where the juries generally looked favorably on smuggling as a profession.
Historian Fred Anderson wrote that the purpose of the Act was "to resolve the problems of finance and control that plagued the postwar empire. '' To do this "three kinds of measures '' were implemented -- "those intended to make customs enforcement more effective, those that placed new duties on items widely consumed in America, and those that adjusted old rates in such a way as to maximize revenues. ''
The Sugar Act was passed by Parliament on April 5, 1764, and it arrived in the colonies at a time of economic depression. It was an indirect tax, although the colonists were well informed of its presence. A good part of the reason was that a significant portion of the colonial economy during the Seven Years ' War was involved with supplying food and supplies to the British Army. Colonials, however, especially those affected directly as merchants and shippers, assumed that the highly visible new tax program was the major culprit. As protests against the Sugar Act developed, it was the economic impact rather than the constitutional issue of taxation without representation that was the main focus for the colonists.
New England ports especially suffered economic losses from the Sugar Act as the stricter enforcement made smuggling molasses more dangerous and risky. Also they argued that the profit margin on rum was too small to support any tax on molasses. Forced to increase their prices, many colonists feared being priced out of the market. The British West Indies, on the other hand, now had undivided access to colonial exports. With supply of molasses well exceeding demand, the islands prospered with their reduced expenses while New England ports saw revenue from their rum exports decrease. Also the West Indies had been the primary colonial source for hard currency, or specie, and as the reserves of specie were depleted the soundness of colonial currency was threatened.
Two prime movers behind the protests against the Sugar Act were Samuel Adams and James Otis, both of Massachusetts. In May 1764, Samuel Adams drafted a report on the Sugar Act for the Massachusetts assembly, in which he denounced the act as an infringement of the rights of the colonists as British subjects:
For if our Trade may be taxed why not our Lands? Why not the Produce of our Lands & every thing we possess or make use of? This we apprehend annihilates our Charter Right to govern & tax ourselves -- It strikes our British Privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain: If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves?
In August 1764, fifty Boston merchants agreed to stop purchasing British luxury imports, and in both Boston and New York City there were movements to increase colonial manufacturing. There were sporadic outbreaks of violence, most notably in Rhode Island. Overall, however, there was not an immediate high level of protest over the Sugar Act in either New England or the rest of the colonies. That would begin in the later part of the next year when the Stamp Act was passed.
The Sugar Act was repealed in 1766 and replaced with the Revenue Act of 1766, which reduced the tax to one penny per gallon on molasses imports, British or foreign. This occurred around the same time that the Stamp Act of 1765 was repealed.
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how are the rule of law judicial review and judicial independence key elements of a democracy | Judicial independence - wikipedia
Judicial independence is the concept that the judiciary needs to be kept away from the other branches of government. That is, courts should not be subject to improper influence from the other branches of government, or from private or partisan interests. Judicial Independence is vital and important to the idea of separation of powers.
Different countries deal with the idea of judicial independence through different means of judicial selection, or choosing judges. One way to promote judicial independence is by granting life tenure or long tenure for judges, which ideally frees them to decide cases and make rulings according to the rule of law and judicial discretion, even if those decisions are politically unpopular or opposed by powerful interests. This concept can be traced back to 18th century England.
In some countries, the ability of the judiciary to check the legislature is enhanced by the power of judicial review. This power can be used, for example, by mandating certain action when the judiciary perceives that a branch of government is refusing to perform a constitutional duty, or by declaring laws passed by the legislature unconstitutional.
Constitutional economics studies issues such as the proper distribution of national wealth including government spending on the judiciary. In transitional and developing countries, spending on the judiciary may be controlled by the executive. This undermines the principle of judicial independence because it creates a financial dependence of the judiciary on the executive. It is important to distinguish between two methods of corruption of the judiciary: the state (through budget planning and privileges) being the most dangerous, and private. State corruption of the judiciary can impede the ability of businesses to optimally facilitate the growth and development of a market economy.
In some countries, the constitution also prohibits the legislative branch from reducing salaries of sitting judges.
The development of judicial independence has been argued to involve a cycle of national law having an impact on international law, and international law subsequently impacting national law. This is said to occur in three phases: the first phase is characterized by the domestic development of the concept of judicial independence, the second by the spread of these concepts internationally and their implementation in international law, and the third by the implementation in national law of these newly formulated international principles of judicial independence.
A notable example illustrating this cycle is the United Kingdom. The first phase occurred in England with the original conception of judicial independence in the Act of Settlement 1701. The second phase was evident when England 's concepts regarding judicial independence spread internationally, and were adopted into the domestic law of other countries; for instance, England served as the model for Montesquieu 's separation of powers doctrine, and the Founding Fathers of the US Constitution used England as their dominant model in formulating the Constitution 's Article III, which is the foundation of American judicial independence. Other common law countries, including Canada, Australia, and India, also adopted the British model of judicial independence.
In recent decades the third phase of judicial independence has been evident in the UK, as it has been significantly influenced by judicial independence principles developed by international human rights constitutional documents. The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has had a significant impact on the conceptual analysis of judicial independence in England and Scotland. This process began in the 1990s with the ECtHR hearing UK cases and, more significantly, in the application of the European Convention on Human Rights in British law through the Human Rights Act 1998, which came into force in the UK in 2000.
Where British national law had previously impacted the international development of judicial independence, the British Constitutional Reform Act 2005 marked a shift, with international law now impacting British domestic law. The Constitutional Reform Act dramatically reformed government control over the administration of justice in England and Wales; importantly, it discontinued the position of the Lord Chancellor, one of the country 's oldest constitutional offices, who was entrusted with a combination of legislative, executive, and judicial capacities. The Lord Chancellor served as speaker of the Upper House of Parliament, the House of Lords; as a member of the executive branch and member of the senior cabinet; and as the head of the judiciary. Historically, the appellate function had a connection with the executive branch due to the types of cases typically heard -- impeachment and the hearing of felony charges against peers. The Constitutional Reform Act established new lines of demarcation between the Lord Chancellor and the judiciary, transferring all the judicial functions to the judiciary and entrusting the Lord Chancellor only with what are considered administrative and executive matters. In addition, the Constitutional Reform Act replaced the Lord Chancellor by the Lord Chief Justice as head of the judiciary, separated the judicial Appellate Committee of the House of Lords from the legislative parliament, reforming it as the Supreme Court, and creating a Judicial Appointments Commission. The creation of the Supreme Court was important, for it finally separated the highest court of appeal from the House of Lords.
Thus, the United Kingdom, where judicial independence began over three hundred years ago, illustrates the interaction over time of national and international law and jurisprudence in the area of judicial independence. In this process, concepts and ideas have become enriched as they have been implemented in successive judicial and political systems, as each system has enhanced and deepened the concepts and ideas it actualized. In addition to the UK, similar developments of conceptual cross-fertilization can be seen internationally, for example in European Union law, in civil law countries such as Austria, and in other common law jurisdictions including Canada.
The International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace produced the Mt. Scopus International Standards of Judicial Independence between 2007 and 2012. These built on the same association 's New Delhi Minimum Standards on Judicial independence adopted in 1982 and their Montréal Universal Declaration on the Independence of Justice in 1983. Other influences they cite for the standards include the UN Basic Principles of Judicial Independence from 1985, the Burgh House Principles of Judicial Independence in International Law (for the international judiciary), Tokyo Law Asia Principles, Council of Europe Statements on judicial independence (particularly the Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the independence, efficiency and role of judges), the Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct 2002, and the American Bar Association 's revision of its ethical standards for judges.
In recent years, the principle of judicial independence has been described as one of the core values of the justice system.
Canada has a level of judicial independence entrenched in its Constitution, awarding superior court justices various guarantees to independence under sections 96 to 100 of the Constitution Act, 1867. These include rights to tenure (although the Constitution has since been amended to introduce mandatory retirement at age 75) and the right to a salary determined by the Parliament of Canada (as opposed to the executive). In 1982 a measure of judicial independence was extended to inferior courts specializing in criminal law (but not civil law) by section 11 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, although in the 1986 case Valente v. The Queen it was found these rights are limited. They do, however, involve tenure, financial security and some administrative control.
The year 1997 saw a major shift towards judicial independence, as the Supreme Court of Canada in the Provincial Judges Reference found an unwritten constitutional norm guaranteeing judicial independence to all judges, including civil law inferior court judges. The unwritten norm is said to be implied by the preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867. Consequently, judicial compensation committees such as the Judicial Compensation and Benefits Commission now recommend judicial salaries in Canada. There are two types of judicial independence: institutional independence and decisional independence. Institutional independence means the judicial branch is independent from the executive and legislative branches. Decisional independence is the idea that judges should be able to decide cases solely based on the law and facts, without letting the media, politics or other concerns sway their decisions, and without fearing penalty in their careers for their decisions.
In Hong Kong, independence of the judiciary has been the tradition since the territory became a British crown colony in 1842. After the 1997 transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong to the People 's Republic of China pursuant to the Sino - British Joint Declaration, an international treaty registered with the United Nations, independence of the judiciary, along with continuation of English common law, has been enshrined in the territory 's constitutional document, the Basic Law. In recent years, this independence has been put into question after a number of interventions from China on several cases which swayed rulings in the Executive 's favour, most notably the Hong Kong Legislative Council oath - taking controversy of 2016.
During the middle ages, under the Norman monarchy of the Kingdom of England, the king and his Curia Regis held judicial power. Judicial independence began to emerge during the early modern period; more courts were created and a judicial profession grew. By the fifteenth century, the king 's role in this feature of government became small. Nevertheless, kings could still influence courts and dismiss judges. The Stuart dynasty used this power frequently in order to overpower the Parliament of England. After the Stuarts were removed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, some advocated guarding against royal manipulation of the judiciary. King William III approved the Act of Settlement 1701, which established tenure for judges unless Parliament removed them.
Under the uncodified British Constitution, there are two important conventions which help to preserve judicial independence. The first is that the Parliament of the United Kingdom does not comment on the cases which are before the court. The second is the principle of parliamentary privilege: that Members of Parliament are protected from prosecution in certain circumstances by the courts.
Furthermore, the independence of the judiciary is guaranteed by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. In order to try to promote the independence of the judiciary, the selection process is designed to minimize political interference. The process focuses on senior members of the judiciary rather than on politicians. Part 2 of the Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007 aims to increase diversity among the judiciary.
The pay of judges is determined by an independent pay review body. It makes recommendations to the government after taking evidence from a variety of sources. The government accepts these recommendations and will traditionally implement them fully. As long as judges hold their positions in "good order, '' they remain in post until they wish to retire or until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70.
Until 1 January 2010, the legal profession was self - regulating; with responsibility for implementing and enforcing its own professional standards and disciplining its own members. The bodies which performed this function were the Bar Council and the Law Society. However, this self - regulation came to an end when approved regulators came under the regulation of the Legal Services Board, composed of non-lawyers, following the passage of the Legal Services Act 2007. This saw the establishment of the Solicitors Regulation Authority to regular solicitors and the Bar Standards Board to regulate barristers.
Article III of the United States Constitution establishes the federal courts as part of the federal government.
The Constitution provides that federal judges, including judges of the Supreme Court of the United States, are appointed by the President "by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Once appointed, federal judges:
... both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.
Federal judges vacate office only upon death, resignation, or impeachment and removal from office by Congress; only 13 federal judges have ever been impeached. The phrase "during good behavior '' predates the Declaration of Independence. John Adams equated it with quamdiu se bene gesserint in a letter to the Boston Gazette published on 11 January 1773, a phrase that first appeared in section 3 of the Act of Settlement 1701 in England.
The President is free to appoint any person to the federal bench, yet typically he consults with the American Bar Association, whose Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary rates each nominee "Well Qualified, '' "Qualified '' or "Not Qualified. ''
State courts deal with independence of the judiciary in many ways, and several forms of judicial selection are used for both trial courts and appellate courts (including state supreme courts), varying between states and sometimes within states. In some states, judges are elected (sometime on a partisan ballot, other times on a nonpartisan one), while in others they are appointed by the governor or state legislature.
The 2000 case of Bush v. Gore, in which a majority of the Supreme Court, including some appointees of President George H.W. Bush, overruled challenges to the election of the George W. Bush then pending in the Florida Supreme Court, whose members had all been appointed by Democratic governors, is seen by many as reinforcing the need for judicial independence, both with regard to the Florida Supreme Court and the US Supreme Court. This case has focused increased attention on judicial outcomes as opposed to the traditional focus on judicial qualifications.
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dr pepper is a coke or pepsi product | Dr Pepper - wikipedia
Dr Pepper is a carbonated soft drink marketed as having a unique flavor. The drink was created in the 1880s by pharmacist Charles Alderton in Waco, Texas and first served around 1885. Dr Pepper was first nationally marketed in the United States in 1904, and is now also sold in Europe, Asia, Canada, Mexico, Australia, and South America, as well as New Zealand and South Africa as an imported good. Variants include a version without high fructose corn syrup, Diet Dr Pepper, as well as a line of additional flavors, first introduced in the 2000s.
The name "Dr. Pepper '' was first used commercially in 1885. It was introduced nationally in the United States at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition as a new kind of soda pop, made with 23 flavors. Its introduction in 1885 preceded the introduction of Coca - Cola by one year.
It was formulated by Brooklyn - born pharmacist Charles Alderton in Morrison 's Old Corner Drug Store in Waco, Texas. To test his new drink, he first offered it to store owner Wade Morrison, who also found it to his liking. Patrons at Morrison 's soda fountain soon learned of Alderton 's new drink and began ordering a "Waco ''. Alderton gave the formula to Morrison, who named it Dr. Pepper (later stylized as "Dr Pepper '').
As with Coca - Cola, the formula for Dr Pepper is a trade secret, and allegedly the recipe is kept as two halves in safe deposit boxes in two separate Dallas banks. A persistent rumor since the 1930s is that the drink contains prune juice, but the official Dr Pepper FAQ refutes this with "Dr Pepper is a unique blend of natural and artificial flavors; it does not contain prune juice. '' The origin of the rumor is unknown; some believe it was started by a deliveryman for a competitor trying to cast aspersions based on prune juice 's laxative effects, but it may simply be because many people feel that Dr Pepper tastes similar to prune juice.
In 2009, an old ledger book filled with formulas and recipes was discovered by Bill Waters while shopping at antiques stores in the Texas Panhandle. Several sheets and letterheads hinted it had come from the W.B. Morrison & Co. Old Corner Drug Store (the same store where Dr Pepper was first served in 1885) and faded letters on the book 's cover spelled out "Castles Formulas ''. John Castles was a partner of Morrison 's for a time and worked at that location as early as 1880. One recipe in the book titled "D Peppers Pepsin Bitters '' was of particular interest, and some speculated it could be an early recipe for Dr Pepper. However, Dr Pepper Snapple Group insists it is not the formula for Dr Pepper, but is instead a medicinal recipe for a digestive aid. The book was put up for auction in May 2009, but no one purchased it.
Theories about the origins of the soft drink 's name abound. One possible reason why the name was chosen was the practice, common at the time of the drink 's creation, of including Dr. in the names of products to convey the impression that they were healthful.
A theory often cited is that the drink was named after an actual doctor, one Charles T. Pepper of Rural Retreat, Virginia. Morrison may have named the drink after the doctor in gratitude for Pepper having given Morrison his first job. However, Milly Walker, Collections Manager / Curator for the Dublin (Texas) Dr Pepper Bottling Co. Museum, has stated that U.S. Census records show that a young Morrison lived in Christiansburg, Virginia, 40 miles away from Rural Retreat, and that "there is not one piece of evidence that Morrison ever worked for Charles T. Pepper in Rural Retreat ''. Another story tells of Morrison naming the drink after Charles T. Pepper because the doctor granted Morrison permission to marry Pepper 's daughter, but the girl in question was only eight years old at the time that Morrison moved to Waco.
A Dr. Pepper of Christiansburg is another possible inspiration for the soft drink 's name. In the census that shows Morrison living in Christiansburg and working as a pharmacy clerk, a Dr. Pepper is recorded on a subsequent page. Since census takers at this time were walking from door to door, and these census entries are close to each other in the record, it appears that Morrison and this Dr. Pepper lived close to each other. Furthermore, Pepper is recorded as having a 16 - year - old daughter, named Malinda or Malissa.
The period (full stop) after Dr was used intermittently in Dr Pepper logos until the 1950s, when, after some debate, it was discarded permanently, for stylistic and legibility reasons. A logo that debuted at that time had slanted text, in which Dr. resembled Di:.
In 1951, Dr Pepper sued the Coca - Cola company for US $750,000, asserting that nickel Coca - Colas were sold below cost and were a restraint of trade.
In 1972, Dr Pepper sued the Coca - Cola company for trademark infringement based on a soft drink marketed by Coca - Cola called "Peppo ''. Coca - Cola renamed their beverage Dr. Pibb, which was also determined to violate the trademark. The soft drink was later renamed Mr Pibb.
Dr Pepper became insolvent in the early 1980s, prompting an investment group to take the company private. Several years later, Coca - Cola attempted to acquire Dr Pepper, but was blocked from doing so by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Around the same time, Seven Up was acquired from Phillip Morris by the same investment company that bailed out Dr Pepper. Upon the failure of the Coca - Cola merger, Dr Pepper and Seven Up merged (creating Dr Pepper / Seven Up, Inc., or DPSU), giving up international branding rights in the process. After the DPSU merger, Coca - Cola obtained most non-US rights to the Dr Pepper name (with PepsiCo taking the Seven Up rights).
Dr Pepper was a frequent player in the 1990s antitrust history of the United States. As part of these activities, economists and the courts have weighed in with the opinion that Dr Pepper is a "pepper '' flavored drink and not a "cola ''. In 1995, the FTC blocked a merger between The Coca - Cola Company and Dr Pepper on grounds that included concerns about a monopoly of the "pepper '' flavor category of soft drinks. In 1996, Dr Pepper was involved in an antitrust case involving Jerry Jones, the Dallas Cowboys, NFL Properties, Nike, and other commercial interests active at Texas Stadium in Irving, Texas. Jones had made deals with Dr Pepper and the other companies that, the league said, violated their exclusive marketing contracts with Coca - Cola and other businesses. The NFL agreed to allow Jones and other teams to pursue their own agreements.
In 1998, the "pepper '' flavor soda category was a major part of the analysis supporting an antitrust case between Coca - Cola and Pepsi.
Much of the soft drink industry in the United States stopped using sugar in the 1980s, in response to a series of price supports and import quotas introduced beginning in 1982 that increased the price of sugar above the global market price. As a result, most US soft drinks, including Dr Pepper, now use high fructose corn syrup instead of sugar.
A handful of United States bottling plants still use sugar to sweeten Dr Pepper. The Dr Pepper bottling plant in Dublin, Texas used to produce such a beverage, known as Dublin Dr Pepper. In the 1980s, plant owner W.P. "Bill '' Kloster (June 7, 1918 -- September 27, 1999) refused to convert the plant to high fructose corn syrup. Other bottlers still using sugar include Temple Bottling Company, in Temple, Texas, Ab - Tex in Abilene, and West Jefferson Dr Pepper (WJDP) of West Jefferson, NC.
On March 25, 2007, Coca - Cola bottlers in the Dr Pepper Heartland commenced sales of 16 ounce cans of Dr Pepper made with cane sugar and featuring a logo with ' Old Doc ' on them. This product was scheduled to be a limited time release.
In January 2009, "Heritage Dr Pepper '' became available in select markets in cans and 16 oz bottles with the distinction "Made with Real Sugar. ''
Beginning in July 2010, Dr Pepper 's 125th Anniversary edition in some markets was made with sugar as opposed to other sweeteners. Since Dr Pepper Corporate has no control over whether the bottlers will use sugar, there is no guarantee the soda will have sugar.
As of January 2012, the bottling plant in Dublin, Texas, is no longer bottling Dr Pepper.
The soft drink industry in some other countries never stopped using sugar as a sweetener. For instance in the European Union, high fructose corn syrup is subject to a production quota. In 2005, this quota was set at 303,000 tons; in comparison, the EU produced an average of 18.6 million tons of sugar annually between 1999 and 2001. Therefore, most European soft drink producers, including most Dr Pepper bottling plants, still use sugar to sweeten their products. However, the bottlers of Dr Pepper in Germany and the United Kingdom use instead a combination of sugar and artificial sweeteners.
In the United States, Dr Pepper Snapple Group does not have a complete network of bottlers and distributors, so the drink is sometimes bottled under contract by Coca - Cola or Pepsi bottlers. Prior to the initial Cadbury Schweppes investment - turned - buyout, 30 % of Dr Pepper / Seven Up products were produced and distributed by Pepsi bottlers, and another 30 % by Coca - Cola bottlers. The remaining 40 % were produced and distributed by independent bottlers (mainly consisting of Dr Pepper / Seven Up premerger regional bottlers) and the Dr Pepper / Seven Up Bottling Group. Currently, the majority of Pepsi and Coke bottlers bottling Dr Pepper are owned by PepsiCo and The Coca - Cola Company after their buyouts of their major bottlers.
Presently, Dr Pepper Snapple relies on its own bottling group to bottle and distribute its products in more than 30 states. Coca - Cola and Pepsi have essentially stopped bottling and distributing CSAB products in favor of in - house alternatives, although regional exceptions can be found.
In Canada and Poland, Cadbury - Schweppes has licensed distribution rights to PepsiCo. In Mexico, Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Finland, Austria, Czech Republic, Belgium, and Norway, Cadbury - Schweppes owns the trademark and distributes the product. In Romania, it can be found only in larger cities, imported from Belgium. In Portugal, Spain, France, Turkey, and Greece, it is almost impossible to find, as it is usually imported from the United Kingdom in particular supermarkets. In almost all of the other countries of the world, the Coca - Cola Company purchased the trademark from Cadbury - Schweppes and distributes the product. This mixed worldwide ownership of the trademark is due to antitrust regulations which prevented Coca - Cola from purchasing the rights everywhere. Dr Pepper is also available in Russia, South Korea and Ukraine. Although no longer locally bottled in Australia or New Zealand, Dr Pepper is imported and sold by United States Foods, and many other small retailers in Australia, with the UK (sugar) version sold in the British sections of Coles and Woolworths supermarkets. Dr Pepper is not available in Thailand, North Korea and Serbia. It is rarely sold in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, as it is imported from the United States.
Dr Pepper has been sold in Japan since 1973 and is widely available in greater Tokyo, Okinawa and parts of the Tōkai region, where it is distributed by local Coca - Cola bottlers. It is not actively marketed in other regions of Japan; Coca - Cola 's Osaka bottler began selling Dr Pepper in 1983, but pulled the product two years later due to low sales.
"Dr Pepper Time '', according to one promotion, was at 10, 2 and 4 o'clock. During World War II, a syndicated radio program, The 10 -- 2 -- 4 Ranch (later titled 10 -- 2 -- 4 Time), aired in the South and other areas where Dr Pepper was distributed. The show featured the Sons of the Pioneers and Dick Foran. In the 1960s, the tune of the chorus of "The Glow - Worm '' was used in ads, with lyrics which ended, "It 's Dr Pepper Time! ''
In the 1960s, Dr Pepper released the "Charge '' ad:
Charge!!
Get Going Again, With the Dr Pepper Difference.
The "Be a Pepper '' series referred to fans of Dr Pepper as "Peppers '', and often featured large, sequential, crowd dance scenes, intricately choreographed by Tony Stevens and led onscreen by actor David Naughton. A recurring jingle was:
I 'm a Pepper, he 's a Pepper,
She 's a Pepper, we 're a Pepper, Would n't you like to be a Pepper, too? Be a Pepper. Drink Dr Pepper.
This became grist for a number of pop culture references and parodies. One of the first was a July 1981 sketch on the program SCTV, in which an overly - excited injured man (Eugene Levy) extols the work of a "Dr Shekter '' (Rick Moranis) who has been treating him. Levy and a group of patients wearing casts and crutches engage in their own elaborate dancing and singing ("Would n't you like to see my doctor, too? ''), which Shekter first uses as an opportunity to explain his work, and then grows alarmed ("These people should not be dancing! ''). In the 1982 sex farce Beach Girls, the slogan became "I 'm a popper, he 's a popper... '' Wreck - Gar parodied the slogan in The Return of Optimus Prime.
After appearing in a series of commercials, David Naughton had his breakthrough film role as the main character in the John Landis film An American Werewolf in London. Another famous "I 'm a Pepper '' dancer was Ray Bolger, the actor who played the Scarecrow in the film The Wizard of Oz.
In the early 1960s, Dr Pepper promoted the idea of serving the drink hot with lemon slices in winter. This idea appeared in the film Blast from the Past initially set in the early 1960s.
In 1978, Jake Holmes wrote the lyrics to "Be a Pepper ''. Earlier in the 1970s, Randy Newman wrote another jingle entitled "The Most Original Soft Drink Ever ''. Barry Manilow performed Holmes 's jingle in concerts and on albums under the inclusion of "VSM -- Very Strange Medley ''. A TV commercial was also created using the jingle and ran from 1977 to 1985. The song noted "It 's not a cola, it 's something much much more. It 's not a root beer, you get root beer by the score. '' (W.W. Clements, former CEO and president of the Dr Pepper / 7 - Up Company, similarly described the taste of Dr Pepper as one - of - a-kind, saying, "I 've always maintained you can not tell anyone what Dr Pepper tastes like because it 's so different. It 's not an apple, it 's not an orange, it 's not a strawberry, it 's not a root beer, it 's not even a cola. It 's a different kind of drink with a unique taste all its own. '')
Dr Pepper has also been featured outside the "I 'm a Pepper '' motif. An example is in the video game Pikmin 2, where one of the collectible treasures is a Dr Pepper bottle cap (it is labeled as the "Drought Ender ''). Also, an empty Dr Pepper bottle is featured in the book Ragweed by Newbery Medal - winning author Avi; the book 's illustrator, Brian Floca, is the son of a Dr Pepper bottler. Several of the classic non - "I 'm a Pepper '' commercials featured prominent movie stars, one being a television advertisement with Chris Rock as a child enjoying a Dr Pepper.
The 1980s "Out of the Ordinary '' advertising campaign involved a series of postapocalyptic commercials featuring a space cowboy and an alien sidekick seeking "something different '' from a simple generic cola. The campaign also produced commercials featuring the movie creature Godzilla, where citizens of a Japanese town offered Dr Pepper as a libation. The commercials were prominently featured during the 1986 syndication of The Canned Film Festival, which was sponsored by the Dr Pepper Company.
Outside the United States, Squeeze 's Glenn Tilbrook and Chris Difford played for a Dr Pepper advert in the UK with the slogan, "Hold out for the out of the ordinary. ''
Dr Pepper 's "Be You '' advertising campaign centered on commercials featuring pairs of popular musicians, including LeAnn Rimes with Reba McEntire, Paulina Rubio with Celia Cruz, Thalía with Tito Puente, B2K with Smokey Robinson, Anastacia with Cyndi Lauper, Patricia Manterola with Ana Gabriel, and LL Cool J with Run - D.M.C. The campaign also featured individual musicians, notably Garth Brooks.
Dr Pepper made several appearances in the 1994 Robert Zemeckis major motion picture Forrest Gump, as it was the beverage of choice for the movie 's namesake lead character, played by Tom Hanks. In one of the film 's Dr Pepper scenes, Forrest 's narrative suggests, "The best part about goin ' to the White House was, they had all the food and drink that you wanted... I must have had me 15 Dr Peppers. '' When subsequently asked by the President how he felt, Forrest gave an honest answer of "I got ta pee. '' Although, arguably the film 's largest product placement installation, the depiction of Dr Pepper was perhaps not always accurate as, in another scene during the 1972 New Year 's Eve celebration which Forrest attends, he drinks a Dr Pepper with a logo that was inconsistent with the timeline of the film.
In Australia, a report on the soft drink industry by IBIS accused Cadbury Schweppes of failing in their marketing of the brand, given its global appeal. One potential problem with the marketing campaign was in advertising it as "American ''. The use of the Statue of Liberty moving to Australia and passing cans of Dr Pepper on to two Australian males made its imported (i.e. "non-Australian '') status clear.
After withdrawing from the Australian market, Dr Pepper arrived without fanfare in New Zealand. Cans imported from the US are available in some specialty stores in New Zealand and Australia.
On the December 20, 2000, episode of the Late Show with David Letterman, Letterman jokingly referred to Dr Pepper as "liquid manure ''. After a representative of Dr Pepper complained, CBS agreed not to rerun that episode. Letterman repeatedly made assurances on the show that he was joking.
From 2001 to 2003, Diet Dr Pepper aired ads that promise authentic Dr Pepper taste, using the slogan "Diet Dr Pepper tastes more like regular Dr Pepper '', parodying new ideas inferior to the originals, including XGA (not PGA) Extreme Golf, Green Bay Watch (spoof of Baywatch) and a TV show CHimPs (rather than CHiPs). These ads were produced by They Might Be Giants.
Several ads for Diet Cherry Vanilla Dr Pepper appeared on television in 2005. In one, a young woman on a blind date at a restaurant, who sips into the beverage, suddenly makes her date, restaurant patrons, and even a waitress all part of a musical sequence involving The Muppets version of the song "Mah Nà Mah Nà ''.
One campaign features the Queen song "I Want It All ''.
On January 1, 2008, the company unveiled a new TV ad campaign featuring the Cheers theme song ("Where Everybody Knows Your Name '') performed by Gary Portnoy.
In a 2008 ad, a student in a college lecture takes a sip of Dr Pepper. When he stops drinking, the Dr Pepper can sings variations of "Flava Licious '' (Flavor Flav), and other people in the room start dancing.
In 2008, Dr Pepper in the UK restarted launching its old adverts and slogan, "What 's the worst that can happen? '' They also started an on - pack promotion for free ringtones with up to 20 to collect. A commercial for this included Jesse Eisenberg being forced to be on live TV without his clothes on.
As of 2009, the slogan of the product was "Drink it slow. Doctor 's orders ''. Advertising supporting the slogan has celebrities with famous relations to the word "doctor '' (Dr. Dre, Julius "Dr. J '' Erving, Gene Simmons (writer of the Kiss song "Calling Dr. Love ''), et al.) or who played fictional doctors (such as Neil Patrick Harris or Kelsey Grammer) endorsing the beverage. The ads culminate with the celebrity stating, "Trust me. I 'm a doctor '', followed by the new slogan appearing onscreen with a glass of Dr Pepper.
In 2010, Dr Pepper was part of a marketing and promotional campaign with Marvel Studios to promote the summer blockbuster Iron Man 2; characters from the film adorned cans of Dr Pepper, Diet Dr Pepper, and Dr Pepper Cherry.
In 2011, rapper Pitbull appeared in a commercial with the slogan "Let 's have a real good time. ''
Also in 2011, Dr Pepper was featured in the anime Steins; Gate as Dk Pepper for copyright issues.
In 1963, singer Donna Loren became a spokesperson for the company when she was selected in a nationwide search to be the "Dr Pepper Girl ''. National exposure followed for Loren as she promoted the drink via radio, print, television, calendars, billboards, and personal appearances. One of her first appearances for the company was as co-host with Dick Clark (whom she worked with regularly) of an ABC television special, Dr Pepper Celebrity Party. She subsequently made hundreds of singing and personal appearances for Dr Pepper. In Dr Pepper -- King of Beverages, Dr Pepper historian Harry E. Ellis wrote, "Sparkly, vivacious and gifted with a wonderful voice, Donna was an immediate success. She became widely known in a short period as "The Dr Pepper Girl, '' appearing at special events and on programs sponsored by the Company. Miss Loren would figure prominently in Dr Pepper 's plans for some five years, not only as an entertainer but doing commercials for radio and TV and appearing in many forms of advertising. She appeared on 24 - sheet poster boards, point - of - sale and on Dr Pepper calendars. ''
Donna Loren 's role as Dr Pepper spokesperson led to her first appearance in the American International Pictures ' Beach Party film Muscle Beach Party. Loren later explained: "Dr Pepper was involved in that (the Beach Party movies) and actually placed me as product placement. And because I could sing, they gave me a duet with Dick Dale, and then it just went on from there. '' From this, she went on to appear in three more Beach Party films. Away from the company, Loren was a familiar presence in the 1960s due to her many performances on television, films, and her records for Capitol, Reprise and other labels. She represented Dr Pepper until 1968.
On March 26, 2008, various media outlets reported that Dr Pepper would offer "a free can of Dr Pepper to everyone in America '' -- excluding former Guns N ' Roses guitarists Buckethead and Slash -- if the band released the long - awaited Chinese Democracy in 2008. Later in the day, lead vocalist Axl Rose replied to Dr Pepper on Guns N ' Roses ' official website and spoke of his surprise at Dr Pepper 's support. Rose also said he would share his Dr Pepper with Buckethead as "some of Buckethead 's performances are on Chinese Democracy ''. After it was announced that the album would be released in 2008, Dr Pepper stated that it would uphold its pledge.
Dr Pepper 's online distribution of free coupons upon the album 's release November 23, 2008, proved inadequate. Lawyers for the band threatened Dr Pepper 's parent company with a lawsuit two days after the album 's release. In a letter to Dr Pepper, Rose 's lawyer Alan Gutman said, "The redemption scheme your company clumsily implemented for this offer was an unmitigated disaster which defrauded consumers and, in the eyes of vocal fans, ruined Chinese Democracy 's release. '' Rose 's lawyer also demanded that the company make a full - page apology that would appear in The Wall Street Journal, USA Today, The New York Times and The Los Angeles Times. In a later interview, Rose claimed he told his lawyers it was a non-issue and was surprised by their actions.
The Dr Pepper Museum, located in the Artesian Manufacturing and Bottling Company building at 300 South Fifth Street in downtown Waco, Texas, opened to the public in 1991. The building was the first building to be built specifically to bottle Dr Pepper. It was completed in 1906, and Dr Pepper was bottled there until the 1960s. The museum has three floors of exhibits, a working old - fashioned soda fountain, and a gift store of Dr Pepper memorabilia.
The museum founder, Wilton Lanning, died in January 2018.
The company sells more Dr Pepper in the Roanoke Valley area of Virginia than any other metropolitan area east of the Mississippi River. Roanoke is approximately 90 miles east of the hometown of Dr. Charles T. Pepper, which is Rural Retreat, Virginia, and 30 miles east of Christiansburg, Virginia, home of Dr. Pepper and Morrison referred to in the census information above. John William "Bill '' Davis opened the first Dr. Pepper plant east of the Mississippi in Roanoke in 1936; subsequently the city was named the "Dr Pepper Capital of the World '' and broke world records for its mass consumption of Dr Pepper in the late 1950s. Dr Pepper donated a portion of its sales revenue in the Roanoke area to finance restoration of a circa - 1950s neon Dr Pepper sign, which has the company 's "10 -- 2 -- 4 '' logo from the time, in downtown Roanoke. In October 2015, the city of Roanoke declared October 24 (10 - 2 - 4) to be its official Dr. Pepper Day.
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when does the next the flash episode come out | List of the Flash episodes - wikipedia
The Flash is an American action television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, and Geoff Johns, airing on The CW. It is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, a costumed crimefighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds. It is a spin - off from Arrow, existing in the same fictional universe. The series follows Barry Allen, portrayed by Grant Gustin, a crime scene investigator who gains superhuman speed, which he uses to fight criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities.
As of May 22, 2018, 92 episodes of The Flash have aired, concluding the fourth season. On April 2, 2018, the series was renewed for a fifth season by the CW.
Eddie proposes a task force to hunt down the Flash. A new metahuman, Roy Bivolo, shows up with the ability to send people into an uncontrollable rage, and uses his ability to rob a bank. Oliver Queen informs Barry that he and his team are tracking a killer who uses lethal boomerangs. Barry and Oliver agree to team - up and catch each other 's targets. Barry decides to go after Bivolo by himself. Bivolo uses his abilities on Barry; but because of Barry 's powers it makes the effects last longer. Oliver tries to stop Barry, and the two engage in a fight until Wells and Joe use colored strobe light to reset Barry 's emotional state. Afterward, Barry and Oliver capture Bivolo and place him in the prison at S.T.A.R. Labs. Eddie 's task force is established after he was beaten by an enraged Flash. Barry confirms Oliver 's belief that he has a lot to learn. Oliver advises him to stay away from Iris, whom Barry is in love with. Iris decides to end her support of the Flash. Oliver asks Barry 's team to keep his alter ego a secret. A new metahuman able to manipulate fire appears in Central City.
Vandal Savage arrives in Central City, seeking to kill Kendra. Barry goes to Star City and enlists the help of Oliver and his team to protect her. The team is visited by Malcolm who informs them that Savage is an immortal. Later, Kendra is kidnapped by Hawkman, but Barry and Oliver rescue her and capture Hawkman, who introducing himself as Carter Hall, tells them he and Kendra are soulmates who have been connected for millennia. The pair are destined to die, be reborn, and find each other in each lifetime. Carter also reveals that Savage has killed the pair several times, each time growing stronger. Savage acquires the Staff of Horus, a deadly weapon. Kendra unlocks her abilities and the team decides to regroup in Central City, where Oliver witnesses Samantha Clayton with her son, who is also his. Meanwhile, Caitlin and Harry create a serum that will temporarily increase Barry 's speed so that he can defeat Zoom. Jay initially refuses to test the serum, but changes his mind to save Harry when the latter is shot by an unaware Patty, whom Joe later informs about the truth. However, Jay advises against using the serum on Barry.
Barry investigates a meteor crash outside Central City that turns out to be a spaceship from which aliens emerge. Lyla tells the team that the "Dominators '' landed previously in the 1950s, but then mysteriously departed. Needing help, Barry assembles the original Team Arrow, Thea, the Legends, and Supergirl. The team begins training at a S.T.A.R. Labs facility, sparring against Supergirl to prepare for combat against the aliens. Cisco reveals a message to Rip Hunter from Barry 's future self, which exposes Barry 's manipulation of the timeline and how it affected other team members. Oliver, Supergirl, Felicity, Martin, and Jefferson are left as the only ones who still trust Barry. The Dominators abduct the President. Supergirl leads most of the others in a rescue effort, but the Dominators kill the President and ensnare everyone with a mind control device. The controlled heroes return and attack S.T.A.R. Labs. While Oliver holds them off, Barry lures Supergirl to the device and manipulates her into destroying it, freeing everyone. The team decides to trust Barry again. Suddenly, Sara, Ray, Diggle, Thea, and Oliver are teleported away before Barry can intervene.
J'onn J'onzz and Mon - El arrive on Earth - 1 with a comatose Kara. The Music Meister attacks and places Barry in a similar coma. He wakes up in a musical world and finds Kara. Meister tells them that if they follow the script, they will return to the real world. Barry and Kara are forced to work as singers in a nightclub run by Malcolm, with Winn working as a piano player, Cisco as a waiter and Stein and Joe as two gangsters opposing Malcolm. Barry and Kara find Malcolm 's son, Mon - El, and Stein 's and Joe 's daughter, Iris, in a forbidden relationship. Kara and Barry convince the pair to reveal their love, also helping Barry and Kara to realize their own mistakes. Malcolm, Stein and Joe subsequently decide to go to war. Barry and Kara are shot in the crossfire, but the real Cisco, Mon - El and Iris vibe into their world to save them, allowing Barry and Kara to admit their loves for Iris and Mon - El. They wake up in S.T.A.R. Labs, and Meister reveals that he just wanted them to realize their love. Kara 's team returns to Earth - 38, and Barry and Iris move back in together. Barry re-proposes to Iris, who accepts.
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in which game if you pass forward it is considered a foul | Forward pass - wikipedia
In several forms of football a forward pass is a throwing of the ball in the direction that the offensive team is trying to move, towards the defensive team 's goal line. The forward pass is one of the main distinguishers between gridiron football (American football and Canadian football) in which the play is legal and widespread, and rugby football (union and league) from which the North American games evolved, in which the play is illegal.
In some football codes, such as association football (soccer), the kicked forward pass is used so ubiquitously that it is not thought of as a distinct kind of play at all. In these sports, the concept of offside is used to regulate who can be in front of the play or be nearest to the goal. However, this has not always been the case. Some earlier incarnations of football allowed unlimited forward passing, while others had strict offside rules similar to rugby.
The development of the forward pass in American football shows how the game has evolved from its rugby roots into the distinctive game it is today. Illegal and experimental forward passes had been attempted as early as 1876, but the first legal forward pass in American football took place in 1906, after a change in rules. Another change in rules occurred on January 18, 1951, which established that no center, tackle, or guard could receive a forward pass. Today, the only linemen who can receive a forward pass are the ends. Current rules regulate who may throw and who may receive a forward pass, and under what circumstances, as well as how the defensive team may try to prevent a pass from being completed. The primary pass thrower is the quarterback, and statistical analysis is used to determine a quarterback 's success rate at passing in various situations, as well as a team 's overall success at the "passing game. ''
In American and Canadian football, a forward pass, usually referred to simply as a pass, consists of a player throwing the football towards the opponent 's goal line. This is permitted only once during a scrimmage down by the offensive team before team possession has changed, provided the pass is thrown from in or behind the neutral zone. An illegal forward pass can incur a yardage penalty and the loss of a down, although it may be legally intercepted by the opponents and advanced.
If an eligible receiver on the passing team legally catches the ball, the pass is completed and the receiver may attempt to advance the ball. If an opposing player legally catches the ball (all defensive players are eligible receivers) it is an interception. That player 's team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his opponent 's goal. If no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an incomplete pass and the ball becomes dead the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down. If any player interferes with an eligible receiver 's ability to catch the ball it is pass interference which draws a penalty of varying degree (largely depending upon the particular league 's rules).
The person passing the ball must be a member of the offensive team, and the recipient of the forward pass must be an eligible receiver and must touch the passed ball before any ineligible player.
The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game. The pass begins the moment the passer 's arm begins to move forward. If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a fumble and therefore a loose ball. In this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground. If the passer drops the ball while his arm is moving forward it is a forward pass, regardless of where the ball lands or is first touched.
The quarterback generally either starts a few paces behind the line of scrimmage or drops back a few paces after the ball is snapped. This places him in an area called the "pocket '', which is a protective region formed by the offensive blockers up front and between the tackles on each side. A quarterback who runs out of this pocket is said to be scrambling. Under NFL and NCAA rules, once the quarterback moves out of the pocket the ball may be legally thrown away to prevent a sack. NFHS (high school) rules do not allow for a passer to intentionally throw an incomplete forward pass to save loss of yardage or conserve time, except for a spike to conserve time after a hand - to - hand snap. If he throws the ball away while still in the pocket then a foul called "intentional grounding '' is assessed. In Canadian football the passer must simply throw the ball across the line of scrimmage -- whether he is inside or outside of the "pocket '' -- to avoid the foul of "intentionally grounding ''.
If a forward pass is caught near a sideline or endline it is a complete pass (or an interception) only if a receiver catches the ball in bounds. For a pass to be ruled complete in - bounds, depending on the rules either one or two feet must touch the ground within the field boundaries, after the ball is first grasped. In the NFL the receiver must touch the ground with both feet, but in most other codes -- CFL, NCAA and high school -- one foot in bounds is enough.
Common to all gridiron codes is the notion of control -- a receiver must demonstrate control of the ball in order to be ruled in possession of it, while still in bounds, as defined by his code. If the receiver handles the ball but the official determines that he was still "bobbling '' it prior to the end of the play, then the pass will be ruled incomplete.
The forward pass had been attempted at least 30 years before the play was actually made legal. Passes "had been carried out successfully but illegally several times, including the 1876 Yale -- Princeton game in which Yale 's Walter Camp threw forward to teammate Oliver Thompson as he was being tackled. Princeton 's protest, one account said, went for naught when the referee ' tossed a coin to make his decision and allowed the touchdown to stand ' ".
The University of North Carolina used the forward pass in an 1895 game against the University of Georgia. However, the play was still illegal at the time. Bob Quincy stakes Carolina 's claim in his 1973 book They Made the Bell Tower Chime:
John Heisman, namesake of the Heisman Trophy, wrote 30 years later that, indeed, the Tar Heels had given birth to the forward pass against the Bulldogs (UGA). It was conceived to break a scoreless deadlock and give UNC a 6 -- 0 win. The Carolinians were in a punting situation and a Georgia rush seemed destined to block the ball. The punter, with an impromptu dash to his right, tossed the ball and it was caught by George Stephens, who ran 70 yards for a touchdown.
In a 1905 experimental game at Wichita, Kansas, Washburn University and Fairmount College (what would become Wichita State) used the pass before new rules allowing the play were approved in early 1906. Credit for the first pass goes to Fairmount 's Bill Davis, who completed a pass to Art Solter.
1905 had been a bloody year on the gridiron; the Chicago Tribune reported 18 players had been killed and 159 seriously injured that season. There were moves to outlaw the game, but United States President Theodore Roosevelt personally intervened and demanded that the rules of the game be reformed. In a meeting of more than 60 schools in late 1905, the commitment was made to make the game safer. This meeting was the first step toward the establishment of what would become the NCAA and was followed by several sessions to work out "the new rules. ''
The final meeting of the Rules Committee tasked with reshaping the game was held on April 6, 1906, at which time the forward pass officially became a legal play. The New York Times reported in September 1906 on the rationale for the changes: "The main efforts of the football reformers have been to ' open up the game ' -- that is to provide for the natural elimination of the so - called mass plays and bring about a game in which speed and real skill shall supersede so far as possible mere brute strength and force of weight. '' However, the Times also reflected widespread skepticism as to whether the forward pass could be effectively integrated into the game: "There has been no team that has proved that the forward pass is anything but a doubtful, dangerous play to be used only in the last extremity. '' John Heisman was instrumental in the rules ' acceptance. The forward pass was not allowed in Canadian football until 1929.
Most sources credit St. Louis University 's Bradbury Robinson from Bellevue, Ohio with throwing the first legal forward pass. On September 5, 1906, in a game against Carroll College, Robinson 's first attempt at a forward pass fell incomplete and resulted in a turnover under the 1906 rules. In the same game, Robinson later completed a 20 - yard touchdown pass to Jack Schneider. The 1906 St. Louis team, coached by Eddie Cochems, was undefeated at 11 -- 0 and featured the most potent offense in the country, outscoring their opponents 407 -- 11. Football authority and College Football Hall of Fame coach David M. Nelson wrote that "E.B. Cochems is to forward passing what the Wright brothers are to aviation and Thomas Edison is to the electric light. ''
While St. Louis University completed the first legal forward pass in the first half of September, this accomplishment was in part because most schools did not begin their football schedule until early October.
In 1952, football coaching legend Amos Alonzo Stagg discounted accounts crediting any particular coach with being the innovator of the forward pass. Stagg noted that he had Walter Eckersall working on pass plays and saw Pomeroy Sinnock of Illinois throw many passes in 1906. Stagg summed up his view as follows: "I have seen statements giving credit to certain people originating the forward pass. The fact is that all coaches were working on it. The first season, 1906, I personally had sixty - four different forward pass patterns. '' In 1954, Stagg disputed Cochems ' claim to have invented the forward pass:
"Eddie Cochems, who coached at St. Louis University in 1906, also claimed to have invented the pass as we know it today... It is n't so, because after the forward pass was legalized in 1906, most of the schools commenced experimenting with it and nearly all used. ''
Stagg asserted that, as far back as 1894, before the rules committee even considered the forward pass, one of his players used to throw the ball "like a baseball pitcher. ''
On the other hand, Hall of Fame coach Gus Dorais told the United Press that "Eddie Cochems of the St. Louis University team of 1906 -- 07 -- 08 deserves the full credit. '' Writing in Collier 's more than 20 years earlier, Dorais ' Notre Dame teammate Knute Rockne acknowledged Cochems as the early leader in the use of the pass, observing, "One would have thought that so effective a play would have been instantly copied and become the vogue. The East, however, had not learned much or cared much about Midwest and Western football. Indeed, the East scarcely realized that football existed beyond the Alleghanies... ''
In his history of the game, historian David Nelson concluded that the first forward passes were thrown on Christmas Day 1905 in a match between two small colleges in Kansas: "Although Cochems was the premier passing coach during the first year of the rule, the first forward passes were thrown at the end of the 1905 season in a game between Fairmount and Washburn colleges in Kansas. '' According to Nelson, Washburn completed three passes, and Fairmount completed two.
Once the 1906 season got underway, many programs began experimenting with the forward pass. On September 26, 1906, Villanova 's game against the Carlisle Indians was billed as "the first real game of football under the new rules. '' In the first play from scrimmage after the opening kicks, Villanova completed a pass that "succeeded in gaining ten yards. '' Following the Villanova - Carlisle game, The New York Times described the new passing game this way:
"The passing was more of the character of that familiar in basket ball than that which has hitherto characterized football. Apparently it is the intention of football coaches to try repeatedly these frequent long and risky passes. Well executed they are undoubtedly highly spectacular, but the risk of dropping the ball is so great as to make the practice extremely hazardous and its desirability doubtful. ''
Another coach sometimes credited with popularizing the overhead spiral pass in 1906 is former Princeton All - American "Bosey '' Reiter. Reiter claimed to have invented the overhead spiral pass while playing professional football as a player - coach for Connie Mack 's Philadelphia Athletics of the original National Football League (1902). While playing for the Athletics, Reiter was a teammate of Hawley Pierce, a former star for the Carlisle Indian School. Pierce, a Native American, taught Reiter to throw an underhand spiral pass, but Reiter had short arms and was unable to throw for distance from an underhand delivery. Accordingly, Reiter began working on an overhand spiral pass. Reiter recalled trying to imitate the motion of a baseball catcher throwing to second base. After practice and experimentation, Reiter "discovered he could get greater distance and accuracy throwing that way. '' In 1906, Reiter was the head coach at Wesleyan University. In the opening game of the 1906 season against Yale, Reiter 's quarterback Sammy Moore completed a forward pass to Irvin van Tassell for a thirty - yard gain. The New York Times called it "the prettiest play of the day '', as Wesleyan 's quarterback "deftly passed the ball past the whole Yale team to his mate Van Tassel. '' Van Tassel later described the historic play to the United Press:
"I was the right halfback, and on this formation played one yard back of our right tackle. The quarterback, Sam Moore, took the ball from center and faded eight or 10 yards back of our line. Our two ends angled down the field toward the sidelines as a decoy, and I slipped through the strong side of our line straight down the center and past the secondary defense. The pass worked perfectly. However, the quarterback coming up fast nailed me as I caught it. This brought the ball well into Yale territory, about the 20 - yard line. ''
The football season opened for most schools during the first week of October, and the impact of the forward pass was immediate:
Some publications credit Yale All - American Paul Veeder with the "first forward pass in a major game. '' Veeder threw a 20 to 30 - yard completion in leading Yale past Harvard 6 -- 0 before 32,000 fans in New Haven on November 24, 1906. However, that Yale / Harvard game was played three weeks after St. Louis completed 45 and 48 - yard passes against Kansas before a crowd of 7,000 at Sportsman 's Park.
The forward pass was a central feature of Cochems ' offensive scheme in 1906 as his St. Louis University team compiled an undefeated 11 -- 0 season in which they outscored opponents by a combined score 407 to 11. The highlight of the campaign was St. Louis ' 39 -- 0 win over Iowa. Cochems ' team reportedly completed eight passes in ten attempts for four touchdowns. "The average flight distance of the passes was twenty yards. '' Nelson continues, "the last play demonstrated the dramatic effect that the forward pass was having on football. St. Louis was on Iowa 's thirty - five - yard line with a few seconds to play. Timekeeper Walter McCormack walked onto the field to end the game when the ball was thrown twenty - five yards and caught on the dead run for a touchdown. ''
The 1906 Iowa game was refereed by one of the top football officials in the country, West Point 's Lt. Horatio B. "Stuffy '' Hackett. He had officiated games involving the top Eastern powers that year. Hackett, who would become a member of the football rules committee in December 1907 and officiated games into the 1930s, was quoted the next day in Ed Wray 's Globe - Democrat article: "It was the most perfect exhibition... of the new rules... that I have seen all season and much better than that of Yale and Harvard. St. Louis ' style of pass differs entirely from that in use in the east... The St. Louis university players shoot the ball hard and accurately to the man who is to receive it... The fast throw by St. Louis enables the receiving player to dodge the opposing players, and it struck me as being all but perfect. ''
Hackett is the only known expert witness to the passing offenses of both Cochems ' 1906 squads and that of Stagg, who dismissed any special role for the St. Louis coach in the development of the pass. Hackett was an official in games involving both teams. As Wray recalled almost 40 years later: "Hackett told this writer that in no other game that he handled had he seen the forward pass as used by St. Louis U. nor such bewildering variations of it. ''
"Cochems said that the poor Iowa showing resulted from its use of the old style play and its failure to effectively use the forward pass '', Nelson writes. "Iowa did attempt two basketball - style forward passes. ''
"During the 1906 season (Robinson) threw a sixty - seven yard pass... and... Schneider tossed a sixty - five yarder. Considering the size, shape and weight of the ball, these were extraordinary passes. ''
In 1907, after the first season of the forward pass, one football writer noted that, "with the single exception of Cochems, football teachers were groping in the dark. ''
Because St. Louis was geographically isolated from both the dominating teams and the major sports media (newspapers) of the era... all centered in and focused on the East... Cochems ' groundbreaking offensive strategy was not picked up by the major teams. Pass - oriented offenses would not be adopted by the Eastern football powers until the next decade.
But that does not mean that other teams in the Midwest did not pick it up. Arthur Schabinger, quarterback for the College of Emporia in Kansas, was reported to have regularly used the forward pass in 1910. Coach H.W. "Bill '' Hargiss ' "Presbies '' are said to have featured the play in a 17 -- 0 victory over Washburn University and in a 107 -- 0 destruction of Pittsburg State University. Coach Pop Warner at Carlisle had quarterback Frank Mount Pleasant, one of the first regular spiral pass quarterbacks in football.
Knute Rockne and Gus Dorais worked on the pass while lifeguarding on a Lake Erie beach at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, during the summer of 1913. That year, Jesse Harper, Notre Dame head coach, also showed how the pass could be used by a smaller team to beat a bigger one, first utilizing it to defeat rival Army. After it was used against a major school on a national stage in this game, the forward pass rapidly gained popularity.
The 1919 and 1920 Notre Dame teams had George Gipp, an ideal handler of the forward pass, who threw for 1,789 yards.
John Mohardt led the 1921 Notre Dame team to a 10 - 1 record with 781 rushing yards, 995 passing yards, 12 rushing touchdowns, and nine passing touchdowns. Grantland Rice wrote that "Mohardt could throw the ball to within a foot or two of any given space '' and noted that the 1921 team was the first at Notre Dame "to build its attack around a forward passing game, rather than use a forward passing game as a mere aid to the running game. '' Mohardt had both Eddie Anderson and Roger Kiley at end to receive his passes.
From 1915 -- 1916, Pudge Wyman and end Bert Baston of Minnesota were "one of the greatest forward - passing combinations in the history of the gridiron. ''
In the 1921 Rose Bowl, California 's Brick Muller completed a touchdown against Washington & Jefferson which went 53 yards in the air, a feat previously thought impossible.
In a 1925, 62 -- 13 victory over Cornell, Dartmouth 's Andy Oberlander had 477 yards in total offense, including six touchdown passes, a Dartmouth record which still stands. He was responsible for some 500 yards of total offense. Cornell coach Gil Dobie responded "We won the game 13 -- 0, passing is not football. ''
The 1925 Michigan team was coach Fielding H. Yost 's favorite and featured the passing tandem of Benny Friedman and Bennie Oosterbaan.
Yost disciple Dan McGugin coached Vanderbilt and was one of the first emphasize the forward pass. His 1907 team beat Sewanee on a double pass play Grantland Rice cited as his biggest thrill in his years of watching sports. McGugin 's 1927 team was piloted by Bill Spears, who threw for over a thousand yards. According to one writer, Vanderbilt produced "almost certainly the legit top Heisman candidate in Spears, if there had been a Heisman Trophy to award in 1927. '' McGugin disciple and former quarterback Ray Morrison brought the pass to the southwest when he coached Gerald Mann at Southern Methodist.
The first forward pass in a professional football game may have been thrown in an Ohio League game played on October 25, 1906. The Ohio League, which traced its history to the 1890s, was a direct predecessor of today 's NFL. According to Robert W. Peterson in his book Pigskin The Early Years of Pro Football, the "passer was George W. (Peggy) Parratt, probably the best quarterback of the era '', who played for the Massillon, Ohio Tigers, one of pro football 's first franchises. Citing the Professional Football Researchers Association as his source, Peterson writes that "Parratt completed a short pass to end Dan Riley (real name, Dan Policowski) '' in a game played at Massillon against a team from West Virginia. Since the Tigers "ran up a 61 to 0 score on the hapless Mountain Staters, the pass played no important part in the result. ''
According to National Football League history, it legalized the forward pass from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage on February 25, 1933. Before that rule change, a forward pass had to be made from 5 or more yards behind the line of scrimmage.
Forward passes were first permitted in Canadian football in 1929, but the tactic remained a minor part of the game for several years. Jack Jacobs of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers is recognized, not for inventing the forward pass, but for popularizing it in the Western Interprovincial Football Union, thus changing the Canadian game from a more run - dominated game to the passing game as seen today.
Specification of the size of the ball for the American game came in 1912, but it was still essentially a rugby ball. Increased use of the forward pass encouraged adoption of a narrower ball, starting with changes in the 1920s which enhanced rifled throwing and also spiral punting. This had the consequence of all but eliminating the drop kick from the American game.
In the two codes of rugby (union and league), a forward pass is against the rules. Normally this results in a scrum to the opposing team, but on rare occasions a penalty may be awarded if the referee is of the belief that the ball was deliberately thrown forward.
In both codes of rugby the direction of the pass is relative to the player making the pass and not to the actual path relative to the ground. A forward pass occurs when the player passes the ball forward in relation to himself. (This applies only to the movement of the player, not to the direction in which he or she is facing, i.e. if the player is facing backwards and passes in front of him, it is not forward; and conversely, if he passes behind him, it is forward as he is passing toward the opponent 's goal area.) In rugby league, the video referee may not make judgements on whether a pass is forward.
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where was the movie before the fall filmed | Before I Fall (film) - wikipedia
Before I Fall is a 2017 American teen drama film directed by Ry Russo - Young and written by Maria Maggenti, based on the 2010 novel of same name by Lauren Oliver. The film stars Zoey Deutch, Halston Sage, Logan Miller, Kian Lawley, Jennifer Beals, Diego Boneta and Elena Kampouris.
The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2017, and was theatrically released on March 3, 2017, by Open Road Films. The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $16 million worldwide against its $5 million budget. According to IndieWire, it was one of the highest grossing independent films of 2017.
Samantha Kingston wakes on February 12, known as Cupid 's Day. She is picked up by her friends, Lindsay, Ally and Elody, who joke with her about losing her virginity to her boyfriend Rob that night. During class, when her teacher is lecturing on Sisyphus, Sam is handed a rose, gifted from her boyfriend with a nonchalant note. She is also given a pale colored rose with a note suggesting it is from another boy named Kent. He later invites her to his party. During lunch the girls make fun of Juliet, an outsider girl that they view as a "psycho ''. At the party, Juliet shows up, seemingly uninvited. Lindsay confronts her and the two fight, with Juliet leaving in tears. As they are driving back from the party, the car hits something and crashes, apparently killing Sam and her friends.
Sam wakes in her room on Cupid 's Day again. Thinking the previous day was just a nightmare, Sam continues on with her day but finds that the same events occur, and they again crash after leaving the party. Sam wakes up on the same day again. Realizing she is in a time - loop, she convinces the group to have a sleepover instead of going to the party, trying to avoid the crash. They avoid the crash, but find out later in the night that Juliet has killed herself. Despite avoiding the crash, Sam wakes up on the same day again. Camera effects are used to indicate that Sam has continuously experienced the same day many times and is seemingly unable to break the loop, so one morning she decides to angrily react to everyone around her, insulting her friends and family. At the party, she has sex with Rob, but appears to not enjoy the experience. She runs into Kent 's room and breaks down in tears. Kent finds and comforts her, letting her stay in his room. She asks him why he 's so nice to her and he says it 's because she was the first one to make him laugh after his father died in third grade.
In the next iteration, she skips school and spends time with her sister. At the party, Sam and Kent share a kiss. She hears the fight between Lindsay and Juliet from the hall and chases after her through the woods. Sam tries to stop Juliet, but she jumps in front of Lindsay 's car and kills herself and Sam 's friends, horrifying Sam and making her realize that Juliet was what the car hit on the original day. Sam wakes up again with a sense of calm and understanding, knowing what she must do to end the loop. She resolves to be kind and considerate as she goes about her day. She sends roses to both Juliet and Kent. She also breaks up with Rob and tells Kent that she has a "secret '' for him. At the party, she kisses Kent and tells him she loves him. She again intervenes to save Juliet, but when Juliet attempts to run into traffic, Sam pushes her out of the way at the last second and is killed by a truck. A montage of her good memories are shown. Juliet sobs to Sam 's lifeless body that she saved her, to which Sam 's voice replies, "No, you saved me. ''
On July 15, 2010, Fox 2000 Pictures bought the feature film rights to the teen novel Before I Fall, Lauren Oliver 's debut, which was published that year. Maria Maggenti was hired to adapt the novel into a screenplay, while Jonathan Shestack was set to produce and Ginny Pennekamp to co-produce. The film is about a high school student who re-lives the same day until she gets everything in her life right. In 2011, the script was listed among the Black List of best unproduced screenplays. Ry Russo - Young was attached as the film 's director. On September 15, 2015, it was announced that Zoey Deutch had been cast in the film 's lead role, Samantha Kingston. Brian Robbins and Matthew Kaplan produced the film through their Awesomeness Films, along with Shestack, with production starting in late October 2015. On October 27, 2015, more cast was announced, consisting of Halston Sage, Logan Miller, Kian Lawley, Diego Boneta, and Elena Kampouris. Good Universe handled the film 's international sales at the American Film Market. On November 3, 2015, Jennifer Beals joined the film 's cast, to play Samantha 's mother. On November 20, 2015, Liv Hewson was cast in the film to play Anna Cartullo. Adam Taylor composed the film 's score.
Principal photography on the film began on November 16, 2015, in Squamish, British Columbia, where they filmed at Quest University. Shooting also took place in and around Vancouver. Filming ended on December 19, 2015.
In May 2016, Open Road Films acquired U.S distribution rights to the film. Before I Fall had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2017. The film was originally scheduled to be released on April 7, 2017, but was moved up to March 3. It also screened in Italy at Giffoni Film Festival on July 18, 2017.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray on May 30, 2017 in the United States by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.
Before I Fall grossed $12.2 million in the United States and Canada and $3.5 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $16.1 million, against a production budget of $5 million.
In the United States and Canada, Before I Fall opened alongside The Shack and Logan, and was projected to gross around $4 million in its opening weekend. It ended up opening to $4.9 million, which Deadline.com noted, while on par with projections, was a disappointing figure. While it only carried a $5 million production cost, the estimated amount spent on advertising the film was around $20 million, meaning an opening of $13 million would have been needed to be deemed a success. In its second weekend the film grossed $3.1 million, dropping just 34 % and again finishing 6th at the box office.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 63 % based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Before I Fall 's familiar ingredients are enlivened by a fresh YA perspective and a strong performance from emerging star Zoey Deutch. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave a 72 % overall positive score.
Abbey Bender of Uproxx gave the film a generally positive review and praised Ry Russo - Young 's direction, noting: "Before I Fall ends disappointingly with a moment of sacrifice that feels too heavy handed. Along the way, though, there are plenty of scenes of compellingly lush nature and teenage girlhood. '' AllMovie gave it 2.5 stars out of 5, while Susan Wloszczyna of rogerebert.com gave it 3 out of 4.
Film earned a nomination in 2017 Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie: Drama category. Cast also earned nominations; Zoey Deutch in 2017 Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie: Drama Actress category and Kian Lawley in Choice Movie: Drama Actor category for the movie. Kian won the award for Choice Movie: Drama Actor.
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what are the parishes and capitals of jamaica | Parishes of Jamaica - Wikipedia
Administratively, Jamaica is divided into fourteen parishes. They are grouped into three historic counties, which have no administrative relevance. Every parish has a coast; none is landlocked.
The traditional county towns were Savanna - la - Mar for Cornwall County, Spanish Town for Middlesex County, and Kingston for Surrey County.
The parishes of Kingston and Saint Andrew together form the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation. The parish of Kingston does not encompass all of the city of Kingston. Most of the city is in the parish of St. Andrew.
Parishes have been a feature of local administration in Jamaica since the island was captured by the English in 1655. The number has varied over time and some no longer exist having either been absorbed into or divided between neighbouring parishes. At the peak, 1841 -- 1865, there were 22 (the current 14 plus those listed below).
The current set of parishes was established in 1866 with the elimination of the 8 listed below (roughly by county):
Surrey:
Middlesex:
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who played daddy warbucks in the original annie | Annie (1982 film) - wikipedia
Annie is a 1982 American musical film adapted from the Broadway musical of the same name by Charles Strouse, Martin Charnin, and Thomas Meehan, which in turn is based on Little Orphan Annie, the 1924 comic strip by Harold Gray. The film was directed by John Huston, scripted by Carol Sobieski, and stars Albert Finney, Carol Burnett, Ann Reinking, Tim Curry, Bernadette Peters, Geoffrey Holder, Edward Herrmann, and Aileen Quinn in her film debut. Set during the Great Depression, the film tells the story of Annie, an orphan from New York City who is taken in by America 's richest billionaire Oliver Warbucks. Filming took place for six weeks at Monmouth University in New Jersey.
The film, released on June 18, 1982, received mixed reviews from critics and was nominated for Best Production Design and Best Song Score and its Adaptation at the 55th Academy Awards.
A television film sequel, named Annie: A Royal Adventure! was released in 1995. In their first film collaboration, Disney and Columbia Pictures produced a made for television version in 1999. Columbia released a contemporary film adaptation on December 19, 2014.
In 1933, during the Great Depression, a young orphan named Annie is living in the Hudson Street Orphanage in New York City. With half of a locket as her only possession, she remains optimistic that her parents, who left her on the doorstep as a baby, will return for her. The orphanage is run by Miss Hannigan, a cruel alcoholic who forces the orphans to clean the building daily. Annie sneaks out with help from laundry man, Mr. Bundles, adopting a stray dog which she names Sandy. Annie is returned to the orphanage shortly after by a police officer.
Shortly after, Grace Farrell, secretary to billionaire Oliver Warbucks, arrives to invite an orphan to live with Warbucks for a week to improve his public image. Annie is chosen. She and Sandy travel to Warbucks ' mansion, meeting his many servants including his bodyguards Punjab and the Asp. Warbucks is at first dismissive of Annie, preferring a boy, but Annie charms him into letting her stay. He takes Annie and Grace to Radio City Music Hall to watch a film. Warbucks begins to develop affection for Annie. Grace urges him to adopt Annie and he meets with Miss Hannigan, convincing her to sign the adoption papers.
However, upon revealing his plans to Annie, even offering her a new locket, Annie declines. She explains the purpose of her broken locket, hoping her parents will return with the other half. Warbucks appears on the radio show of Bert Healy, offering $50,000 to find Annie 's parents. This causes mass hysteria with many would - be parents appearing to claim the money. To escape the madness, Warbucks flies Annie to the White House, introducing her to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his wife Eleanor. Roosevelt informs them of his plan to introduce a social welfare program to help America 's impoverished, and asks Warbucks to head it. He is encouraged by Annie to help. Upon returning home, Annie is disheartened when Grace reveals none of the potential parents knew about the locket.
Miss Hannigan is visited by her brother, Rooster, a con artist, and his girlfriend Lily St. Regis. They plot to pose as Annie 's parents to gain the reward. The trio search the orphans ' belongings. Miss Hannigan reveals Annie 's parents died, and she possesses the other half of the locket. Annie 's friends overhear the conversation and try to sneak out, but are caught and locked away. Rooster and Lily proceed with the plan, but Annie 's departure from Warbucks is sombre. Annie is kidnapped minutes after leaving. Her friends reach Warbucks, informing him of the ruse. Warbucks informs the police, who begin a city - wide search.
Annie convinces the felons to pull over, only to escape and tear apart Warbucks ' cheque. Rooster chases Annie up a bridge in an effort to kill her after Miss Hannigan fails to stop him in remorse. Punjab rescues Annie and she reunites with Warbucks and Grace. Rooster and Lily are arrested. Later, Annie is officially adopted by Warbucks, throwing a party which the orphans, a redeemed Miss Hannigan, and the Roosevelts attend. Warbucks gives Annie a new locket and she embraces her new father. The film ends with fireworks writing Annie 's name.
Several singer - actresses made their debuts in this film as Annie 's fellow orphans and principal dancers:
According to Robert Osbourne of Turner Classic Movies, Drew Barrymore had auditioned for the role of Annie while Bette Midler was an early choice for Miss Hannigan, and Jack Nicholson had been considered for the role of Daddy Warbucks.
Sean Connery and Cary Grant were also considered for the role of Daddy Warbucks.
Ray Stark wanted both John Huston and Joe Layton while working as the director and choreographer respectively, to also be executive producer on the film, because it was too large an enterprise for one person. Regarding Huston being given the job of directing the first (and what would be the only) musical in his 40 - year directing career, screenwriter Carol Sobieski said: "Hiring John (Huston) is an outsider risk, and Ray 's (Stark) a major gambler. He loves this kind of high risk situation. ''
Carol Sobieski, who wrote the screenplay, introduced major differences between the stage musical and the film version. In the stage musical, it is Christmas when Miss Hannigan, Rooster, and Lily are caught at the Warbucks mansion by the United States Secret Service, foiling their plan to kidnap Annie. But in the film, due to summertime shooting, Annie is kidnapped on the Fourth of July leading to Warbucks organizing a citywide search and a climactic ending on the B&O Bridge. Punjab and The Asp, Warbucks ' servants / bodyguards, from the original comic strip appear in the film in supporting roles.
Miss Hannigan 's redemption at the end is also a new development on the part of the movie -- in the musical, Miss Hannigan briefly baulks at Rooster 's intention to make Annie "disappear '' with his switchblade but is soon lured by his promises of a life on Easy Street. In Meehan 's 1980 novelisation, Miss Hannigan shows no qualms whatsoever about Annie being killed. In both of these media, Miss Hannigan ends up being duly arrested along with Rooster and Lily at the Warbucks mansion.
The film also featured five new songs, "Dumb Dog '', "Sandy '', "Let 's Go to the Movies '', "Sign '', and "We Got Annie '', and cut "We 'd like to Thank You, Herbert Hoover '', "N.Y.C '', "You Wo n't Be an Orphan for Long '', "Something Was Missing '', "Annie '', and "New Deal for Christmas ''. In addition, the song "Maybe '' has two reprises whereas "Little Girls '' and "Easy Street '' do not.
Martin Charnin, the lyricist of Annie, was not impressed with the cinematic interpretation. In a 1996 article, he dismissed the adaptation and its production. "The movie distorted what this musical was '', Charnin reported. "And we were culpable for the reason that we did not exercise any kind of creative control because we sold the rights for a considerable amount of money. '' Charnin even said that John Huston, who never directed a musical before, and producer Ray Stark made major changes in the film that destroyed the essence of Annie. Warbucks, played by Finney, "was an Englishman who screamed ''. Hannigan, played by Burnett, was "a man - crazy drunk ''. And Annie was "cute - ed up ''. Worse, the emotional relationship between Annie and Warbucks was distorted. They even downplayed the hit song Tomorrow because "Stark thought it was corny ''.
Principal photography took place over the course of six weeks at Monmouth University in New Jersey, which has two mansions that were used in the film, one of which is the Shadow Lawn Mansion (now known as Woodrow Wilson Hall). The NX Bridge, an abandoned railroad bridge over the Passaic River in Newark, was used for location shooting of one of the climactic scenes.
Originally, the intimate song "Easy Street '' was going to be the biggest number in the film. For this purpose, a specially - created outdoor street set was built costing more than $1 million. It took one week to shoot the scene. However, on reviewing the dailies, the scene was considered to be "overstuffed '' and "sour. '' Therefore, a re-shoot was undertaken nearly two months after principal filming had been completed. The scene was replaced with a more intimate number and was shot indoors in a style that mimicked the ambience portrayed in the original 1977 stage musical.
Annie is a soundtrack album for the 1982 film of the same name.
All lyrics written by Martin Charnin; all music composed by Charles Strouse.
Annie received mixed reviews from critics; it currently holds a 52 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 25 reviews and an average rating of 5.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "John Huston proves an odd choice to direct, miring Annie in a sluggish, stagebound mess of an adaptation, but the kids are cute and the songs are memorable. '' The film also has a score of 39 / 100 on Metacritic. Annie grossed $57 million in the United States, making it the 10th highest - grossing film of 1982.
Annie received Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction - Set Decoration and Best Music, Original Song Score and Its Adaptation or Best Adaptation Score. Additionally, Carol Burnett and Aileen Quinn each received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Motion Picture -- Comedy / Musical and New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture -- Female (Quinn). Quinn won the Young Artist Award, Best Young Motion Picture Actress. The movie was nominated for a Stinkers Bad Movie Awards for Worst Picture.
The film was released on VHS, Betamax and CED Videodisc on November 5, 1982 by RCA / Columbia Pictures Home Video. It was re-issued in 1983, 1984, 1985, 1994, and 1997 (in a "Broadway Tribute Edition '' to coincide with the original play 's Broadway 20th anniversary revival that year). There were two widescreen LaserDiscs released, one in 1989 and another in 1994. The film was released in a widescreen DVD edition on December 12, 2000.
A "Special Anniversary Edition '' DVD was released on January 13, 2004 (four days before producer Stark 's death). Despite the fact that the first DVD was widescreen, the DVD was in pan and scan (but with DTS sound). Reviewing the disc for DVD Talk, Glenn Erickson, while praising the film overall, called the pan and scan transfer an "abomination that 's grainy and lacking in color. '' He also noted that the short retrospective featurette with Ms. Quinn contained clips from the film in the correct aspect ratio. Erickson also called the music video of "It 's the Hard - Knock Life '' by Play "pretty dreary '' and attacked the other, child - oriented extras by saying "Musicals and kids ' films are n't just for tots... and this disc is little more than a headache. '' However, several countries in Region 2 received widescreen versions of this edition including the United Kingdom. The film is set for a "sing - along edition '' release on Blu - ray on October 2, 2012 in celebration of the 30th anniversary of the film and the 35th anniversary of the Broadway version set a revival in November 2012.
Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer Tom DeFalco and artists Win Mortimer and Vince Colletta in Marvel Super Special # 23 (Summer 1982). The adaptation was also available as an Annie Treasury Edition and as a limited series.
The 1993 Hindi film, King Uncle, starring Jackie Shroff, Shahrukh Khan, Anu Agarwal, and Naghma, is loosely based on this film.
A sequel, Annie: A Royal Adventure! was made for television and aired on ABC on November 18, 1995. It starred Ashley Johnson, Joan Collins, George Hearn, and Ian McDiarmid. Aside from a reprise of "Tomorrow, '' there are no songs in it. No cast members from the 1982 film appeared in this sequel. Rooster, Lily and Grace Farrell were cut out of the sequel.
In the film, Warbucks (Hearn), Annie (Johnson), an eccentric scientist (McDiarmid), and one of the orphans travel to England, where Warbucks is to be knighted by the King. However, the kids get mixed up in the scheme of an evil noblewoman (Collins) to blow up Buckingham Palace while all the heirs to the throne are present for Warbucks ' knighting, thus making her queen.
A made - for - TV movie version was broadcast on ABC on November 7, 1999, starring Kathy Bates as Miss Hannigan, Victor Garber as Daddy Warbucks, Alan Cumming as Rooster, Audra McDonald as Grace, Kristin Chenoweth as Lily, and newcomer Alicia Morton as Annie. Produced by The Walt Disney Company in association with Columbia TriStar Television, it received generally positive reviews and high ratings. It also earned two Emmy Awards and a 1999 George Foster Peabody Award. Although truer to the original stage musical than the 1982 version, it condensed much of the full story in an attempt to make it more viewable for children. The film also featured a special appearance by Andrea McArdle, star of the original Broadway production.
The film has aired on cable on Hallmark Channel, ABC Family, and Starz after its premiere on ABC.
The 1999 version is more comical than the 1982 version 's slightly darker tone.
On January 20, 2011 it was announced that Will Smith was planning to produce Annie, a remake of The 1982 film. On May 25, 2012 it was announced that Jay - Z was writing new songs for the film. In January 2013, Sony Pictures selected Will Gluck to direct the film. Oscar nominee, Quvenzhané Wallis was cast as the title character. The film was released on December 19, 2014.
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the film the tribe explores which of the following | The Tribe (2014 film) - wikipedia
The Tribe (Ukrainian: Плем'я, Plemya) is a 2014 Ukrainian drama film written and directed by Myroslav Slaboshpytskiy. Starring Hryhoriy Fesenko, Yana Novikova and Roza Babiy, the film is set in a boarding school for deaf teenage students, where a novice scholar is drawn into an institutional system of organized crime, involving robbery and prostitution. He crosses a dangerous line when he falls for one of the girls to whom he 's assigned to pimp. The film is entirely in Ukrainian Sign Language with no subtitles. It won the Nespresso Grand Prize, as well as the France 4 Visionary Award and the Gan Foundation Support for Distribution Award at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival 's International Critics ' Week section.
Harmata Film Production with the support of Hubert Bals Fund, Ukrainian State Film Agency, Rinat Akhmetov Foundation For Development of Ukraine co-financed the film. Cinematographer and editor Valentyn Vasyanovych shot the film in 1: 2.39 aspect ratio and on 35mm film. Filming commenced in early 2013 in Kyiv.
The Tribe was widely admired and considered a contender for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 87th Academy Awards. There was some controversy over the voting process after The Guide was nominated by Ukraine.
A teenage boy, Sergey, arrives at a boarding school for the deaf. There he tries to find his place in the hierarchy of the academic community, which operates like a Gang ruled by the King of the group. Their squad participates in acts of violence, robbery, sex and prostitution. When one of the boys who helps in pimping two girls from the school gets crushed by a truck, Sergey takes his place. Soon however, he falls in love with one of the girls, Anna, whom he impregnates. Sergey finds a purse on a train which he steals, giving the money to Anna for a makeshift abortion. Much later, Sergey follows one of the teachers home, knocks him unconscious, and robs him, giving the substantial sum to Anna and then raping her. Anna gets an abortion, and they set apart over time. One of the gangmasters prepare to send the two girls to Italy, but Sergey ruins Anna 's passport and is eventually beaten by King and his gang. Sergey later retaliates by crushing their heads with their nightstands in their sleep.
List of cast members:
The Tribe premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on 21 May 2014 in Cannes, France, where it opened in the oldest parallel section of the festival, International Critics ' Week, "blowing away '' critics and audiences alike, before screening at the Locarno International Film Festival as a special screening for the Jury on 12 August, the Sarajevo Film Festival as the part of the Kinoscope section on 19 August, opening the Toronto International Film Festival on 9 September as part of the Discovery section, the London Film Festival on 15 October, and the Denver International Film Festival on 15 November 2014.
Prior to The Tribe 's Cannes International Critics ' Week selection, Paris - based Alpha Violet, picked up the film.
CEO of Alpha Violet Virginie Devesa, stated that it was an advantage having the piece before the film 's Cannes selection, due to it allowing the company to work with the producers on the trailer and other promotional materials, with her stating, "When we first watched the film, it was such as strong emotional ' shock ' that we wanted to share these emotions and hoped for ' The Tribe ' to be in Cannes. ''
On 26 May 2014, Alpha Violet was announced as handling the international sales of The Tribe, as well as speaking to potential buyers of the piece at the Cannes Film Festival, to which sales interest were spurred on by its critical reception. Jonathan Romney of The Guardian calling the piece "the great discovery of this year 's festival. '' Eric Kohn of IndieWIRE spoke of the film as "an unprecedented cinematic accomplishment. '' Wendy Ide of The Times gave it five stars adding, "It takes a film like the Ukrainian drama ' The Tribe'to neatly encapsulate the festival 's real raison d'etre: To discover and celebrate the most exciting, daring and outstanding films made around the world. '' Karel Och of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival described it as "the cinematic event of the year. '' Devesa stated that territories such as the United States, United Kingdom and Hong Kong are being sewn up and currently under negotiation, with her stating, "This is the first time I 've had this experience as a sales agent. I hope I live it again. The film is so radical, original, that you might have expected these results, but you never know. '' Later it was announced that UFO Distribution had acquired the rights to distribute the film within France, Atsuko Murata 's Mimosa Films were confirmed to have acquired the Japanese distribution rights to The Tribe, Amstel Film picked up the distribution rights in the Netherlands and film rights in Denmark were confirmed to have been acquired by Ost For Paradis.
On 2 July 2014, Drafthouse Films acquired from Alpha Violet the distribution rights to The Tribe in the United States, with a planned 2015 theatrical release. Upon the acquisition, CEO of Drafthouse Films Tim League spoke highly of the piece and showered it with praise stating that he was witnessing "something truly special ''. Additionally he added, "Myroslav Slaboshpytskiy is a massive talent. I am confident that he will quickly become a world - renowned director, and I am excited and proud to be sharing his striking first feature with North America. '' At the news of the acquisition director Slaboshpytskiy stated, "I am very glad that my film will be released in the United States. I have always believed in the universality of film 's language, and have always believed that dialogue and subtitles change the way different audiences perceive the film in different countries. '' On 6 July 2014, it was confirmed that MCF MegaCom had bought the distribution right to ex-Yugoslavia territories, Art Fest had obtained the film rights to Bulgaria, and Film Europe Media Co had acquired the distribution rights to Czech Republic and Slovakia. The announcement that Bio Paradis had also acquired the right in Iceland marked the first time Alpha Violet has ever sold to the Icelandic territory directly. Alpha Violet was confirmed to be in negotiations for the United Kingdom, Scandinavian and Latin American territories to be collected.
On 28 October 2014, Metrodome Group had announced that it had picked up the United Kingdom rights for Slaboshpytskiy 's film, with a planned 2015 release date. Giles Edwards, Head of Acquisitions at Metrodome, commented upon the acquisition, "Audacious, uncompromising and formally breathtaking, Miroslav Shlaboshpytskiy 's shattering masterpiece takes the chilling saturnalia of the feral crime film and transposes it into an unnerving, singularly unforgettable landscape. '', himself concluding, "It heralds the arrival of the most astonishing new filmmaking talent in years. ''
Drafthouse Films has announced for plans to release The Tribe in select theatres across North America in 2015, as well as additionally on a variety of VOD platforms and digital, DVD, and Blu - ray formats. Additionally it was announced that the deal was negotiated by Alpha Violet 's Virginie Devesa and Keiko Funato, and Drafthouse Films 's James Emanuel Shapiro and Tim League.
The film appeared on several critics ' lists of the ten best films of 2014.
The Tribe received widespread critical acclaim by critics, audiences and at festivals all over the world. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 86 % of critics gave the film a "Certified Fresh '' rating, based on 92 reviews with an average score of 7.5 / 10, with the consensus "A bleak, haunting drama whose wordless dialogue speaks volumes, The Tribe is a bold, innovative take on silent films for a contemporary audience. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 78 (out of 100) based on 27 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be "generally favorable. '' It is currently one of the site 's highest - rated films as well as one of the best reviewed films presently.
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian scored the piece four out of five stars, writing, "I ca n't stop thinking about it. '' while too praising Slaboshpytskiy 's ability to "(draw) on Samuel Beckett or Peter Brook to create a universal language of anxiety. '' while concluding the sentiment, "What an intriguing film. '' Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter praised the piece, stating, "The use of sign language, deafness and silence itself adds several heady new ingredients to the base material, alchemically creating something rich, strange and very original. '' He also admired the film 's "silky smooth steadicam '' cinematography of Vasyanovych. As well as comparing the language of gestures and body posture as "akin to watching a ballet like Coppélia or The Nutcracker ''.
Justin Chang of Variety heralded the film and its director, Myroslav Slaboshpytskiy, by stating: "Actions, emotions and desperate impulses speak far louder than words in The Tribe, a formally audacious coup de cinema that marks a stunning writing - directing debut for Ukrainian filmmaker (Slaboshpytskiy). '' Chang was most praiseworthy of Vasyanovych 's cinematography, Stepanskiy 's sound design as "vividly detailed '' and described Odudenko 's production designs as "harshly lit corridors and graffiti - strewn exteriors ''. He also admired Novikova 's "fire and vulnerability '' as Anya.
Jonathan Romney of Film Comment granted the piece high acclaim, "(...) it was a thrill to discover something so bold, innovative, and downright wayward. '' Stating of the film, "(...) a magnificent example of long - take cinema ''. and calling it "an astonishing film ''. He continued by praising Slaboshpytskiy 's risky endeavour, to which he "follows through with intrepidity and absolute rigor '' as well as Vasyanovych 's "precise compositions ''. Romney further adds, "The Tribe, in short, was the most surprising, most inventive, and in many ways most disturbing film I 've seen in Cannes this year. '' He later named the film among the best movies of 2014.
Eric Kohn of indieWIRE gave the film an "A - '' rating, adding, "While the specifics remain uncertain, it 's never particularly difficult to keep up with the movie 's pace, since their actions speak plainly enough -- and sometimes add far more expressiveness than any verbal exchanges could provide. '' Praising Slaboshpytskiy and Vasyanovych 's usage of the steadicam approach, "capturing the actors ' exchanges in their full - bodied entirety ''; and Slaboshpytskiy as "brilliantly (developing) a suspenseful core through the mysteries of their conversations ''. He admired Grigory Fesenko 's "body movements '' and "precise details '' through gestures.
Fred Topel wrote, in his review for CraveOnline, "The piece de resistance is a taboo subject that unfolds in an elaborate single take. It was so harrowing I would have applauded if it would not have been completely inappropriate for the subject matter to do so. '' Topel praised the cast as "made up of non actors but you would n't suspect that '' adding, "They are full of life and energy ''
Jessica Kiang of The Playlist gave the film an "A - '' rating and wrote, "It might sound glib, but it 's the literal truth: "The Tribe '' left us speechless. ''
Electric Sheep Magazine 's Greg Klymkiw granted the film a maximum score of five stars, stating "A sad, shocking and undeniably harrowing dramatic reflection of Ukraine with the searing truthful lens of a stylistic documentary treatment (at times similar to that of Austrian auteur Ulrich Seidl) ''. He continues by commending that, "Visuals and actions are what drive the film and ultimately prove to be far more powerful than words ever could be. '' Luke Y. Thompson of Topless Robot spoke most highly of the film, declaring, "Compelling, upsetting, brutal and brilliant, The Tribe is one of the best works of cinema of the year - a familiar template recreated in what, for most, will be an entirely new world. '' Too adding, "(...) this is a movie that will and should be used in cinema schools as a master class in how film is a visual medium. ''
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galaxy quest voted 7th best star trek movie | Galaxy Quest - wikipedia
Galaxy Quest is a 1999 American comic science fiction film directed by Dean Parisot and written by David Howard and Robert Gordon. A parody of science fiction films and series, particularly Star Trek and its fandom, the film stars Tim Allen, Sigourney Weaver, Alan Rickman, Tony Shalhoub, Sam Rockwell, and Daryl Mitchell as the cast of a defunct cult television series called Galaxy Quest, in which the crew of a spaceship embarked on intergalactic adventures, who are suddenly visited by actual aliens who believe the series to be an accurate documentary, and become involved in a very real intergalactic conflict.
The film was a modest box office success and was positively received by critics: it won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation (an award previously won by the original Star Trek series in the 1960s) and the Nebula Award for Best Script, and was also nominated for ten Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film, Best Director for Parisot, Best Actress for Weaver, and Best Supporting Actor for Rickman, with Allen winning Best Actor.
Galaxy Quest went on to achieve cult status through the years, particularly from Star Trek fans for its affectionate parody, but also to more mainstream audiences as a comedy film of its own. Several former cast and crew members of Star Trek also went on to praise the film. It was included in Reader 's Digest 's list of The Top 100 + Funniest Movies of All Time in 2012, while Star Trek fans voted it the seventh best Star Trek film of all time in 2013.
In additional roles, the film features J.P. Manoux as an "Excited alien '', Dian Bachar as a "Nervous tech '', and Kevin McDonald in a cameo appearance as an announcer at a fan convention.
The former cast of the cult television space - adventure series Galaxy Quest spend most of their days attending fan conventions and promotional stunts. Though Jason Nesmith, the series ' former lead star, thrives on the attention, the other cast members -- Gwen DeMarco, Alexander Dane, Fred Kwan and Tommy Webber, resent Nesmith 's careless and irresponsible attitude. They also resent Nesmith making performance appearances without them. Dane laments his lost glories as an acting legend, now reduced to making cheap, commercialized performances.
During a convention, Nesmith is approached by a group calling themselves Thermians who request his assistance, which he agrees to, thinking this is a planned and paying fan event. After overhearing two teenagers who claim that Nesmith is a laughing stock, he shouts at a group of fans and gets drunk that night. The following morning, Nesmith is confronted by the Thermians and still hungover, Nesmith agrees to go with them. The Thermians, an extraterrestrial race, are in need of a replacement Commander for their spaceship and have designed their lifestyle and philosophies over the Galaxy Quest television series (which they believe to be documentaries). Nesmith arrogantly but wittily attacks Sarris, an alien warlord and enemy of the Thermians, then asks Mathesar, one of the Thermians, to return him to his home, unaware of the importance of his actions.
Having realized the truth after being transported back, Nesmith eagerly relates his experience to the crew, who thinks he is still hungover, so they ignore him. When a Thermian arrives and request Nesmith 's help, the crew and their handler Guy Fleegman, who cameoed as a redshirt in one of the most recent episodes, believes this is another performance opportunity that Nesmith is hogging to himself and demand to join Nesmith aboard the spaceship, the NSEA Protector II, a direct replica of the NSEA Protector from the Galaxy Quest series. Upon arrival aboard the ship, Nesmith 's fellow actors realize that they are aboard a real spaceship with real aliens, and, eventually, would have to confront a real enemy and were in real danger. After a vengeful Sarris attacks the Protector II and damages the ship 's engines, the crew realizes that they are in need of a Beryllium sphere (a plot device in one of the Galaxy Quest episodes) to replace the engine. They go through an advanced magnetic minefield to reach a planet with viable Beryllium spheres.
Upon arriving at the planet, the crew, now forced to perform their roles from Galaxy Quest, encounter a cannibalistic race of aliens. Nesmith and the team coordinate a plan to retrieve a Beryllium sphere, but Fleegman is hesitant in going forward with the plan, as his character on the series died in a situation similar to Nesmith 's plan. Nonetheless, they achieve a Beryllium sphere, but Nesmith is taken captive by the aliens while the rest of his crew escapes. Nesmith is knocked unconscious by the aliens, awakening to find himself in an arena. The cannibalistic aliens are standing high above him on stone walls while chanting Gorignak, apparently in reference to a strange, hoglike creature in front of Nesmith, which he dubs a "pig - lizard ''. Kwan uses the ship 's digital conveyor to transport the pig - lizard from the arena to the ship 's digital conveyor bay, but it materializes inside - out and explodes. Just then, the Protector 's computer translates Gorignak as Rock, leading the crew to express suspicion that it is n't a reference to the pig - lizard. While Nesmith tries to understand this information, a giant rock monster materializes from out of the walls of the arena and Nesmith begins fleeing for his life. Nesmith begs Kwan, who had played the ship 's engineer on the series, to use the digital conveyor to save him, but Kwan has lost his nerve after seeing the pig - lizard explode in front of him. Just then, Laliari, a beautiful Thermian woman, walks into the bay, and Kwan 's nerve returns, enabling him to save Nesmith at the last moment with the digital conveyor.
Sarris attacks the Protector II as Nesmith returns, and forces him to reveal their true nature as actors to the Thermians when he threatens to kill Mathesar. Sarris orders the destruction of the Protector II by holding it hostage to a destruction mechanism, and for the crew to be ejected into space. Nesmith and Dane fool one of Sarris ' enforcers to avoid being sucked out into space: Dane, Kwan, Fleegman and Webber, alongside the Thermians combat Sarris ' army on the ship. Nesmith and DeMarco, aided by Brandon, one of the fans at the convention (who had received Nesmith 's Thermian communicator in an altercation earlier in the movie) disable the destruction mechanism for the ship. On the way, they learn of the Omega 13, a plot device that was unused in a discarded Galaxy Quest episode that reverses time by 13 seconds, usually to reverse a mistake. After Sarris ' flagship intercepts the Protector II, they manage to use the magnetic asteroids against Sarris ' flagship, and seemingly kill him.
While celebrating over their victory, Kwan arrives and fatally shoots the rest of the crew, revealed to be Sarris in disguise. Nesmith uses the Omega 13 plot device and thwarts the attack. The castmates, directed by Brandon return to Earth victorious, crashing their spaceship right in the middle of a convention. Sarris, still alive awakens for a final attack, but Nesmith vaporizes him, killing him once and for all.
The buzz from the event leads Galaxy Quest to be revived as a sequel series, titled The Journey Continues, with the original cast returning alongside Fleegman and Laliari, a Thermian woman Kwan fell in love with.
The original script by David Howard was titled Captain Starshine and written on spec. Producer Mark Johnson, who had a first look deal with DreamWorks, did not like it, but was still fascinated with its concept featuring space aliens who misconstrue old episodes of a television series. Johnson purchased the script and had Bob Gordon rewrite it into Galaxy Quest. A fan of Star Trek, Gordon was hesitant, believing Galaxy Quest "could be a great idea or it could be a terrible idea '' and initially turned it down. He submitted his first draft to DreamWorks in 1998, which was immediately greenlit.
Rickman 's character was originally supposed to have been knighted by Elizabeth II before the events of the film. Rickman requested this to be changed, as he felt that it would not fit Dane 's sentiment of lack of recognition; the character is still credited as "Sir Alexander Dane '' in the credits, although all mentions of being a knight have been removed from the film. The Thermians ' native planet, Klaatu Nebula, is a reference to the name of the alien visitor in the classic The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951).
The name of Rockwell 's character, Guy Fleegman, is an homage to Guy Vardaman, a little - known Star Trek actor who worked extensively on Star Trek as either a stand - in or in minor roles.
The romantic relationship between Fred Kwan and the alien Laliari comes from a suggestion of Steven Spielberg, one of the owners of DreamWorks who, impressed by Missi Pyle while visiting the set, to expand Missi Pyle 's role in the film.
Since early in the production, Mark Johnson wanted Dean Parisot, who had directed Home Fries, another film he produced, to direct Galaxy Quest; however, DreamWorks favored Harold Ramis because of his experience. Ramis was hired in November 1998, but departed in February 1999 because of casting difficulties. He wanted Alec Baldwin for the lead role, but Baldwin turned it down. Steve Martin and Kevin Kline were considered, though Kline turned it down for family reasons. Ramis did not agree with the casting of Tim Allen as Jason Nesmith, and Parisot took over as director within three weeks. After seeing the film, Ramis said he was ultimately impressed with Allen 's performance. About his role, Allen stated that he based his performance on Yul Brynner instead of William Shatner.
Linda DeScenna, production designer of the film, was interested in the project because it would not have the same aesthetics than other 1990s science fiction films, and "it did n't have to be real, hi - tech and vacuformed ''. The design of the Thermian station was influenced by the works of artist Roger Dean, particularly his cover art for the Yes live album Yessongs (1973).
The makers of the film wanted only "science fiction virgins '' who had never worked in this genre to audition for Gwen DeMarco 's role. Famous for science fiction roles such as Ellen Ripley in the Alien films and Dana Barrett in the Ghostbusters films, Weaver auditioned nonetheless because she wanted to work with both Allen and Rickman, and because she "fell in love with the script '', calling it "that great sort of Wizard of Oz story of these people feeling so incomplete in the beginning, and then during the course of this adventure, they come out almost like the heroes they pretended to be in the first place ''; she was surprised when discovering she actually got the role.
Tony Shalhoub originally auditioned for Guy Fleegman, but Sam Rockwell won the role, and Shalhoub was cast as Fred Kwan instead. Justin Long said he was nervous auditioning as an unknown actor at the time, competing against Kieran Culkin, Eddie Kaye Thomas and Tom Everett Scott for the role of Brandon. Paul Rudd auditioned for a role, while David Alan Grier was the second choice for Tommy Webber. The film was Justin Long 's acting debut, and Rainn Wilson 's film debut (his only previous credit was the soap opera One Life to Live).
According to casting director Debra Zane, finding an actress to play the role of Laliari was very hard, as they had "a difficult time finding a woman who could be Thermian in the same way as actors Enrico Colantoni, Rainn Wilson and Jed Rees ''. Ultimately, when she auditioned Missi Pyle, she was so impressed that she sent the audition tape directly to Parisot, with a note stating "If this is not Laliari, I will resign from the CSA. '' Steven Spielberg later asked for Laliari 's role to be expanded after being impressed by her performance as well. Jennifer Coolidge was the second choice for the role.
Both Allen and Rockwell almost dropped out of the film; Allen had to choose between Galaxy Quest and Bicentennial Man and chose the first, with his Bicentennial Man role going to Robin Williams instead, while Rockwell almost backed out of the film after obtaining a lead role in an independent film; Kevin Spacey convinced him otherwise.
Scenes on the barren planet where they stopped to get a new Beryllium Sphere and Captain Nesmith battled a rock monster, were filmed at Goblin Valley State Park in Utah. At the time, the access to Goblin Valley State Park was partly by dirt road; the fees paid by the production company were used to upgrade the entire access road to asphalt pavement.
According to Weaver, Allen kept hectoring her during production so she would sign a piece he owned of the Nostromo, the spaceship in Alien, in which she starred; she ultimately did, writing "Stolen by Tim Allen; Love, Sigourney Weaver '', which she said made him very upset. During the period of filming, the entire cast attended a 20th anniversary screening of Alien. After filming completed, Weaver kept the wig she wore for the role.
In theaters, the first twenty minutes of the film were presented in a 1.85: 1 aspect ratio, before changing to a wider 2.35: 1 ratio when the spaceship lands on Thermia to maximise the effect on viewers. David Newman composed the music score.
The film originally received an "R '' rating, according to Galaxy Quest producer Lindsey Collins and Sigourney Weaver, before being re-cut. Shalhoub did not remember any darker version of the film. There were numerous edits in the film that show some lines were changed in post-production. In one scene, Gwen DeMarco 's line "Well, screw that! '' is clearly dubbed over "Well, fuck that! '' According to Parisot, that line got a huge laugh. There is more profanity found in the shooting script.
Before the release of the movie, a promotional mockumentary video titled Galaxy Quest: 20th Anniversary, The Journey Continues, aired on E!, presenting the Galaxy Quest television series as an actual cult series, and the upcoming film as a documentary about the making of the series, presenting it in a similar way to Star Trek; it featured fake interviews of the series ' cast (portrayed by the actors of the actual film), "Questerians '', and critics.
Galaxy Quest is an acknowledged homage to Star Trek; therefore a variety of elements in the former correspond to those of the latter. The television program within the film, Galaxy Quest, is set around the starship NSEA Protector, an instrument of the National Space Exploration Administration, which are parodies of the USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701) and Starfleet respectively. The prefix of the Protector 's registration number NTE - 3120 ostensibly alludes to some sort of similar space federation, but in reality stands for "Not The Enterprise '', according to visual effects co-supervisor Bill George in a 2000 interview with Cinefex magazine.
This homage also extended to the original marketing of the movie, including a promotional website intentionally designed to look like a poorly constructed fan website, with "screen captures '' and poor HTML coding. The homage even parodied the effect that Star Trek had on the social lives of its cast members, such as how Alexander Dane (played by Alan Rickman) has been typecast after his success on the Galaxy Quest television series; this reflects the lamentations of Leonard Nimoy, who had been typecast after his performance as Spock.
Additionally, the time between the original Galaxy Quest series and its sequel, Galaxy Quest: The Journey Continues is 17 years - the same amount of time that elapsed between the original Star Trek series and Star Trek: The Next Generation.
The film 's visual effects were created by Industrial Light and Magic, who have a long history with Star Trek. It is said that while fans were pleased with the film, Paramount Pictures (who ironically would later gain rights to the film via its 2005 purchase of DreamWorks) was somewhat less so, and chose to express their displeasure by replacing ILM with Blue Sky and Digital Domain respectively for the final two films in the Next Generation series: Insurrection and Nemesis.
The film was financially successful. It earned US $7,012,630 in its opening weekend, and its total U.S. domestic tally stands at US $71,583,916; in total it has grossed US $90,683,916 worldwide.
Galaxy Quest received positive reviews from critics, both as a parody of Star Trek, and as a comedy film of its own. On Rotten Tomatoes, it received an approval rating of 90 % based on 115 reviews and an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Intelligent and humorous satire with an excellent cast -- no previous Trekkie knowledge needed to enjoy this one. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 70 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The New York Times 's Lawrence Van Gelder called it "an amiable comedy that simultaneously manages to spoof these popular futuristic space adventures and replicate the very elements that have made them so durable ''. Roger Ebert praised the ability of the film to spoof the "illogic of the TV show ''. The Village Voice offered a lukewarm review, noting that "the many eight - to 11 - year - olds in the audience seemed completely enthralled ''.
The film proved quite popular with Star Trek fans. At the 2013 Star Trek Convention in Las Vegas, Galaxy Quest received enough support in a Star Trek Film Ranking, and was included with the twelve Star Trek films that had been released at the time on the voting ballot. The fans at the convention ranked it the seventh best Star Trek film.
Harold Ramis, who was originally supposed to direct the film but left following disagreements over the casting choices, notably Allen as the lead, was ultimately impressed with Allen 's performance. Tim Allen later stated that he and William Shatner were "now friends because of this movie ''.
The novella Rabbit Remembered (2000) by John Updike mentions the character of Laliari from the film.
Several actors who have had roles on various Star Trek television series and films have commented on Galaxy Quest in light of their own experiences with the franchise and its fandom.
"I had originally not wanted to see Galaxy Quest because I heard that it was making fun of Star Trek, and then Jonathan Frakes rang me up and said "You must not miss this movie! See it on a Saturday night in a full theatre ''. And I did, and of course I found it was brilliant. Brilliant. No one laughed louder or longer in the cinema than I did, but the idea that the ship was saved and all of our heroes in that movie were saved simply by the fact that there were fans who did understand the scientific principles on which the ship worked was absolutely wonderful. And it was both funny and also touching in that it paid tribute to the dedication of these fans. '' -- Patrick Stewart (Jean - Luc Picard on TNG)
"I 've had flashbacks of Galaxy Quest at the many conventions I 've gone to since the movie came out. I thought it was an absolute laugh - a-minute. '' -- Tim Russ (Tuvok on Voyager)
"I thought it was very funny, and I thought the audience that they portrayed was totally real, but the actors that they were pretending to be were totally unrecognizable. Certainly I do n't know what Tim Allen was doing. He seemed to be the head of a group of actors, and for the life of me I was trying to understand who he was imitating. The only one I recognized was the girl playing Nichelle Nichols. '' -- William Shatner (James T. Kirk on TOS)
"I loved Galaxy Quest. I thought it was brilliant satire, not only of Trek, but of fandom in general. The only thing I wish they had done was cast me in it, and have me play a freaky fanboy who keeps screaming at the actor who played ' the kid ' about how awful it was that there was a kid on the spaceship. Alas. '' -- Wil Wheaton (Wesley Crusher on TNG)
"Yes, I have seen Galaxy Quest and no, it 's not really like that. '' -- Casey Biggs (Damar on DS9)
"I think it 's a chillingly realistic documentary. (laughs) The details in it, I recognized every one of them. It is a powerful piece of documentary filmmaking. And I do believe that when we get kidnapped by aliens, it 's going to be the genuine, true Star Trek fans who will save the day.... I was rolling in the aisles. And (star) Tim Allen had that Shatner-esque swagger down pat. And I roared when the shirt came off, and (co-star) Sigourney (Weaver) rolls her eyes and says, ' There goes that shirt again. '... How often did we hear that on the set? (Laughs) '' -- George Takei (Hikaru Sulu on TOS)
Talks of a sequel have been going on since the film 's release in 1999, but only began gaining traction in 2014 when Allen mentioned that there was a script. Stars Weaver and Rockwell mentioned they were interested in returning. However, Colantoni has stated that he would prefer for there not to be a sequel, lest it tarnish the characters from the first film. He said, "to make something up, just because we love those characters, and turn it into a sequel -- then it becomes the awful sequel ''.
In April 2015, Paramount Television, along with the movie 's co-writer Gordon, director Parisot, and executive producers Johnson and Bernstein, announced they were looking to develop a television series based on Galaxy Quest. The move was considered in a similar vein as Paramount 's revivals of Minority Report and School of Rock as television series. In August 2015, it was announced that Amazon Studios would be developing it.
In January 2016, after the unexpected death of Alan Rickman from pancreatic cancer, Tim Allen commented in The Hollywood Reporter about the franchise 's chance of a revival:
I 'm not supposed to say anything -- I 'm speaking way out of turn here -- but Galaxy Quest is really close to being resurrected in a very creative way. It 's closer than I can tell you but I ca n't say more than that. The real kicker is that Alan now has to be left out. It 's been a big shock on many levels.
Speaking to the Nerdist podcast in April 2016, Sam Rockwell revealed that the cast had been about ready to sign on for a follow up with Amazon, but that Rickman 's death, together with Allen 's television schedule, had proved to be obstacles, and that he believed that Rickman 's death meant the project would never happen.
However, the plans were revived in August 2017, with the announcement that Paul Scheer will be writing the series.
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when was the first episode of pretty little liars filmed | Pilot (Pretty Little Liars) - wikipedia
"Pilot '' is the series premiere of the mystery drama series Pretty Little Liars. It introduces each of the main characters, as well as establishes the basic premises of the series. The episode aired on June 8, 2010 on ABC Family.
In the episode, the main characters find themselves apprehensive one year after the disappearance of Alison DiLaurentis. When Aria Montgomery returns to Rosewood, she rediscovers her old friends and secrets of the past begin to haunt them. Alison 's body is then found in her former home, and after the funeral, the girls receive a frightening anonymous message signed by "A ''.
The episode received mixed reviews and was watched by 2.47 million viewers.
In Rosewood, Pennsylvania (2009). Four friends get together in a homely barn, drinking and having fun. At one point, a noise outside the barn scares them. The girls slowly make their way to the barn door, and a blonde girl gives them a fright, screaming. The blonde is after revealed to be Alison DiLaurentis, the clique 's leader. The five then either sit or lie down and return to playful activities, falling asleep shortly after. During nightfall, Alison disappears and Spencer Hastings tries to look for her in the night. Aria Montgomery then wakes up and finds Spencer arriving back in the barn, who tells her and the others that she did not find Alison anywhere.
One year later, it is revealed that Alison mysteriously vanished that night, and the girls went separate ways. Aria and her parents traveled for a year to Iceland; Hanna Marin underwent a complete style transformation, becoming the it - girl of Rosewood 's social scene, and is friends with Mona Vanderwaal, who used to be bullied by Alison; Emily Fields focused on her swimming skills, hiding that she 's attracted to girls and was in love with Alison; and Spencer focused on her studies and struggled to become Rosewood High 's number one student.
The Montgomery returns to Rosewood after spending a year in Iceland, and Aria finds herself unable to adapt again to the town 's mediocrity. Ella and Byron, Aria 's parents, are happy together again after a crisis they had in the past, while Mike, Aria 's younger brother, quickly settles himself in the lacrosse team. In an attempt to refresh her mind, she goes to a pub to drink and meets a guy there who also likes literature. They feel connected and make out in the pub 's bathroom. On the first day of class, she discovers he 's her new English teacher, Ezra Fitz. Aria receives a threatening message from someone who identifies as ' A ', and who apparently knows about hers and her father 's secrets.
At the Rosewood Mall, Hanna and Mona shoplifts and camera footage catch Hanna, leading her mother to sleep with Detective Darren Wilden to release her daughter. Spencer prepares for a family dinner in which her sister Melissa introduces her fiancée Wren to the Hastings. Spencer discovers that Melissa and Wren will live in the barn that Spencer has gone on vacancy reforming and it irritates her. Meanwhile, Spencer discovers that she feels something for Wren. Emily 's mother asks her to drop a welcome basket to the family which just moved to Rosewood and is living in the old DiLaurentis residence. Emily is reluctant, but ends up meeting with Maya who is the daughter of the St. Germain. They quickly befriend. Ashley, Hanna 's mother, is still suffering from her divorce, and is having an affair with the detective who released Hanna. Is also revealed that Aria 's father had an affair with one of his students in the past, Meredith, just like what 's happening between Aria and Ezra. Spencer receives a message from ' A ' which makes her remember she kissed Ian Thomas, Melissa 's former boyfriend, in the past. Emily and Hanna also receive threatening message from ' A '.
They soon suspect Alison is ' A ', until her body is found in the St. Germain residence and the town gets shocked. At her funeral, Jessica DiLaurentis meets the girls and places her in the front row. The girls worry when Jenna Marshall -- a classmate who was blinded in an incident involving the four girls and Alison -- and her stepbrother Toby, appear in the funeral. After, outside the church, the girls receive one more text: I 'm still here bitches. And I know everything - A.
"Pilot '' was written by series ' showrunner and main collaborator I. Marlene King and directed by Lesli Linka Glatter. On January 27, 2010, ABC Family picked up the series for 10 episodes, set to premiere in June 2010. The theme song for Pretty Little Liars opening is "Secret '' by The Pierces, which was suggested by one of the show 's stars, Ashley Benson.
ABC Family began casting for a Pretty Little Liars television pilot in October 2009. Lucy Hale was cast as Aria Montgomery in the project, followed by Troian Bellisario as Spencer Hastings and Ian Harding as Ezra Fitz in November 2009. In December 2009, The Futon Critic confirmed the casting of Ashley Benson as Hanna Marin and Shay Mitchell as Emily Fields, as well as the addition of Laura Leighton as Ashley Marin, Nia Peeples as Pam Fields, Roark Critchlow as Tom Marin, and Bianca Lawson as Maya. Mitchell had initially auditioned for the role of Spencer and then tried for Emily. The Hollywood Reporter also noted that Torrey DeVitto and Sasha Pieterse landed recurring roles in the pilot. The Alloy Entertainment website later confirmed that Pieterse would be playing Alison DiLaurentis and DeVitto would be Melissa Hastings, also mentioning the casting of Janel Parrish as Mona Vanderwaal. Initially, Alexis Denisof was cast to be Aria Montgomery 's father Byron. In April 2010, the role of Aria 's father Byron was recast with Chad Lowe, and Holly Marie Combs was cast as Aria 's mother Ella. Jenna Marshall is played by Tammin Sursok. The actors who played Ian Thomas and Toby Cavanaugh in this episode were after replaced by Ryan Merriman and Keegan Allen, respectively.
After the pilot was shot in Vancouver, filming for the rest of the series has since moved to Los Angeles. The series is primarily filmed at the Warner Bros. studio and backlot in the city of Burbank (near Los Angeles).
The pilot was broadcast on June 8, 2010. It was watched by 2.47 million viewers, scoring a 0.9 rating in the 18 - 49 demographic.
"Pilot '' was received with mixed opinions, although the series has gotten a more positive critique over its progression. Metacritic gave the pilot episode 52 out of 100, based upon 14 critical reviews. The New York Daily News gave the show a positive review, commenting that it "makes most popular vampire romances look anemic '', while concluding, "Pretty Little Liars could go in several directions, including mundane teen clichés. It 's got an equally good shot at making us care about these imperfect pretty girls. '' A writer on Terror Hook has stated that "' Pretty Little Liars ' gets off to a very promising start. Great production all around, the writing keeps the viewer on their toes, and the acting just reinforces it. The overall mystery of the show in the end is dark and unpredictable, even stepping into the slasher film realm. '' The New York Post gave the show three out of five stars, stating, "OK, so we 've established that there is no socially redeeming value in this series and that your kids should n't watch it if they are too young and impressionable. But if you can distract them enough to miss the first 15 minutes, the show is n't half - bad. Actually, it is half - good, if that makes sense. '' The Los Angeles Times wrote that the series is "one of those shows that manages to mildly, and perhaps unintentionally, spoof its genre while fully participating in it, and that 's not a bad thing at all. ''
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when did valerian and the city of a thousand planets come out | Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets - wikipedia
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (French: Valérian et la Cité des mille planètes) is a 2017 English - language French 3D science fiction adventure film written and directed by Luc Besson, and co-produced by Besson and his wife, Virginie Besson - Silla. The film is based on the French science fiction comics series Valérian and Laureline, written by Pierre Christin and illustrated by Jean - Claude Mézières. It stars Dane DeHaan as Valerian and Cara Delevingne as Laureline, with Clive Owen, Rihanna, Ethan Hawke, Herbie Hancock, Kris Wu and Rutger Hauer in supporting roles. Besson independently crowd - sourced and personally funded Valerian and, with a production budget of around $ 180 million, it is both the most expensive European and independent film ever made.
The film was released by STX Entertainment on 21 July 2017 in the United States, and in France on 26 July, by EuropaCorp. Valerian received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the plot and some of the casting, but praised the visuals, and grossed $221 million worldwide. Due to its high production and advertising costs, the film was considered a box office bomb in the US market.
In the 28th century, the former International Space Station has become "Alpha '', a city where millions of creatures from different planets live peacefully and exchange their knowledge and cultures. The humans form a special police division to preserve peace through the universe, including officers Valerian, a happy - go - lucky major, and his partner Laureline, a no - nonsense sergeant.
En route to a mission, Valerian dreams of a planet, where a low - tech humanoid race lives peacefully. They fish for pearls containing enormous amounts of energy, and use small animals to replicate them. Wreckage begins plummeting from the sky, and as the humanoids investigate the derelicts, one enormous ship crashes into the planet, triggering an apocalypse. A female humanoid, a princess of her people, separated from her group after the door to the spaceship wreck being used as shelter breaks, manages to send a telepathic signal just as the explosion consumes her and the surface.
Shaken, Valerian wakes. He learns that his mission is to retrieve a "Mül converter '', so called for being able to replicate anything it eats, even currency. It is the last one in the entire universe, from a black market dealer, Igon Siruss. Before setting out, he asks Laureline to marry him, but she brushes him off, knowing of his many affairs with female colleagues and citing his inability to take things seriously.
Travelling to a virtual market called "Big Market '', Valerian disrupts a meeting between Igon and two hooded figures seeking the converter - two humanoids, with the "converter '' being one of the animals he saw in his dream. He and Laureline recover the converter, and he surreptitiously steals one of the pearls that had been given as payment for the dealer, hoping to gift it to Laureline as a wedding present.
They return to Alpha, where their superior, frosty Commander Filitt, informs them the center of the station has been infected by an unknown force, rendering it highly toxic, that troops sent into the area have not returned, and that the infection is spreading. Laureline and Valerian are assigned to protect the commander during an interstation summit to discuss the crisis. The commander asks for the converter, but Valerian says that Laureline should hold onto it while they are protecting him.
During the summit, the humanoids suddenly attack - incapacitating everyone before kidnapping Filitt. Valerian frees himself and the others and chases the kidnappers, who head for the infected area. Valerian loses control of his vehicle, and Laureline loses contact with him.
Evading arrest for insubordination, Laureline finds Valerian unconscious at the edge of the infected zone. She wakes him, but is kidnapped after by a primitive tribe that lives in the center of Alpha. Valerian infiltrates the tribe 's territory with the help of a shapeshifting dancer, Bubble. He saves Laureline and they escape, but Bubble is mortally wounded. She encourages him to keep pursuing Laureline, before dying.
Valerian and Laureline venture further into the infected area, realizing that it is not radioactive. They reach a large, shielded hall where they find the humanoids with an unconscious Filitt. Their leader, Emperor Haban Limaï explains that his people (who are known as the "Pearls '') lived peacefully on the planet Mül, when a battle broke out in orbit between the human government 's fleet and another alien species. The human commander, Filitt, ordered the firing of a doomsday weapon that, despite knowledge (or uncaring) that Mül was populated by a civilization, annihilated both the enemy fleet and Mül, as seen in Valerian 's dream, sent to him by the princess and daughter of the Pearls ' leader, Lihö - Minaa (which she also transfer her soul into Valerian 's body after her death). A small group of survivors sheltered in a crashed spaceship and managed to repair it, learning much about technology and the history of other species ' in the process. They eventually came to Alpha, where they assimilated more knowledge and constructed a spaceship that could recreate their former home, their "paradise ''. The hall they are standing in is that spaceship, and they have kidnapped Filitt in order to recover the converter and the pearl they need to launch the ship. Filitt admits to his role in the genocide, but argues that the doomsday strike was necessary to halt the war, and that the cover - up was necessary to prevent the human species from being expelled from Alpha, as well as prevent reparations that would bankrupt the human government.
Valerian has the pearl he took during the black market deal, and Laureline has the converter. Valerian gives them his pearl, but is reluctant to hand over the converter, as it is government property. Laureline convinces him to return it after pointing out the injustice their government perpetrated. While the spacecraft prepares for takeoff, Filitt 's pre-programmed K - Tron robot soldiers attack both the Pearls, the government soldiers sent to assist Valerian, and their support staff, but are defeated by the support staff and Valerian 's efforts. The spacecraft departs with the duo onboard, while Filitt is arrested. In a final scene in their own spaceship, Valerian and Laureline confess their love and expect to land at their own paradise in two hours.
Although Luc Besson loved the Valerian comics growing up, he did not seriously consider adapting them into a movie until he was working on The Fifth Element. During development, Besson had tapped Valerian illustrator Jean - Claude Mézières to work on the film, who asked Besson, "Why are you doing this shitty film? Why you do n't do Valerian? '' At the time, Besson felt that making the film was "impossible '' given the vast monster - to - human ratio. The release of Avatar served as both a blessing and a curse for Besson; he has said, "technically, I could see that we can do everything now. The film proved that imagination is the only limit. '' However, he also felt that "James Cameron pushed all the levels so high, '' which made him believe that his script was not good enough, so he rewrote it. Ultimately, the storyboarding for the film took seven months.
The project was first publicly reported in 2012. The two principal stars, Dane DeHaan and Cara Delevingne, were announced in May 2015. On 19 August 2015, Clive Owen signed on to play Commander Arün Filitt in the film. The budget, € 197 million, is by far the largest ever assembled for a French film. Previously, Asterix at the Olympic Games was the most expensive, at € 78 million, just ahead of Besson 's The Fifth Element (€ 75 million). By the end of August 2015, Besson said in an RTL radio interview that shooting the film in France was too expensive. Because it was filmed in a foreign language (English), Besson was unable to benefit from tax credits, despite preferring to produce the film in France and create jobs for 1,200 crew members. The criteria to obtain these tax credits were then adapted accordingly. In May 2015, it was announced Fundamental Films would invest US $50 million in the film.
Principal photography on the film began on 5 January 2016 in seven sound stages dedicated to the film at the Cité du cinéma, in Saint - Denis, north of Paris. In total, there are 2,734 visual effect shots.
Valerian was released in Israel on 20 July, 2017, on 21 July in the United States, and on 26 July in France. Lionsgate handles the film 's release in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and STX Entertainment distributes the film in the United States. The film was released on 25 August 2017 in China.
The first teaser for Valerian was released on 10 November 2016. The teaser depicts Marmakas, Entertainers, Bagoulins, and Shingouz, who all appear in Ambassador of the Shadows. A special exclusive preview of Valerian was shown prior to the Fathom Events 4K restoration showing of The Fifth Element on 14 May and 17 May.
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets is scheduled to be released digitally on November 7, 2017, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray and DVD on November 21, 2017.
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets grossed $40.5 million in the United States and Canada and $181 million internationally (including $35 million in France), for a worldwide total of $221.5 million. With a production budget between $177 -- 180 million, the film would have needed to gross $350 -- 400 million worldwide in order to break even and justify a sequel according to Newsweek but opinions differ.
In North America, Valerian opened alongside Dunkirk and Girls Trip, and was initially projected to gross $20 -- 25 million from 3,553 theaters, although some insiders believed it would open in the teens. It made $6.5 million on its first day, including $1.7 million from Thursday night previews at 2,600 theaters, lowering weekend projections to $16.5 million. The film ended up debuting to $17 million, finishing 5th at the box office, leading Deadline.com to already label the film a domestic box office bomb. and causing a 8.31 % fall of the EuropaCorp stock on the following Monday. In its second weekend, the film dropped 62 % to $6.4 million, finishing 8th at the box office. In its third and fourth weekends the film made $2.4 million and $901,323, finishing 12th and 17th and dropping another 62 % both times.
Outside North America, the film opened in 16 markets alongside the US and made $6.5 million over its opening weekend, including $2.5 million in Germany. In France, the film made $3.72 million (€ 3.19) on its first day, the second - best opening day of 2017 there behind Despicable Me 3. In China, the film made $9.9 million on its first day from 78,000 screens, becoming the first film to displace Wolf Warriors 2 at the country 's box office. It went on to open to $29 million, topping the box office. The largest territory for the film is China, with US $58.2 million.
Valerian received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its visuals while criticizing the plot and some of the casting. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 51 % based on 224 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets uses sheer kinetic energy and visual thrills to overcome narrative obstacles and offer a viewing experience whose surreal pleasures often outweigh its flaws. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has a score of 51 out of 100, based on reviews from 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. On French entertainment information website AlloCiné, the film has an average grade of 3.1 / 5, based on 29 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a grade of B -, praising how "unapologetically idiosyncratic '' the film is, while also saying "the vividness of this place only underscores the lifelessness of the people leading us through it... There are 394 million stories on the City of a Thousand Planets, and Valerian 's might be the only one we 've seen before. Still, any excuse to visit this place is one worth taking. '' Peter Sciretta of / Film touted the first half of Valerian as "unpredictable and bonkers insane '', while calling the second half more formulaic and "far less exciting '', though he still encouraged seeing the film in 3D "on the biggest screen possible ''. Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote that it was "rare (...) to see a film this extravagant that also feels, for better or worse, like the work of a single personality. The longer action scenes may not always rank with Besson 's early ' 90s highlights (...) or the mania of the more recent Lucy, but there is n't a moment in this ludicrous, lushly self - indulgent movie that does n't feel like its creator is having the time of his life. ''
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave a negative review, saying: "The Razzies do n't need to wait until the end of the year to anoint a winner for 2017... Hollywood studio chiefs can breathe easy that, this time, at least, they 'll escape blame for making a giant summer franchise picture that nobody wants to see, since this one 's a French import. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times was also less than happy with the film, writing the effort "feels as if it were made up on the spot, by someone so delighted by the gaudy genre packaging at his disposal that he lost track of what was supposed to be inside. ''
Despite the film 's being a disappointment at the box office, a sequel is still possible due to positive fan reaction.
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you and me i cant take my eyes off of you | Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You - wikipedia
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind "Windy '' by The Association. It was co-written by producer Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli 's in The Four Seasons. It was Valli 's biggest solo hit until he hit # 1 in 1974 with "My Eyes Adored You ''.
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' has had hundreds of cover versions, many of which have been on the charts in different countries. The song is a staple of television and film soundtracks, even being featured as part of the plot of some films, such as when the lead characters sing or arrange their own version of the song. Its chorus has also become a popular football chant, with supporters of various teams inserting their club 's name or a popular player 's name into the beat (for instance, A.S. Roma fans sing "Francesco Totti, la la, la la la la! ''). The Valli version was also used by NASA as a wake - up song on the STS - 126 space shuttle mission, to celebrate the anniversary of astronaut Christopher Ferguson, one of the mission 's crew members.
The song was written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio. Arrangement was done by Artie Schroeck and Gaudio. The original recording was made at A&R Recording Studios at 799 7th Avenue, with Bob Crewe producing and Phil Ramone engineering.
The song has been covered by some 200 artists over the years, in many countries, under both versions of the title. A few notable examples of cover versions that appeared on the charts:
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which place did israel not occupy after its decisive victory in the six day war of 1967 | Six - Day War - wikipedia
Egypt Syria Jordan Iraq
50,000 troops 214,000 reserves 300 combat aircraft 800 tanks
Egypt: 240,000 Syria, Jordan, and Iraq: 307,000 957 combat aircraft 2,504 tanks Lebanon: 2 combat aircraft
776 -- 983 killed 4,517 wounded 15 captured
Egypt: 10,000 -- 15,000 killed or missing 4,338 captured Jordan: 696 killed or missing 533 captured Syria: 2,500 killed 591 captured Iraq: 10 killed 30 wounded Lebanon: One aircraft lost
Sinai Campaign
Jordanian Campaign
Mediterranean Campaign
Syrian Campaign
The Six - Day War (Hebrew: מלחמת ששת הימים, Milhemet Sheshet Ha Yamim; Arabic: النكسة, an - Naksah, "The Setback '' or حرب ۱۹٦۷, Ḥarb 1967, "War of 1967 ''), also known as the June War, 1967 Arab -- Israeli War, or Third Arab -- Israeli War, was fought between 5 and 10 June 1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known at the time as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria.
Relations between Israel and its neighbours had never fully normalised following the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War. In 1956 Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai, with one of its objectives being the reopening of the Straits of Tiran which Egypt had blocked to Israeli shipping since 1950. Israel was subsequently forced to withdraw, but won a guarantee that the Straits of Tiran would remain open. While the United Nations Emergency Force was deployed along the border, there was no demilitarisation agreement.
In the period leading up to June 1967, tensions became dangerously heightened. Israel reiterated its post-1956 position that the closure of the straits of Tiran to its shipping would be a casus belli. In May Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser announced that the straits would be closed to Israeli vessels and then mobilised its Egyptian forces along its border with Israel. On 5 June, Israel launched what it claimed were a series of preemptive airstrikes against Egyptian airfields. Claims and counterclaims relating to this series of events are one of a number of controversies relating to the conflict.
The Egyptians were caught by surprise, and nearly the entire Egyptian air force was destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving the Israelis air supremacy. Simultaneously, the Israelis launched a ground offensive into the Gaza Strip and the Sinai, which again caught the Egyptians by surprise. After some initial resistance, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered the evacuation of the Sinai. Israeli forces rushed westward in pursuit of the Egyptians, inflicted heavy losses, and conquered the Sinai.
Nasser induced Syria and Jordan to begin attacks on Israel by using the initially confused situation to claim that Egypt had repelled the Israeli air strike. Israeli counterattacks resulted in the seizure of East Jerusalem as well as the West Bank from the Jordanians, while Israel 's retaliation against Syria resulted in its occupation of the Golan Heights.
A ceasefire was signed on 11 June. In the aftermath of the war, Israel had crippled the Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian militaries, having killed over 20,000 troops while only losing fewer than 1,000 of its own. The Israeli success was the result of a well - prepared and enacted strategy, the poor leadership of the Arab states, and their poor military leadership and strategy. Israel seized the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank from Jordan and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israel 's international standing greatly improved in the following years. Its victory humiliated Egypt, Jordan and Syria, leading Nasser to resign in shame; he was later reinstated after protests in Egypt against his resignation. The speed and ease of Israel 's victory would later lead to a dangerous overconfidence within the ranks of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), contributing to initial Arab successes in the subsequent 1973 Yom Kippur War, although ultimately Israeli forces were successful and defeated the Arab militaries. The displacement of civilian populations resulting from the war would have long - term consequences, as 300,000 Palestinians fled the West Bank and about 100,000 Syrians left the Golan Heights to become refugees. Across the Arab world, Jewish minority communities fled or were expelled, with refugees going mainly to Israel or Europe.
After the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt agreed to the stationing of a United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Sinai to ensure all parties would comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreements. In the following years there were numerous minor border clashes between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed a mutual defense agreement with Egypt. Soon after this, in response to Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) guerilla activity, including a mine attack that left three dead, the Israeli Defence Force (IDF) attacked the village of as - Samu in the Jordanian - occupied West Bank. Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back. King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser for failing to come to Jordan 's aid, and "hiding behind UNEF skirts ''.
In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian border. Nasser began massing his troops in two defensive lines in the Sinai Peninsula on Israel 's border (16 May), expelled the UNEF force from Gaza and Sinai (19 May) and took over UNEF positions at Sharm el - Sheikh, overlooking the Straits of Tiran. Israel repeated declarations it had made in 1957 that any closure of the Straits would be considered an act of war, or justification for war, but Nasser closed the Straits to Israeli shipping on 22 -- 23 May. After the war, U.S. President Lyndon Johnson commented:
If a single act of folly was more responsible for this explosion than any other, it was the arbitrary and dangerous announced decision that the Straits of Tiran would be closed. The right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations.
On 30 May, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact. The following day, at Jordan 's invitation, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan. They were later reinforced by an Egyptian contingent. On 1 June, Israel formed a National Unity Government by widening its cabinet, and on 4 June the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launched Operation Focus, a large - scale surprise air strike that was the opening of the Six - Day War.
Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning from sorties, enabling a single aircraft to sortie up to four times a day (as opposed to the norm in Arab air forces of one or two sorties per day). This enabled the Israeli Air Force (IAF) to send several attack waves against Egyptian airfields on the first day of the war, overwhelming the Egyptian Air Force, and allowed it to knock out other Arab air forces on the same day. This has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces (see Controversies relating to the Six - Day War). Pilots were extensively schooled about their targets, and were forced to memorize every single detail, and rehearsed the operation multiple times on dummy runways in total secrecy.
The Egyptians had constructed fortified defenses in the Sinai. These designs were based on the assumption that an attack would come along the few roads leading through the desert, rather than through the difficult desert terrain. The Israelis chose not to risk attacking the Egyptian defenses head - on, and instead surprised them from an unexpected direction.
James Reston, writing in The New York Times on 23 May 1967, noted, "In discipline, training, morale, equipment and general competence his (Nasser 's) army and the other Arab forces, without the direct assistance of the Soviet Union, are no match for the Israelis... Even with 50,000 troops and the best of his generals and air force in Yemen, he has not been able to work his way in that small and primitive country, and even his effort to help the Congo rebels was a flop. ''
On the eve of the war, Israel believed it could win a war in 3 -- 4 days. The United States estimated Israel would need 7 -- 10 days to win, with British estimates supporting the U.S. view.
The Israeli army had a total strength, including reservists, of 264,000, though this number could not be sustained, as the reservists were vital to civilian life.
Against Jordan 's forces on the West Bank, Israel deployed about 40,000 troops and 200 tanks (eight brigades). Israeli Central Command forces consisted of five brigades. The first two were permanently stationed near Jerusalem and were the Jerusalem Brigade and the mechanized Harel Brigade. Mordechai Gur 's 55th Paratroopers Brigade was summoned from the Sinai front. The 10th Armored Brigade was stationed north of the West Bank. The Israeli Northern Command comprised a division of three brigades led by Major General Elad Peled which was stationed in the Jezreel Valley to the north of the West Bank.
On the eve of the war, Egypt massed approximately 100,000 of its 160,000 troops in the Sinai, including all seven of its divisions (four infantry, two armoured and one mechanized), four independent infantry brigades and four independent armoured brigades. Over a third of these soldiers were veterans of Egypt 's continuing intervention into the North Yemen Civil War and another third were reservists. These forces had 950 tanks, 1,100 APCs, and more than 1,000 artillery pieces.
Syria 's army had a total strength of 75,000 and was deployed along the border with Israel.
The Jordanian Armed Forces included 11 brigades, totalling 55,000 troops. Nine brigades (45,000 troops, 270 tanks, 200 artillery pieces) were deployed in the West Bank, including the elite armoured 40th, and two in the Jordan Valley. They possessed sizable numbers of M113 APCs and were equipped with some 300 modern Western tanks, 250 of which were U.S. M48 Pattons. They also had 12 battalions of artillery, six batteries of 81 mm and 120 mm mortars, a paratrooper battalion trained in the new U.S. - built school and a new battalion of mechanized infantry. The Jordanian Army, then known as the Arab Legion, was a long - term - service, professional army, relatively well - equipped and well - trained. Israeli post-war briefings said that the Jordanian staff acted professionally, but was always left "half a step '' behind by the Israeli moves. The small Royal Jordanian Air Force consisted of only 24 British - made Hawker Hunter fighters, six transports, and two helicopters. According to the Israelis, the Hawker Hunter was essentially on par with the French - built Dassault Mirage III -- the IAF 's best plane.
100 Iraqi tanks and an infantry division were readied near the Jordanian border. Two squadrons of Iraqi fighter - aircraft, Hawker Hunters and MiG 21s, were rebased adjacent to the Jordanian border.
The Arab air forces were reinforced by some aircraft from Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia to make up for the massive losses suffered on the first day of the war. They were also aided by volunteer pilots from the Pakistan Air Force acting in an independent capacity. PAF pilots shot down several Israeli planes.
With the exception of Jordan, the Arabs relied principally on Soviet weaponry. Jordan 's army was equipped with American weaponry, and its air force was composed of British aircraft.
Egypt had by far the largest and the most modern of all the Arab air forces, consisting of about 420 combat aircraft, all of them Soviet - built and with a heavy quota of top - of - the - line MiG - 21s. Of particular concern to the Israelis were the 30 Tu - 16 "Badger '' medium bombers, capable of inflicting heavy damage on Israeli military and civilian centers.
Israeli weapons were mainly of Western origin. Its air force was composed principally of French aircraft, while its armoured units were mostly of British and American design and manufacture. Some infantry weapons, including the ubiquitous Uzi, were of Israeli origin.
Israel 's first and most critical move was a surprise attack on the Egyptian Air Force. Initially, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other country.
On 5 June at 7: 45 Israeli time, as civil defense sirens sounded all over Israel, the IAF launched Operation Focus (Moked). All but 12 of its nearly 200 operational jets launched a mass attack against Egypt 's airfields. The Egyptian defensive infrastructure was extremely poor, and no airfields were yet equipped with hardened aircraft shelters capable of protecting Egypt 's warplanes. Most of the Israeli warplanes headed out over the Mediterranean Sea, flying low to avoid radar detection, before turning toward Egypt. Others flew over the Red Sea.
Meanwhile, the Egyptians hindered their own defense by effectively shutting down their entire air defense system: they were worried that rebel Egyptian forces would shoot down the plane carrying Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer and Lt - Gen. Sidqi Mahmoud, who were en route from al Maza to Bir Tamada in the Sinai to meet the commanders of the troops stationed there. In any event, it did not make a great deal of difference as the Israeli pilots came in below Egyptian radar cover and well below the lowest point at which its SA - 2 surface - to - air missile batteries could bring down an aircraft.
Although the powerful Jordanian radar facility at Ajloun detected waves of aircraft approaching Egypt and reported the code word for "war '' up the Egyptian command chain, Egyptian command and communications problems prevented the warning from reaching the targeted airfields. The Israelis employed a mixed - attack strategy: bombing and strafing runs against planes parked on the ground, and bombing to disable runways with special tarmac - shredding penetration bombs developed jointly with France, leaving surviving aircraft unable to take off. The runway at the Arish airfield was spared, as the Israelis expected to turn it into a military airport for their transports after the war. Surviving aircraft were taken out by later attack waves. The operation was more successful than expected, catching the Egyptians by surprise and destroying virtually all of the Egyptian Air Force on the ground, with few Israeli losses. Only four unarmed Egyptian training flights were in the air when the strike began. A total of 338 Egyptian aircraft were destroyed and 100 pilots were killed, although the number of aircraft lost by the Egyptians is disputed.
Among the Egyptian planes lost were all 30 Tu - 16 bombers, 27 out of 40 Il - 28 bombers, 12 Su - 7 fighter - bombers, over 90 MiG - 21s, 20 MiG - 19s, 25 MiG - 17 fighters, and around 32 assorted transport planes and helicopters. In addition, Egyptian radars and SAM missiles were also attacked and destroyed. The Israelis lost 19 planes, including two destroyed in air - to - air combat and 13 downed by anti-aircraft artillery. One Israeli plane, which was damaged and unable to break radio silence, was shot down by Israeli Hawk missiles after it strayed over the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Another was destroyed by an exploding Egyptian bomber.
The attack guaranteed Israeli air supremacy for the rest of the war. Attacks on other Arab air forces by Israel took place later in the day as hostilities broke out on other fronts.
The large numbers of Arab aircraft claimed destroyed by Israel on that day were at first regarded as "greatly exaggerated '' by the Western press. However, the fact that the Egyptian Air Force, along with other Arab air forces attacked by Israel, made practically no appearance for the remaining days of the conflict proved that the numbers were most likely authentic. Throughout the war, Israeli aircraft continued strafing Arab airfield runways to prevent their return to usability. Meanwhile, Egyptian state - run radio had reported an Egyptian victory, falsely claiming that 70 Israeli planes had been downed on the first day of fighting.
The Egyptian forces consisted of seven divisions: four armoured, two infantry, and one mechanized infantry. Overall, Egypt had around 100,000 troops and 900 -- 950 tanks in the Sinai, backed by 1,100 APCs and 1,000 artillery pieces. This arrangement was thought to be based on the Soviet doctrine, where mobile armour units at strategic depth provide a dynamic defense while infantry units engage in defensive battles.
Israeli forces concentrated on the border with Egypt included six armoured brigades, one infantry brigade, one mechanized infantry brigade, three paratrooper brigades, giving a total of around 70,000 men and 700 tanks, who were organized in three armoured divisions. They had massed on the border the night before the war, camouflaging themselves and observing radio silence before being ordered to advance.
The Israeli plan was to surprise the Egyptian forces in both timing (the attack exactly coinciding with the IAF strike on Egyptian airfields), location (attacking via northern and central Sinai routes, as opposed to the Egyptian expectations of a repeat of the 1956 war, when the IDF attacked via the central and southern routes) and method (using a combined - force flanking approach, rather than direct tank assaults).
On 5 June, at 7: 50 a.m., the northernmost Israeli division, consisting of three brigades and commanded by Major General Israel Tal, one of Israel 's most prominent armour commanders, crossed the border at two points, opposite Nahal Oz and south of Khan Yunis. They advanced swiftly, holding fire to prolong the element of surprise. Tal 's forces assaulted the "Rafah Gap '', a seven - mile stretch containing the shortest of three main routes through the Sinai towards El - Qantarah el - Sharqiyya and the Suez Canal. The Egyptians had four divisions in the area, backed by minefields, pillboxes, underground bunkers, hidden gun emplacements and trenches. The terrain on either side of the route was impassable. The Israeli plan was to hit the Egyptians at selected key points with concentrated armour.
Tal 's advance was led by the 7th Armored Brigade under Colonel Shmuel Gonen. The Israeli plan called for the 7th Brigade to outflank Khan Yunis from the north and the 60th Armored Brigade under Colonel Menachem Aviram would advance from the south. The two brigades would link up and surround Khan Yunis, while the paratroopers would take Rafah. Gonen entrusted the breakthrough to a single battalion of his brigade.
Initially, the advance was met with light resistance, as Egyptian intelligence had concluded that it was a diversion for the main attack. However, as Gonen 's lead battalion advanced, it suddenly came under intense fire and took heavy losses. A second battalion was brought up, but was also pinned down. Meanwhile, the 60th Brigade became bogged down in the sand, while the paratroopers had trouble navigating through the dunes. The Israelis continued to press their attack, and despite heavy losses, cleared the Egyptian positions and reached the Khan Yunis railway junction in little over four hours.
Gonen 's brigade then advanced nine miles to Rafah in twin columns. Rafah itself was circumvented, and the Israelis attacked Sheikh Zuweid, eight miles to the southwest, which was defended by two brigades. Though inferior in numbers and equipment, the Egyptians were deeply entrenched and camouflaged. The Israelis were pinned down by fierce Egyptian resistance, and called in air and artillery support to enable their lead elements to advance. Many Egyptians abandoned their positions after their commander and several of his staff were killed.
The Israelis broke through with tank - led assaults. However, Aviram 's forces misjudged the Egyptians ' flank, and were pinned between strongholds before they were extracted after several hours. By nightfall, the Israelis had finished mopping up resistance. Israeli forces had taken significant losses, with Colonel Gonen later telling reporters that "we left many of our dead soldiers in Rafah, and many burnt - out tanks. '' The Egyptians suffered some 2,000 casualties and lost 40 tanks.
On 5 June, with the road open, Israeli forces continued advancing towards Arish. Already by late afternoon, elements of the 79th Armored Battalion had charged through the seven - mile long Jiradi defile, a narrow pass defended by well - emplaced troops of the Egyptian 112th Infantry Brigade. In fierce fighting, which saw the pass change hands several times, the Israelis charged through the position. The Egyptians suffered heavy casualties and tank losses, while Israeli losses stood at 66 dead, 93 wounded and 28 tanks. Emerging at the western end, Israeli forces advanced to the outskirts of Arish. As it reached the outskirts of Arish, Tal 's division also consolidated its hold on Rafah and Khan Yunis.
The following day, 6 June, the Israeli forces on the outskirts of Arish were reinforced by the 7th Brigade, which fought its way through the Jiradi pass. After receiving supplies via an airdrop, the Israelis entered the city and captured the airport at 7: 50 am. The Israelis entered the city at 8: 00 am. Company commander Yossi Peled recounted that "Al - Arish was totally quiet, desolate. Suddenly, the city turned into a madhouse. Shots came at us from every alley, every corner, every window and house. '' An IDF record stated that "clearing the city was hard fighting. The Egyptians fired from the rooftops, from balconies and windows. They dropped grenades into our half - tracks and blocked the streets with trucks. Our men threw the grenades back and crushed the trucks with their tanks. '' Gonen sent additional units to Arish, and the city was eventually taken.
Brigadier - General Avraham Yoffe 's assignment was to penetrate Sinai south of Tal 's forces and north or Sharon 's. Yoffe 's attack allowed Tal to complete the capture of the Jiradi defile, Khan Yunis. All of them were taken after fierce fighting. Gonen subsequently dispatched a force of tanks, infantry and engineers under Colonel Yisrael Granit to continue down the Mediterranean coast towards the Suez Canal, while a second force led by Gonen himself turned south and captured Bir Lahfan and Jabal Libni.
Further south, on 6 June, the Israeli 38th Armored Division under Major - General Ariel Sharon assaulted Um - Katef, a heavily fortified area defended by the Egyptian 2nd Infantry Division under Major - General Sa'adi Nagib, and consisting of some 16,000 troops. The Egyptians also had a battalion of tank destroyers and a tank regiment, formed of Soviet World War II armour, which included 90 T - 34 - 85 tanks, 22 SU - 100 tank destroyers, and about 16,000 men. The Israelis had about 14,000 men and 150 post-World War II tanks including the AMX - 13, Centurions, and M50 Super Shermans (modified M - 4 Sherman tanks).
Two armoured brigades in the meantime, under Avraham Yoffe, slipped across the border through sandy wastes that Egypt had left undefended because they were considered impassable. Simultaneously, Sharon 's tanks from the west were to engage Egyptian forces on Um - Katef ridge and block any reinforcements. Israeli infantry would clear the three trenches, while heliborne paratroopers would land behind Egyptian lines and silence their artillery. An armoured thrust would be made at al - Qusmaya to unnerve and isolate its garrison.
As Sharon 's division advanced into the Sinai, Egyptian forces staged successful delaying actions at Tarat Umm, Umm Tarfa, and Hill 181. An Israeli jet was downed by anti-aircraft fire, and Sharon 's forces came under heavy shelling as they advanced from the north and west. The Israeli advance, which had to cope with extensive minefields, took a large number of casualties. A column of Israeli tanks managed to penetrate the northern flank of Abu Ageila, and by dusk, all units were in position. The Israelis then brought up ninety 105 mm and 155 mm artillery guns for a preparatory barrage, while civilian buses brought reserve infantrymen under Colonel Yekutiel Adam and helicopters arrived to ferry the paratroopers. These movements were unobserved by the Egyptians, who were preoccupied with Israeli probes against their perimeter.
As night fell, the Israeli assault troops lit flashlights, each battalion a different color, to prevent friendly fire incidents. At 10: 00 pm, Israeli artillery began a barrage on Um - Katef, firing some 6,000 shells in less than twenty minutes, the most concentrated artillery barrage in Israel 's history. Israeli tanks assaulted the northernmost Egyptian defenses and were largely successful, though an entire armoured brigade was stalled by mines, and had only one mine - clearance tank. Israeli infantrymen assaulted the triple line of trenches in the east. To the west, paratroopers commanded by Colonel Danny Matt landed behind Egyptian lines, though half the helicopters got lost and never found the battlefield, while others were unable to land due to mortar fire. Those that successfully landed on target destroyed Egyptian artillery and ammunition dumps and separated gun crews from their batteries, sowing enough confusion to significantly reduce Egyptian artillery fire. Egyptian reinforcements from Jabal Libni advanced towards Um - Katef to counterattack, but failed to reach their objective, being subjected to heavy air attacks and encountering Israeli lodgements on the roads. Egyptian commanders then called in artillery attacks on their own positions. The Israelis accomplished and sometimes exceeded their overall plan, and had largely succeeded by the following day. The Egyptians took heavy casualties, while the Israelis lost 40 dead and 140 wounded.
Yoffe 's attack allowed Sharon to complete the capture of the Um - Katef, after fierce fighting. The main thrust at Um - Katef was stalled due to mines and craters. After IDF engineers had cleared a path by 4: 00 pm, Israeli and Egyptian tanks engaged in fierce combat, often at ranges as close as ten yards. The battle ended in an Israeli victory, with 40 Egyptian and 19 Israeli tanks destroyed. Meanwhile, Israeli infantry finished clearing out the Egyptian trenches, with Israeli casualties standing at 14 dead and 41 wounded and Egyptian casualties at 300 dead and 100 taken prisoner.
Further south, on 5 June, the 8th Armored Brigade under Colonel Albert Mandler, initially positioned as a ruse to draw off Egyptian forces from the real invasion routes, attacked the fortified bunkers at Kuntilla, a strategically valuable position whose capture would enable Mandler to block reinforcements from reaching Um - Katef and to join Sharon 's upcoming attack on Nakhl. The defending Egyptian battalion, outnumbered and outgunned, fiercely resisted the attack, hitting a number of Israeli tanks. However, most of the defenders were killed, and only three Egyptian tanks, one of them damaged, survived. By nightfall, Mendler 's forces had taken Kuntilla.
With the exceptions of Rafah and Khan Yunis, Israeli forces had initially avoided entering the Gaza Strip. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan had expressly forbidden entry into the area. After Palestinian positions in Gaza opened fire on the Negev settlements of Nirim and Kissufim, IDF Chief of Staff Yitzhak Rabin overrode Dayan 's instructions and ordered the 11th Mechanized Brigade under Colonel Yehuda Reshef to enter the Strip. The force was immediately met with heavy artillery fire and fierce resistance from Palestinian forces and remnants of the Egyptian forces from Rafah.
By sunset, the Israelis had taken the strategically vital Ali Muntar ridge, overlooking Gaza City, but were beaten back from the city itself. Some 70 Israelis were killed, along with Israeli journalist Ben Oyserman and American journalist Paul Schutzer. Twelve members of UNEF were also killed. On the war 's second day, 6 June, the Israelis were bolstered by the 35th Paratroopers Brigade under Colonel Rafael Eitan, and took Gaza City along with the entire Strip. The fighting was fierce, and accounted for nearly half of all Israeli casualties on the southern front. However, Gaza rapidly fell to the Israelis.
Meanwhile, on 6 June, two Israeli reserve brigades under Yoffe, each equipped with 100 tanks, penetrated the Sinai south of Tal 's division and north of Sharon 's, capturing the road junctions of Abu Ageila, Bir Lahfan, and Arish, taking all of them before midnight. Two Egyptian armoured brigades counterattacked, and a fierce battle took place until the following morning. The Egyptians were beaten back by fierce resistance coupled with airstrikes, sustaining heavy tank losses. They fled west towards Jabal Libni.
During the ground fighting, remnants of the Egyptian Air Force attacked Israeli ground forces, but took losses from the Israeli Air Force and from Israeli anti-aircraft units. Throughout the last four days, Egyptian aircraft flew 150 sorties against Israeli units in the Sinai.
Many of the Egyptian units remained intact and could have tried to prevent the Israelis from reaching the Suez Canal, or engaged in combat in the attempt to reach the canal. However, when the Egyptian Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer heard about the fall of Abu - Ageila, he panicked and ordered all units in the Sinai to retreat. This order effectively meant the defeat of Egypt.
Meanwhile, President Nasser, having learned of the results of the Israeli air strikes, decided together with Field Marshal Amer to order a general retreat from the Sinai within 24 hours. No detailed instructions were given concerning the manner and sequence of withdrawal.
As Egyptian columns retreated, Israeli aircraft and artillery attacked them. Israeli jets used napalm bombs during their sorties. The attacks destroyed hundreds of vehicles and caused heavy casualties. At Jabal Libni, retreating Egyptian soldiers were fired upon by their own artillery. At Bir Gafgafa, the Egyptians fiercely resisted advancing Israeli forces, knocking out three tanks and eight half - tracks, and killing 20 soldiers. Due to the Egyptians ' retreat, the Israeli High Command decided not to pursue the Egyptian units but rather to bypass and destroy them in the mountainous passes of West Sinai.
Therefore, in the following two days (6 and 7 June), all three Israeli divisions (Sharon and Tal were reinforced by an armoured brigade each) rushed westwards and reached the passes. Sharon 's division first went southward then westward, via An - Nakhl, to Mitla Pass with air support. It was joined there by parts of Yoffe 's division, while its other units blocked the Gidi Pass. These passes became killing grounds for the Egyptians, who ran right into waiting Israeli positions and suffered heavy losses. According to Egyptian diplomat Mahmoud Riad, 10,000 men were killed in one day alone, and many others died from hunger and thirst. Tal 's units stopped at various points to the length of the Suez Canal.
Israel 's blocking action was partially successful. Only the Gidi pass was captured before the Egyptians approached it, but at other places, Egyptian units managed to pass through and cross the canal to safety. Due to the haste of the Egyptian retreat, soldiers often abandoned weapons, military equipment, and hundreds of vehicles. Many Egyptian soldiers were cut off from their units had to walk about 200 kilometers on foot before reaching the Suez Canal with limited supplies of food and water and were exposed to intense heat. Thousands of soldiers died as a result. Many Egyptian soldiers chose instead to surrender to the Israelis. However, the Israelis eventually exceeded their capabilities to provide for prisoners. As a result, they began directing soldiers towards the Suez Canal and only taking prisoner high - ranking officers, who were expected to be exchanged for captured Israeli pilots.
According to some accounts, during the Egyptian retreat from the Sinai, a unit of Soviet Marines based on a Soviet warship in Port Said at the time came ashore and attempted to cross the Suez Canal eastward. The Soviet force was reportedly decimated by an Israeli air attack and lost 17 dead and 34 wounded. Among the wounded was the commander, Lt. Col. Victor Shevchenko.
During the offensive, the Israeli Navy landed six combat divers from the Shayetet 13 naval commando unit to infiltrate Alexandria harbour. The divers sank an Egyptian minesweeper before being taken prisoner. Shayetet 13 commandos also infiltrated into Port Said harbour, but found no ships there. A planned commando raid against the Syrian Navy never materialized. Both Egyptian and Israeli warships made movements at sea to intimidate the other side throughout the war, but did not engage each other. However, Israeli warships and aircraft did hunt for Egyptian submarines throughout the war.
On 7 June, Israel began the conquest of Sharm el - Sheikh. The Israeli Navy started the operation with a probe of Egyptian naval defenses. An aerial reconnaissance flight found that the area was less defended than originally thought. At about 4: 30 am, three Israeli missile boats opened fire on Egyptian shore batteries, while paratroopers and commandos boarded helicopters and Nord Noratlas transport planes for an assault on Al - Tur, as Chief of Staff Rabin was convinced it was too risky to land them directly in Sharm el - Sheikh. However, the city had been largely abandoned the day before, and reports from air and naval forces finally convinced Rabin to divert the aircraft to Sharm el - Sheikh. There, the Israelis engaged in a pitched battle with the Egyptians and took the city, killing 20 Egyptian soldiers and taking 8 prisoner. At 12: 15 pm, Defense Minister Dayan announced that the Straits of Tiran constituted an international waterway open to all ships without restriction.
On 8 June, Israel completed the capture of the Sinai by sending infantry units to Ras Sudar on the western coast of the peninsula.
Several tactical elements made the swift Israeli advance possible: first, the surprise attack that quickly gave the Israeli Air Force complete air superiority over the Egyptian Air Force; second, the determined implementation of an innovative battle plan; third, the lack of coordination among Egyptian troops. These factors would prove to be decisive elements on Israel 's other fronts as well.
Jordan was reluctant to enter the war. Nasser used the confusion of the first hours of the conflict to convince King Hussein that he was victorious; he claimed as evidence a radar sighting of a squadron of Israeli aircraft returning from bombing raids in Egypt, which he said was an Egyptian aircraft en route to attack Israel. One of the Jordanian brigades stationed in the West Bank was sent to the Hebron area in order to link with the Egyptians. Hussein decided to attack.
The IDF 's strategic plan was to remain on the defensive along the Jordanian front, to enable focus in the expected campaign against Egypt.
Intermittent machine - gun exchanges began taking place in Jerusalem at 9: 30 am, and the fighting gradually escalated as the Jordanians introduced mortar and recoilless rifle fire. Under the orders from General Narkis, the Israelis responded only with small - arms fire, firing in a flat trajectory to avoid hitting civilians, holy sites or the Old City. At 10: 00 am on 5 June, the Jordanian Army began shelling Israel. Two batteries of 155 mm Long Tom cannons opened fire on the suburbs of Tel Aviv and Ramat David Airbase. The commanders of these batteries were instructed to lay a two - hour barrage against military and civilian settlements in central Israel. Some shells hit the outskirts of Tel Aviv.
By 10: 30 am, Eshkol had sent a message via Odd Bull to King Hussein promising not to initiate any action against Jordan if it stayed out of the war. King Hussein replied that it was too late, "the die was cast ''. At 11: 15 am, Jordanian howitzers began a 6,000 - shell barrage at Israeli Jerusalem. The Jordanians initially targeted kibbutz Ramat Rachel in the south and Mount Scopus in the north, then ranged into the city center and outlying neighborhoods. Military installations, the Prime Minister 's Residence, and the Knesset compound were also targeted. Israeli civilian casualties totalled 20 dead and about 1,000 wounded. Some 900 buildings were damaged, including Hadassah Ein Kerem Hospital.
At 11: 50 am, sixteen Jordanian Hawker Hunters attacked Netanya, Kfar Sirkin and Kfar Saba, killing one civilian, wounding seven and destroying a transport plane. Three Iraqi Hawker Hunters strafed civilian settlements in the Jezreel Valley, and an Iraqi Tupolev Tu - 16 attacked Afula, and was shot down near the Megiddo airfield. The attack caused minimal material damage, hitting only a senior citizens ' home and several chicken coops, but sixteen Israeli soldiers were killed, most of them when the Tupolev crashed.
When the Israeli cabinet convened to decide what to do, Yigal Allon and Menahem Begin argued that this was an opportunity to take the Old City of Jerusalem, but Eshkol decided to defer any decision until Moshe Dayan and Yitzhak Rabin could be consulted. Uzi Narkiss made a number of proposals for military action, including the capture of Latrun, but the cabinet turned him down. Dayan rejected multiple requests from Narkiss for permission to mount an infantry assault towards Mount Scopus. However, Dayan sanctioned a number of more limited retaliatory actions.
Shortly before 12: 30 pm, the Israeli Air Force attacked Jordan 's two airbases. The Hawker Hunters were refueling at the time of the attack. The Israeli aircraft attacked in two waves, the first of which cratered the runways and knocked out the control towers, and the second wave destroyed all 21 of Jordan 's Hawker Hunter fighters, along with six transport aircraft and two helicopters. One Israeli jet was shot down by ground fire.
Israeli aircraft also attacked H - 3, an Iraqi Air Force base in western Iraq. During the attack, 12 MiG - 21s, 2 MiG - 17s, 5 Hunter F6s, and 3 Il - 28 bombers were destroyed or shot down. A Pakistani pilot stationed at the base shot down an Israeli fighter and a bomber during the raid. The Jordanian radar facility at Ajloun was destroyed in an Israeli airstrike. Israeli Fouga Magister jets attacked the Jordanian 40th Brigade with rockets as it moved south from the Damiya Bridge. Dozens of tanks were knocked out, and a convoy of 26 trucks carrying ammunition was destroyed. In Jerusalem, Israel responded to Jordanian shelling with a missile strike that devastated Jordanian positions. The Israelis used the L missile, a surface - to - surface missile developed jointly with France in secret.
A Jordanian battalion advanced up Government House ridge and dug in at the perimeter of Government House, the headquarters of the United Nations observers, and opened fire on Ramat Rachel, the Allenby Barracks and the Jewish section of Abu Tor with mortars and recoilless rifles. UN observers fiercely protested the incursion into the neutral zone, and several manhandled a Jordanian machine gun out of Government House after the crew had set it up in a second - floor window. After the Jordanians occupied Jabel Mukaber, an advance patrol was sent out and approached Ramat Rachel, where they came under fire from four civilians, including the wife of the director, who were armed with old Czech - made weapons.
The immediate Israeli response was an offensive to retake Government House and its ridge. The Jerusalem Brigade 's Reserve Battalion 161, under Lieutenant - Colonel Asher Dreizin, was given the task. Dreizin had two infantry companies and eight tanks under his command, several of which broke down or became stuck in the mud at Ramat Rachel, leaving three for the assault. The Jordanians mounted fierce resistance, knocking out two tanks.
The Israelis broke through the compound 's western gate and began clearing the building with grenades, before General Odd Bull, commander of the UN observers, compelled the Israelis to hold their fire, telling them that the Jordanians had already fled. The Israelis proceeded to take the Antenna Hill, directly behind Government House, and clear out a series of bunkers to the west and south. The fighting, often conducted hand - to - hand, continued for nearly four hours before the surviving Jordanians fell back to trenches held by the Hittin Brigade, which were steadily overwhelmed. By 6: 30 pm, the Jordanians had retreated to Bethlehem, having suffered about 100 casualties. All but ten of Dreizin 's soldiers were casualties, and Dreizin himself was wounded three times.
During the late afternoon of 5 June, the Israelis launched an offensive to encircle Jerusalem, which lasted into the following day. During the night, they were supported by intense tank, artillery and mortar fire to soften up Jordanian positions. Searchlights placed atop the Labor Federation building, then the tallest in Israeli Jerusalem, exposed and blinded the Jordanians. The Jerusalem Brigade moved south of Jerusalem, while the mechanized Harel Brigade and 55th Paratroopers Brigade under Mordechai Gur encircled it from the north.
A combined force of tanks and paratroopers crossed no - man 's land near the Mandelbaum Gate. One of Gur 's paratroop battalions approached the fortified Police Academy. The Israelis used bangalore torpedoes to blast their way through barbed wire leading up to the position while exposed and under heavy fire. With the aid of two tanks borrowed from the Jerusalem Brigade, they captured the Police Academy. After receiving reinforcements, they moved up to attack Ammunition Hill.
The Jordanian defenders, who were heavily dug - in, fiercely resisted the attack. All of the Israeli officers except for two company commanders were killed, and the fighting was mostly led by individual soldiers. The fighting was conducted at close quarters in trenches and bunkers, and was often hand - to - hand. The Israelis captured the position after four hours of heavy fighting. During the battle, 36 Israeli and 71 Jordanian soldiers were killed.
The battalion subsequently drove east, and linked up with the Israeli enclave on Mount Scopus and its Hebrew University campus. Gur 's other battalions captured the other Jordanian positions around the American Colony, despite being short on men and equipment and having come under a Jordanian mortar bombardment while waiting for the signal to advance.
At the same time, the mechanized Harel Brigade attacked the fortress at Latrun, which the Jordanians had abandoned due to heavy Israeli tank fire. The brigade attacked Har Adar, but seven tanks were knocked out by mines, forcing the infantry to mount an assault without armoured cover. The Israeli soldiers advanced under heavy fire, jumping between stones to avoid mines. The fighting was conducted at close - quarters, often with knives and bayonets.
The Jordanians fell back after a battle that left two Israeli and eight Jordanian soldiers dead, and Israeli forces advanced through Beit Horon towards Ramallah, taking four fortified villages along the way. By the evening, the brigade arrived in Ramallah. Meanwhile, the 163rd Infantry Battalion secured Abu Tor following a fierce battle, severing the Old City from Bethlehem and Hebron.
Meanwhile, 600 Egyptian commandos stationed in the West Bank moved to attack Israeli airfields. Led by Jordanian intelligence scouts, they crossed the border and began infiltrating through Israeli settlements towards Ramla and Hatzor. They were soon detected and sought shelter in nearby fields, which the Israelis set on fire. Some 450 commandos were killed, and the remainder escaped to Jordan.
From the American Colony, the paratroopers moved towards the Old City. Their plan was to approach it via the lightly defended Salah al - Din Street. However, they made a wrong turn onto the heavily defended Nablus Road. The Israelis ran into fierce resistance. Their tanks fired at point - blank range down the street, while the paratroopers mounted repeated charges. Despite repelling repeated Israeli charges, the Jordanians gradually gave way to Israeli firepower and momentum. The Israelis suffered some 30 casualties -- half the original force -- while the Jordanians lost 45 dead and 142 wounded.
Meanwhile, the Israeli 71st Battalion breached barbed wire and minefields and emerged near Wadi Joz, near the base of Mount Scopus, from where the Old City could be cut off from Jericho and East Jerusalem from Ramallah. Israeli artillery targeted the one remaining route from Jerusalem to the West Bank, and shellfire deterred the Jordanians from counterattacking from their positions at Augusta - Victoria. An Israeli detachment then captured the Rockefeller Museum after a brief skirmish.
Afterwards, the Israelis broke through to the Jerusalem - Ramallah road. At Tel al - Ful, the Israelis fought a running battle with up to thirty Jordanian tanks. The Jordanians stalled the advance and destroyed a number of half - tracks, but the Israelis launched air attacks and exploited the vulnerability of the external fuel tanks mounted on the Jordanian tanks. The Jordanians lost half their tanks, and retreated towards Jericho. Joining up with the 4th Brigade, the Israelis then descended through Shuafat and the site of what is now French Hill, through Jordanian defenses at Mivtar, emerging at Ammunition Hill.
With Jordanian defenses in Jerusalem crumbling, elements of the Jordanian 60th Brigade and an infantry battalion were sent from Jericho to reinforce Jerusalem. Its original orders were to repel the Israelis from the Latrun corridor, but due to the worsening situation in Jerusalem, the brigade was ordered to proceed to Jerusalem 's Arab suburbs and attack Mount Scopus. Parallel to the brigade were infantrymen from the Imam Ali Brigade, who were approaching Issawiya. The brigades were spotted by Israeli aircraft and decimated by rocket and cannon fire. Other Jordanian attempts to reinforce Jerusalem were beaten back, either by armoured ambushes or airstrikes.
Fearing damage to holy sites and the prospect of having to fight in built - up areas, Dayan ordered his troops not to enter the Old City. He also feared that Israel would be subjected to a fierce international backlash and the outrage of Christians worldwide if it forced its way into the Old City. Privately, he told David Ben - Gurion that he was also concerned over the prospect of Israel capturing Jerusalem 's holy sites, only to be forced to give them up under the threat of international sanctions.
On 7 June, heavy fighting ensued. Dayan had ordered his troops not to enter the Old City; however, upon hearing that the UN was about to declare a ceasefire, he changed his mind, and without cabinet clearance, decided to capture it. Two paratroop battalions attacked Augusta - Victoria Hill, high ground overlooking the Old City from the east. One battalion attacked from Mount Scopus, and another attacked from the valley between it and the Old City. Another paratroop battalion, personally led by Gur, broke into the Old City, and was joined by the other two battalions after their missions were complete. The paratroopers met little resistance. The fighting was conducted solely by the paratroopers; the Israelis did not use armour during the battle out of fear of severe damage to the Old City.
In the north, one battalion from Peled 's division was sent to check Jordanian defenses in the Jordan Valley. A brigade belonging to Peled 's division captured the western part of the West Bank. One brigade attacked Jordanian artillery positions around Jenin, which were shelling Ramat David Airbase. The Jordanian 12th Armored Battalion, which outnumbered the Israelis, held off repeated attempts to capture Jenin. However, Israeli air attacks took their toll, and the Jordanian M48 Pattons, with their external fuel tanks, proved vulnerable at short distances, even to the Israeli - modified Shermans. Twelve Jordanian tanks were destroyed, and only six remained operational.
Just after dusk, Israeli reinforcements arrived. The Jordanians continued to fiercely resist, and the Israelis were unable to advance without artillery and air support. One Israeli jet attacked the Jordanian commander 's tank, wounding him and killing his radio operator and intelligence officer. The surviving Jordanian forces then withdrew to Jenin, where they were reinforced by the 25th Infantry Brigade. The Jordanians were effectively surrounded in Jenin.
Jordanian infantry and their three remaining tanks managed to hold off the Israelis until 4: 00 am, when three battalions arrived to reinforce them in the afternoon. The Jordanian tanks charged, and knocked out multiple Israeli vehicles, and the tide began to shift. After sunrise, Israeli jets and artillery conducted a two - hour bombardment against the Jordanians. The Jordanians lost 10 dead and 250 wounded, and had only seven tanks left, including two without gas, and sixteen APCs. The Israelis then fought their way into Jenin, and captured the city after fierce fighting.
After the Old City fell, the Jerusalem Brigade reinforced the paratroopers, and continued to the south, capturing Judea and Gush Etzion. Hebron was taken without any resistance. Fearful that Israeli soldiers would exact retribution for the 1929 massacre of the city 's Jewish community, Hebron 's residents flew white sheets from their windows and rooftops, and voluntarily gave up their weapons. The Harel Brigade proceeded eastward, descending to the Jordan River.
On 7 June, Israeli forces seized Bethlehem, taking the city after a brief battle that left some 40 Jordanian soldiers dead, with the remainder fleeing. On the same day, one of Peled 's brigades seized Nablus; then it joined one of Central Command 's armoured brigades to fight the Jordanian forces; as the Jordanians held the advantage of superior equipment and were equal in numbers to the Israelis.
Again, the air superiority of the IAF proved paramount as it immobilized the Jordanians, leading to their defeat. One of Peled 's brigades joined with its Central Command counterparts coming from Ramallah, and the remaining two blocked the Jordan river crossings together with the Central Command 's 10th. Engineering Corps sappers blew up the Abdullah and Hussein bridges with captured Jordanian mortar shells, while elements of the Harel Brigade crossed the river and occupied positions along the east bank to cover them, but quickly pulled back due to American pressure. The Jordanians, anticipating an Israeli offensive deep into Jordan, assembled the remnants of their army and Iraqi units in Jordan to protect the western approaches to Amman and the southern slopes of the Golan Heights.
No specific decision had been made to capture any other territories controlled by Jordan. After the Old City was captured, Dayan told his troops to dig in to hold it. When an armoured brigade commander entered the West Bank on his own initiative, and stated that he could see Jericho, Dayan ordered him back. It was only after intelligence reports indicated that Hussein had withdrawn his forces across the Jordan River that Dayan ordered his troops to capture the West Bank. According to Narkis:
First, the Israeli government had no intention of capturing the West Bank. On the contrary, it was opposed to it. Second, there was not any provocation on the part of the IDF. Third, the rein was only loosened when a real threat to Jerusalem 's security emerged. This is truly how things happened on June 5, although it is difficult to believe. The end result was something that no one had planned.
In May -- June 1967, the Israeli government did everything in its power to confine the confrontation to the Egyptian front. Eshkol and his colleagues took into account the possibility of some fighting on the Syrian front.
False Egyptian reports of a crushing victory against the Israeli army and forecasts that Egyptian forces would soon be attacking Tel Aviv influenced Syria 's decision to enter the war. Syrian artillery began shelling northern Israel, and twelve Syrian jets attacked Israeli settlements in the Galilee. Israeli fighter jets intercepted the Syrian aircraft, shooting down three and driving off the rest. In addition, two Lebanese Hawker Hunter jets, two of the twelve Lebanon had, crossed into Israeli airspace and began strafing Israeli positions in the Galilee. They were intercepted by Israeli fighter jets, and one was shot down.
A minor Syrian force tried to capture the water plants at Tel Dan (the subject of a fierce escalation two years earlier), Dan, and She'ar Yashuv. These attacks were repulsed with the loss of twenty soldiers and seven tanks. An Israeli officer was also killed. But a broader Syrian offensive quickly failed. Syrian reserve units were broken up by Israeli air attacks, and several tanks were reported to have sunk in the Jordan River.
Other problems included tanks being too wide for bridges, lack of radio communications between tanks and infantry, and units ignoring orders to advance. A post-war Syrian army report concluded:
Our forces did not go on the offensive either because they did not arrive or were not wholly prepared or because they could not find shelter from the enemy 's planes. The reserves could not withstand the air attacks; they dispersed after their morale plummeted.
The Syrians abandoned hopes of a ground attack and began a massive bombardment of Israeli communities in the Hula Valley instead.
On the evening of 5 June, the Israeli Air Force attacked Syrian airfields. The Syrian Air Force lost some 32 MiG 21s, 23 MiG - 15 and MiG - 17 fighters, and two Ilyushin Il - 28 bombers, two - thirds of its fighting strength. The Syrian aircraft that survived the attack retreated to distant bases and played no further role in the war. Following the attack, Syria realised that the news it had received from Egypt of the near - total destruction of the Israeli military could not have been true.
On 7 and 8 June, the Israeli leadership debated about whether to attack the Golan Heights as well. Syria had supported pre-war raids that had helped raise tensions and had routinely shelled Israel from the Heights, so some Israeli leaders wanted to see Syria punished. Military opinion was that the attack would be extremely costly, since it would entail an uphill battle against a strongly fortified enemy. The western side of the Golan Heights consists of a rock escarpment that rises 500 meters (1,700 ft) from the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River, and then flattens to a gently sloping plateau. Dayan opposed the operation bitterly at first, believing such an undertaking would result in losses of 30,000 and might trigger Soviet intervention. Prime Minister Eshkol, on the other hand, was more open to the possibility, as was the head of the Northern Command, David Elazar, whose unbridled enthusiasm for and confidence in the operation may have eroded Dayan 's reluctance.
Eventually, the situation on the Southern and Central fronts cleared up, intelligence estimated that the likelihood of Soviet intervention had been reduced, reconnaissance showed some Syrian defenses in the Golan region collapsing, and an intercepted cable revealed that Nasser was urging the President of Syria to immediately accept a cease - fire. At 3 am on 9 June, Syria announced its acceptance of the cease - fire. Despite this announcement, Dayan became more enthusiastic about the idea and four hours later at 7 am, "gave the order to go into action against Syria '' without consultation or government authorisation.
The Syrian army consisted of about 75,000 men grouped in nine brigades, supported by an adequate amount of artillery and armour. Israeli forces used in combat consisted of two brigades (the 8th Armored Brigade and the Golani Brigade) in the northern part of the front at Givat HaEm, and another two (infantry and one of Peled 's brigades summoned from Jenin) in the center. The Golan Heights ' unique terrain (mountainous slopes crossed by parallel streams every several kilometers running east to west), and the general lack of roads in the area channeled both forces along east - west axes of movement and restricted the ability of units to support those on either flank. Thus the Syrians could move north - south on the plateau itself, and the Israelis could move north - south at the base of the Golan escarpment. An advantage Israel possessed was the excellent intelligence collected by Mossad operative Eli Cohen (who was captured and executed in Syria in 1965) regarding the Syrian battle positions. Syria had built extensive defensive fortifications in depths up to 15 kilometers, comparable to the Maginot Line.
As opposed to all the other campaigns, IAF was only partially effective in the Golan because the fixed fortifications were so effective. However, the Syrian forces proved unable to put up effective defense largely because the officers were poor leaders and treated their soldiers badly; often officers would retreat from danger, leaving their men confused and ineffective. The Israelis also had the upper hand during close combat that took place in the numerous Syrian bunkers along the Golan Heights, as they were armed with the Uzi, a submachine gun designed for close combat, while Syrian soldiers were armed with the heavier AK - 47 assault rifle, designed for combat in more open areas.
On the morning of 9 June, Israeli jets began carrying out dozens of sorties against Syrian positions from Mount Hermon to Tawfiq, using rockets salvaged from captured Egyptian stocks. The airstrikes knocked out artillery batteries and storehouses and forced transport columns off the roads. The Syrians suffered heavy casualties and a drop in morale, with a number of senior officers and troops deserting. The attacks also provided time as Israeli forces cleared paths through Syrian minefields. However, the airstrikes did not seriously damage the Syrians ' bunkers and trench systems, and the bulk of Syrian forces on the Golan remained in their positions.
About two hours after the airstrikes began, the 8th Armored Brigade, led by Colonel Albert Mandler, advanced into the Golan Heights from Givat HaEm. Its advance was spearheaded by Engineering Corps sappers and eight bulldozers, which cleared away barbed wire and mines. As they advanced, the force came under fire, and five bulldozers were immediately hit. The Israeli tanks, with their maneuverability sharply reduced by the terrain, advanced slowly under fire toward the fortified village of Sir al - Dib, with their ultimate objective being the fortress at Qala. Israeli casualties steadily mounted. Part of the attacking force lost its way and emerged opposite Za'ura, a redoubt manned by Syrian reservists. With the situation critical, Colonel Mandler ordered simultaneous assaults on Za'ura and Qala. Heavy and confused fighting followed, with Israeli and Syrian tanks struggling around obstacles and firing at extremely short ranges. Mandler recalled that "the Syrians fought well and bloodied us. We beat them only by crushing them under our treads and by blasting them with our cannons at very short range, from 100 to 500 meters. '' The first three Israeli tanks to enter Qala were stopped by a Syrian bazooka team, and a relief column of seven Syrian tanks arrived to repel the attackers. The Israelis took heavy fire from the houses, but could not turn back, as other forces were advancing behind them, and they were on a narrow path with mines on either side. The Israelis continued pressing forward, and called for air support. A pair of Israeli jets destroyed two of the Syrian tanks, and the remainder withdrew. The surviving defenders of Qala retreated after their commander was killed. Meanwhile, Za'ura fell in an Israeli assault, and the Israelis also captured the ' Ein Fit fortress.
In the central sector, the Israeli 181st Battalion captured the strongholds of Dardara and Tel Hillal after fierce fighting. Desperate fighting also broke out along the operation 's northern axis, where Golani Brigade attacked thirteen Syrian positions, including the formidable Tel Fakhr position. Navigational errors placed the Israelis directly under the Syrians ' guns. In the fighting that followed, both sides took heavy casualties, with the Israelis losing all nineteen of their tanks and half - tracks. The Israeli battalion commander then ordered his twenty - five remaining men to dismount, divide into two groups, and charge the northern and southern flanks of Tel Fakhr. The first Israelis to reach the perimeter of the southern approach laid bodily down on the barbed wire, allowing their comrades to vault over them. From there, they assaulted the fortified Syrian positions. The fighting was waged at extremely close quarters, often hand - to - hand.
On the northern flank, the Israelis broke through within minutes and cleared out the trenches and bunkers. During the seven - hour battle, the Israelis lost 31 dead and 82 wounded, while the Syrians lost 62 dead and 20 captured. Among the dead was the Israeli battalion commander. The Golani Brigade 's 51st Battalion took Tel ' Azzaziat, and Darbashiya also fell to Israeli forces.
By the evening of 9 June, the four Israeli brigades had all broken through to the plateau, where they could be reinforced and replaced. Thousands of reinforcements began reaching the front, those tanks and half - tracks that had survived the previous day 's fighting were refueled and replenished with ammunition, and the wounded were evacuated. By dawn, the Israelis had eight brigades in the sector.
Syria 's first line of defense had been shattered, but the defenses beyond that remained largely intact. Mount Hermon and the Banias in the north, and the entire sector between Tawfiq and Customs House Road in the south remained in Syrian hands. In a meeting early on the night of 9 June, Syrian leaders decided to reinforce those positions as quickly as possible, and to maintain a steady barrage on Israeli civilian settlements.
Throughout the night, the Israelis continued their advance. Though it was slowed by fierce resistance, an anticipated Syrian counterattack never materialized. At the fortified village of Jalabina, a garrison of Syrian reservists, leveling their anti-aircraft guns, held off the Israeli 65th Paratroop Battalion for four hours before a small detachment managed to penetrate the village and knock out the heavy guns.
Meanwhile, the 8th Brigade 's tanks moved south from Qala, advancing six miles to Wasit under heavy artillery and tank bombardment. At the Banias in the north, Syrian mortar batteries opened fire on advancing Israeli forces only after Golani Brigade sappers cleared a path through a minefield, killing sixteen Israeli soldiers and wounding four.
On the next day, 10 June, the central and northern groups joined in a pincer movement on the plateau, but that fell mainly on empty territory as the Syrian forces retreated. At 8: 30 am, the Syrians began blowing up their own bunkers, burning documents and retreating. Several units joined by Elad Peled 's troops climbed to the Golan from the south, only to find the positions mostly empty. When the 8th Brigade reached Mansura, five miles from Wasit, the Israelis met no opposition and found abandoned equipment, including tanks, in perfect working condition. In the fortified Banias village, Golani Brigade troops found only several Syrian soldiers chained to their positions.
During the day, the Israeli units stopped after obtaining manoeuvre room between their positions and a line of volcanic hills to the west. In some locations, Israeli troops advanced after an agreed - upon cease - fire to occupy strategically strong positions. To the east, the ground terrain is an open gently sloping plain. This position later became the cease - fire line known as the "Purple Line ''.
Time magazine reported: "In an effort to pressure the United Nations into enforcing a ceasefire, Damascus Radio undercut its own army by broadcasting the fall of the city of Quneitra three hours before it actually capitulated. That premature report of the surrender of their headquarters destroyed the morale of the Syrian troops left in the Golan area. ''
-- Levi Eshkol, 12 June 1967 (Address to Israeli Parliament)
By 10 June, Israel had completed its final offensive in the Golan Heights, and a ceasefire was signed the day after. Israel had seized the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan River (including East Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights. About one million Arabs were placed under Israel 's direct control in the newly captured territories. Israel 's strategic depth grew to at least 300 kilometers in the south, 60 kilometers in the east, and 20 kilometers of extremely rugged terrain in the north, a security asset that would prove useful in the Yom Kippur War six years later.
Speaking three weeks after the war ended, as he accepted an honorary degree from Hebrew University, Yitzhak Rabin gave his reasoning behind the success of Israel:
In recognition of contributions, Rabin was given the honour of naming the war for the Israelis. From the suggestions proposed, including the "War of Daring '', "War of Salvation '', and "War of the Sons of Light '', he "chose the least ostentatious, the Six - Day War, evoking the days of creation ''.
Dayan 's final report on the war to the Israeli general staff listed several shortcomings in Israel 's actions, including misinterpretation of Nasser 's intentions, overdependence on the United States, and reluctance to act when Egypt closed the Straits. He also credited several factors for Israel 's success: Egypt did not appreciate the advantage of striking first and their adversaries did not accurately gauge Israel 's strength and its willingness to use it.
In Egypt, according to Heikal, Nasser had admitted his responsibility for the military defeat in June 1967. According to historian Abd al - Azim Ramadan, Nasser 's mistaken decisions to expel the international peacekeeping force from the Sinai Peninsula and close the Straits of Tiran in 1967 led to a state of war with Israel, despite Egypt 's lack of military preparedness.
After the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Egypt reviewed the causes of its loss of the 1967 war. Issues that were identified included "the individualistic bureaucratic leadership ''; "promotions on the basis of loyalty, not expertise, and the army 's fear of telling Nasser the truth ''; lack of intelligence; and better Israeli weapons, command, organization, and will to fight.
Between 776 and 983 Israelis were killed and 4,517 were wounded. Fifteen Israeli soldiers were captured. Arab casualties were far greater. Between 9,800 and 15,000 Egyptian soldiers were listed as killed or missing in action. An additional 4,338 Egyptian soldiers were captured. Jordanian losses are estimated to be 700 killed in action with another 2,500 wounded. The Syrians were estimated to have sustained between 1,000 and 2,500 killed in action. Between 367 and 591 Syrians were captured.
At the commencement of hostilities, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other country. The Israeli government later abandoned its initial position, acknowledging Israel had struck first, claiming that it was a preemptive strike in the face of a planned invasion by Egypt. On the other hand, the Arab view was that it was unjustified to attack Egypt. Many commentators consider the war as the classic case of anticipatory attack in self - defense.
It has been alleged that Nasser did not want Egypt to learn of the true extent of his defeat and so ordered the killing of Egyptian army stragglers making their way back to the Suez canal zone. There have also been allegations from both Israeli and Egyptian sources that Israeli troops killed unarmed Egyptian prisoners.
There have been a number of allegations of direct military support of Israel during the war by the US and the UK, including the supply of equipment (despite an embargo) and the participation of US forces in the conflict. Many of these allegations and conspiracy theories have been disputed and it has been claimed that some were given currency in the Arab world to explain the Arab defeat. It has also been claimed that the Soviet Union, in support of its Arab allies, used its naval strength in the Mediterranean to act as a major restraint on the US Navy.
America features prominently in Arab conspiracy theories purporting to explain the June 1967 defeat. Mohamed Hassanein Heikal, a confidant of Nasser, claims that President Lyndon B. Johnson was obsessed with Nasser and that Johnson conspired with Israel to bring him down. The reported Israeli troop movements seemed all the more threatening because they were perceived in the context of a US conspiracy against Egypt. Salah Bassiouny of the Foreign ministry, claims that Foreign Ministry saw the reported Israeli troop movements as credible because Israel had reached the level at which it could find strategic alliance with the United States. During the war, Cairo announced that American and British planes were participating in the Israeli attack. Nasser broke off diplomatic relations following this allegation. Nasser 's image of the United States was such that he might well have believed the worst. However Anwar Sadat implied that Nasser used this deliberate conspiracy in order to accuse the United States as a political cover - up for domestic consumption. Lutfi Abd al - Qadir, the director of Radio Cairo during the late 1960s, who accompanied Nasser to his visits in Moscow, had his conspiracy theory that both the Soviets and the Western powers wanted to topple Nasser or to reduce his influence.
On 8 June 1967, USS Liberty, a United States Navy electronic intelligence vessel sailing 13 nautical miles (24 km) off Arish (just outside Egypt 's territorial waters), was attacked by Israeli jets and torpedo boats, nearly sinking the ship, killing 34 sailors and wounding 171. Israel said the attack was a case of mistaken identity, and that the ship had been misidentified as the Egyptian vessel El Quseir. Israel apologized for the mistake, and paid compensation to the victims or their families, and to the United States for damage to the ship. After an investigation, the U.S. accepted the explanation that the incident was friendly fire and the issue was closed by the exchange of diplomatic notes in 1987. Others however, including the then United States Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Chief of Naval Operations at the time, Admiral Thomas Moorer, some survivors of the attack and intelligence officials familiar with transcripts of intercepted signals on the day, have rejected these conclusions as unsatisfactory and maintain that the attack was made in the knowledge that the ship was American.
The political importance of the 1967 War was immense; Israel demonstrated that it was able and willing to initiate strategic strikes that could change the regional balance. Egypt and Syria learned tactical lessons and would launch an attack in 1973 in an attempt to reclaim their lost territory.
After following other Arab nations in declaring war, Mauritania remained in a declared state of war with Israel until about 1999. The United States imposed an embargo on new arms agreements to all Middle East countries, including Israel. The embargo remained in force until the end of the year, despite urgent Israeli requests to lift it.
Following the war, Israel experienced a wave of national euphoria, and the press praised the military 's performance for weeks afterward. New "victory coins '' were minted to celebrate. In addition, the world 's interest in Israel grew, and the country 's economy, which had been in crisis before the war, flourished due to an influx of tourists and donations, as well as the extraction of oil from the Sinai 's wells. The aftermath of the war also saw a baby boom, which lasted for four years.
The aftermath of the war is also of religious significance. Under Jordanian rule, Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and were effectively barred from visiting the Western Wall, despite Article VIII of the 1949 Armistice Agreement demanded Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall. Jewish holy sites were not maintained, and Jewish cemeteries had been desecrated. After the annexation to Israel, each religious group was granted administration over its holy sites. For the first time since 1948, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall, the holiest site where Jews are permitted to pray, an event celebrated every year during Yom Yerushalayim. Despite the Temple Mount being the most important holy site in Jewish tradition, the al - Aqsa Mosque has been under sole administration of the Jordanian Muslim Waqf, and Jews are barred from praying on the Temple Mount, although they are allowed to visit it. In Hebron, Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs -- the second most holy site in Judaism, after the Temple Mount -- for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were allowed to pray only at the entrance). Other Jewish holy sites, such as Rachel 's Tomb in Bethlehem and Joseph 's Tomb in Nablus, also became accessible.
The war inspired the Jewish diaspora, which was swept up in overwhelming support for Israel. According to Michael Oren, the war enabled American Jews to "walk with their backs straight and flex their political muscle as never before. American Jewish organizations which had previously kept Israel at arms length suddenly proclaimed their Zionism. '' Thousands of Jewish immigrants arrived from Western countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, and South Africa after the war. Many of them returned to their countries of origin after a few years; one survey found that 58 % of American Jews who immigrated to Israel between 1961 and 1972 returned to the US. Nevertheless, this immigration to Israel of Jews from Western countries, which was previously only a trickle, was a significant force for the first time. Most notably, the war stirred Zionist passions among Jews in the Soviet Union, who had by that time been forcibly assimilated. Many Soviet Jews subsequently applied for exit visas and began protesting for their right to immigrate to Israel. Following diplomatic pressure from the West, the Soviet government began granting exit visas to Jews in growing numbers. From 1970 to 1988, some 291,000 Soviet Jews were granted exit visas, of whom 165,000 immigrated to Israel and 126,000 immigrated to the United States. The great rise in Jewish pride in the wake of Israel 's victory also fueled the beginnings of the baal teshuva movement. The war gave impetus to a Chabad campaign in which the Lubavitcher Rebbe directed his followers to put tefillin on Jewish men around world.
In the Arab nations, populations of minority Jews faced persecution and expulsion following the Israeli victory. According to historian and ambassador Michael B. Oren:
Mobs attacked Jewish neighborhoods in Egypt, Yemen, Lebanon, Tunisia, and Morocco, burning synagogues and assaulting residents. A pogrom in Tripoli, Libya, left 18 Jews dead and 25 injured; the survivors were herded into detention centers. Of Egypt 's 4,000 Jews, 800 were arrested, including the chief rabbis of both Cairo and Alexandria, and their property sequestered by the government. The ancient communities of Damascus and Baghdad were placed under house arrest, their leaders imprisoned and fined. A total of 7,000 Jews were expelled, many with merely a satchel.
Following the war, a series of antisemitic purges began in Communist countries. Some 11,200 Jews from Poland immigrated to Israel during the 1968 Polish political crisis and the following year.
Following the war, Israel made an offer for peace that included the return of most of the recently captured territories. According to Chaim Herzog:
On June 19, 1967, the National Unity Government (of Israel) voted unanimously to return the Sinai to Egypt and the Golan Heights to Syria in return for peace agreements. The Golans would have to be demilitarized and special arrangement would be negotiated for the Straits of Tiran. The government also resolved to open negotiations with King Hussein of Jordan regarding the Eastern border.
The 19 June Israeli cabinet decision did not include the Gaza Strip, and left open the possibility of Israel permanently acquiring parts of the West Bank. On 25 -- 27 June, Israel incorporated East Jerusalem together with areas of the West Bank to the north and south into Jerusalem 's new municipal boundaries.
The Israeli decision was to be conveyed to the Arab nations by the United States. The U.S. was informed of the decision, but not that it was to transmit it. There is no evidence of receipt from Egypt or Syria, and some historians claim that they may never have received the offer.
In September, the Khartoum Arab Summit resolved that there would be "no peace, no recognition and no negotiation with Israel ''. However, as Avraham Sela notes, the Khartoum conference effectively marked a shift in the perception of the conflict by the Arab states away from one centered on the question of Israel 's legitimacy, toward one focusing on territories and boundaries. This was shown on 22 November when Egypt and Jordan accepted United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. Nasser forestalled any movement toward direct negotiations with Israel. In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender.
After the war, the entire Soviet bloc of Eastern Europe (with the exception of Romania) broke off diplomatic relations with Israel.
The 1967 War laid the foundation for future discord in the region, as the Arab states resented Israel 's victory and did not want to give up territory.
On 22 November 1967, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace '' formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal "from territories occupied '' in 1967 and "the termination of all claims or states of belligerency ''. Resolution 242 recognized the right of "every state in the area to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force. '' Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in 1978, after the Camp David Accords, and disengaged from the Gaza Strip in the summer of 2005. Its army frequently re-enters Gaza for military operations and still retains control of the seaports, airports and most of the border crossings.
There was extensive displacement of populations in the captured territories: of about one million Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, 300,000 (according to the United States Department of State) either fled, or were displaced from their homes, to Jordan, where they contributed to the growing unrest. The other 700,000 remained. In the Golan Heights, an estimated 80,000 Syrians fled. Israel allowed only the inhabitants of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights to receive full Israeli citizenship, applying its law, administration and jurisdiction to these territories in 1967 and 1981, respectively. The vast majority of the populations in both territories declined to take citizenship. See also Israeli -- Palestinian conflict and Golan Heights.
In his book Righteous Victims (1999), Israeli "New Historian '' Benny Morris writes:
In three villages southwest of Jerusalem and at Qalqilya, houses were destroyed "not in battle, but as punishment... and in order to chase away the inhabitants... contrary to government... policy, '' Dayan wrote in his memoirs. In Qalqilya, about a third of the homes were razed and about 12,000 inhabitants were evicted, though many then camped out in the environs. The evictees in both areas were allowed to stay and later were given cement and tools by the Israeli authorities to rebuild at least some of their dwellings.
But many thousands of other Palestinians now took to the roads. Perhaps as many as seventy thousand, mostly from the Jericho area, fled during the fighting; tens of thousands more left over the following months. Altogether, about one - quarter of the population of the West Bank, about 200 -- 250,000 people, went into exile... They simply walked to the Jordan River crossings and made their way on foot to the East Bank. It is unclear how many were intimidated or forced out by the Israeli troops and how many left voluntarily, in panic and fear. There is some evidence of IDF soldiers going around with loudspeakers ordering West Bankers to leave their homes and cross the Jordan. Some left because they had relatives or sources of livelihood on the East Bank and feared being permanently cut off.
Thousands of Arabs were taken by bus from East Jerusalem to the Allenby Bridge, though there is no evidence of coercion. The free Israeli - organized transportation, which began on June 11, 1967, went on for about a month. At the bridge they had to sign a document stating that they were leaving of their own free will. Perhaps as many as 70,000 people emigrated from the Gaza Strip to Egypt and elsewhere in the Arab world.
On July 2, the Israeli government announced that it would allow the return of those 1967 refugees who desired to do so, but no later than August 10, later extended to September 13. The Jordanian authorities probably pressured many of the refugees, who constituted an enormous burden, to sign up to return. In practice only 14,000 of the 120,000 who applied were allowed by Israel back into the West Bank by the beginning of September. After that, only a trickle of "special cases '' were allowed back, perhaps 3,000 in all. (328 -- 29)
In addition, between 80,000 and 110,000 Syrians fled the Golan Heights, of which about 20,000 were from the city of Quneitra. According to more recent research by the Israeli daily Haaretz, a total of 130,000 Syrian inhabitants fled or were expelled from the territory, most of them pushed out by the Israeli army.
Israel made peace with Egypt following the Camp David Accords of 1978 and completed a staged withdrawal from the Sinai in 1982. However, the position of the other occupied territories has been a long - standing and bitter cause of conflict for decades between Israel and the Palestinians, and the Arab world in general. Jordan and Egypt eventually withdrew their claims to sovereignty over the West Bank and Gaza, respectively. Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty in 1994.
After the Israeli conquest of these newly acquired territories, the Gush Emunim movement launched a large settlement effort in these areas to secure a permanent foothold. There are now hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers in the West Bank. They are a matter of controversy within Israel, both among the general population and within different political administrations, supporting them to varying degrees. Palestinians consider them a provocation. The Israeli settlements in Gaza were evacuated in August 2005 as a part of Israel 's disengagement from Gaza.
1. Photograph:
3. Both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other country.
4. Lenczowski 1990, pp. 105 -- 15, Citing Moshe Dayan, Story of My Life, and Nadav Safran, From War to War: The Arab -- Israeli Confrontation, 1948 -- 1967, p. 375
Israel clearly did not want the US government to know too much about its dispositions for attacking Syria, initially planned for June 8, but postponed for 24 hours. It should be pointed out that the attack on the Liberty occurred on June 8, whereas on June 9 at 3 am, Syria announced its acceptance of the cease - fire. Despite this, at 7 am, that is, four hours later, Israel 's minister of defense, Moshe Dayan, "gave the order to go into action against Syria.
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who has scored the most own goals ever | List of FIFA World Cup own goals - wikipedia
Out of over 2500 goals scored in matches at the 21 final tournaments of the FIFA World Cup, only 53 have been own goals. In 1997, FIFA published guidelines for classifying an own goal as "when a player plays the ball directly into his own net or when he redirects an opponent 's shot, cross or pass into his own goal '', and excludes "shots that are on target (i.e. goal - bound) and touch a defender or rebound from the goal frame and bounce off a defender or goalkeeper ''.
No player holds the dubious distinction of having scored multiple own goals. Mexico has had their players score own goals on four different occasions each, while France has benefited on six occasions from opponents scoring own goals. Of the 52 matches with an own goal, the team scoring the own goal won seven times and drew eight times. All but 12 own goals have been scored in the first stages of the tournament.
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how many millionares are there in the usa | Millionaire - Wikipedia
A millionaire is an individual whose net worth or wealth is equal to or exceeds one million units of currency. It can also be a person who owns one million units of currency in a bank account or savings account. Depending on the currency, a certain level of prestige is associated with being a millionaire, which makes that amount of wealth a goal for some and almost unattainable for others. In countries that use the short scale number naming system, a billionaire is someone who has at least a thousand times a million dollars, euros or the currency of the given country.
Many national currencies have, or have had at various times, a low unit value, in many cases due to past inflation. It is obviously much easier and less significant to be a millionaire in those currencies, thus a millionaire (in the local currency) in Hong Kong or Taiwan, for example, may be merely averagely wealthy, or perhaps less wealthy than average. In 2007 a millionaire in Zimbabwe could have been extremely poor.
At the end of 2017, there were estimated to be just over 15 million US $ millionaires or high - net - worth individual (HNWIs) in the world. The United States had the highest number of HNWIs (5,047,000) of any country, while New York City had the most HNWIs (393,500) among cities.
The word was first used (as millionnaire, double "n '') in French in 1719 by Steven Fentiman and is first recorded in English (millionaire, as a French term) in a letter of Lord Byron of 1816, then in print in Vivian Grey, a novel of 1826 by Benjamin Disraeli. An earlier English word "millionary '' was used in 1786 by Thomas Jefferson while serving as Minister to France; he wrote: "The poorest labourer stood on equal ground with the wealthiest Millionary ''. The first American printed use of the word is thought to be in an obituary of New York tobacco manufacturer Pierre Lorillard II in 1843.
While statistics regarding financial assets and net worth are presented by household, the term is also often used to describe only the individual who has amassed the assets as millionaire. That is, even though the term statistically refers only to households, common usage is often in reference only to an individual.
There are multiple approaches to determining a person 's status as a millionaire. One of the two most commonly used measurements is net worth, which counts the total value of all property owned by a household minus the household 's debts. According to this definition, a household owning an $800 k home, $50 k of furnishings, two cars worth $60 k, a $60 k retirement savings account, $45 k in mutual funds, and a $325 k vacation home with a $250 k mortgage, $40 k in car loans, and $25 k in credit card debt would be worth about $1,025,000; and every individual in this household would thus be a millionaire. However, according to the net financial assets measurement used for some specific applications (such as evaluating an investor 's expected tolerance for risk for stockbroker ethics), equity in one 's principal residence is excluded, as are lifestyle assets, such as the car and furniture. Therefore, the above example household would only have net financial assets of $105,000. Another term used is "net investable assets '' or working capital. These practitioners may use the term "millionaire '' to mean somebody who is free to invest a million units of currency through them as broker. For similar reasons, those who market goods, services and investments to HNWIs are careful to specify a net worth "not counting principal residence ''. At the end of 2011, there were around 5.1 million HNWIs in the United States, while at the same time there were 11 million millionaires in a total of 3.5 million millionaire households, including those 5.1 million HNWIs.
In the real estate bubble up to 2007, average house prices in some U.S. regions exceeded $1 million, but many homeowners owed large amounts to banks holding mortgages on their homes. For this reason, there are many people in million - dollar homes whose net worth is far short of a million -- in some cases the net worth is actually negative.
While millionaires constitute only a small percentage of the population, they hold substantial control over economic resources, with the most powerful and prominent individuals usually ranking among them. The total amount of money held by millionaires can equal the amount of money held by a far higher number of poor people. The Gini coefficient, and other measures in economics, estimated for each country, are useful for determining how many of the poorest people have the equivalent total wealth of the few richest in the country. Forbes and Fortune magazines maintain lists of people based on their net worth and are generally considered authorities on the subject. Forbes listed 1,645 dollar billionaires in 2014, with an aggregate net worth of $6.4 trillion, an increase from $5.4 trillion the previous year. (see US - dollar billionaires in the world).
Sixteen percent of millionaires inherited their fortunes. Forty - seven percent of millionaires are business owners. Twenty - three percent of the world 's millionaires got that way through paid work, consisting mostly of skilled professionals or managers. Millionaires are, on average, 61 years old with $3.05 million in assets.
Depending on how it is calculated, a million US dollars in 1900 is equivalent to $29.4 million (in 2017).
Thus one would need to have almost thirty million dollars today to have the purchasing power of a US millionaire in 1900, or more than 100 million dollars to have the same impact on the US economy.
Another commonly used term is multimillionaire which usually refers to individuals with net assets of 10 million or more of a currency. There are approximately 584,000 US $ multimillionaires worldwide in 2017. Roughly 1.5 % of US $ millionaires can also correctly be identified as ultra-high - net - worth individuals (ultra-HNWIs), those with a net worth or wealth of $30 million or more. There are approximately 226,000 US $ ultra-HNWIs in the world in 2017, according to Wealth - X.
The rising prevalence of people possessing ever increasing quantities of wealth has given rise to additional terms to further differentiate millionaires. Individuals with net assets of 100 million or more of a currency have been termed hectomillionaires. The term centimillionaire has become synonymous with hectomillionaire in America, despite the centi - prefix meaning the one hundredth of a whole, not 100, in the metric system. Offshoots of the term include pent - hectomillionaire, referring to those who are halfway to becoming billionaires. In discussions on wealth inequality in the United States, hectomillionaires are said to be in the richest 0.01 %, prompting calls for a redistribution of wealth.
High Net Worth Individuals.
According to wealth research group Wealth - X that released its latest UHNW Cities report, showing the residential footprint of the world 's top ultra-high net worth (UHNW) individual cities.
Excluding Monaco -- which has very high UHNWI density -- Geneva has the highest density of super wealthy people per capita in the world. The city is known as the most compact metropolitan area, and also enjoys a concentration of affluence. Singapore has the second highest concentration, followed by San Jose, the center of Silicon Valley, and the largest city in Northern California. While New York leads in terms of overall UHNW footprint, London has a similar number of UHNW ' second homers ' despite a considerably smaller population. Paris, perhaps surprisingly, features as the highest European city after London, Wealth - X said. Among suburbs and smaller towns, Beverly Hills has the highest overall number of UHNW residents, and Aspen has the highest concentration on a per capita basis, the report showed. Ultra-high net worth individuals are defined by Wealth - X as those whose total net worth is higher than $30 million (R400 million). Fig below illustrates Cities with The highest millionaire density worldwide (higher than 1 $ million).
The following is a list of the countries with the most millionaire households in U.S. dollars worldwide according to the Boston Consulting Group 's 2017 study.
Credit Suisse 's "Global Wealth in 2017 '' measured the number of millionaires in the world. According to the report, the US has 15.3 million millionaires, highest in the world.
The following is a list of the cities with the most number of US $ millionaires as of February 2018.
There is a wide disparity in the estimates of the number of millionaires residing in the United States. A quarterly report prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit on behalf of Barclays Wealth in 2007 estimated that there were 16.6 million millionaires in the USA. At the end of 2011, there were around 5.1 million HNWIs in the US, while at the same time, there were 11 million millionaires in a total of 3.5 million millionaire households, including those 5.1 million HNWIs.
According to TNS Financial Services, as reported by CNN Money, 2 million households in the US alone had a net worth of at least $1 million excluding primary residences in 2005. According to TNS, in mid-2006 the number of millionaire US households was 9.3 million, with an increase of half a million since 2005. Millionaire households thus constituted roughly seven percent of all American households. The study also found that half of all millionaire households in the US were headed by retirees. In 2004 the United States saw a "33 percent increase over the 6.2 million households that met that criteria (sic) in 2003, '' fueled largely by the country 's real estate boom.
A report by Capgemini for Merrill Lynch on the other hand stated that in 2007 there were approximately 3,028,000 households in the United States who held at least US $1 million in financial assets, excluding collectibles, consumables, consumer durables and primary residences.
According to TNS Financial Services, Los Angeles County had the highest number of millionaires, totalling over 262,800 households in mid-2006. Los Angeles County is also the largest single jurisdiction of any kind in the United States.
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this photo shows an early mesoamerican structure. what was this structure most likely used for | Mesoamerican ballcourt - wikipedia
A Mesoamerican ballcourt is a large masonry structure of a type used in Mesoamerica for over 2,700 years to play the Mesoamerican ballgame, particularly the hip - ball version of the ballgame. More than 1,300 ballcourts have been identified, 60 % in the last 20 years alone. Although there is a tremendous variation in size, in general all ballcourts are the same shape: a long narrow alley flanked by two walls with horizontal, vertical, and sloping faces. Although the alleys in early ballcourts were open - ended, later ballcourts had enclosed end - zones, giving the structure an - shape when viewed from above.
Ballcourts were also used for functions other than, or in addition to, ballgames. Ceramics from western Mexico show ballcourts being used for other sporting endeavours, including what appears to be a wrestling match. It is also known from archaeological excavations that ballcourts were the sites of sumptuous feasts, although whether these were conducted in the context of the ballgame or as another event entirely is not as yet known. The siting of the most prominent ballcourts within the sacred precincts of cities and towns, as well as the votive deposits found buried there, demonstrates that the ballcourt were places of spectacle and ritual.
Although ballcourts are found within most Mesoamerican sites, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. For example, the Late Classic site of El Tajin, the largest city of the ballgame - obsessed Classic Veracruz culture, has at least 18 ballcourts while Cantona, a nearby contemporaneous site, sets the record with 24. In contrast, Northern Chiapas and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some major sites, including Teotihuacan, Bonampak, and Tortuguero.
It is thought that ballcourts are an indication of decentralization of political and economic power: areas with a strong centralized state, such as the Aztec Empire, have relatively few ballcourts while areas with smaller competing polities have many. At Cantona, for example, the extraordinary number of ballcourts is likely due to the many and diverse cultures residing there under a relatively weak state.
Ballcourts vary considerably in size. One of the smallest, at Tikal site, is only one - sixth the size of the Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza. Despite the variation in size, ballcourts ' playing alleys are generally the same shape, with an average length - to - width ratio of 4 - to - 1, although some regional variation is found: Central Mexico, for example, has slightly longer playing alleys, and the Maya Northern Lowlands slightly wider.
The following is a comparison of the size of the playing alleys for several well - known ballcourts.
The earliest ballcourts were doubtless temporary marked off areas of compacted soil much like those used to play the modern ulama game, the Mesoamerican ballgame 's descendant.
Paso de la Amada, Soconusco, along the Pacific coast boasts the oldest ballcourt yet identified, dated to approximately 1400 BC. This narrow ballcourt has an 80 m × 8 m (262 ft × 26 ft) flat playing alley defined by two flanking earthen mounds with "benches '' running along their length.
By the Early Classic, ballcourt designs began to feature an additional pair of mounds set some distance beyond the ends of the alley as if to keep errant balls from rolling too far away. By the Terminal Classic, the end zones of many ballcourts were enclosed, creating the well - known - shape.
The evolution of the ballcourt is, of course, more complex than the foregoing suggests, and with over 1300 known ballcourts, there are exceptions to any generalization.
Unlike the compacted earth of the playing alley, the side walls of the formal ballcourts were lined with stone blocks. These walls featured 3 or more horizontal and sloping surfaces. Vertical surfaces are less common, but they begin to replace the sloping apron during the Classic era, and are a feature of several of the largest and best - known ballcourts, including the Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza and the North and South Ballcourts at El Tajin. There the vertical surfaces were covered with elaborate reliefs showing scenes, particularly sacrificial scenes, related to the ballgame.
Most prominent ballcourts were part of their town or city 's central monumental precinct and as such they share the orientation of pyramids and other structures there. Since many Mesoamerican cities and towns were oriented to a few degrees east of north (roughly 15 ° east of north), it is not surprising to find that in the Valley of Oaxaca, for example, ballcourt orientations also tend to be a few degrees east of north, or at right angles to that.
Other than this general trend, no consistent orientation of ballcourts throughout Mesoamerica has been found, although some patterns do emerge at the regional level. In the Cotzumalhuapa region, for example, open - ended ballcourts with a north - south orientation were earlier than east - west enclosed courts.
Stone rings, tenoned into the wall at mid-court, appeared in the Terminal Classic era. Actually sending a ball through the ring must have been a rare occurrence. The players could not use their hands or even feet to guide the ball. Moreover, the rings were only slightly larger than the ball itself and were located at no small distance from the playing alley. At Chichen Itza, for example, they were set 6 meters above the alley, while at Xochicalco they set at the top of an 11 - meter - wide apron, 3 meters above the playing alley (see lead photo).
As shown on Aztec codices, court markers were also used on many ballcourts to establish the dividing line between teams -- one set into the playing alley floor at exact mid-court, the other two placed against each side wall. However, such placement is not universal. Two ancient ceramic ballcourt models recovered from western Mexico show the three markers placed length-wise along the court: one (again) at exact mid-court with the remaining pair set midway between the walls at either end of the playing alley. The ballcourt markers at Copan are also arranged in this manner. The ballcourt at Monte Alban, meanwhile, has only one court marker, placed at the exact center of the court.
These sunken court markers are almost invariably round and usually decorated with ballgame - related scenes or iconography. Other markers were set into ballcourt walls. Many researchers have also proposed that above - ground, moveable objects, for example stone hachas, were also used as court markers.
Various sculptures, stelae, and other stonework were also important components of the ballcourt. At the ballcourt at Tonina, for example, 6 sculptures of prone captives overhang the apron, a pair at mid-court and a pair at each of the ends of the cornice. Unfortunately, rings, markers and sculptures are more portable and more prone to removal or destruction than the permanent ballcourt infrastructure, and at some ballcourts these features have been lost forever.
Many -- or even most -- Maya depictions of ballgame play are shown against a backdrop of stairs. Conversely, Maya staircases will occasionally feature reliefs of ballgame scenes or ballgame - related glyphs on their risers. The most famous of these are the Hieroglyphic Stairs at Structure 33 in Yaxchilan, where 11 of the 13 risers feature ballgame - related scenes. In these scenes, it appears as if the players were actually playing the ball against the stairs in what would seem to be a Maya version of stoop ball.
The association of stairs and the ballgame is not well understood. Linda Schele and Mary Miller propose that the depictions record historic events and in particular record a "form of play... distinct from the game conducted on the courts '', one that "probably followed immediately after (ward) on steps adjacent to the ballcourts ''. Other researchers are skeptical. Marvin Cohodas, for example, proposes that the "stairs '' are instead stepped platforms associated with human sacrifice, while Carolyn Tate views the Yaxchilan stair scenes as "the Underworld segment of a cosmogram ''.
One of two Mesoamerican ballgame courts at Cobá
The Tehuacalco Mesoamerican ball court
Yagul Ball Court
poc - ta - tok field, Mexico
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which happened first korean war or vietnam war | Military history of the United States - wikipedia
The military history of the United States spans a period of over two centuries. During those years, the United States evolved from a new nation fighting Great Britain for independence (1775 -- 83), through the monumental American Civil War (1861 -- 65) and, after collaborating in triumph during World War II (1941 -- 45), to the world 's sole remaining superpower from the late 20th century to present.
The Continental Congress in 1775 established the Continental Army, Continental Navy, and Continental Marines and named General George Washington its commander. This newly formed military, along with state militia forces, the French Army and Navy, and the Spanish Navy defeated the British in 1781. The new Constitution in 1789 made the president the commander in chief, with authority for the Congress to levy taxes, make the laws, and declare war.
As of 2017, the U.S. Armed Forces consists of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Air Force, all under the command of the United States Department of Defense. There also is the United States Coast Guard, which is controlled by the Department of Homeland Security.
The President of the United States is the commander - in - chief, and exercises the authority through the Secretary of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which supervises combat operations. Governors have control of each state 's Army and Air National Guard units for limited purposes. The president has the ability to federalize National Guard units, bringing them under the sole control of the Department of Defense.
The beginning of the United States military lies in civilian frontier settlers, armed for hunting and basic survival in the wilderness. These were organized into local militias for small military operations, mostly against Native American tribes but also to resist possible raids by the small military forces of neighboring European colonies. They relied on the British regular Army and Navy for any serious military operation.
In major operations outside the locality involved, the militia was not employed as a fighting force. Instead the colony asked for (and paid) volunteers, many of whom were also militia members.
In the early years of the British colonization of North America, military action in the thirteen colonies that would become the United States were the result of conflicts with Native Americans, such as in the Pequot War of 1637, King Philip 's War in 1675, the Yamasee War in 1715 and Father Rale 's War in 1722.
Beginning in 1689, the colonies became involved in a series of wars between Great Britain and France for control of North America, the most important of which were Queen Anne 's War, in which the British conquered French colony Acadia, and the final French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) when Britain was victorious over all the French colonies in North America. This final war was to give thousands of colonists, including Virginia colonel George Washington, military experience which they put to use during the American Revolutionary War.
Ongoing political tensions between Great Britain and the thirteen colonies reached a crisis in 1774 when the British placed the province of Massachusetts under martial law after the Patriots protested taxes they regarded as a violation of their constitutional rights as Englishmen. When shooting began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, militia units from across New England rushed to Boston and bottled up the British in the city. The Continental Congress appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief of the newly created Continental Army, which was augmented throughout the war by colonial militia. In addition to the Army, Congress also created the Continental Navy and Continental Marines He drove the British out of Boston but in late summer 1776 they returned to New York and nearly captured Washington 's army. Meanwhile, the revolutionaries expelled British officials from the 13 states, and declared themselves an independent nation on July 4, 1776.
The British, for their part, lacked both a unified command and a clear strategy for winning. With the use of the Royal Navy, the British were able to capture coastal cities, but control of the countryside eluded them. A British sortie from Canada in 1777 ended with the disastrous surrender of a British army at Saratoga. With the coming in 1777 of General von Steuben, the training and discipline along Prussian lines began, and the Continental Army began to evolve into a modern force. France and Spain then entered the war against Great Britain as Allies of the US, ending its naval advantage and escalating the conflict into a world war. The Netherlands later joined France, and the British were outnumbered on land and sea in a world war, as they had no major allies apart from Indian tribes.
A shift in focus to the southern American states in 1779 resulted in a string of victories for the British, but General Nathanael Greene engaged in guerrilla warfare and prevented them from making strategic headway. The main British army was surrounded by Washington 's American and French forces at Yorktown in 1781, as the French fleet blocked a rescue by the Royal Navy. The British then sued for peace.
General George Washington (1732 -- 99) proved an excellent organizer and administrator, who worked successfully with Congress and the state governors, selecting and mentoring his senior officers, supporting and training his troops, and maintaining an idealistic Republican Army. His biggest challenge was logistics, since neither Congress nor the states had the funding to provide adequately for the equipment, munitions, clothing, paychecks, or even the food supply of the soldiers. As a battlefield tactician Washington was often outmaneuvered by his British counterparts. As a strategist, however, he had a better idea of how to win the war than they did. The British sent four invasion armies. Washington 's strategy forced the first army out of Boston in 1776, and was responsible for the surrender of the second and third armies at Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). He limited the British control to New York and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population. The Loyalists, on whom the British had relied too heavily, comprised about 20 % of the population but were never well organized. As the war ended, Washington watched proudly as the final British army quietly sailed out of New York City in November 1783, taking the Loyalist leadership with them. Washington astonished the world when, instead of seizing power, he retired quietly to his farm in Virginia.
Patriots had a strong distrust of a permanent "standing army '', so the Continental Army was quickly demobilized, with land grants to veterans. General Washington, who throughout the war deferred to elected officials, averted a potential coup d'état and resigned as commander - in - chief after the war, establishing a tradition of civil control of the U.S. military.
Following the American Revolutionary War, the United States faced potential military conflict on the high seas as well as on the western frontier. The United States was a minor military power during this time, having only a modest army, marine corps, and navy. A traditional distrust of standing armies, combined with faith in the abilities of local militia, precluded the development of well - trained units and a professional officer corps. Jeffersonian leaders preferred a small army and navy, fearing that a large military establishment would involve the United States in excessive foreign wars, and potentially allow a domestic tyrant to seize power.
In the Treaty of Paris after the Revolution, the British had ceded the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the United States, without consulting the Shawnee, Cherokee, Choctaw and other smaller tribes who lived there. Because many of the tribes had fought as allies of the British, the United States compelled tribal leaders to sign away lands in postwar treaties, and began dividing these lands for settlement. This provoked a war in the Northwest Territory in which the U.S. forces performed poorly; the Battle of the Wabash in 1791 was the most severe defeat ever suffered by the United States at the hands of American Indians. President Washington dispatched a newly trained army to the region led by General Anthony Wayne, which decisively defeated the Indian confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794.
When revolutionary France declared war on Great Britain in 1793, the United States sought to remain neutral, but the Jay Treaty, which was favorable to Great Britain, angered the French government, which viewed it as a violation of the 1778 Treaty of Alliance. French privateers began to seize U.S. vessels, which led to an undeclared "Quasi-War '' between the two nations. Fought at sea from 1798 to 1800, the United States won a string of victories in the Caribbean. George Washington was called out of retirement to head a "provisional army '' in case of invasion by France, but President John Adams managed to negotiate a truce, in which France agreed to terminate the prior alliance and cease its attacks.
The Berbers along the Barbary Coast (modern day Libya) sent pirates to capture merchant ships and hold the crews for ransom. The U.S. paid protection money until 1801, when President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay and sent in the Navy to challenge the Barbary States, the First Barbary War followed. After the U.S.S. Philadelphia was captured in 1803, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a raid which successfully burned the captured ship, preventing Tripoli from using or selling it. In 1805, after William Eaton captured the city of Derna, Tripoli agreed to a peace treaty. The other Barbary states continued to raid U.S. shipping, until the Second Barbary War in 1815 ended the practice.
By far the largest military action in which the United States engaged during this era was the War of 1812. With Britain locked in a major war with Napoleon 's France, its policy was to block American shipments to France. The United States sought to remain neutral while pursuing overseas trade. Britain cut the trade and impressed seamen on American ships into the Royal Navy, despite intense protests. Britain supported an Indian insurrection in the American Midwest, with the goal of creating an Indian state there that would block American expansion. The United States finally declared war on the United Kingdom in 1812, the first time the U.S. had officially declared war. Not hopeful of defeating the Royal Navy, the U.S. attacked the British Empire by invading British Canada, hoping to use captured territory as a bargaining chip. The invasion of Canada was a debacle, though concurrent wars with Native Americans on the western front (Tecumseh 's War and the Creek War) were more successful. After defeating Napoleon in 1814, Britain sent large veteran armies to invade New York, raid Washington and capture the key control of the Mississippi River at New Orleans. The New York invasion was a fiasco after the much larger British army retreated to Canada. The raiders succeeded in the burning of Washington on 25 August 1814, but were repulsed in their Chesapeake Bay Campaign at the Battle of Baltimore and the British commander killed. The major invasion in Louisiana was stopped by a one - sided military battle that killed the top three British generals and thousands of soldiers. The winners were the commanding general of the Battle of New Orleans, Major General Andrew Jackson, who became president and the Americans who basked in a victory over a much more powerful nation. The peace treaty proved successful, and the U.S. and Britain never again went to war. The losers were the Indians, who never gained the independent territory in the Midwest promised by Britain.
With the rapid expansion of the farming population, Democrats looked to the west for new lands, an idea which became known as "Manifest Destiny. '' In the Texas Revolution (1835 -- 36), the settlers declared independence and defeated the Mexican army, but Mexico was determined to reconquer the lost province and threatened war with the U.S. if it annexed Texas. The U.S., much larger and more powerful, did annex Texas in 1845 and war broke out in 1846 over boundary issues.
In the Mexican -- American War 1846 -- 48, the U.S. Army under Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott and others, invaded and after a series of victorious battles (and no major defeats) seized New Mexico and California, and also blockaded the coast, invaded northern Mexico, and invaded central Mexico, capturing the national capital. The peace terms involved American purchase of the area from California to New Mexico for $10 million.
Long - building tensions between the Northern and Southern States over slavery suddenly reached a climax after the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln of the new anti-slavery Republican Party as U.S. President. Southern states seceded from the U.S. and formed a separate Confederacy. Within the Confederate states, many U.S. forts with garrisons still loyal to the Union were cut off. Fighting started in 1861 when Fort Sumter was fired upon.
The American Civil War caught both sides unprepared. Neither the North 's small standing army nor the South 's scattered state militias were capable of winning a civil war. Both sides raced to raise armies -- larger than any U.S. forces before -- first with repeated calls for volunteers, but eventually resorting to unpopular large - scale conscription for the first time in U.S. history.
The North initially sought a quick victory by trying to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia, not far from the U.S. capital at Washington, D.C. The South hoped to win by getting Britain and France to intervene, or else by exhausting the North 's willingness to fight. The Confederates under General Robert E. Lee skillfully and tenaciously defended their capital until the very end, while the North struggled to find any general to match. As the fighting between the two capitals stalled, the North found more success in campaigns elsewhere, using rivers, railroads, and the seas to help move and supply their larger forces, putting a stranglehold on the South -- the Anaconda Plan. The war spilled across the continent, and even to the high seas. After four years of appallingly bloody conflict, with more casualties than all other U.S. wars combined, the North 's larger population and industrial might slowly ground the South down. The resources and economy of the South were ruined, while the North 's factories and economy prospered filling government wartime contracts.
The American Civil War is sometimes called the "first modern war '' due to the mobilization and destruction of the civilian base -- total war -- and due to by many technical military innovations involving railroads, telegraphs, rifles, trench warfare, and ironclad warships with turret guns.
After the Civil War, population expansion, railroad construction, and the disappearance of the buffalo herds heightened military tensions on the Great Plains. Several tribes, especially the Sioux and Comanche, fiercely resisted confinement to reservations. The main role of the Army was to keep indigenous peoples on reservations and to end their wars against settlers and each other, William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan were in charge. A famous victory for the Plains Nations was the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876, when Col. George Armstrong Custer and two hundred plus members of the 7th Cavalry were killed by a force consisting of Native Americans from the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho nations. The last significant conflict came in 1891.
The Spanish -- American War was a short decisive war marked by quick, overwhelming American victories at sea and on land against Spain. The Navy was well - prepared and won laurels, even as politicians tried (and failed) to have it redeployed to defend East Coast cities against potential threats from the feeble Spanish fleet. The Army performed well in combat in Cuba. However, it was too oriented to small posts in the West and not as well - prepared for an overseas conflict. It relied on volunteers and state militia units, which faced logistical, training and food problems in the staging areas in Florida. The United States freed Cuba (after an occupation by the U.S. Army). By the peace treaty Spain ceded to the United States its colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The Navy set up coaling stations there and in Hawaii (which voluntarily joined the U.S. in 1898). The U.S. Navy now had a major forward presence across the Pacific and (with the lease of Guantánamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba) a major base in the Caribbean guarding the approaches to the Gulf Coast and the Panama Canal.
The Philippine -- American War (1899 -- 1902) was an armed conflict between a group of Filipino revolutionaries and the American forces following the ceding of the Philippines to the United States after the defeat of Spanish forces in the Battle of Manila. The Army sent in 100,000 soldiers (mostly from the National Guard) under General Elwell Otis. Defeated in the field and losing its capital in March 1899, the poorly armed and poorly led rebels broke into armed bands. The insurgency collapsed in March 1901 when the leader Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by General Frederick Funston and his Macabebe allies. Casualties included 1,037 Americans killed in action and 3,340 who died from disease; 20,000 rebels were killed.
The Navy was modernized in the 1880s, and by the 1890s had adopted the naval power strategy of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan -- as indeed did every major navy. The old sailing ships were replaced by modern steel battleships, bringing them in line with the navies of Britain and Germany. In 1907, most of the Navy 's battleships, with several support vessels, dubbed the Great White Fleet, were featured in a 14 - month circumnavigation of the world. Ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt, it was a mission designed to demonstrate the Navy 's capability to extend to the global theater.
Secretary of War Elihu Root (1899 -- 1904) led the modernization of the Army. His goal of a uniformed chief of staff as general manager and a European - type general staff for planning was stymied by General Nelson A. Miles but did succeed in enlarging West Point and establishing the U.S. Army War College as well as the General Staff. Root changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line. Root was concerned about the Army 's role in governing the new territories acquired in 1898 and worked out the procedures for turning Cuba over to the Cubans, and wrote the charter of government for the Philippines.
Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske was at the vanguard of new technology in naval guns and gunnery, thanks to his innovations in fire control 1890 -- 1910. He immediately grasped the potential for air power, and called for the development of a torpedo plane. Fiske, as aide for operations in 1913 -- 15 to Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, proposed a radical reorganization of the Navy to make it a war - fighting instrument. Fiske wanted to centralize authority in a chief of naval operations and an expert staff that would develop new strategies, oversee the construction of a larger fleet, coordinate war planning including force structure, mobilization plans, and industrial base, and ensure that the US Navy possessed the best possible war machines. Eventually, the Navy adopted his reforms and by 1915 started to reorganize for possible involvement in the World War then underway.
"Banana Wars '' is an informal term for the minor intervention in Latin America from 1898 until 1934. These include military presence in Cuba, Panama with the Panama Canal Zone, Haiti (1915 -- 1935), Dominican Republic (1916 -- 1924) and Nicaragua (1912 -- 1925) & (1926 -- 1933). The U.S. Marine Corps began to specialize in long - term military occupation of these countries, primarily to safeguard customs revenues which were the cause of local civil wars.
The Moro Rebellion was an armed insurgency between Muslim Filipino tribes in the southern Philippines between 1899 and 1913. Pacification was never complete as sporadic antigovernment insurgency continues into the 21st century, with American advisors helping the Philippine government forces.
The Mexican Revolution involved a civil war with hundreds of thousands of deaths and large numbers fleeing combat zones. Tens of thousands fled to the U.S. President Wilson sent U.S. forces to occupy the Mexican city of Veracruz for six months in 1914. It was designed to show the U.S. was keenly interested in the civil war and would not tolerate attacks on Americans, especially the April 9, 1914, "Tampico Affair '', which involved the arrest of American sailors by soldiers of the regime of Mexican President Victoriano Huerta. In early 1916 Pancho Villa a Mexican general ordered 500 soldiers on a murderous raid on the American city of Columbus New Mexico, with the goal of robbing banks to fund his army. The German Secret Service encouraged Pancho Villa in his attacks to involve the United States in an intervention in Mexico which would distract the United States from its growing involvement in the war and divert aid from Europe to support the intervention. Wilson called up the state militias (National Guard) and sent them and the U.S. Army under General John J. Pershing to punish Villa in the Pancho Villa Expedition. Villa fled, with the Americans in pursuit deep into Mexico, thereby arousing Mexican nationalism. By early 1917 President Venustiano Carranza had contained Villa and secured the border, so Wilson ordered Pershing to withdraw.
The United States originally wished to remain neutral when World War I broke out in August 1914. However, it insisted on its right as a neutral party to immunity from German submarine attack, even though its ships carried food and raw materials to Britain. In 1917 the Germans resumed submarine attacks, knowing that it would lead to American entry. When the United States declared war in early April 1917, the United States Army was still small by European standards (most of which had conscription) and mobilization would take at least a year. Meanwhile, the United States continued to provide supplies and money to Britain and France, and initiated the first peacetime draft. Industrial mobilization took longer than expected, so divisions were sent to Europe without equipment, relying instead on the British and French to supply them.
By summer 1918, a million American soldiers, or "doughboys '' as they were often called, of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) were in Europe, serving on the Western Front under the command of General John Pershing, with 25,000 more arriving every week. The failure of the German Army 's Spring Offensive exhausted its manpower reserves and they were unable to launch new offensives. The Imperial German Navy and home front then revolted and a new German government signed a conditional surrender, the Armistice, ending the war on the Western Front on November 11, 1918.
The so - called Polar Bear Expedition was the involvement of 5,000 U.S. troops, during the Russian Revolution, in blocking the Bolsheviks in Arkhangelsk, Russia as part of the greater Allied military expedition in the Russian Civil War.
The U.S. sponsored a major world conference to limit the naval armaments of world powers, including the U.S., Britain, Japan, and France, plus smaller nations. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes made the key proposal of each country to reduce its number of warships by a formula that was accepted. The conference enabled the great powers to reduce their navies and avoid conflict in the Pacific. The treaties remained in effect for ten years, but were not renewed as tensions escalated.
After the costly U.S. involvement in World War I, isolationism grew within the nation. Congress refused membership in the League of Nations, and in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia, the gradually more restrictive Neutrality Acts were passed, which were intended to prevent the U.S. from supporting either side in a war. President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to support Britain, however, and in 1940 signed the Lend - Lease Act, which permitted an expansion of the "cash and carry '' arms trade to develop with Britain, which controlled the Atlantic sea lanes.
Roosevelt favored the Navy (he was in effective charge in World War I), and used relief programs such as the PWA to support Navy yards and build warships. For example, in 1933 he authorized $238 million in PWA funds for thirty - two new ships. The Army Air Corps received only $11 million, which barely covered replacements and allowed no expansion.
Starting in 1940 (18 months before Pearl Harbor), the nation mobilized, giving high priority to air power. American involvement in World War II in 1940 -- 41 was limited to providing war material and financial support to Britain, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China. The U.S. entered officially on 8 December 1941 following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Japanese forces soon seized American, Dutch, and British possessions across the Pacific and Southeast Asia, except for Australia, which became a main American forward base along with Hawaii.
The loss of eight battleships and 2,403 Americans at Pearl Harbor forced the U.S. to rely on its remaining aircraft carriers, which won a major victory over Japan at Midway just six months into the war, and on its growing submarine fleet. The Navy and Marine Corps followed this up with an island hopping campaign across the central and south Pacific in 1943 -- 45, reaching the outskirts of Japan in the Battle of Okinawa. During 1942 and 1943, the U.S. deployed millions of men and thousands of planes and tanks to the UK, beginning with the strategic bombing of Nazi Germany and occupied Europe and leading up to the Allied invasions of occupied North Africa in November 1942, Sicily and Italy in 1943, France in 1944, and the invasion of Germany in 1945, parallel with the Soviet invasion from the east. That led to the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945. In the Pacific, the U.S. experienced much success in naval campaigns during 1944, but bloody battles at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945 led the U.S. to look for a way to end the war with minimal loss of American lives. The U.S. used atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to destroy the Japanese war effort and to shock the Japanese leadership, which quickly caused the surrender of Japan.
The United States was able to mobilize quickly, eventually becoming the dominant military power in most theaters of the war (excepting only eastern Europe), and the industrial might of the U.S. economy became a major factor in the Allies ' mobilization of resources. Strategic and tactical lessons learned by the U.S., such as the importance of air superiority and the dominance of the aircraft carrier in naval actions, continue to guide U.S. military doctrine into the 21st century.
World War II holds a special place in the American psyche as the country 's greatest triumph, and the U.S. military personnel of World War II are frequently referred to as "the Greatest Generation. '' Over 16 million served (about 11 % of the population), and over 400,000 died during the war. The U.S. emerged as one of the two undisputed superpowers along with the Soviet Union, and unlike the Soviet Union, the U.S. homeland was virtually untouched by the ravages of war. During and following World War II, the United States and Britain developed an increasingly strong defense and intelligence relationship. Manifestations of this include extensive basing of U.S. forces in the UK, shared intelligence, shared military technology (e.g. nuclear technology), and shared procurement.
Following World War II, the United States emerged as a global superpower vis - a-vis the Soviet Union in the Cold War. In this period of some forty years, the United States provided foreign military aid and direct involvement in proxy wars against the Soviet Union. It was the principal foreign actor in the Korean War and Vietnam War during this era. Nuclear weapons were held in ready by the United States under a concept of mutually assured destruction with the Soviet Union.
The National Security Act of 1947, meeting the need for a military reorganization to complement the U.S. superpower role, combined and replaced the former Department of the Navy and War Department with a single cabinet - level Department of Defense. The act also created the National Security Council, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Air Force.
The Korean War was a conflict between the United States and its United Nations allies and the communist powers under influence of the Soviet Union (also a UN member nation) and the People 's Republic of China (which later also gained UN membership). The principal combatants were North and South Korea. Principal allies of South Korea included the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, although many other nations sent troops under the aegis of the United Nations. Allies of North Korea included the People 's Republic of China, which supplied military forces, and the Soviet Union, which supplied combat advisors and aircraft pilots, as well as arms, for the Chinese and North Korean troops.
The war started badly for the US and UN. North Korean forces struck massively in the summer of 1950 and nearly drove the outnumbered US and ROK defenders into the sea. However the United Nations intervened, naming Douglas MacArthur commander of its forces, and UN-US - ROK forces held a perimeter around Pusan, gaining time for reinforcement. MacArthur, in a bold but risky move, ordered an amphibious invasion well behind the front lines at Inchon, cutting off and routing the North Koreans and quickly crossing the 38th Parallel into North Korea. As UN forces continued to advance toward the Yalu River on the border with Communist China, the Chinese crossed the Yalu River in October and launched a series of surprise attacks that sent the UN forces reeling back across the 38th Parallel. Truman originally wanted a Rollback strategy to unify Korea; after the Chinese successes he settled for a Containment policy to split the country. MacArthur argued for rollback but was fired by President Harry Truman after disputes over the conduct of the war. Peace negotiations dragged on for two years until President Dwight D. Eisenhower threatened China with nuclear weapons; an armistice was quickly reached with the two Koreas remaining divided at the 38th parallel. North and South Korea are still today in a state of war, having never signed a peace treaty, and American forces remain stationed in South Korea as part of American foreign policy.
In the Lebanon crisis of 1958 that threatened civil war, Operation Blue Bat deployed several hundred Marines to bolster the pro-Western Lebanese government from July 15 to October 25, 1958.
On April 28, 1965, 400 Marines were landed in Santo Domingo to evacuate the American Embassy and foreign nationals after dissident Dominican armed forces attempted to overthrow the ruling civilian junta. By mid-May, peak strength of 23,850 U.S. soldiers, Marines, and Airmen were in the Dominican Republic and some 38 naval ships were positioned offshore. They evacuated nearly 6,500 men, women, and children of 46 nations, and distributed more than 8 million tons of food.
The Vietnam War was a war fought between 1955 and 1975 on the ground in South Vietnam and bordering areas of Cambodia and Laos (see Secret War) and in the strategic bombing (see Operation Rolling Thunder) of North Vietnam. American advisors came in the late 1950s to help the RVN (Republic of Vietnam) combat Communist insurgents known as "Viet Cong. '' Major American military involvement began in 1964, after Congress provided President Lyndon B. Johnson with blanket approval for presidential use of force in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
Fighting on one side was a coalition of forces including the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam or the "RVN ''), the United States, supplemented by South Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines. The allies fought against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) as well as the National Liberation Front (NLF, also known as Viet communists Viet Cong), or "VC '', a guerrilla force within South Vietnam. The NVA received substantial military and economic aid from the Soviet Union and China, turning Vietnam into a proxy war.
The military history of the American side of the war involved different strategies over the years. The bombing campaigns of the Air Force were tightly controlled by the White House for political reasons, and until 1972 avoided the main Northern cities of Hanoi and Haiphong and concentrated on bombing jungle supply trails, especially the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The most controversial Army commander was William Westmoreland whose strategy involved systematic defeat of all enemy forces in the field, despite heavy American casualties that alienated public opinion back home.
The U.S. framed the war as part of its policy of containment of Communism in south Asia, but American forces were frustrated by an inability to engage the enemy in decisive battles, corruption and incompetence in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and ever increasing protests at home. The Tet Offensive in 1968, although a major military defeat for the NLF with half their forces eliminated, marked the psychological turning point in the war. With President Richard M. Nixon opposed to containment and more interested in achieving détente with both the Soviet Union and China, American policy shifted to "Vietnamization, '' -- providing very large supplies of arms and letting the Vietnamese fight it out themselves. After more than 57,000 dead and many more wounded, American forces withdrew in 1973 with no clear victory, and in 1975 South Vietnam was finally conquered by communist North Vietnam and unified.
Memories and lessons from the war are still a major factor in American politics. One side views the war as a necessary part of the Containment policy, which allowed the enemy to choose the time and place of warfare. Others note the U.S. made major strategic gains as the Communists were defeated in Indonesia, and by 1972 both Moscow and Beijing were competing for American support, at the expense of their allies in Hanoi. Critics see the conflict as a "quagmire '' -- an endless waste of American blood and treasure in a conflict that did not concern US interests. Fears of another quagmire have been major factors in foreign policy debates ever since. The draft became extremely unpopular, and President Nixon ended it in 1973, forcing the military (the Army especially) to rely entirely upon volunteers. That raised the issue of how well the professional military reflected overall American society and values; the soldiers typically took the position that their service represented the highest and best American values.
In October, 1983, a power struggle in Grenada, which had installed a communist - leaning government, led to increased tensions in the region. Neighboring nations asked the U.S. to intervene. The invasion was a hurriedly devised grouping of paratroopers, Marines, Rangers, and special operations forces in Operation Urgent Fury. Over a thousand Americans quickly seized the entire island, taking hundreds of military and civilian prisoners, especially Cubans, who were building a large military airstrip.
In 1983 fighting between Palestinian refugees and Lebanese factions reignited that nation 's long - running civil war. A UN agreement brought an international force of peacekeepers to occupy Beirut and guarantee security. US Marines landed in August 1982 along with Italian and French forces. On October 23, 1983, a suicide bomber driving a truck filled with 6 tons of TNT crashed through a fence and destroyed the Marine barracks, killing 241 Marines; seconds later, a second bomber leveled a French barracks, killing 58. Subsequently, the US Navy engaged in bombing of militia positions inside Lebanon. While US President Ronald Reagan was initially defiant, political pressure at home eventually forced the withdrawal of the Marines in February 1984.
Code - named "Operation El Dorado Canyon '', comprised the joint United States Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps air - strikes against Libya on April 15, 1986. The attack was carried out in response to the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing, and resulted in the killing of 45 officers and 15 civilians.
On December 20, 1989 the United States invaded Panama, mainly from U.S. bases within the then - Canal Zone, to oust dictator and international drug trafficker Manuel Noriega. American forces quickly overwhelmed the Panamanian Defense Forces, Noriega was captured on January 3, 1990 and imprisoned in the U.S. and a new government was installed.
The Persian Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States. The lead up to the war began with the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 which was met with immediate economic sanctions by the United Nations against Iraq. The coalition commenced hostilities in January 1991, resulting in a decisive victory for the U.S. led coalition forces, which drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait with minimal coalition deaths. Despite the low death toll, over 180,000 US veterans would later be classified as "permanently disabled '' according to the US Department of Veterans Affairs (see Gulf War Syndrome). The main battles were aerial and ground combat within Iraq, Kuwait and bordering areas of Saudi Arabia. Land combat did not expand outside of the immediate Iraq / Kuwait / Saudi border region, although the coalition bombed cities and strategic targets across Iraq, and Iraq fired missiles on Israeli and Saudi cities.
Before the war, many observers believed the US and its allies could win but might suffer substantial casualties (certainly more than any conflict since Vietnam), and that the tank battles across the harsh desert might rival those of North Africa during World War II. After nearly 50 years of proxy wars, and constant fears of another war in Europe between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, some thought the Persian Gulf War might finally answer the question of which military philosophy would have reigned supreme. Iraqi forces were battle - hardened after 8 years of war with Iran, and they were well equipped with late model Soviet tanks and jet fighters, but the antiaircraft weapons were crippled; in comparison, the US had no large - scale combat experience since its withdrawal from Vietnam nearly 20 years earlier, and major changes in US doctrine, equipment and technology since then had never been tested under fire.
However, the battle was one - sided almost from the beginning. The reasons for this are the subject of continuing study by military strategists and academics. There is general agreement that US technological superiority was a crucial factor but the speed and scale of the Iraqi collapse has also been attributed to poor strategic and tactical leadership and low morale among Iraqi troops, which resulted from a history of incompetent leadership. After devastating initial strikes against Iraqi air defenses and command and control facilities on 17 January 1991, coalition forces achieved total air superiority almost immediately. The Iraqi air force was destroyed within a few days, with some planes fleeing to Iran, where they were interned for the duration of the conflict. The overwhelming technological advantages of the US, such as stealth aircraft and infrared sights, quickly turned the air war into a "turkey shoot ''. The heat signature of any tank which started its engine made an easy target. Air defense radars were quickly destroyed by radar - seeking missiles fired from wild weasel aircraft. Grainy video clips, shot from the nose cameras of missiles as they aimed at impossibly small targets, were a staple of US news coverage and revealed to the world a new kind of war, compared by some to a video game. Over 6 weeks of relentless pounding by planes and helicopters, the Iraqi army was almost completely beaten but did not retreat, under orders from Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, and by the time the ground forces invaded on 24 February, many Iraqi troops quickly surrendered to forces much smaller than their own; in one instance, Iraqi forces attempted to surrender to a television camera crew that was advancing with coalition forces.
After just 100 hours of ground combat, and with all of Kuwait and much of southern Iraq under coalition control, US President George H.W. Bush ordered a cease - fire and negotiations began resulting in an agreement for cessation of hostilities. Some US politicians were disappointed by this move, believing Bush should have pressed on to Baghdad and removed Hussein from power; there is little doubt that coalition forces could have accomplished this if they had desired. Still, the political ramifications of removing Hussein would have broadened the scope of the conflict greatly, and many coalition nations refused to participate in such an action, believing it would create a power vacuum and destabilize the region.
Following the Persian Gulf War, to protect minority populations, the US, Britain, and France declared and maintained no - fly zones in northern and southern Iraq, which the Iraqi military frequently tested. The no - fly zones persisted until the 2003 invasion of Iraq, although France withdrew from participation in patrolling the no - fly zones in 1996, citing a lack of humanitarian purpose for the operation.
US troops participated in a UN peacekeeping mission in Somalia beginning in 1992. By 1993 the US troops were augmented with Rangers and special forces with the aim of capturing warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid, whose forces had massacred peacekeepers from Pakistan. During a raid in downtown Mogadishu, US troops became trapped overnight by a general uprising in the Battle of Mogadishu. Eighteen American soldiers were killed, and a US television crew filmed graphic images of the body of one soldier being dragged through the streets by an angry mob. Somali guerrillas paid a staggering toll at an estimated 1,000 -- 5,000 total casualties during the conflict. After much public disapproval, American forces were quickly withdrawn by President Bill Clinton. The incident profoundly affected US thinking about peacekeeping and intervention. The book Black Hawk Down was written about the battle, and was the basis for the later movie of the same name.
Operation Uphold Democracy (September 19, 1994 -- March 31, 1995) was an intervention designed to reinstate the elected President Jean - Bertrand Aristide, who was reported to have died in office during the bombing of the presidential palace. The operation was effectively authorized by the 31 July 1994 United Nations Security Council Resolution 940.
During the war in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, the US operated in Bosnia and Herzegovina as part of the NATO - led multinational implementation force (IFOR) in Operation Joint Endeavour. The USA was one of the NATO member countries who bombed Yugoslavia between March 24 and June 9, 1999 during the Kosovo War and later contributed to the multinational force KFOR.
The War on Terrorism is a global effort by the governments of several countries (primarily the United States and its principal allies) to neutralize international terrorist groups (primarily Islamic Extremist terrorist groups, including al - Qaeda) and ensure that countries considered by the US and some of its allies to be Rogue Nations no longer support terrorist activities. It has been adopted primarily as a response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. Since 2001, terrorist motivated attacks upon service members have occurred in Arkansas and Texas.
The intervention in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom -- Afghanistan) to depose that country 's Taliban government and destroy training camps associated with al - Qaeda is understood to have been the opening, and in many ways defining, campaign of the broader War on Terrorism. The emphasis on Special Operations Forces (SOF), political negotiation with autonomous military units, and the use of proxy militaries marked a significant change from prior U.S. military approaches.
In January 2002, the U.S. sent more than 1,200 troops (later raised to 2,000) to assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines in combating terrorist groups linked to al - Qaida, such as Abu Sayyaf, under Operation Enduring Freedom -- Philippines. Operations have taken place mostly in the Sulu Archipelago, where terrorists and other groups are active. The majority of troops provide logistics. However, there are special forces troops that are training and assisting in combat operations against the terrorist groups.
After the lengthy Iraq disarmament crisis culminated with an American demand that Iraqi President Saddam Hussein leave Iraq, which was refused, a coalition led by the United States and the United Kingdom fought the Iraqi army in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Approximately 250,000 United States troops, with support from 45,000 British, 2,000 Australian and 200 Polish combat forces, entered Iraq primarily through their staging area in Kuwait. (Turkey had refused to permit its territory to be used for an invasion from the north.) Coalition forces also supported Iraqi Kurdish militia, estimated to number upwards of 50,000. After approximately three weeks of fighting, Hussein and the Ba'ath Party were forcibly removed, followed by 9 years of military presence by the United States and the coalition fighting alongside the newly elected Iraqi government against various insurgent groups.
With the emergence of ISIL and its capture of large areas of Iraq and Syria, a number of crises resulted that sparked international attention. ISIL had perpetrated sectarian killings and war crimes in both Iraq and Syria. Gains made in the Iraq war were rolled back as Iraqi army units abandoned their posts. Cities were taken over by the terrorist group which enforced its brand of Sharia law. The kidnapping and decapitation of numerous Western journalists and aid - workers also garnered interest and outrage among Western powers. The US intervened with airstrikes in Iraq over ISIL held territories and assets in August, and in September a coalition of US and Middle Eastern powers initiated a bombing campaign in Syria aimed at degrading and destroying ISIL and Al - Nusra - held territory.
As a result of the Libyan Civil War, the United Nations enacted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which imposed a no - fly zone over Libya, and the protection of civilians from the forces of Muammar Gaddafi. The United States, along with Britain, France and several other nations, committed a coalition force against Gaddafi 's forces. On 19 March 2011, the first U.S. action was taken when 114 Tomahawk missiles launched by US and UK warships destroyed shoreline air defenses of the Gaddafi regime. The U.S. continued to play a major role in Operation Unified Protector, the NATO - directed mission that eventually incorporated all of the military coalition 's actions in the theater. Throughout the conflict however, the U.S. maintained it was playing a supporting role only and was following the UN mandate to protect civilians, while the real conflict was between Gaddafi 's loyalists and Libyan rebels fighting to depose him. During the conflict, American drones were also deployed.
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map of countries in central and south america | Central America - wikipedia
Central America (Spanish: América Central, Centroamérica) is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with the South American continent on the southeast. Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Central America consists of seven countries: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 (2009 estimate) and 42,688,190 (2012 estimate).
Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama. Due to the presence of several active geologic faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc, there is a great deal of seismic activity in the region. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently; these natural disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives and much property.
In the Pre-Columbian era, Central America was inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west and the Isthmo - Colombian peoples to the south and east. Soon after Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish began to colonize the Americas. From 1609 until 1821, most of the territory within Central America -- except for the lands that would become Belize and Panama -- was governed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain from Mexico City as the Captaincy General of Guatemala. After New Spain achieved independence from Spain in 1821, some of its provinces were annexed to the First Mexican Empire, but soon seceded from Mexico to form the Federal Republic of Central America, which lasted from 1823 to 1838. The seven states finally became independent autonomous states: beginning with Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala (1838); followed by El Salvador (1841); then Panama (1903); and finally Belize (1981). Even today, people in Central America sometimes refer to their nations as if they were provinces of a Central American state. For example, it is not unusual to write "C.A. '' after the country names in formal and informal contexts and the automobile licence plates of many of the countries in the region show the legend "Centroamerica '' in addition to the country name.
"Central America '' may mean different things to various people, based upon different contexts:
In the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo - Colombian Area.
Following Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarado 's forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the K'iche ', Tz'utujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence. The last independent Maya kingdoms -- the Kowoj and the Itza people -- were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén.
In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, but excluded the lands that would become Belize and Panama. The president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area. In 1609 the area became a captaincy general and the governor was also granted the title of captain general. The Captaincy General of Guatemala encompassed most of Central America, with the exception of present - day Belize and Panama.
The Captaincy General of Guatemala lasted for more than two centuries, but began to fray after a rebellion in 1811 which began in the intendancy of San Salvador. The Captaincy General formally ended on 15 September 1821, with the signing of the Act of Independence of Central America. Mexican independence was achieved at virtually the same time with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and the entire region was finally independent from Spanish authority by 28 September 1821.
From its independence from Spain in 1821 until 1823, the former Captaincy General remained intact as part of the short - lived First Mexican Empire. When the Emperor of Mexico abdicated on 19 March 1823, Central America again became independent. On 1 July 1823, the Congress of Central America peacefully seceded from Mexico and declared absolute independence from all foreign nations, and the region formed the Federal Republic of Central America.
The Federal Republic of Central America was a representative democracy with its capital at Guatemala City. This union consisted of the provinces of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Los Altos, Mosquito Coast, and Nicaragua. The lowlands of southwest Chiapas, including Soconusco, initially belonged to the Republic until 1824, when Mexico annexed most of Chiapas and began its claims to Soconusco. The Republic lasted from 1823 to 1838, when it disintegrated as a result of civil wars.
The United Provinces of Central America
United Provinces of Central America
Federal Republic of Central America
Greater Republic of Central America
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Belize
The territory that now makes up Belize was heavily contested in a dispute that continued for decades after Guatemala achieved independence (see History of Belize (1506 -- 1862). Spain, and later Guatemala, considered this land a Guatemalan department. In 1862, Britain formally declared it a British colony and named it British Honduras. It became independent as Belize in 1981.
Panama, situated in the southernmost part of Central America on the Isthmus of Panama, has for most of its history been culturally linked to South America. Panama was part of the Province of Tierra Firme from 1510 until 1538 when it came under the jurisdiction of the newly formed Audiencia Real de Panama. Beginning in 1543, Panama was administered as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1739, when it was transferred to the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the capital of which was located at Santa Fé de Bogotá. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada until the disestablishment of that viceroyalty in 1819. A series of military and political struggles took place from that time until 1822, the result of which produced the republic of Gran Colombia. After the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, Panama became part of a successor state, the Republic of New Granada. From 1855 until 1886, Panama existed as Panama State, first within the Republic of New Granada, then within the Granadine Confederation, and finally within the United States of Colombia. The United States of Colombia was replaced by the Republic of Colombia in 1886. As part of the Republic of Colombia, Panama State was abolished and it became the Isthmus Department. Despite the many political reorganizations, Colombia was still deeply plagued by conflict, which eventually led to the secession of Panama on 3 November 1903. Only after that time did some begin to regard Panama as a North or Central American entity.
By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana Republic.
After more than two hundred years of social unrest, violent conflict and revolution, Central America today remains in a period of political transformation. Poverty, social injustice and violence are still widespread. Nicaragua is the second poorest country in the western hemisphere (only Haiti is poorer).
Central America is the tapering isthmus of southern North America, with unique and varied geographic features. The Pacific Ocean lies to the southwest, the Caribbean Sea lies to the northeast, and the Gulf of Mexico lies to the north. Some physiographists define the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as the northern geographic border of Central America, while others use the northwestern borders of Belize and Guatemala. From there, the Central American land mass extends southeastward to the Isthmus of Panama, where it connects to the Pacific Lowlands in northwestern South America.
Of the many mountain ranges within Central America, the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia and the Cordillera de Talamanca. At 4,220 meters (13,850 ft), Volcán Tajumulco is the highest peak in Central America. Other high points of Central America are as listed in the table below:
High points in Central America
Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the raising of livestock and for the production of coffee, tobacco, beans and other crops. Most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica and Guatemala lives in valleys.
Trade winds have a significant effect upon the climate of Central America. Temperatures in Central America are highest just prior to the summer wet season, and are lowest during the winter dry season, when trade winds contribute to a cooler climate. The highest temperatures occur in April, due to higher levels of sunlight, lower cloud cover and a decrease in trade winds.
Central America is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, boasting 7 % of the world 's biodiversity. The Pacific Flyway is a major north - south flyway for migratory birds in the Americas, extending from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Due to the funnel - like shape of its land mass, migratory birds can be seen in very high concentrations in Central America, especially in the spring and autumn. As a bridge between North America and South America, Central America has many species from the Nearctic and the Neotropic ecozones. However the southern countries (Costa Rica and Panama) of the region have more biodiversity than the northern countries (Guatemala and Belize), meanwhile the central countries (Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador) have the least biodiversity. The table below shows recent statistics:
Biodiversity in Central America (number of different species of terrestrial vertebrate animals and vascular plants)
Over 300 species of the region 's flora and fauna are threatened, 107 of which are classified as critically endangered. The underlying problems are deforestation, which is estimated by FAO at 1.2 % per year in Central America and Mexico combined, fragmentation of rainforests and the fact that 80 % of the vegetation in Central America has already been converted to agriculture.
Efforts to protect fauna and flora in the region are made by creating ecoregions and nature reserves. 36 % of Belize 's land territory falls under some form of official protected status, giving Belize one of the most extensive systems of terrestrial protected areas in the Americas. In addition, 13 % of Belize 's marine territory are also protected. A large coral reef extends from Mexico to Honduras: the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. The Belize Barrier Reef is part of this. The Belize Barrier Reef is home to a large diversity of plants and animals, and is one of the most diverse ecosystems of the world. It is home to 70 hard coral species, 36 soft coral species, 500 species of fish and hundreds of invertebrate species. So far only about 10 % of the species in the Belize barrier reef have been discovered.
From 2001 to 2010, 5,376 square kilometers (2,076 sq mi) of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63 % of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46 %, Panama 45 %, Honduras 41 %, Guatemala 37 %, Nicaragua 29 %, and El Salvador 21 %. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with 12,201 square kilometers (4,711 sq mi). Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a gain in the coniferous forest biome with 4,730 square kilometers (1,830 sq mi), and a gain in the dry forest biome at 2,054 square kilometers (793 sq mi). Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1 % to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a loss of 8,574 square kilometers (3,310 sq mi) of forest in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of 3,050 square kilometers (1,180 sq mi) of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.
The Central American pine - oak forests ecoregion, in the tropical and subtropical coniferous forests biome, is found in Central America and southern Mexico. The Central American pine - oak forests occupy an area of 111,400 square kilometers (43,000 sq mi), extending along the mountainous spine of Central America, extending from the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in Mexico 's Chiapas state through the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras to central Nicaragua. The pine - oak forests lie between 600 -- 1,800 metres (2,000 -- 5,900 ft) elevation, and are surrounded at lower elevations by tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests. Higher elevations above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) are usually covered with Central American montane forests. The Central American pine - oak forests are composed of many species characteristic of temperate North America including oak, pine, fir, and cypress.
Laurel forest is the most common type of Central American temperate evergreen cloud forest, found in almost all Central American countries, normally more than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the laurel family, and species of Weinmannia, Drimys, and Magnolia. The cloud forest of Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern Honduras there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with Nicaragua. In Nicaragua, cloud forests are situated near the border with Honduras, but many were cleared to grow coffee. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is on the Mombacho volcano in Nicaragua. In Costa Rica, there are laurel forests in the Cordillera de Tilarán and Volcán Arenal, called Monteverde, also in the Cordillera de Talamanca.
The Central American montane forests are an ecoregion of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund. These forests are of the moist deciduous and the semi-evergreen seasonal subtype of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Central American montane forests consist of forest patches located at altitudes ranging from 1,800 -- 4,000 metres (5,900 -- 13,100 ft), on the summits and slopes of the highest mountains in Central America ranging from Southern Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, to northern Nicaragua. The entire ecoregion covers an area of 13,200 square kilometers (5,100 sq mi) and has a temperate climate with relatively high precipitation levels.
Ecoregions are not only established to protect the forests themselves but also because they are habitats for an incomparably rich and often endemic fauna. Almost half of the bird population of the Talamancan montane forests in Costa Rica and Panama are endemic to this region. Several birds are listed as threatened, most notably the resplendent quetzal (Pharomacrus mocinno), three - wattled bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata), bare - necked umbrellabird (Cephalopterus glabricollis), and black guan (Chamaepetes unicolor). Many of the amphibians are endemic and depend on the existence of forest. The golden toad that once inhabited a small region in the Monteverde Reserve, which is part of the Talamancan montane forests, has not been seen alive since 1989 and is listed as extinct by IUCN. The exact causes for its extincition are unknown. Global warming may have played a role, because the development of fog that is typical for this area may have been compromised. Seven small mammals are endemic to the Costa Rica - Chiriqui highlands within the Talamancan montane forest region. Jaguars, cougars, spider monkeys, as well as tapirs, and anteaters live in the woods of Central America. The Central American red brocket is a brocket deer found in Central America 's tropical forest.
Central America is geologically very active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring frequently, and tsunamis occurring occasionally. Many thousands of people have died as a result of these natural disasters.
Most of Central America rests atop the Caribbean Plate. This tectonic plate converges with the Cocos, Nazca, and North American plates to form the Middle America Trench, a major subduction zone. The Middle America Trench is situated some 60 -- 160 kilometers (37 -- 99 mi) off the Pacific coast of Central America and runs roughly parallel to it. Many large earthquakes have occurred as a result of seismic activity at the Middle America Trench. For example, subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the North American Plate at the Middle America Trench is believed to have caused the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that killed as many as 40,000 people. Seismic activity at the Middle America Trench is also responsible for earthquakes in 1902, 1942, 1956, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2007, 2012, 2014, and many other earthquakes throughout Central America.
The Middle America Trench is not the only source of seismic activity in Central America. The Motagua Fault is an onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough which forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. This transform fault cuts right across Guatemala and then continues offshore until it merges with the Middle America Trench along the Pacific coast of Mexico, near Acapulco. Seismic activity at the Motagua Fault has been responsible for earthquakes in 1717, 1773, 1902, 1976, 1980, and 2009.
Another onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough is the Chixoy - Polochic Fault, which runs parallel to, and roughly 80 kilometers (50 mi) to the north, of the Motagua Fault. Though less active than the Motagua Fault, seismic activity at the Chixoy - Polochic Fault is still thought to be capable of producing very large earthquakes, such as the 1816 earthquake of Guatemala.
Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972.
Volcanic eruptions are also common in Central America. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted killing 87 people as the 3 villages of Tabacon, Pueblo Nuevo and San Luis were buried under pyroclastic flows and debris. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lava have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.
The population of Central America is estimated at 47,448,333 as of 2016. With an area of 523,780 square kilometers (202,230 sq mi), it has a population density of 81 per square kilometer (210 / sq mi).
The official language majority in all Central American countries is Spanish, except in Belize, where the official language is English. Mayan languages constitute a language family consisting of about 26 related languages. Guatemala formally recognized 21 of these in 1996. Xinca and Garifuna are also present in Central America.
This region of the continent is very rich in terms of ethnic groups. The majority of the population is mestizo, with sizable Mayan and White populations present, including Xinca and Garifuna minorities. The immigration of Arabs, Jews, Chinese, Europeans and others brought additional groups to the area.
The predominant religion in Central America is Christianity (95.6 %). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Central America in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism became the most popular religion in the region until the first half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion.
Central America is currently undergoing a process of political, economic and cultural transformation that started in 1907 with the creation of the Central American Court of Justice.
In 1951 the integration process continued with the signature of the San Salvador Treaty, which created the ODECA, the Organization of Central American States. However, the unity of the ODECA was limited by conflicts between several member states.
In 1991, the integration agenda was further advanced by the creation of the Central American Integration System (Sistema para la Integración Centroamericana, or SICA). SICA provides a clear legal basis to avoid disputes between the member states. SICA membership includes the 7 nations of Central America plus the Dominican Republic, a state that is traditionally considered part of the Caribbean.
Guatemala
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
Belize
On 6 December 2008 SICA announced an agreement to pursue a common currency and common passport for the member nations. No timeline for implementation was discussed.
Central America already has several supranational institutions such as the Central American Parliament, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration and the Central American Common Market.
On 22 July 2011 President Mauricio Funes of El Salvador became the first president pro tempore to SICA. El Salvador also became the headquarters of SICA with the inauguration of a new building.
Until recently, all Central American countries have maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan instead of China. President Óscar Arias of Costa Rica, however, established diplomatic relations with China in 2007, severing formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan. After breaking off relations with the Republic of China in 2017, Panama established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China.
The Central American Parliament (also known as PARLACEN) is a political and parliamentary body of SICA. The parliament started around 1980, and its primary goal was to resolve conflicts in Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Although the group was disbanded in 1986, ideas of unity of Central Americans still remained, so a treaty was signed in 1987 to create the Central American Parliament and other political bodies. Its original members were Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras. The parliament is the political organ of Central America, and is part of SICA. New members have since then joined including Panama and the Dominican Republic.
Signed in 2004, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) is an agreement between the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. The treaty is aimed at promoting free trade among its members.
Guatemala has the largest economy in the region. Its main exports are coffee, sugar, bananas, petroleum, clothing, and cardamom. Of its 10.29 billion dollar annual exports, 40.2 % go to the United States, 11.1 % to neighboring El Salvador, 8 % to Honduras, 5.5 % to Mexico, 4.7 % to Nicaragua, and 4.3 % to Costa Rica.
Economic growth in Central America is projected to slow slightly in 2014 -- 15, as country - specific domestic factors offset the positive effects from stronger economic activity in the United States.
Tourism in Belize has grown considerably in more recent times, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Belizean Prime Minister Dean Barrow has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Belize 's tourism - driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming almost one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2012. Belize is also the only country in Central America with English as its official language, making this country a comfortable destination for English - speaking tourists.
Costa Rica is the most visited nation in Central America. Tourism in Costa Rica is one of the fastest growing economic sectors of the country, having become the largest source of foreign revenue by 1995. Since 1999, tourism has earned more foreign exchange than bananas, pineapples and coffee exports combined. The tourism boom began in 1987, with the number of visitors up from 329,000 in 1988, through 1.03 million in 1999, to a historical record of 2.43 million foreign visitors and $1.92 - billion in revenue in 2013. In 2012 tourism contributed with 12.5 % of the country 's GDP and it was responsible for 11.7 % of direct and indirect employment.
Tourism in Nicaragua has grown considerably recently, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Nicaragua 's tourism - driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2010.
The Inter-American Highway is the Central American section of the Pan-American Highway, and spans 5,470 kilometers (3,400 mi) between Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and Panama City, Panama. Because of the 87 kilometers (54 mi) break in the highway known as the Darién Gap, it is not possible to cross between Central America and South America in an automobile.
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the two major parties in great britain are the labor and parties | Major party - wikipedia
A major party is a political party that holds substantial influence in a country 's politics, standing in contrast to a minor party. It should not be confused with majority party.
According to the Merriam - Webster Dictionary:
Major party: a political party having electoral strength sufficient to permit it to win control of a government usually with comparative regularity and when defeated to constitute the principal opposition to the party in power.
Major parties hold a significant percentage of the vote in elections and claim higher membership than minor parties. Typically, major parties have the most donors, best - organized support networks and excellent funding for elections. Their candidates for political positions are closely watched since they have the highest chance of being elected to office because of the high membership, recognition and donations that these parties are able to generate.
Two major parties can lead to a two - party system. If there is only one major party, then it is a dominant - party system. In a multi-party system, a major party is one that occasionally controls the presidency or premiership and is the most influential party in a coalition government.
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song where do you go to my lovely when you're alone in your bed | Where Do You Go to (My Lovely)? - Wikipedia
"Where Do You Go To (My Lovely)? '' is a song by the British singer - songwriter Peter Sarstedt. Its recording was produced by Ray Singer, engineered by John Mackswith at Lansdowne Recording Studios and released in 1969. It was a number - one 1 hit in the UK Singles Chart for four weeks in 1969, and was awarded the 1969 Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically. In the United States, the record reached No. 61 on the Cash Box Top 100 Singles. The single also peaked at No. 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 that May.
The music has been described as "a faux European waltz tune '' and the arrangement is a very simple one of strummed acoustic guitar and bass guitar, with brief bursts of French - style accordion at the start and the end. The arranger and conductor was Ian Green.
The song is about a fictional girl named Marie - Claire who grows up on the poverty - stricken backstreets of Naples, becomes a member of the jet set, and goes on to live in Paris. The lyrics describe her from the perspective of a childhood friend; it is left unclear whether they have remained close. The rhetorical question of the title suggests that her glamorous lifestyle might not have brought Marie - Claire happiness or contentment.
Even though Sarstedt himself was not French, the song benefited from the contemporary awareness in Britain of such French and Belgian singers as Serge Gainsbourg and Jacques Brel (Belgium - born of Flemish descent).
The lyrics contain a large number of contemporary and other references:
The version on the album Peter Sarstedt is longer than the radio edit version released as a single, having extra stanzas beginning "You go to the embassy parties... '' and "You 're in between twenty and thirty... ''.
It is often suspected that the name Marie - Claire is inspired by Marie Claire magazine, a women 's fashion weekly that began in 1937 in France. One theory says that the song is about the Italian actress Sophia Loren, who was abandoned by her father and had a poverty - stricken life in Naples. Another theory has the song being inspired by Danish singer and actress Nina van Pallandt.
According to Alan Cooper, "Sarstedt insisted it was not written with actress Sophia Loren in mind. ' Yes, it 's a portrait of a poor - born girl who becomes a member of the European jet - set. And yes, there 's reference to her growing up on the ' back streets of Naples ', so I can see why people may think it was written with Sophia Loren in mind. But that 's just a coincidence. I really was n't thinking of anyone specific. ' ''
The song was written in Copenhagen.
In 2009, Sarstedt spoke to a gossip columnist for the Daily Express. He admitted he had lied about the song being about a socialite who died in a fire. He said that the song was about his girlfriend at the time, whom he later married and then divorced. According to Mark Steyn, "Anita is now a dentist in Copenhagen. Peter Sarstedt has spent 40 years singing about wanting to look inside her head. And for most of that time Anita has made a living by looking inside yours. ''
The song was a hit far exceeding Sarstedt 's other work, although he is not a one - hit wonder. In 1998 he was earning £ 60,000 annually in royalties from it.
DJ John Peel repeatedly stated that the song was one of his least favourites. On his show on BFBS radio on 1 July 1989, he said: ' It 's a terrible, smug, self - satisfied, hideous record. Really have hated it ever since I first heard it '.
The song was used as a soundtrack in Wes Anderson 's 2007 film The Darjeeling Limited, and in Jennifer Saunders ' 2016 film Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie.
In 1997 Sarstedt recorded a sequel, "The Last of the Breed (Lovely 2) '' on his CD England 's Lane. This picks up the story of Marie Claire twenty years on, living now in London. It names more people and places, including Belgravia, Ballets Russes, Cape Town, Claridge 's, Gstaad, John Galliano, Harrods, Jerusalem, Long Island, Milan, Rudolf Nureyev, Palm Beach, Rio de Janeiro, and Isabella Rossellini. In recent years, Sarstedt and a co-writer were working on a further sequel, "Farewell Marie - Claire '', in which the story was brought to a conclusion. The song was to feature the same waltz feel as the original. But Sarstedt 's retirement from the music industry meant that the track was abandoned.
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i'll name the babies you name the dogs | I 'll Name the Dogs - wikipedia
"I 'll Name the Dogs '' is a song recorded by American country music artist Blake Shelton for his eleventh studio album, Texoma Shore (2017). Released to radio as the album 's first single on September 11, 2017, the track was written by Matt Dragstrem, Ben Hayslip and Josh Thompson, while production was handled by Scott Hendricks.
"I 'll Name the Dogs '' was written by Matt Dragstrem, Ben Hayslip and Josh Thompson, while production was handled by Scott Hendricks.
The song first entered the Billboard Country Airplay chart at No. 23 on the issue date of September 28, 2017, and Hot Country Songs at No. 40 the same week. It became available for sale the following week, and was the second best - selling country song that week with 27,273 copies sold, helping the song move to No. 10 on the Hot Country Songs chart. The song has sold 161,000 copies in the United States as of December 2017.
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most x-ray emission in the milky way galaxy comes from | Milky Way - wikipedia
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive "milky '' is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy -- a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that can not be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk - shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 and 180,000 light - years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100 -- 400 billion stars. There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light - years from the Galactic Center, on the inner edge of one of the spiral - shaped concentrations of gas and dust called the Orion Arm. The stars in the inner ≈ 10,000 light - years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge. The very center is marked by an intense radio source, named Sagittarius A *, which is likely to be a supermassive black hole.
Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed "dark matter ''. The rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang.
The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster.
The "Milky Way '' can be seen as a hazy band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky. Although all the individual naked - eye stars in the entire sky are part of the Milky Way, the light in this band originates from the accumulation of unresolved stars and other material located in the direction of the galactic plane. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack, are areas where light from distant stars is blocked by interstellar dust. The area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance.
The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness. Its visibility can be greatly reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen. It should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately + 5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at + 6.1. This makes the Milky Way difficult to see from any brightly lit urban or suburban location, but very prominent when viewed from a rural area when the Moon is below the horizon. The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness shows that more than one - third of Earth 's population can not see the Milky Way from their homes due to light pollution.
As viewed from Earth, the visible region of the Milky Way 's Galactic plane occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations. The center of the Galaxy lies in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius; it is here that the Milky Way is brightest. From Sagittarius, the hazy band of white light appears to pass around to the Galactic anticenter in Auriga. The band then continues the rest of the way around the sky, back to Sagittarius. The band divides the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres.
The Galactic plane is inclined by about 60 degrees to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth 's orbit). Relative to the celestial equator, it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of Earth 's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic, relative to the Galactic plane. The north Galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12 49, declination + 27.4 ° (B1950) near β Comae Berenices, and the south Galactic pole is near α Sculptoris. Because of this high inclination, depending on the time of night and year, the arc of the Milky Way may appear relatively low or relatively high in the sky. For observers from approximately 65 degrees north to 65 degrees south on Earth 's surface, the Milky Way passes directly overhead twice a day.
The Milky Way is the second - largest galaxy in the Local Group, with its stellar disk approximately 100,000 ly (30 kpc) in diameter, and, on average, approximately 1,000 ly (0.3 kpc) thick. As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter (24.3 mm (0.955 in)), the Milky Way would be approximately the size of the continental United States. A ring - like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may belong to the Milky Way itself, rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane. If so, that would mean a diameter of 150,000 -- 180,000 light - years (46 -- 55 kpc).
Estimates of the mass of the Milky Way vary, depending upon the method and data used. At the low end of the estimate range, the mass of the Milky Way is 5.8 × 10 solar masses (M), somewhat less than that of the Andromeda Galaxy. Measurements using the Very Long Baseline Array in 2009 found velocities as large as 254 km / s (570,000 mph) for stars at the outer edge of the Milky Way. Because the orbital velocity depends on the total mass inside the orbital radius, this suggests that the Milky Way is more massive, roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy at 7 × 10 M within 160,000 ly (49 kpc) of its center. In 2010, a measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars found that the mass enclosed within 80 kilo parsecs is 7 × 10 M. According to a study published in 2014, the mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be 8.5 × 10 M, which is about half the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy.
Much of the mass of the Milky Way appears to be dark matter, an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter. A dark matter halo is spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs from the Galactic Center. Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that the mass of dark matter is 1 -- 1.5 × 10 M. Recent studies indicate a range in mass, as large as 4.5 × 10 M and as small as 8 × 10 M.
The total mass of all the stars in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 4.6 × 10 M and 6.43 × 10 M. In addition to the stars, there is also interstellar gas, comprising 90 % hydrogen and 10 % helium by mass, with two thirds of the hydrogen found in the atomic form and the remaining one - third as molecular hydrogen. The mass of this gas is equal to between 10 % and 15 % of the total mass of the galaxy 's stars. Interstellar dust accounts for an additional 1 % of the total mass of the gas.
The Milky Way contains between 200 and 400 billion stars and at least 100 billion planets. The exact figure depends on the number of very - low - mass stars, which are hard to detect, especially at distances of more than 300 ly (90 pc) from the Sun. As a comparison, the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy contains an estimated one trillion (10) stars. Filling the space between the stars is a disk of gas and dust called the interstellar medium. This disk has at least a comparable extent in radius to the stars, whereas the thickness of the gas layer ranges from hundreds of light years for the colder gas to thousands of light years for warmer gas.
The disk of stars in the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the concentration of stars decreases with distance from the center of the Milky Way. For reasons that are not understood, beyond a radius of roughly 40,000 ly (13 kpc) from the center, the number of stars per cubic parsec drops much faster with radius. Surrounding the galactic disk is a spherical Galactic Halo of stars and globular clusters that extends further outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach to the Galactic Center is about 180,000 ly (55 kpc). At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds. Hence, such objects would probably be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way. The integrated absolute visual magnitude of the Milky Way is estimated to be around − 20.9.
Both gravitational microlensing and planetary transit observations indicate that there may be at least as many planets bound to stars as there are stars in the Milky Way, and microlensing measurements indicate that there are more rogue planets not bound to host stars than there are stars. The Milky Way contains at least one planet per star, resulting in 100 -- 400 billion planets, according to a January 2013 study of the five - planet star system Kepler - 32 with the Kepler space observatory. A different January 2013 analysis of Kepler data estimated that at least 17 billion Earth - sized exoplanets reside in the Milky Way. On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth - sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun - like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun - like stars. The nearest such planet may be 4.2 light - years away, according to a 2016 study. Such Earth - sized planets may be more numerous than gas giants. Besides exoplanets, "exocomets '', comets beyond the Solar System, have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way.
360 - degree panorama view of the Milky Way (an assembled mosaic of photographs) by ESO. The galactic centre is in the middle of the view, with galactic north up.
The Milky Way consists of a bar - shaped core region surrounded by a disk of gas, dust and stars. The mass distribution within the Milky Way closely resembles the type Sbc in the Hubble classification, which represents spiral galaxies with relatively loosely wound arms. Astronomers began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy, rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy, in the 1990s. Their suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005 that showed the Milky Way 's central bar to be larger than previously thought.
A galactic quadrant, or quadrant of the Milky Way, refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way. In actual astronomical practice, the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system, which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system.
Quadrants are described using ordinals -- for example, "1st galactic quadrant '', "second galactic quadrant '', or "third quadrant of the Milky Way ''. Viewing from the north galactic pole with 0 degrees (°) as the ray that runs starting from the Sun and through the Galactic Center, the quadrants are as follows:
The Sun is 25,000 -- 28,000 ly (7.7 -- 8.6 kpc) from the Galactic Center. This value is estimated using geometric - based methods or by measuring selected astronomical objects that serve as standard candles, with different techniques yielding various values within this approximate range. In the inner few kpc (around 10,000 light - years radius) is a dense concentration of mostly old stars in a roughly spheroidal shape called the bulge. It has been proposed that the Milky Way lacks a bulge formed due to a collision and merger between previous galaxies, and that instead it has a pseudobulge formed by its central bar.
The Galactic Center is marked by an intense radio source named Sagittarius A * (pronounced Sagittarius A-star). The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A * harbors a massive, compact object. This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole (SMBH) with an estimated mass of 4.1 -- 4.5 million times the mass of the Sun. The rate of accretion of the SMBH is consistent with an inactive galactic nucleus, being estimated at around 6995100000000000000 ♠ 1 × 10 M y. Observations indicate that there are SMBH located near the center of most normal galaxies.
The nature of the Milky Way 's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half - length and orientation spanning from 1 to 5 kpc (3,000 -- 16,000 ly) and 10 -- 50 degrees relative to the line of sight from Earth to the Galactic Center. Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other. However, RR Lyrae variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar. The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5 - kpc ring '' that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, as well as most of the Milky Way 's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way. X-ray emission from the core is aligned with the massive stars surrounding the central bar and the Galactic ridge.
In 2010, two gigantic spherical bubbles of high energy emission were detected to the north and the south of the Milky Way core, using data from the Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope. The diameter of each of the bubbles is about 25,000 light - years (7.7 kpc); they stretch up to Grus and to Virgo on the night - sky of the southern hemisphere. Subsequently, observations with the Parkes Telescope at radio frequencies identified polarized emission that is associated with the Fermi bubbles. These observations are best interpreted as a magnetized outflow driven by star formation in the central 640 ly (200 pc) of the Milky Way.
Later, on January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record - breaker, from Sagittarius A *. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A *.
Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bars, the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way is organized into four spiral arms. Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation, as traced by H II regions and molecular clouds.
The Milky Way 's spiral structure is uncertain, and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Milky Way 's spiral arms. Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun, because galaxies commonly have arms that branch, merge, twist unexpectedly, and feature a degree of irregularity. The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique, and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way. Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7 ° to 25 °. There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way 's center. These are named as follows, with the positions of the arms shown in the image at right:
Two spiral arms, the Scutum -- Centaurus arm and the Carina -- Sagittarius arm, have tangent points inside the Sun 's orbit about the center of the Milky Way. If these arms contain an overdensity of stars compared to the average density of stars in the Galactic disk, it would be detectable by counting the stars near the tangent point. Two surveys of near - infrared light, which is sensitive primarily to red giants and not affected by dust extinction, detected the predicted overabundance in the Scutum -- Centaurus arm but not in the Carina -- Sagittarius arm: the Scutum - Centaurus Arm contains approximately 30 % more red giants than would be expected in the absence of a spiral arm. This observation suggests that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms: the Perseus arm and the Scutum -- Centaurus arm. The rest of the arms contain excess gas but not excess old stars. In December 2013, astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star - forming regions matches the four - arm spiral description of the Milky Way. Thus, the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars. The explanation for this apparent discrepancy is unclear.
The Near 3 kpc Arm (also called Expanding 3 kpc Arm or simply 3 kpc Arm) was discovered in the 1950s by astronomer van Woerden and collaborators through 21 - centimeter radio measurements of HI (atomic hydrogen). It was found to be expanding away from the central bulge at more than 50 km / s. It is located in the fourth galactic quadrant at a distance of about 5.2 kpc from the Sun and 3.3 kpc from the Galactic Center. The Far 3 kpc Arm was discovered in 2008 by astronomer Tom Dame (Harvard - Smithsonian CfA). It is located in the first galactic quadrant at a distance of 3 kpc (about 10,000 ly) from the Galactic Center.
A simulation published in 2011 suggested that the Milky Way may have obtained its spiral arm structure as a result of repeated collisions with the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy.
It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns: an inner one, formed by the Sagittarius arm, that rotates fast and an outer one, formed by the Carina and Perseus arms, whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound. In this scenario, suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms, the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring, and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm.
Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring (or Outer Ring), a ring of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago. However, several members of the scientific community recently restated their position affirming the Monoceros structure is nothing more than an over-density produced by the flared and warped thick disk of the Milky Way.
The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters, of which 90 % lie within 100,000 light - years (30 kpc) of the Galactic Center. However, a few globular clusters have been found farther, such as PAL 4 and AM1 at more than 200,000 light - years from the Galactic Center. About 40 % of the Milky Way 's clusters are on retrograde orbits, which means they move in the opposite direction from the Milky Way rotation. The globular clusters can follow rosette orbits about the Milky Way, in contrast to the elliptical orbit of a planet around a star.
Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths, the halo component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent areas of high density), but does not take place in the halo, as there is little gas cool enough to collapse into stars. Open clusters are also located primarily in the disk.
Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the knowledge of the Milky Way 's structure. With the discovery that the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much further than previously thought, the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent, and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm and of a similar extension of the Scutum - Centaurus Arm. With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, it was found that a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the Galactic disk.
The Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky shows a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way. This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light - years (9 kpc) away.
In addition to the stellar halo, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM - Newton, and Suzaku have provided evidence that there is a gaseous halo with a large amount of hot gas. The halo extends for hundreds of thousand of light years, much further than the stellar halo and close to the distance of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. The mass of this hot halo is nearly equivalent to the mass of the Milky Way itself. The temperature of this halo gas is between 1 and 2.5 million K (1.8 and 4.5 million F).
Observations of distant galaxies indicate that the Universe had about one - sixth as much baryonic (ordinary) matter as dark matter when it was just a few billion years old. However, only about half of those baryons are accounted for in the modern Universe based on observations of nearby galaxies like the Milky Way. If the finding that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of the Milky Way is confirmed, it could be the identity of the missing baryons around the Milky Way.
The Sun is near the inner rim of the Orion Arm, within the Local Fluff of the Local Bubble, and in the Gould Belt, at a distance of 26.4 ± 1.0 kly (8.09 ± 0.31 kpc) from the Galactic Center. The Sun is currently 5 -- 30 parsecs (16 -- 98 ly) from the central plane of the Galactic disk. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 2,000 parsecs (6,500 ly). The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is located in the Milky Way 's galactic habitable zone.
There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8.5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light - years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light - years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15.5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14.
The apex of the Sun 's way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun 's Galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun 's orbit about the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the Galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition, the Sun passes through the Galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with mass lifeform extinction periods on Earth. However, a reanalysis of the effects of the Sun 's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed to find a correlation.
It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way (a galactic year), so the Sun is thought to have completed 18 -- 20 orbits during its lifetime and 1 / 1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km / s (490,000 mph) or 0.073 % of the speed of light. The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 84,000 km / h (52,000 mph). At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light - year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU (astronomical unit). The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius, which follows the ecliptic.
The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially, meaning that the rotation period varies with location. As is typical for spiral galaxies, the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar orbital speed is between 210 and 240 km / s (470,000 and 540,000 mph). Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the situation within the Solar System, where two - body gravitational dynamics dominate, and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them. The rotation curve (shown in the figure) describes this rotation. Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low, whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation.
If the Milky Way contained only the mass observed in stars, gas, and other baryonic (ordinary) matter, the rotation speed would decrease with distance from the center. However, the observed curve is relatively flat, indicating that there is additional mass that can not be detected directly with electromagnetic radiation. This inconsistency is attributed to dark matter. The rotation curve of the Milky Way agrees with the universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies, the best evidence for the existence of dark matter in galaxies. Alternatively, a minority of astronomers propose that a modification of the law of gravity may explain the observed rotation curve.
The Milky Way began as one or several small overdensities in the mass distribution in the Universe shortly after the Big Bang. Some of these overdensities were the seeds of globular clusters in which the oldest remaining stars in what is now the Milky Way formed. Nearly half the matter in the Milky Way may have come from other distant galaxies. Nonetheless, these stars and clusters now comprise the stellar halo of the Milky Way. Within a few billion years of the birth of the first stars, the mass of the Milky Way was large enough so that it was spinning relatively quickly. Due to conservation of angular momentum, this led the gaseous interstellar medium to collapse from a roughly spheroidal shape to a disk. Therefore, later generations of stars formed in this spiral disk. Most younger stars, including the Sun, are observed to be in the disk.
Since the first stars began to form, the Milky Way has grown through both galaxy mergers (particularly early in the Milky Way 's growth) and accretion of gas directly from the Galactic halo. The Milky Way is currently accreting material from two of its nearest satellite galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, through the Magellanic Stream. Direct accretion of gas is observed in high - velocity clouds like the Smith Cloud. However, properties of the Milky Way such as stellar mass, angular momentum, and metallicity in its outermost regions suggest it has undergone no mergers with large galaxies in the last 10 billion years. This lack of recent major mergers is unusual among similar spiral galaxies; its neighbour the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have a more typical history shaped by more recent mergers with relatively large galaxies.
According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the galaxy color -- magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley '', a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud '' (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence '' (galaxies that lack star formation). Star - formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star - forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short - term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.
Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the Milky Way, which thus set a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. The ages of individual stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by measuring the abundance of long - lived radioactive elements such as thorium - 232 and uranium - 238, then comparing the results to estimates of their original abundance, a technique called nucleocosmochronology. These yield values of about 12.5 ± 3 billion years for CS 31082 - 001 and 13.8 ± 4 billion years for BD + 17 ° 3248. Once a white dwarf is formed, it begins to undergo radiative cooling and the surface temperature steadily drops. By measuring the temperatures of the coolest of these white dwarfs and comparing them to their expected initial temperature, an age estimate can be made. With this technique, the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12.7 ± 0.7 billion years. Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12.6 billion years, and a 95 % confidence upper limit of 16 billion years.
Several individual stars have been found in the Milky Way 's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80 - billion - year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523 - 0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using the UV - Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure the relative strengths of spectral lines caused by the presence of thorium and other elements created by the R - process. The line strengths yield abundances of different elemental isotopes, from which an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using nucleocosmochronology. Another star, HD 140283, is 14.5 ± 0.7 billion years old.
The age of stars in the galactic thin disk has also been estimated using nucleocosmochronology. Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate that the thin disk formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. These measurements suggest there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the formation of the galactic halo and the thin disk. Recent analysis of the chemical signatures of thousands of stars suggests that stellar formation might have dropped by an order of magnitude at the time of disk formation, 10 to 8 billion years ago, when interstellar gas was too hot to form new stars at the same rate as before.
The satellite galaxies surrounding the Milky way are not randomly distributed, but seemed to be the result of a break - up of some larger system producing a ring structure 500,000 light years in diameter and 50,000 light years wide. Close encounters between galaxies, like that expected in 4 billion years with the Andromeda Galaxy rips off huge tails of gas, which, over time can coalesce to form dwarf galaxies in a ring at right angles to the main disc.
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local Group, surrounded by a Local Void, itself being part of the Virgo Supercluster. Surrounding the Virgo Supercluster are a number of voids, devoid of many galaxies, the Microscopium Void to the "north '', the Sculptor Void to the "left '', the Bootes Void to the "right '' and the Canes - Major Void to the South. These voids change shape over time, creating filamentous structures of galaxies. The Virgo Supercluster, for instance, is being drawn towards the Great Attractor, which in turn forms part of a greater structure, called Laniakea.
Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group orbit the Milky Way. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 14,000 light - years. It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a stream of neutral hydrogen gas extending from these two small galaxies across 100 ° of the sky. The stream is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way are only 500 light - years in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies that are dynamically bound to the Milky Way, which is supported by the detection of nine new satellites of the Milky Way in a relatively small patch of the night sky in 2015. There are also some dwarf galaxies that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way, such as Omega Centauri.
In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction. This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.
In January 2006, researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they orbit the Milky Way, causing vibrations when they pass through its edges. Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2 % of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way. However, in a computer model, the movement of these two galaxies creates a dark matter wake that amplifies their influence on the larger Milky Way.
Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 100 to 140 km / s (220,000 to 310,000 mph). In 3 to 4 billion years, there may be an Andromeda -- Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies ' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low, but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years.
Although special relativity states that there is no "preferred '' inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the Milky Way, the Milky Way does have a velocity with respect to cosmological frames of reference.
One such frame of reference is the Hubble flow, the apparent motions of galaxy clusters due to the expansion of space. Individual galaxies, including the Milky Way, have peculiar velocities relative to the average flow. Thus, to compare the Milky Way to the Hubble flow, one must consider a volume large enough so that the expansion of the Universe dominates over local, random motions. A large enough volume means that the mean motion of galaxies within this volume is equal to the Hubble flow. Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km / s (1,400,000 mph) with respect to this local co-moving frame of reference. The Milky Way is moving in the general direction of the Great Attractor and other galaxy clusters, including the Shapley supercluster, behind it. The Local Group (a cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies containing, among others, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy) is part of a supercluster called the Local Supercluster, centered near the Virgo Cluster: although they are moving away from each other at 967 km / s (2,160,000 mph) as part of the Hubble flow, this velocity is less than would be expected given the 16.8 million pc distance due to the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo Cluster.
Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The Milky Way is moving at 552 ± 6 km / s (1,235,000 ± 13,000 mph) with respect to the photons of the CMB, toward 10.5 right ascension, − 24 ° declination (J2000 epoch, near the center of Hydra). This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue - shifted in the direction of the motion and red - shifted in the opposite direction.
In Babylonia, the Milky Way was said to be the tail of Tiamat, set in the sky by Marduk after he had slain the salt water goddess. It is believed this account, from the Enuma Elish had Marduk replace an earlier Sumerian story when Enlil of Nippur had slain the goddess.
Llys Dôn (literally "The Court of Dôn '') is the traditional Welsh name for the constellation Cassiopeia. At least three of Dôn 's children also have astronomical associations: Caer Gwydion ("The fortress of Gwydion '') is the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way, and Caer Arianrhod ("The Fortress of Arianrhod '') being the constellation of Corona Borealis.
In western culture the name "Milky Way '' is derived from its appearance as a dim un-resolved "milky '' glowing band arching across the night sky. The term is a translation of the Classical Latin via lactea, in turn derived from the Hellenistic Greek γαλαξίας, short for γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). The Ancient Greek γαλαξίας (galaxias) -- from root γαλακτ -, γάλα ("milk '') + - ίας (forming adjectives) -- is also the root of "galaxy '', the name for our, and later all such, collections of stars. In Greek mythology it was supposedly made from the forceful suckling of Heracles, when Hera acted as a wetnurse for the hero.
The Milky Way, or "milk circle '', was just one of 11 "circles '' the Greeks identified in the sky, others being the zodiac, the meridian, the horizon, the equator, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic circles, and two colure circles passing through both poles.
In Meteorologica (DK 59 A80), Aristotle (384 -- 322 BC) wrote that the Greek philosophers Anaxagoras (c. 500 -- 428 BC) and Democritus (460 -- 370 BC) proposed that the Milky Way might consist of distant stars. However, Aristotle himself believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together '' and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions. '' The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger (c. 495 -- 570 A.D.) criticized this view, arguing that if the Milky Way were sublunary, it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it does not. In his view, the Milky Way is celestial. This idea would be influential later in the Islamic world.
The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (973 -- 1048) proposed that the Milky Way is "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars ''. The Andalusian astronomer Avempace (d 1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in Earth 's atmosphere, citing his observation of a conjunction of Jupiter and Mars in 1106 or 1107 as evidence. Ibn Qayyim Al - Jawziyya (1292 -- 1350) proposed that the Milky Way is "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars '' and that these stars are larger than planets.
According to Jamil Ragep, the Persian astronomer Naṣīr al - Dīn al - Ṭūsī (1201 -- 1274) in his Tadhkira writes: "The Milky Way, i.e. the Galaxy, is made up of a very large number of small, tightly clustered stars, which, on account of their concentration and smallness, seem to be cloudy patches. Because of this, it was likened to milk in color. ''
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant, drawing on earlier work by Thomas Wright, speculated (correctly) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate "galaxies '' themselves, similar to our own. Kant referred to both the Milky Way and the "extragalactic nebulae '' as "island universes '', a term still current up to the 1930s.
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the visible sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the Milky Way with the Solar System close to the center.
In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral - shaped nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant 's earlier conjecture.
In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed the nova S Andromedae within the Great Andromeda Nebula (Messier object 31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within the Milky Way. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the "island universes '' hypothesis, which held that the spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies. In 1920 the Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.
The controversy was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble in the early 1920s using the Mount Wilson observatory 2.5 m (100 in) Hooker telescope. With the light - gathering power of this new telescope, he was able to produce astronomical photographs that resolved the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars. He was also able to identify some Cepheid variables that he could use as a benchmark to estimate the distance to the nebulae. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is 275,000 parsecs from the Sun, far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.
The ESA spacecraft Gaia provides distance estimates by determining the parallax of a billion stars and is mapping the Milky Way with four planned releases of maps in 2022.
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who established the criteria for identifying which specific organism caused a specific disease | Koch 's postulates - wikipedia
Koch 's postulates (/ ˈkɔːx /) are four criteria designed to establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease. The postulates were formulated by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler in 1884, based on earlier concepts described by Jakob Henle, and refined and published by Koch in 1890. Koch applied the postulates to describe the etiology of cholera and tuberculosis, but they have been controversially generalized to other diseases. These postulates were generated prior to understanding of modern concepts in microbial pathogenesis that can not be examined using Koch 's postulates, including viruses (which are obligate cellular parasites) or asymptomatic carriers. They have largely been supplanted by other criteria such as the Bradford Hill criteria for infectious disease causality in modern public health.
Koch 's postulates are the following:
However, Koch abandoned the universalist requirement of the first postulate altogether when he discovered asymptomatic carriers of cholera and, later, of typhoid fever. Asymptomatic or subclinical infection carriers are now known to be a common feature of many infectious diseases, especially viruses such as polio, herpes simplex, HIV, and hepatitis C. As a specific example, all doctors and virologists agree that poliovirus causes paralysis in just a few infected subjects, and the success of the polio vaccine in preventing disease supports the conviction that the poliovirus is the causative agent.
The second postulate may also be suspended for certain microorganisms or entities that can not (at the present time) be grown in pure culture. Viruses also require host cells to grow and reproduce and therefore can not be grown in pure cultures.
The third postulate specifies "should '', not "must '', because as Koch himself proved in regard to both tuberculosis and cholera, not all organisms exposed to an infectious agent will acquire the infection. Noninfection may be due to such factors as general health and proper immune functioning; acquired immunity from previous exposure or vaccination; or genetic immunity, as with the resistance to malaria conferred by possessing at least one sickle cell allele.
There are a few other exceptions to Koch 's postulates. A single pathogen can cause several disease conditions. Additionally, a single disease condition can be caused by several different microorganisms. Some pathogens can not be cultured in the lab, and some pathogens only cause disease in the human species.
In summary, an infectious agent that satisfies Koch 's postulates has sufficient evidence to be classified as the infectious agent, but due to the postulates ' shortcomings they are not strictly a necessary condition of an organism being the infectious agent responsible for a disease.
Koch 's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day. Even in Koch 's time, it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates. Attempts to rigidly apply Koch 's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century, at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture, may have impeded the early development of the field of virology. Koch 's postulates have been recognized as largely obsolete by epidemiologists since the 1950s. Therefore, while Koch 's postulates retain historical importance and continue to inform the approach to microbiologic diagnosis, they are not routinely used to demonstrate causality.
Koch 's postulates have also influenced scientists who examine microbial pathogenesis from a molecular point of view. In the 1980s, a molecular version of Koch 's postulates was developed to guide the identification of microbial genes encoding virulence factors.
That HIV causes AIDS does not follow from Koch 's postulates, which may have supported HIV / AIDS denialism. Also Oncoviruses causing cancers does not follow Koch 's postulates.
Koch 's postulates have played an important role in microbiology, yet they have major limitations. For example, Koch was well aware that in the case of cholera, the causal agent, Vibrio cholerae, could be found in both sick and healthy people, invalidating his first postulate. Furthermore, viral diseases were not yet discovered when Koch formulated his postulates, and there are many viruses that do not cause illness in all infected individuals, a requirement of the first postulate. Additionally, it was known through experimentation that H. pylori caused mild inflammation of the gastric lining when ingested. As evident as the inflammation was, it still did not immediately convince skeptics that H. pylori was associated with ulcers. Eventually, skeptics were silenced when a newly developed antibiotic treatment eliminated the bacteria and ultimately cured the disease. Contradictions and occurrences such as these have led many to believe that a fifth postulate may be required. If enacted, this postulate would state that sufficient microbial data should allow scientists to treat, cure, or prevent the particular disease.
More recently, modern nucleic acid - based microbial detection methods have made Koch 's original postulates even less relevant. These nucleic acid - based methods make it possible to identify microbes that are associated with a disease, but in many cases the microbes are uncultivable. Also, nucleic acid - based detection methods are very sensitive, and they can often detect the very low levels of viruses that are found in healthy people without disease.
The use of these new methods has led to revised versions of Koch 's postulates: Fredricks and Relman have suggested the following set of Koch 's postulates for the 21st century:
These modifications are still controversial in that they do not account well for established disease associations, such as papillomavirus and cervical cancer, nor do they take into account prion diseases, which have no nucleic acid sequences of their own.
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