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when was a charlie brown christmas first aired | A Charlie Brown Christmas - wikipedia
A Charlie Brown Christmas is a 1965 animated television special based on the comic strip Peanuts, by Charles M. Schulz. Produced by Lee Mendelson and directed by Bill Melendez, the program made its debut on CBS on December 9, 1965. In the special, lead character Charlie Brown finds himself depressed despite the onset of the cheerful holiday season. Lucy suggests he direct a neighborhood Christmas play, but his best efforts are ignored and mocked by his peers. After Linus tells Charlie Brown about the true meaning of Christmas, Charlie Brown cheers up, and the Peanuts gang unites to celebrate the Christmas season.
Peanuts had become a phenomenon worldwide by the mid-1960s, and the special was commissioned and sponsored by The Coca - Cola Company. It was written over a period of several weeks, and animated on a shoestring budget in only six months. In casting the characters, the producers went an unconventional route, hiring child actors. The program 's soundtrack was similarly unorthodox: it features a jazz score by pianist Vince Guaraldi. Its absence of a laugh track (a staple in US television animation in this period), in addition to its tone, pacing, music, and animation, led both the producers and network to wrongly predict the project would be a disaster preceding its broadcast.
Contrary to that apprehension, A Charlie Brown Christmas received high ratings and acclaim from critics. It has since been honored with both an Emmy and Peabody Award. It became an annual broadcast in the United States, and has been aired during the Christmas season traditionally every year since its premiere. Its success paved the way for a series of Peanuts television specials and films. Its jazz soundtrack also achieved commercial success, selling 4 million copies in the US. Live theatrical versions of A Charlie Brown Christmas have been staged. ABC currently holds the rights to the special and broadcasts it at least twice during the weeks leading up to Christmas.
The Peanuts are celebrating the start of the winter season by ice skating on a frozen pond and singing "Christmas Time Is Here. '' Leaning against a nearby fence, Charlie Brown tells Linus that despite all the traditions of Christmas presents, Christmas cards and decorations, he still winds up depressed, but is not sure why. Linus dismisses Charlie Brown 's attitude as typical, quoting Lucy: "Of all the Charlie Browns in the world, you 're the Charlie Browniest. ''
Charlie Brown 's depression is only made worse by the goings - on in the neighborhood, most of which show his peers ' rampant commercialism. He encounters Violet and sarcastically "thanks '' her for the Christmas card he never received, only for Violet to proudly snipe back that she never sent him one. At the psychiatric booth, Lucy expresses joy in the sound of jingling money, tries to diagnose Charlie Brown with various phobias, admits she never receives her Christmas wish of real estate, and ultimately decides that Charlie Brown needs more involvement. Lucy recommends that Charlie Brown direct an upcoming Christmas play and offers to help him do so. At Snoopy 's doghouse, Charlie Brown is further disgusted when he finds out that his dog has entered the doghouse into a lights and display contest with a cash prize. He is finally accosted by his sister Sally, who asks him to write her letter to Santa Claus. When she hints at having an extremely long and specific list of requests, and says she will accept large sums of money as a substitute ("tens and twenties ''), Charlie Brown becomes even more dismayed and runs off.
Charlie Brown arrives at the rehearsal, but he is unable to gain control of the situation, since everyone in the play has their own complaints, and everybody would rather dance along to the jazz - rock band (consisting of Schroeder on keyboards, Snoopy on an inaudible electric guitar and Pig - Pen on bass). The play is revealed to be quite modern, with an upbeat jazz score, a "Christmas queen, '' shepherds, innkeepers and penguins but no identifiable Biblical figures. A displeased Charlie Brown decides the play needs "the proper mood '' and suggests they should get a Christmas tree. Lucy instructs him, and the accompanying Linus, to get an aluminum Christmas tree that is big, shiny and pink from a nearby tree lot.
When they get to the lot, filled with numerous trees fitting Lucy 's description, Charlie Brown ironically and symbolically chooses the only real tree there (in disbelief that wooden Christmas trees still exist) -- a tiny sapling. Linus is unsure about Charlie Brown 's choice, but Charlie Brown is convinced that all it needs is some decoration and it will be just right. While those two get the tree, Schroeder tries to pass off "Für Elise '' as a Christmas song, while Lucy tries to get him to play the perfect rendition of "Jingle Bells; '' after two failed attempts, Schroeder tersely pecks the keys on his toy piano, which is exactly what Lucy seeks.
Linus and Charlie Brown return to the auditorium with the tree, only to be scorned by Lucy and the other girls who, along with Snoopy, walk off laughing. At his wit 's end, Charlie Brown loudly asks if anybody knows what Christmas is all about. Linus says he does and, after walking to center stage, recites the annunciation to the shepherds from the Gospel of Luke, chapter 2, verses 8 through 14, as translated by the Authorized King James Version:
"And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flock by night. And, lo, the angel of the Lord came upon them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about them: and they were sore afraid. And the angel said unto them, Fear not; for, behold, I bring you tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people. For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, which is Christ the Lord. And this shall be a sign unto you: Ye shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling clothes, lying in a manger. And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God, and saying, Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace and goodwill towards men. ''
Linus then walks back over to Charlie Brown and gently says, "That 's what Christmas is all about, Charlie Brown. ''
Charlie Brown quietly picks up the tree and walks out of the auditorium toward home, now determined not to let commercialism ruin the holiday. He stops at Snoopy 's decorated doghouse, which now sports a blue ribbon for winning the display contest. He takes a large ornament from the doghouse and hangs it at the top of his tree, but the branch, seemingly unable to hold the ornament 's weight, promptly droops to the ground. Believing he has killed the tree, Charlie Brown walks off in shame, believing he has ruined everything.
Linus and the others, who realized they were too hard on Charlie Brown, quietly followed him to Snoopy 's doghouse. Linus admits he always liked the tree while gently propping the drooping branch back in its upright position and wraps his blanket around its base, and when the others add the remaining decorations from Snoopy 's doghouse to the tree, Lucy agrees. They start humming "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing ''. Charlie Brown returns, surprised at the humming and the redecorated tree, and the gang all joyously shout "Merry Christmas, Charlie Brown! '' They all begin to sing "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing, '' and Charlie Brown joins them as the special ends.
By the early 1960s, Charles M. Schulz 's comic strip Peanuts had become a sensation worldwide. Television producer Lee Mendelson acknowledged the strip 's cultural impression and had an idea for a documentary on its success, phoning Schulz to propose the idea. Schulz, an avid baseball fan, recognized Mendelson from his documentary on ballplayer Willie Mays, A Man Named Mays, and invited him to his home in Sebastopol, California, to discuss the project. Their meeting was cordial, with the plan to produce a half - hour documentary set. Mendelson wanted to feature roughly "one or two '' minutes of animation, and Schulz suggested animator Bill Melendez, with whom he collaborated some years before on a spot for the Ford Motor Company.
Despite the popularity of the strip and acclaim from advertisers, networks were not interested in the special. By April 1965, Time featured the Peanuts gang on its magazine cover, perhaps prompting a call from John Allen of the New York - based McCann Erickson Agency. Mendelson imagined he would sell his documentary, and blindly agreed to Allen 's proposal: an animated half - hour Peanuts Christmas special. The Coca - Cola Company was looking for a special for advertising during the holiday season. "The bad news is that today is Wednesday and they 'll need an outline in Atlanta by Monday, '' Allen remarked to Mendelson. He quickly contacted Schulz, and the duo got to work with plans for a Peanuts Christmas special. The duo prepared an outline for the Coca - Cola executives in less than one day, and Mendelson would later recall that the bulk of ideas came from Schulz, whose "ideas flowed nonstop. '' According to Mendelson, their pitch to Coca - Cola consisted of "winter scenes, a school play, a scene to be read from the Bible, and a sound track combining jazz and traditional music. '' The outline did not change over the course of its production.
As Allen was in Europe, the duo received no feedback on their pitch for several days. When Allen got in touch with them, he informed them that Coca - Cola wanted to buy the special, but also wanted it for an early December broadcast, giving the duo just six months to scramble together a team to produce the special. Mendelson assured him -- without complete confidence in his statements -- that this would be no problem. Following this, A Charlie Brown Christmas entered production.
Schulz 's main goal for a Peanuts - based Christmas special was to focus on the true meaning of Christmas. He desired to juxtapose this theme with interspersed shots of snow and ice - skating, perhaps inspired by his own childhood growing up in St. Paul, Minnesota. He also created the idea for the school play, and mixing jazz with traditional Christmas carols. Schulz was adamant about Linus ' reading of the Bible, despite Mendelson and Melendez 's concerns that religion was a controversial topic, especially on television. Melendez recalled Schulz turned to him and remarked "If we do n't do it, who will? ''. Schulz 's estimation proved accurate, and in the 1960s, less than 9 percent of television Christmas episodes contained a substantive reference to religion, according to university researcher Stephen Lind. It could also be worth noting that the Linus 's recitation of Scripture was incorporated in such a way that it forms the climax of the film, thus making it impossible to successfully edit out.
Schulz 's faith in the Bible stemmed from his Midwest background and religious and historical studies; as such, aspects of religion would be a topic of study throughout his life. According to a 2015 "spiritual biography '', Schulz 's religion was personal and complex, and would be integrated in a number of his programs.
The program 's script has been described as "barebones '', and was completed in only a few weeks. In the days following the special 's sell to Coca - Cola, Mendelson and animator Bill Melendez met with Schulz in his home to expand upon the ideas promised in the pitch. Mendelson noted that on the previous Christmas Day he and his spouse had read Hans Christian Andersen 's "The Fir - Tree '' to their children. Schulz countered with the idea that there be a tree with the spirit of lead character Charlie Brown. Mendelson suggested they employ a laugh track, a staple of television animation, but Schulz rejected this idea immediately. He felt strongly that the audience should not be informed on when to laugh. They spoke at length about creating an official theme that was neither jazz nor traditional to open the program. Schulz wanted a part of the special to feature the character of Schroeder performing Beethoven, and Mendelson combined this with the inclusion of Guaraldi 's "Linus & Lucy '' number. Schulz penned the script for A Charlie Brown Christmas, with Melendez plotting out the animation via a storyboard. His storyboard contained six panels for each shot, spanning a combined eighty or - so pages.
In casting the silent comic strip characters of Peanuts, the trio pulled from their personalities. Lead character Charlie Brown 's voice was decided to be downbeat and nondescript ("blah, '' as Mendelson noted), while Lucy be bold and forthright. Linus ' voice, it was decided, would combine both sophistication with childlike innocence. Mendelson recognized that the character of Snoopy was the strip 's most popular character who seemed to seize "the best jokes, '' but realized they could not cast a voice for the cartoon dog. "In the process, we gained a veritable ' canine Harpo Marx, ' '' Mendelson later wrote. Melendez suggested he provide gibberish for Snoopy 's mutterings, and simply speed up the tape to prevent viewers from knowing. There are no adult characters in the strip or in this special. Later specials would introduce an offscreen teacher; her lines are eschewed for the sound of a trombone as the team behind the specials found it humorous.
With this in mind, the trio set out to cast the characters, which proved to be a daunting process. Casting for Charlie Brown proved most difficult, as it required both good acting skills but also the ability to appear nonchalant. The producers picked eight - year - old Peter Robbins, already known for his roles spanning television, film, and advertisements. His godmother, famous Hollywood agent Hazel McMillen, discovered Christopher Shea, who would become Linus in the special. His slight lisp, according to Mendelson, gave him a "youthful sweetness, '' while his emotional script reading "gave him power and authority as well. '' Tracy Stratford played the role of Lucy, with the creators being impressed by her attitude and professionalism. Kathy Steinberg was the youngest of the performers, just six years old at the time of recording. Too young to read, the producers had to give her one line at a time to recite. Robbins remembered Melendez did this for him as well, joking that he also mistakenly copied his Latino accent. Mendelson desired to have non-actors (not "Hollywood kids '') perform on the special, and he sent tape recorders home with his employees for their children to audition.
Much of the background cast came from Mendelson 's home neighborhood in northern California. According to Robbins, the children viewed the script 's sophisticated dialogue as "edgy, '' finding several words and phrases, among them "eastern syndicate '', difficult to pronounce. He recalled the recording sessions as chaotic, with excited children running rampant. Nevertheless, the recording of A Charlie Brown Christmas was completed in one day. Jefferson Airplane was recording next door and came over to get the children 's autographs. Following the special 's broadcast, the children became wildly popular in their respective elementary schools; Robbins recalled groups approaching him asking him to recite lines of dialogue.
Animation for A Charlie Brown Christmas was created by Bill Melendez Productions. Mendelson had no idea whether or not completing a half - hour 's worth of animation would be possible given the production 's six - month schedule, but Melendez confirmed its feasibility. In actuality, animation was only completed in the final four months of production. CBS initially wanted an hour 's worth of animation, but Melendez talked them down to a half - hour special, believing an hour of television animation was too much. Having never worked on a half - hour special before, Melendez phoned Bill Hanna of Hanna - Barbera for advice, who declined to give any. CBS gave a budget of $76,000 to produce the show, and it went over budget, costing $96,000. The first step in creating the animation was to make a pencil drawing, afterwards inking and painting the drawing onto a cel. The cel was then placed onto a painted background. There are 13,000 drawings in the special, with 12 frames per second to create the illusion of movement.
Melendez had previously worked for Warner Bros. and Disney, and working on Peanuts - related material gave him a chance to animate a truly flat, cartoon design. The movement of Schulz 's characters, particularly the Peanuts gang, was very limited. The character of Snoopy, however, proved the exception to the rule. "He can do anything -- move and dance -- and he 's very easy to animate, '' said Melendez.
The soundtrack to A Charlie Brown Christmas is an unorthodox mix of traditional Christmas music and jazz. The jazz portions were created by the Vince Guaraldi Trio. Producer Lee Mendelson, a fan of jazz, heard Guaraldi 's crossover hit "Cast Your Fate to the Wind '' on the radio not long after completion of his documentary Charlie Brown & Charles Schulz, and contacted the musician to produce music for the special. Guaraldi composed the music for the project, creating an entire piece, "Linus and Lucy, '' to serve as the theme. When Coca - Cola commissioned A Charlie Brown Christmas in spring 1965, Guaraldi returned to write the music. The first instrumentals for the special were recorded by Guaraldi at Glendale, California 's Whitney Studio with bassist Monty Budwig and drummer Colin Bailey. Recycling "Linus and Lucy '' from the earlier special, Guaraldi completed two new originals for the special, "Skating '', and "Christmas Time Is Here ''. In the weeks preceding the premiere, Mendelson encountered trouble finding a lyricist for Guaraldi 's instrumental intro, and penned "Christmas Time is Here '' in "about 15 minutes '' on the backside of an envelope.
The special opens and closes with a choir of children, culled from St. Paul 's Episcopal Church in San Rafael, California, performing "Christmas Time Is Here '' and "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing ''. One of the singers, Candace Hackett Shively, went on to become an elementary school teacher, and sent a letter of gratitude to Schulz after he announced his retirement in 2000. In the letter, she recalls recording the choir at Fantasy Studios and going out for ice cream afterwards, while also noting that she tells the story to her grade - schoolers each holiday season. The recording sessions were conducted in late autumn 1965, and were cut in three separate sessions over two weeks. They often ran late into the night, resulting in angry parents, some who forbade their children from returning; consequently, numerous new children were present at each session. The children were directed by Barry Mineah, who demanded perfection from the choir. Mendelson and Guaraldi disagreed, desiring the "kids to sound like kids ''; they used a slightly off - key version of "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing '' in the final cut. Children were paid five dollars for their participation. In addition, the children recorded dialogue for the special 's final scene, in which the crowd of kids shout "Merry Christmas, Charlie Brown! ''
The soundtrack for the special was recorded during these sessions, with decisions regarding timing and phrasing determined quickly. Guaraldi brought in bassist Fred Marshall and drummer Jerry Granelli to record the music, and spent time later re-recording earlier tracks, including covers of "The Christmas Song '' and "Greensleeves. '' The eventual LP release credited Guaraldi solely, neglecting to mention the other musicians; Guaraldi was notorious for never keeping records of his session players. Nearly three decades later, in an effort to correct the matter, Fantasy surmised that the recordings with Budwig and Bailey were employed in the special, while Marshall and Granelli recorded the album. Despite this, other individuals have come forward claiming to have recorded the special 's music: bassists Eugene Firth and Al Obidinksi, and drummers Paul Distel and Benny Barth. Firth and Distil are noted as performers on a studio - session report Guaraldi filed for the American Federation of Musicians.
A Charlie Brown Christmas was voted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2007, and added to the Library of Congress 's National Recording Registry list of "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important '' American sound recordings in 2012.
A Charlie Brown Christmas was completed just ten days shy of its national broadcast premiere. All involved believed the special would be an unmitigated disaster. Melendez first saw the completed animation at a showing in a theater in the days before its premiere, turning to his crew of animators and remarking, "My golly, we 've killed it. '' Melendez was embarrassed, but one of the animators, Ed Levitt, was more positive regarding the special, telling him it was "the best special (he 'll) ever make (...) This show is going to run for a hundred years. '' Mendelson was similar in his assumptions of the show 's quality, and when he showed the film to network executives in New York, their opinions were also negative. Their complaints included the show 's slow pace, the music not fitting, and the animation too simple. "I really believed, if it had n't been scheduled for the following week, there 's no way they were gon na broadcast that show, '' Mendelson later said. Executives had invited television critic Richard Burgheim of Time to view the special, and debated as to whether showing it to him would be a good idea. His review, printed the following week, was positive, praising the special as unpretentious and writing that "A Charlie Brown Christmas is one children 's special this season that bears repeating. ''
The program premiered on CBS on December 9, 1965, at 7: 30 pm ET (pre-empting The Munsters), and was viewed by 45 % of those watching television that evening, with the number of homes watching the special an estimated 15,490,000, placing it at number two in the ratings, behind Bonanza on NBC. The special received unanimous critical acclaim: The Hollywood Reporter deemed the show "delightfully novel and amusing, '' while the Weekly Variety dubbed it "fascinating and haunting. '' Bob Williams of the New York Post praised the "very neat transition from comic page to screen, '' while Lawrence Laurent of The Washington Post declared that "natural - born loser Charlie Brown finally turned up a real winner last night. '' Harriet Van Horne of the New York World - Telegram hailed the scene in which Linus recites scripture, commenting, "Linus ' reading of the story of the Nativity was, quite simply, the dramatic highlight of the season. '' Harry Harris of The Philadelphia Inquirer called the program "a yule classic (...) generated quiet warmth and amusement, '' and Terrence O'Flaherty of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote, "Charlie Brown was a gem of a television show. '' Ben Gross of the New York Daily News praised the special 's "charm and good taste, '' while Rick DuBrow of United Press International predicted, "the Peanuts characters last night staked out a claim to a major television future. ''
The show 's glowing reviews were highlighted with an ad in trade magazines; one thanked Coca - Cola, CBS, United Features Syndicate, and the show 's viewers. Fantasy released the special 's soundtrack the first week of December 1965, coinciding with the special 's airdate. United Feature Syndicate pushed hard to promote the special, while Word Publishing issued a hardcover adaption of the special. CBS promptly ordered four additional Peanuts specials. A Charlie Brown Christmas was awarded the Emmy Award for Outstanding Children 's Program in 1966. "Charlie Brown is not used to winning, so we thank you, '' Schulz joked.
Although originally broadcast on the CBS network from 1965 until December 25, 2000, in January 2000, the broadcast rights were acquired by ABC, which is where the special currently airs, usually twice, in December.
The original broadcasts included references to the sponsor, Coca - Cola. Subsequent broadcasts and home media releases have excised all references to Coca - Cola products. Later subsequent broadcasts of the special also had some scenes, animation, including sound effects being redone for correction. Snoopy 's dog bowl was given a new color, Charlie Brown no longer looked off - model in Lucy 's psychiatric booth, new animation was placed in scenes where Charlie Brown was giving directions at the auditorium, the hearts when Sally gets enamored in Linus were redone, and Snoopy no longer sings like a human in the final carol.
On December 6, 2001, a half - hour documentary on the special titled The Making of ' A Charlie Brown Christmas ' (hosted by Whoopi Goldberg) aired on ABC. This documentary has been released as a special feature on the DVD and Blu - ray editions of the special.
The show 's 40th anniversary broadcast on Tuesday, December 6, 2005, had the highest ratings in its time slot.
The 50th anniversary broadcast aired on November 30, 2015, and it featured a full two - hour time slot that was padded by a special, It 's Your 50th Christmas, Charlie Brown, which was hosted by Kristen Bell, and featured musical performances by Kristin Chenoweth, Matthew Morrison, Sarah McLachlan, Boyz II Men, Pentatonix, David Benoit, and the All - American Boys Chorus. It also included documentary features.
In 1987 the special was released on VHS by Hi - Tops Video. In 1992, the special was released for a limited time on VHS through Shell Oil for sale at their gas stations.
In September 1994 the special was released by Paramount on VHS. A laserdisc was released by Paramount (distributed by Pioneer) in 1996; Side 2 contained the 1979 special You 're the Greatest, Charlie Brown. In September 2000 it was released on DVD. Bonus features included the 1992 special It 's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown. On September 23, 2008, Warner Home Video (to which the rights to the Peanuts specials reverted earlier in the year, due to Melendez 's connections to WB) released a "remastered '' DVD. Bonus features include a restored version of Christmastime Again and a new documentary titled "A Christmas Miracle: The Making of A Charlie Brown Christmas ''.
On October 6, 2009, it was released in high definition Blu - ray Disc from Warner in remastered Dolby 5.1 surround sound. This disc also contains It 's Christmastime Again, A Christmas Miracle, a DVD of the special, and a Digital Copy.
Since off - network rights to this special have been transferred to Warner Bros., it has become available as a download on the iTunes Store, PlayStation Network, Amazon Instant Video, and Google Play, and includes It 's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown and It 's Flashbeagle, Charlie Brown.
In December 2014, a 50th anniversary 2 - DVD set was released. It also features the special It 's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown, and the Making of... documentary from previous editions.
On October 31, 2017, it was released on 4K UHD Blu - ray disc containing It 's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown and the Making of... special.
A Charlie Brown Christmas became a Christmas staple in the United States for several decades afterward. Within the scope of future Peanuts specials, it established their style, combining thoughtful themes, jazzy scores, and simple animation. It also, according to author Charles Solomon, established the half - hour animated special as a television tradition, inspiring the creation of numerous others, including How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1966) and Frosty the Snowman (1969). (Earlier animated specials such as Mr. Magoo 's Christmas Carol and Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer ran a full hour.) USA Today summarized the program 's appeal upon its 40th anniversary in 2005: "Scholars of pop culture say that shining through the program 's skeletal plot is the quirky and sophisticated genius that fueled the phenomenal popularity of Schulz 's work. '' Beyond its references to religion, unheard of on television at the time, the special also marked the first time children voiced animated characters.
The special influenced dozens of young aspiring artists and animators, many of whom went on to work within both the comics and animation industries, among them Eric Goldberg (Pocahontas), Pete Docter (Monsters, Inc., Up), Andrew Stanton (Finding Nemo, WALL - E), Jef Mallett (Frazz), and Patrick McDonnell (Mutts). The show 's score made an equally pervasive impact on viewers who would later perform jazz, among them David Benoit and George Winston. More directly, the special launched a series of Peanuts films, TV specials (many of them holiday - themed) and other works of entertainment.
Linus ' speech near the end of the special was used in the Sidewalk Prophets Christmas song "What a Glorious Night ''.
In 2013 Tams - Witmark Music Library, Inc. began licensing an official stage version of the television special authorized by the Schulz family and Lee Mendelson. The stage version follows the television special but includes an optional sing - along section of Christmas songs at the end. It includes all of Vince Guaraldi 's music from the television special and the television script is adapted for the stage by Eric Schaeffer. It has been performed at hundreds of schools, churches and community theatres.
The popularity of the special practically eliminated the popularity of the aluminum Christmas tree, which was a fad from 1958 to 1965, when the special portrayed it negatively. By 1967, just two years after the special first aired, they were no longer being regularly manufactured.
The "Charlie Brown Christmas Tree '' has been used to comedic effect with people familiar with the special and has become synonymous with poorly executed or minimalist Christmas decorating. A model of the tree is offered by various retailers.
Three lesser - known Christmas specials were produced decades after the 1965 original.
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when did steve harvey begin hosting family feud | Family Feud - wikipedia
Family Feud is an American television game show created by Mark Goodson where two families compete to name the most popular responses to survey questions in order to win cash and prizes. It is considered a spin - off of Match Game, whose panel included original host Richard Dawson.
The program premiered on ABC on July 12, 1976, and ran as part of its daytime schedule until June 14, 1985. The program was re-launched by CBS on July 4, 1988, and ran until September 10, 1993. Three separate editions for syndication were also produced. The first aired from September 19, 1977, to September 6, 1985. The second aired from September 19, 1988, to September 8, 1995. The current syndicated series premiered on September 20, 1999.
The ABC network version of the show and the first syndicated series were hosted by Richard Dawson. Ray Combs hosted the CBS series and the first six seasons of the accompanying syndicated version, then was replaced by Dawson for the final season. The 1999 syndicated series has been hosted by Louie Anderson (1999 -- 2002), Richard Karn (2002 -- 06), John O'Hurley (2006 -- 10), and Steve Harvey (2010 -- present). Announcers for the series have included Gene Wood (1976 -- 85, 1988 -- 95), Burton Richardson (1999 -- 2010, syndication; 2015 -- present, ABC), Joey Fatone (2010 -- 15), and Rubin Ervin (2015 -- present).
The program has spawned multiple regional adaptations in over 50 international markets outside the United States. Within a year of its debut, the original version became the number one game show in daytime television; however, as viewing habits changed, the ratings declined. Harvey 's takeover in 2010 increased Nielsen ratings significantly and eventually placed the program among the top five most popular syndicated television shows in the country. In 2013, TV Guide ranked Family Feud third in its list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time.
Two family teams of five contestants each compete to win cash and prizes. The original version of the show began with the families being introduced, seated opposite each other as if posing for family portraits, after which the host interviewed them.
Unlike most game shows, there is no minimum age necessary to participate in Family Feud, although every family must have at least one person who is 18 years or older. Each round begins with a "face - off '' question that serves as a toss - up between two opposing contestants. The host asks a survey question that was previously posed to a group of 100 people (e.g., "Name the hour that you get up on Sunday mornings. ''). A certain number of answers are concealed on the board, ranked by popularity of the survey 's responses. Only answers said by at least two people can appear on the board. The first contestant to buzz - in gives an answer; if it is the most popular, his / her family immediately wins the face - off. Otherwise, the opponent responds and the family member providing the higher - ranked answer wins. Ties are broken in favor of the contestant who buzzes - in first. If neither contestant 's answer is on the board, the other eight contestants have a chance to respond, one at a time from alternating sides, until an answer is revealed. The family that wins the face - off may choose to play the question or pass control to their opponents (except on the Combs version, when the family who won the face - off automatically gained control of the question).
The family with control of the question then tries to win the round by guessing all of the remaining concealed answers, with each member giving one answer in sequence. Giving an answer not on the board, or failing to respond within the allotted time, earns one strike. If the family earns three strikes, their opponents are given one chance to "steal '' the points for the round by guessing any remaining concealed answer; failing to do so awards the points back to the family that originally had control. Any answers on the board that have not been guessed are then revealed.
While a family has control of a question, the members are not allowed to discuss possible answers with one another; each person must respond individually. However, the opposing family may confer in preparation for an attempt to steal, and their captain must respond for them when such an attempt is made.
Answers are worth one point for every person in the 100 - member survey who gave them. The winning family in each round scores the total points for all revealed answers to that question, including those given during the face - off but excluding the one used to steal (if applicable). The number of answers on the board decreases from round to round, and as the game progresses, certain rounds are played for double or triple point value. The first family to score 300 points wins the game and advances to the Fast Money bonus round for a chance to win a cash bonus. Until 1992, both teams received $1 per point scored.
Prior to 1999, the game continued as normal until one family reached the necessary total to win. Since then, if neither team reaches the goal after four rounds (or, from 1999 to 2002, if both teams were tied with the same score after the final round), one last question is played for triple value with only the # 1 answer displayed.
The goal of 300 points has been in place in the rules of almost every version of the show. However, when the program premiered in 1976, the goal was 200 points. For the 1984 -- 85 season of both the daytime and syndicated program, the goal was increased to 400 points. For several seasons after the 1999 return to syndication, there was no specific point goal. Instead, four rounds were played, with the last for triple points and only one strike. The family with the most points after the fourth round won the game.
Two members of the winning family play Fast Money for a chance to win a cash bonus. One contestant is onstage with the host, while the other is sequestered backstage so that he / she can not hear the first portion of the round. The first contestant is asked five rapid - fire survey questions and has a set time limit in which to answer them (originally 15 seconds, extended to 20 in 1994). The clock begins to run only after the first question is asked, and the first contestant may pass on a question and return to it after all five have been asked, if time remains.
After the first contestant has either answered all five questions or run out of time, the host reveals how many people in the survey matched each of his / her answers. The board is then cleared except for the total score, and the second contestant is then brought out to answer the same five questions. The same rules are followed, but the time limit is extended by five seconds (originally 20, then extended to 25); in addition, if the second contestant duplicates an answer given by the first, a buzzer sounds and he / she must give another answer. If the two contestants reach a combined total of 200 points or more, the family wins the bonus. If not, they are given $5 per point scored as a consolation prize.
The grand prize for winning Fast Money has varied. When the program aired in daytime, families played for $5,000. The grand prize for syndicated episodes was $10,000 for much of its existence. In 2001, the prize was doubled to $20,000 at the request of then - host Louie Anderson, where it has remained since.
When Family Feud premiered on ABC, network rules dictated how much a family could win. Once any family reached $25,000, they were retired as champions. The accompanying syndicated series that premiered in 1977 featured two new families each episode because of tape bicycling (a practice then common in syndicated television).
The CBS daytime and syndicated versions which began airing in 1988 also featured returning champions, who could appear for a maximum of five days. For a brief period in the 1994 -- 95 season which aired in syndication, there were no returning champions. For these episodes, two new families competed in this first half of each episode. The second half featured former champion families who appeared on Family Feud between 1977 and 1985, with the winner of the first half of the show playing one of these families in the second half.
From 1999 to 2002, two new families appeared on each episode. The returning champions rule was reinstated with the same five - day limit starting with the 2002 -- 03 season. Starting with the 2009 -- 10 season, a family that wins five matches also wins a new car.
In June 1992, the CBS daytime edition of Feud expanded from thirty to sixty minutes and became known as Family Feud Challenge. As part of the change, a new round was added at the start of each game called "Bullseye ''. This round determined the potential Fast Money stake for each team. Each team was given a starting value for their bank and attempted to come up with the top answer to a survey question to add to it. The Bullseye round was added to the syndicated edition in September 1992.
The first two members of each family appeared at the face - off podium and were asked a question to which only the number - one answer was available. Giving the top answer added the value for that question to the family 's bank. The process then repeated with the four remaining members from each family. On the first half of the daytime version, families were staked with $2,500. The first question was worth $500, with each succeeding question worth $500 more than the previous, with the final question worth $2,500. This allowed for a potential maximum bank of $10,000. For the second half of the daytime version, and also on the syndicated version, all values were doubled, making the maximum potential bank $20,000. The team that eventually won the game played for their bank in Fast Money.
When Richard Dawson returned as host of the program in 1994, the round 's name was changed to the "Bankroll '' round. Although the goal remained of giving only the number - one answer, the format was modified to three questions from five, with only one member of each family participating for all three questions. The initial stake for each family remained the same ($2,500 in the first half of the hour and $5,000 in the second). However, the value for each question was $500, $1,500 and $2,500 in the first half, with values doubling for the second half. This meant a potential maximum bank of $7,000 in the first half and $14,000 in the second.
The Bullseye round temporarily returned during the 2009 -- 10 season. It was played similarly as the format used from 1992 to 1994 on the syndicated version, with five questions worth from $1,000 to $5,000. However, each family was given a $15,000 starting stake, which meant a potential maximum of a $30,000 bank.
The ABC and first syndicated versions of Family Feud were hosted by Richard Dawson. As writer David Marc put it, Dawson 's on - air personality "fell somewhere between the brainless sincerity of Wink Martindale and the raunchy cynicism of Chuck Barris ''. Dawson showed himself to have insistent affections for all of the female members of each family that competed on the show, regardless of age. Writers Tim Brooks, Jon Ellowitz, and Earle F. Marsh owed Family Feud 's popularity to Dawson 's "glib familiarity '' (he had previously played Newkirk on Hogan 's Heroes) and "ready wit '' (from his tenure as a panelist on Match Game). The show 's original announcer was Gene Wood, with Johnny Gilbert and Rod Roddy serving as occasional substitutes.
In 1988, Ray Combs took over Dawson 's role as host on CBS and in syndication with Wood returning as announcer and Roddy, Art James, and Charlie O'Donnell serving in that role when Wood was not available. Combs hosted the program until the daytime version 's cancellation in 1993 and the syndicated version until the end of the 1993 -- 94 season. Dawson returned to the show at the request of Mark Goodson Productions for the 1994 -- 95 season.
When Feud returned to syndication in 1999, it was initially hosted by Louie Anderson, with Burton Richardson as the new announcer. Richard Karn was selected to take over for Anderson when season four premiered in 2002, and when season eight premiered in 2006, Karn was replaced by John O'Hurley. In 2010, both O'Hurley and Richardson departed from the show; comedian Steve Harvey was named the new host for season twelve, and announcements were made using a pre-recorded track of former ' N Sync member Joey Fatone 's voice until 2015, when Rubin Ervin, who has been a member of the production staff as the warmup man for the audience since Harvey took over, became the announcer. (Richardson still announces for Celebrity Family Feud.)
The first four versions of the show were directed by Paul Alter and produced by Howard Felsher and Cathy Dawson. For the 1988 versions, Gary Dawson worked with the show as a third producer, and Alter was joined by two other directors, Marc Breslow and Andy Felsher. The 1999 version 's main staff include executive producer Gabrielle Johnston, supervising producers Kristin Bjorklund and Brian Hawley, and director Ken Fuchs; Johnston and Bjorklund previously worked as associate producers of the 1980s version. The show 's classic theme tune was written by an uncredited Walt Levinsky for Score Productions. The themes used from 1999 to 2008 were written by John Lewis Parker. The production rights to the show were originally owned by the production company Goodson shared with his partner Bill Todman, but were sold to their current holder, FremantleMedia, when it acquired all of Goodson and Todman 's works in 2002.
Mark Goodson created Family Feud during the increasing popularity of his earlier game show Match Game, which set daytime ratings records in 1976, and on which Dawson had previously appeared as one of its most popular panelists. Match Game aired on CBS, and by 1976, CBS vice president Fred Silverman (who had originally commissioned Match Game) had moved to a new position as President of ABC. The show premiered on ABC 's daytime lineup at 1: 30 PM (ET) / 12: 30 PM (CT / MT / PT) on July 12, 1976, and although it was not an immediate hit, before long it became a ratings winner and eventually surpassed Match Game to become the highest - rated game show in daytime.
Due to the expansion of All My Children to one hour in April 1977, the show was moved to 11: 30 / 10: 30 AM, as the second part of an hour that had daytime reruns of Happy Days (later Laverne & Shirley) as its lead - in. When $20,000 Pyramid was cancelled in June 1980, it moved a half - hour back to 12 noon / 11: 00 AM. It remained the most popular daytime game show until Merv Griffin 's game show Wheel of Fortune surpassed it in 1984. From 1978 until 1984, ABC periodically broadcast hour - long primetime "All - Star Specials '', in which celebrity casts from various primetime lineup TV series competed instead of ordinary families. The popularity of the program inspired Goodson to consider producing a nighttime edition, which launched in syndication on September 18, 1977. Like many other game shows at the time, the nighttime Feud aired once a week; it expanded to twice a week in January 1979, and finally to five nights a week (Monday through Friday) in the fall of 1980. However, the viewing habits of both daytime and syndicated audiences were changing. When Griffin launched Wheel 's syndicated version, starring Pat Sajak and Vanna White, in 1983, that show climbed the ratings to the point where it unseated Feud as the highest - rated syndicated show; the syndicated premiere of Wheel 's sister show Jeopardy! with Alex Trebek as host also siphoned ratings from Feud with its early success. With declining ratings, and as part of a scheduling reshuffle with two of ABC 's half - hour soaps, the show moved back to the 11: 30 / 10: 30 timeslot in October 1984, as the second part of a one - hour game show block with Trivia Trap (later All - Star Blitz) as its lead in, hoping to make a dent in the ratings of The Price is Right.
Despite the ratings decline, there was some interest in keeping the show in production. In a 2011 interview, Dawson recalled a meeting with executives from Viacom Enterprises about keeping the show for one more season. Dawson was growing tired of the grueling taping schedule and initially wanted to stop altogether. After discussing the situation with ABC and Viacom, Dawson said that he would return for a final syndicated season of thirty - nine weeks of episodes but would not continue doing the daytime series. After this, Dawson did not hear from Viacom for approximately a week and once they contacted him again, Dawson was told that Viacom was no longer interested in continuing the syndicated Feud beyond the 1984 -- 85 season. Viacom made this official in January 1985 ahead of that year 's NATPE convention, and within a few weeks, ABC decided that it too would not renew Feud for the 1985 -- 86 season. The daytime version came to an end on June 14, 1985. The syndicated version aired its last new episode on May 17, 1985, and continued to air in reruns after that until September 6, 1985.
Family Feud moved to CBS with Combs hosting on July 4, 1988 at 10: 00 AM (ET) / 9: 00 AM (CT / MT / PT), replacing The $25,000 Pyramid. Like its predecessor, this version also had an accompanying syndicated edition which launched in September of that year. It moved to 10: 30 / 9: 30 in January 1991 to make room for a short - lived talk show starring Barbara DeAngelis. At that timeslot, it replaced the daytime Wheel of Fortune which moved back to NBC. In June 1992, the network version expanded from its original half - hour format to a full hour, and was retitled The Family Feud Challenge; this new format featured three families per episode, which included two new families competing in the first half - hour for the right to play the returning champions in the second half. The Family Feud Challenge aired its final new episode on March 26, 1993, with reruns airing until September 10. The syndicated Feud, meanwhile, remained in production and entered its sixth season in the fall of 1993.
However, the ratings picture was not particularly good for the syndicated edition. For much of its run to this point, the syndicated Feud had to deal with stations dropping the series or moving it to undesirable time slots such as overnights. By 1992, the ratings had hit a low point and by the time the sixth season premiered, distributor All American Television was threatening to cancel the series unless ratings improved and changes were made. The responsibility for this fell on Jonathan Goodson, who had taken over his father 's company when Mark Goodson died in 1992. One of the options considered was a host change.
When the revival launched in 1988, Mark Goodson had not even considered former host Richard Dawson to return due to lingering bad feelings between Dawson and the production team. After hiring Ray Combs, Goodson threw his loyalties behind him and refused to consider changing hosts despite the slipping ratings. However, the younger Goodson did not have the ties to Combs that his father did and felt that a change would at least require consideration. After meeting with his staff, Goodson offered Dawson a contract to return as host of the syndicated Feud and the semi-retired Dawson agreed to return. Combs finished out the remainder of the season but, upset by the decision to replace him, he departed from the studio as soon as he signed off on the final episode of his tenure.
A revamped Family Feud returned for a seventh season in September 1994 with Dawson in his role as host. The show expanded from thirty to sixty minutes, reinstated the Family Feud Challenge format, and did various other things to try to improve the ratings of the show such as modernizing the set, feature families that had previously been champions on the original Feud, and have more themed weeks. Although Dawson did bring a brief ratings surge when he came back, the show could not sustain it long term and Feud came to a conclusion at the end of the 1994 -- 95 season.
Family Feud returned in syndication on September 20, 1999, with comedian Louie Anderson as host. After Richard Karn took over the show, the format was changed to reintroduce returning champions, allowing them to appear for up to five days. However, even after Karn 's takeover, Anderson - hosted episodes continued in reruns that aired on PAX TV / Ion Television. In John O'Hurley's later days, the show 's Nielsen ratings were at 1.5 (putting it in danger of cancellation), but when comedian Steve Harvey took over, ratings increased by as much as 40 %, and within two short years, the show was rated at 4.0, and had become the fifth most popular syndicated program. Fox News ' Paulette Cohn argued that Harvey 's "relatability, '' or "understanding of what the people at home want to know, '' is what saved the show from cancellation; Harvey himself argued, "If someone said an answer that was so ridiculous, I knew that the people at home behind the camera had to be going, ' What did they just say? '... They gave this answer that does n't have a shot in hell of being up there. The fact that I recognize that, that 's comedic genius to me. I think that 's (made) the difference. ''
Since Harvey became host, Family Feud has regularly ranked among the top 10 highest - rated programs in all of daytime television programming and third among game shows (behind Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy!); in February 2014, the show achieved a 6.0 share in the Nielsen ratings, with approximately 8.8 million viewers. In June 2015, Family Feud eclipsed Wheel of Fortune as the most - watched syndicated game show on television.
Reruns of the Dawson, Combs, and Anderson hosted episodes have been included among Buzzr 's acquisitions since its launch on June 1, 2015. On June 13, 2016, American episodes hosted by Harvey began airing on the UK digital terrestrial and satellite channel Challenge.
Production of Family Feud was shifted from Universal Orlando to Harvey 's hometown of Atlanta in 2011, primarily at the Atlanta Civic Center. Harvey was also originating a syndicated radio show from Atlanta, and the state of Georgia also issued tax credits for the production. In 2017, production moved to Los Angeles Center Studios in Los Angeles to accommodate Harvey 's new syndicated talk show Steve, returning production of the regular series back to Los Angeles for the first time since 2010.
Family Feud won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 1977, and the show has twice won the Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Game Show Host, once with Dawson (1978) and again with Harvey (2014) and (2017). Feud ranked number 3 on Game Show Network (GSN) 's 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and also on TV Guide 's 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows ever.
Tara Ariano and Sarah D. Bunting, founders of the website Television Without Pity, wrote that they hated the 1999 syndicated version, saying "Give us classic Feud every time '', citing both Dawson and Combs as hosts. Additionally, they called Anderson an "alleged sexual harasser and full - time sphere ''.
It was reported that the public responded negatively to several videos posted on the official Family Feud web site in September 2015 in which contestants on the current version gave sexually explicit answers to survey questions. Dan Gainor of the Media Research Center suggested that the responses are in line with sexual content becoming more commonplace on television.
The popularity of Family Feud in the United States has led it to become a worldwide franchise, with over 50 adaptations outside the United States. Countries that have aired their own versions of the show include Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Philippines, Poland, Russia, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and Vietnam, among others.
Since the show 's premiere in 1976, many home versions of Family Feud have been released in various formats. Milton Bradley, Pressman Games, and Endless Games have all released traditional board games based on the show, while Imagination Entertainment released the program in a DVD game format.
The game has been released in other formats by multiple companies; Coleco Adam released the first computer version of the show in 1983, and Sharedata followed in 1987 with versions for MS - DOS, Commodore 64, and Apple II computers. GameTek released versions for Nintendo Entertainment System, Super NES, Genesis, 3DO, and PC (on CD - ROM) between 1990 and 1995. Hasbro Interactive released a version in 2000 for the PC and PlayStation. In 2006, versions were released for PlayStation 2, Game Boy Advance, and PC. Seattle - based Mobliss Inc. also released a mobile version of Family Feud that was available on Sprint, Verizon, and Cingular. Glu Mobile later released a newer mobile version of Family Feud for other carriers.
Most recently, in conjunction with Ludia, Ubisoft has video games for multiple platforms. The first of these was entitled Family Feud: 2010 Edition and was released for the Wii, Nintendo DS, and PC in September 2009. Ubisoft then released Family Feud Decades the next year, which featured sets and survey questions from television versions of all four decades the show has been on air. A third game, entitled Family Feud: 2012 Edition was released for the Wii and Xbox 360 in 2011.
In addition to the home games, a DVD set titled All - Star Family Feud was released on January 8, 2008 and featured a total of 15 celebrity episodes from the original ABC / syndicated versions on its four discs. It was re-issued as The Best of All - Star Family Feud on February 2, 2010.
Schwartz, David; Ryan, Steve & Wostbrock, Fred (1999). The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows (3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0 - 8160 - 3846 - 5.
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what is the state of vermont known for | Vermont - wikipedia
Vermont (/ vərˈmɒntˌ vɜːr - / (listen)) is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the other U.S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Lake Champlain forms half of Vermont 's western border with the state of New York and the Green Mountains run north - south the length of the state.
Vermont is the second - least populous state ahead of Wyoming, and the sixth smallest state by area. The state capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the United States. The most populous city, Burlington, is the least populous city to be the most populous city in a state. As of 2015, Vermont was the leading producer of maple syrup in the United States. It was ranked as the safest state in the country in 2016.
For thousands of years indigenous peoples, including the Mohawk and the Algonquian - speaking Abenaki, occupied much of the territory that is now Vermont and was later claimed by France 's colony of New France. France ceded the territory to Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years ' War. For many years, the nearby colonies, especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York, disputed control of the area (then called the New Hampshire Grants). Settlers who held land titles granted by New York were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia, which supported the many settlers whose claims were based on grants from New Hampshire.
Ultimately, those settlers prevailed in creating an independent state, the Vermont Republic. Founded in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War, the republic lasted for 14 years. Aside from the original 13 states that were formerly colonies, Vermont is one of only four U.S. states that were previously sovereign states (along with California, Hawaii, and Texas). Vermont was also the first state to join the U.S. as its 14th member state after the original 13. While still an independent republic, Vermont was the first of any future U.S. state to partially abolish slavery.
Vermont is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States and comprises 9,614 square miles (24,900 km), making it the 45th - largest state. It is the only state that does not have any buildings taller than 124 feet (38 m). Land comprises 9,250 square miles (24,000 km) and water comprises 365 square miles (950 km), making it the 43rd - largest in land area and the 47th in water area. In total area, it is larger than El Salvador and smaller than Haiti. It is the only landlocked state in the Northeastern United States.
The west bank of the Connecticut River marks the state 's eastern border with New Hampshire, though much of the river is within New Hampshire 's territory. 41 % of Vermont 's land area is part of the Connecticut River 's watershed.
Lake Champlain, the sixth - largest body of fresh water in the United States, separates Vermont from New York in the northwest portion of the state. From north to south, Vermont is 159 miles (256 km) long. Its greatest width, from east to west, is 89 miles (143 km) at the Canada -- U.S. border; the narrowest width is 37 miles (60 km) at the Massachusetts line. The width averages 60.5 miles (97.4 km). The state 's geographic center is approximately three miles (5 km) east of Roxbury, in Washington County. There are fifteen U.S. federal border crossings between Vermont and Canada.
The origin of the name "Vermont '' is uncertain, but likely comes from the French les Verts Monts, meaning "the Green Mountains ''. Thomas Young introduced it in 1777. Some authorities say that the mountains were called green because they were more forested than the higher White Mountains of New Hampshire and Adirondacks of New York; others say that the predominance of mica - quartz - chlorite schist, a green - hued metamorphosed shale, is the reason. The Green Mountain range forms a north -- south spine running most of the length of the state, slightly west of its center. In the southwest portion of the state are the Taconic Mountains; the Granitic Mountains are in the northeast. In the northwest, near Lake Champlain, is the fertile Champlain Valley. In the south of the valley is Lake Bomoseen.
Several mountains have timberlines with delicate year - round alpine ecosystems, including Mount Mansfield, the highest mountain in the state; Killington Peak, the second - highest; Camel 's Hump, the state 's third - highest; and Mount Abraham, the fifth - highest peak.
Areas in Vermont administered by the National Park Service include the Marsh - Billings - Rockefeller National Historical Park (in Woodstock) and the Appalachian National Scenic Trail.
Vermont has nine incorporated cities.
The most populous city in Vermont is Burlington, and its metropolitan area is also the most populous in the state with an estimate of 214,796 as of 2013.
Although these towns are large enough to be considered cities, they are not incorporated as such.
The annual mean temperature for the state is 43 ° F (6 ° C). Vermont has a humid continental climate, with muddy springs, in general a mild early summer, hot Augusts; it has colorful autumns: Vermont 's hills reveal red, orange, and (on sugar maples) gold foliage as cold weather approaches. Winters are colder at higher elevations. It has a Köppen climate classification of Dfb, similar to Minsk, Stockholm, and Fargo.
The rural northeastern section known as the "Northeast Kingdom '' often averages 10 ° F (5.6 ° C) colder than the southern areas of the state during winter. The annual snowfall averages between 60 and 100 inches (1,500 and 2,500 mm) depending on elevation.
Vermont is the seventh coldest state in the country. In winter, until typical El Niño conditions, Vermont 's winters are "too cold to snow ''; the air is too cold to contain sufficient moisture to prompt precipitation.
The highest recorded temperature was 105 ° F (41 ° C), at Vernon, on July 4, 1911; the lowest recorded temperature was − 50 ° F (− 46 ° C), at Bloomfield, on December 30, 1933; this is the lowest temperature recorded in New England (Big Black River, Maine, also recorded a verified − 50 ° F (− 46 ° C) in 2009). The agricultural growing season ranges from 120 to 180 days.
The USDA Plant hardiness zones for the state range between zone 3b (no colder than − 35 ° F (− 37 ° C)) in the Northeast Kingdom and northern part of the state and zone 5b (no colder than − 15 ° F (− 26 ° C)) in the southern part of the state.
The state receives between 2,000 and 2,400 hours of sunshine annually.
There are five distinct physiographic regions of Vermont. Categorized by geological and physical attributes, they are the Northeastern Highlands, the Green Mountains, the Taconic Mountains, the Champlain Lowlands, and the Vermont Piedmont.
About 500 million years ago, Vermont was part of Laurentia and located in the tropics.
The central and southern Green Mountain range include the oldest rocks in Vermont, formed about one billion years ago during the first mountain building period (or orogeny). Subsequently, about 400 million years ago, the second mountain building period created Green Mountain peaks that were 15,000 -- 20,000 feet (4,600 -- 6,100 m) tall, three to four times their current height and comparable to the Himalayas. The geological pressures that created those peaks remain evident as the Champlain Thrust, running north -- south to the west of the mountains (now the eastern shore of Lake Champlain). It is an example of geological fault thrusting where bedrock is pushed over the newer rock formation.
As a result of tectonic formation, Vermont east of the Green Mountains tends to be formed from rocks produced in the Silurian and Devonian periods. Western Vermont mainly from the older Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian material.
Several large deposits within the state contain granite.
The remains of the Chazy Formation can be observed in Isle La Motte. It was one of the first tropical reefs. It is the site of the limestone Fisk Quarry, which contains a collection of ancient marine fossils such as stromatoporoids that date back to 200 million years ago. It is believed that at one point, Vermont was connected to Africa (Pangaea) and the fossils found and the rock formations found on the coasts in both Africa and America are further evidence of the Pangaea theory.
In the past four centuries, Vermont has experienced a few earthquakes rarely centered under Vermont, the highest being a Richter magnitude scale 6.0 in 1952.
The state contains 41 species of reptiles and amphibians, 89 species of fish, of which 12 are non native; 193 species of breeding birds, 58 species of mammals, more than 15,000 insect species, and 2,000 higher plant species, plus fungi, algae, and 75 different types of natural communities.
Vermont contains one species of venomous snake, the timber rattlesnake, which is confined to a few acres in western Rutland County.
By the mid-19th century, wild turkeys were exterminated in the state through overhunting and destruction of habitat. Sixteen were re-introduced in 1969 and had grown to an estimated flock of 45,000 in 2009. in 2013, hunters killed 6,968 of these.
Since 1970, reduction of farmland has resulted in reduced environment for, and reduced numbers of various shrubland birds including the American woodcock, brown thrasher, eastern towhee, willow flycatcher, golden - winged warbler, blue - winged warbler, field sparrow, and Baltimore oriole.
DDT destroyed the eggshells of ospreys, which resulted in their disappearance from the state. This species began reviving in 1998. As of 2010, they were no longer endangered in the state.
White - nose syndrome killed an estimated two - thirds of all cave - wintering bats in the state from 2008 to 2010.
The New England cottontail disappeared from the state in the early 1970s, out - competed by the eastern cottontail rabbit, imported in the 1800s for hunting, and which is better able to detect predators.
Out of a total of 33 species of bumblebee, there were 19 or 20 in the state in 2013. Bombus terricola (the yellow - banded bumblebee), although once common in Vermont, has not been seen in most of its range since 1999 and is now absent from Vermont. For honey bees, colony collapse disorder has affected bee population in the state, as elsewhere.
Invasive species included the Asian spotted - wing drosophila, which started damaging berry crops in 2012. Vermont was the initial point of invasion in New England.
Since 2010, the Vermont Department of Health has worked with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to conduct blood serum surveys of the state 's deer and moose populations. Tests for eastern equine encephalitis virus antibodies were positive in moose or deer in each of Vermont 's counties. In 2012, 12 % of deer and 2.4 % of moose tested positive.
Vermont is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome. Much of the state, in particular the Green Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England - Acadian forests. The western border with New York and the area around Lake Champlain lies within the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests. The southwest corner of the state and parts of the Connecticut River are covered by Northeastern coastal forests of mixed oak.
Invasive wild honeysuckle has been deemed a threat to the state 's forests, native species of plants, and wildlife.
Many of Vermont 's rivers, including the Winooski River, have been subjected to man - made barriers to prevent flooding.
Climate change appears to be affecting the maple sugar industry. Sugar maples have been subject to stress by acid rain, asian longhorn beetles, pear thrips, and, in 2011, an excessive deer herd that is forced to eat bark in the winter. These maples need a certain amount of cold to produce sap for maple syrup. The time to tap these trees has shrunk to one week in some years. The tree may be replaced by the more aggressive Norway maples, in effect forcing the sugar maples to "migrate '' north to Canada.
Between 8500 and 7000 BCE, at the time of the Champlain Sea, Native Americans inhabited and hunted in present - day Vermont. During the Archaic period, from the 8th millennium BCE to 1000 BCE, Native Americans migrated year - round. During the Woodland period, from 1000 BCE to 1600 CE, villages and trade networks were established, and ceramic and bow and arrow technology was developed. During colonial times, the state was mainly occupied by an Abenaki tribe known as the Sokoki, or Missiquois. However, the eastern part of the state may have also been home to the Androscoggin and Pennacook peoples. Also, Vermont 's western border is only a rough approximation of their borders with the Iroquoian Mohawk and the Algonquin Mohican peoples. Many of the tribes later formed the Wabanaki Confederacy during King Phillip 's War, after which most Abenaki tribes were scattered and defeated. The population in 1500 CE was estimated to be around 10,000 people.
The first European to see Vermont is thought to have been Jacques Cartier in 1535. On July 30, 1609, French explorer Samuel de Champlain claimed Vermont as part of New France. In 1666, French settlers erected Fort Sainte Anne on Isle La Motte, the first European settlement in Vermont.
The "violent '' 1638 New Hampshire earthquake was felt throughout New England, centered in the St. Lawrence Valley. This was the first seismic event noted in Vermont.
In 1690, a group of Dutch - British settlers from Albany established a settlement and trading post at Chimney Point 8 miles (13 km) west of present - day Addison.
During Dummer 's War, the first permanent British settlement was established in 1724 with the construction of Fort Dummer. It was to protect the nearby settlements of Dummerston and Brattleboro.
From 1731 to 1734, the French constructed Fort St. Frédéric, which gave them control of the New France - Vermont frontier region in the Lake Champlain Valley. With the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754, the North American front of the Seven Years ' War between the French and British, the French began construction of Fort Carillon at present - day Ticonderoga, New York in 1755. The British failed to take Fort St. Frédéric or Fort Carillon between 1755 and 1758. In 1759 a combined force of 12,000 British regular and provincial troops under Sir Jeffery Amherst captured Carillon, after which the French abandoned Fort St. Frédéric. Amherst constructed Fort Crown Point next to the remains of the Fort St. Frédéric, securing British control over the area.
Following France 's loss in the French and Indian War, through the 1763 Treaty of Paris they ceded control of the land to the British. Colonial settlement was limited by the Crown to lands east of the Appalachians, in order to try to end encroachment on Native American lands. The territory of Vermont was divided nearly in half in a jagged line running from Fort William Henry in Lake George diagonally north - eastward to Lake Memphremagog. With the end of the war, new settlers arrived in Vermont. Ultimately, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and New York all claimed this frontier area.
On July 20, 1764, King George III established the boundary between New Hampshire and New York along the west bank of the Connecticut River, north of Massachusetts, and south of 45 degrees north latitude. New York refused to recognize the land titles known as the New Hampshire Grants (towns created by land grants sold by New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth) and dissatisfied New Hampshire settlers organized in opposition. In 1770 Ethan Allen, his brothers Ira and Levi, and the Allens ' cousins Seth Warner and Remember Baker, recruited an informal militia known as the Green Mountain Boys to protect the interests of the original New Hampshire settlers against newcomers from New York.
In 1775, after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, the Green Mountain Boys assisted a force from Connecticut, led by Benedict Arnold, in capturing the British fort at Ticonderoga. Thereafter, the Continental Congress in Philadelphia directed the New York colony 's revolutionary congress to fund and equip Allen 's militia as a ranger regiment of the Continental Army, which it did. Seth Warner was chosen by the men of the regiment to lead, while Ethan Allen went on to serve as a colonel in Schuyler 's Army of Northern New York.
On January 15, 1777, representatives of the New Hampshire Grants declared the independence of Vermont. For the first six months of its existence, it was called the Republic of New Connecticut.
On June 2, 1777, a second convention of 72 delegates met and adopted the name "Vermont. '' This was on the advice of a friendly Pennsylvanian, Dr. Thomas Young, friend and mentor of Ethan Allen, who wrote to them on how to achieve admission into the newly independent United States of America as the 14th state. On July 4, they completed the drafting of the Constitution of Vermont at the Windsor Tavern, and adopted it on July 8. This was the first written constitution in North America to ban adult slavery, saying male slaves become free at the age of 21 and females at 18. It provided for universal adult male suffrage and required support of public schools. It was in effect from 1777 to 1786. The revised constitution of 1786, which established a greater separation of powers, continued in effect until 1793, two years after Vermont 's admission to the Union. Slavery was fully banned by state law on November 25, 1858, less than three years before the American Civil War. Vermont played an important geographical role in the Underground Railroad, which helped American slaves escape to Canada.
The Battle of Bennington, fought on August 16, 1777, was a seminal event in the history of the state of Vermont and the United States. A combined American force, under General John Stark 's command, attacked the Hessian column at Hoosick, New York, just across the border from Bennington. It killed or captured virtually the entire Hessian detachment. General Burgoyne never recovered from this loss and eventually surrendered the remainder of his 6,000 - man force at Saratoga, New York, on October 17 that year.
The battles of Bennington and Saratoga together are recognized as the turning point in the Revolutionary War because they were the first major defeat of a British army. The anniversary of the battle is still celebrated in Vermont as a legal holiday.
The Battle of Hubbardton (July 7, 1777) was the only Revolutionary battle within the present boundaries of Vermont. Although the Continental forces were technically defeated, the British forces were damaged to the point that they did not pursue the Americans (retreating from Fort Ticonderoga) any further.
Vermont continued to govern itself as a sovereign entity based in the eastern town of Windsor for 14 years. The independent state of Vermont issued its own coinage from 1785 to 1788 and operated a statewide postal service. Thomas Chittenden was the Governor in 1778 -- 89 and in 1790 -- 91.
Because the state of New York continued to assert a disputed claim that Vermont was a part of New York, Vermont could not be admitted to the Union under Article IV, Section 3 of the Constitution until the legislature of New York consented. On March 6, 1790, the legislature made its consent contingent upon a negotiated agreement on the precise boundary between the two states. When commissioners from New York and Vermont met to decide on the boundary, Vermont 's negotiators insisted on also settling the property ownership disputes with New Yorkers, rather than leaving that to be decided later in a federal court. The negotiations were successfully concluded in October 1790 with an agreement that Vermont would pay $30,000 to New York to be distributed among New Yorkers who claimed land in Vermont under New York land patents. In January 1791, a convention in Vermont voted 105 -- 4 to petition Congress to become a state in the federal union. Congress acted on February 18, 1791 to admit Vermont to the Union as the 14th state as of March 4, 1791. Vermont became the first to enter the Union after the original 13 states.
From the mid-1850s on, some Vermonters became activists opposing slavery, which they had previously worked to contain in the South. Abolitionist Thaddeus Stevens was born in Vermont and later represented a district in Pennsylvania in Congress. He developed as a national leader and later promoted Radical Republican goals after the American Civil War. While the Whig Party shriveled, and the Republican Party emerged, Vermont supported Republican candidates. In 1860 it voted for Abraham Lincoln for US President, giving him the largest margin of victory of any state.
During the American Civil War, Vermont sent 33,288 men into United States service. 5,224 Vermonters, over 15 %, were killed or mortally wounded in action or died of disease.
The northernmost land / battle action of the war, the St. Albans Raid, took place in Vermont. However, the raiders were forced to return the possessions after the Canadians captured them at their border.
Beginning in the mid-19th century, Vermont attracted numerous Irish, Scots - Irish and Italian immigrants, adding to its residents of mostly English and French - Canadian ancestry. Many migrated to Barre, where the men worked as stonecutters of granite, for which there was a national market. Vermont granite was used in major public buildings in many states. Many Italian and Scottish women operated boarding houses in the late 19th century to support their families. Such facilities helped absorb new residents, who peaked between 1890 and 1900. Typically immigrants boarded with people of their own language and ethnicity, but sometimes they boarded with others.
The state has suffered some natural disasters in the 20th and 21st centuries related to hurricanes, extensive rain and flooding. Large - scale flooding occurred in early November 1927. During this incident, 84 people died, including the state 's lieutenant governor.
The 1938 New England hurricane in the fall of that year blew down 15,000,000 acres (61,000 km) of trees, one - third of the total forest at the time in New England. Three billion board feet were salvaged. Today many of the older trees in Vermont are about 75 years old, dating from after this storm.
Another flood occurred in 1973, causing the deaths of two people and millions of dollars in property damage.
The state suffered severe flooding in late August 2011 caused by Tropical Storm Irene. Heavy rains caused flooding in many towns built in narrow river valleys. The governor described it as one of the worst natural disasters of the 20th and 21st centuries, second only to the flood of 1927.
Vermont approved women 's suffrage decades before it became part of the national constitution. Women were first allowed to vote in the elections of December 18, 1880, when women were granted limited suffrage. They were first allowed to vote in town elections, and later in state legislative races.
In 1964 the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Reynolds v. Sims required "one - man, one - vote '' redistricting in all states; this resulted in major changes in Vermont. This ruling required city residents to be given an equitable share of apportionment in both houses in every state. Vermont had long been dominated by rural districts, as were several Southern states in those years. Until that time, apportionment was based on county jurisdictions, which had given more power to rural counties and decreased representation of urban residents. This arrangement had meant that urban issues were not considered in proportion to the number of people affected by them.
In July 2000 Vermont became the first state to introduce civil unions. In 2009 Vermont became the first state to legislate same - sex marriage unforced by court challenge or ruling.
According to the United States Census Bureau, as of April 15, 2015, Vermont has an estimated population of 626,042, which was an increase of 297, since April 15, 2010. This includes a natural increase 3,178 (31,716 births minus 28,538 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 2,432 people out of the state. In 2006 it had the second lowest birthrate in the nation, 42 / 1000 women. The center of population of Vermont is located in Washington County, in the town of Warren.
As of 2014, 51.3 % of Vermont 's population was born in the state (compared with 58.7 % for the United States). The changing demographics between those with multi-generational ties to the state and those who are newcomers, bringing different values with them, has resulted in a degree of tension between the two perspectives. This tension is expressed in the terms, "Woodchuck '', being applied to those established in the state, and "Flatlander '', applied to the newcomers. Vermont is the least populous New England state. As of 2012, Vermont was one of only two states in the U.S. with fewer people than the District of Columbia -- the other was Wyoming.
From 2010 to 2013, 16 out of Vermont 's 251 towns experienced an increase in population. All towns in Chittenden increased with the exception of Burlington. More than 180 towns experienced a decrease, which had n't happened since the mid-19th century.
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
94.3 % of the population identified as white not of Hispanic or Latino origin in a 2013 US Census estimate. As of the 2010 census, Vermont was the second - whitest state in the Union after Maine.
In 2009, 12.6 % of people over 15 were divorced. This was the fifth highest percentage in the nation. As of 2008 the median age of Vermonters was 40.6 and that of the work force was 43.7, compared with the national average of 41.1 years.
Vermont leads US states with the highest rates of LGBT identification, at 5.3 %. It 's LGBT population density is second in the US only to the District of Columbia.
Following national trends for opioid use which has roughly tripled, addicts seeking treatment in Vermont have increased from 650 in 2011 to 7,500 in 2016.
Linguists have identified speech patterns found among Vermonters as belonging to Western New England English, a dialect of New England English, which features of full pronunciation of all r sounds, pronouncing horse and hoarse the same, and pronouncing vowels in father and bother the same, none of which are features traditionally shared in neighboring Eastern New England English. Some rural speakers realize the t as a glottal stop (mitten sounds like "mi'in '' and Vermont like "Vermon ' "). A dwindling segment of the Vermont population, generally both rural and male -- especially in northwestern Vermont, pronounces certain vowels in a distinctive manner (e.g. cows sounds like "cayows, '' fight like "foight, '' calf like "caaf, '' there like "thair, '' hand like "hay - nd, '' and back like "bah - k '').
Eastern New England English -- also found in New Hampshire, Maine and eastern Massachusetts -- was common in eastern Vermont in the mid-twentieth century and before, but has become rare. There the practice of dropping the r sound in words ending in r (farmer sounds like "farm - uh '') and adding an r sound to words ending in a vowel (idea sounds like "idee - er '') was common. Those characteristics in eastern Vermont appear to have been inherited from West Country and Scots - Irish ancestors.
In 2015, Vermont was ranked by Forbes magazine as 42nd best among states in which to do business. It was 32nd in 2007, and 30th in 2006. In 2008 an economist said that the state had "a really stagnant economy, which is what we are forecasting for Vermont for the next 30 years. '' In May 2010 Vermont 's 6.2 % unemployment rate was the fourth lowest in the nation. This rate reflects the second sharpest decline among the 50 states since the prior May.
According to the 2010 U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis report, Vermont 's gross state product (GSP) was $26 billion. Not accounting for size, this places the state 50th among the 50 states. It stood 34th in per capita GSP.
Components of GSP were:
Canada was Vermont 's largest foreign trade partner in 2007. The state 's second - largest foreign trade partner was Taiwan. The state had $4 billion worth of commerce with Quebec.
One measure of economic activity is retail sales. The state had $5.2 billion in 2007. In 2008, 8,631 new businesses were registered in Vermont, a decline of 500 from 2007.
The median household income from 2002 to 2004 was $45,692. This was 15th nationally. The median wage in the state in 2008 was $15.31 hourly or $31,845 annually. In 2007 about 80 % of the 68,000 Vermonters who qualify for food stamps received them. 40 % of seniors 75 years or older live on annual incomes of $21,660 or less. In 2011, 15.2 % of Vermonters received food stamps. This compares to 14.8 % nationally.
In 2011, 91,000 seniors received an annual average of $14,000 from Social Security. This was 59 % of the average senior 's income. This contributed $1.7 billion to the state 's economy.
Agriculture contributed 2.2 % of the state 's domestic product in 2000. In 2000 about 3 % of the state 's working population engaged in agriculture. Farms in the state were estimated to have hired 1,000 illegal immigrants as of 2009, largely tolerated by local police and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement.
Dairy farming is the primary source of agricultural income. In the last half of the 20th century, developers had plans to build condos and houses on what was relatively inexpensive, open land. Vermont 's government responded with a series of laws controlling development and with some pioneering initiatives to prevent the loss of Vermont 's dairy industry. Still, the number of Vermont dairy farms has declined more than 85 % from the 11,206 dairy farms operating in 1947. In 2003 there were fewer than 1,500 dairy farms in the state; in 2006 there were 1,138; and in 2007 there were 1,087. The number of dairy farms has been diminishing by 10 % annually.
The number of cattle in Vermont had declined by 40 %; however, milk production has doubled in the same period due to tripling the production per cow. While milk production rose, Vermont 's market share declined. Within a group of states supplying the Boston and New York City markets, Vermont was third in market share, with 10.6 %; New York has 44.9 % and Pennsylvania has 32.9 %. In 2007 dairy farmers received a record $23.60 for 100 pounds (45 kg) of milk. This dropped in 2008 to $17. The average dairy farm produced 1.3 million pounds of milk annually in 2008.
The dairy barn remains an iconic image of Vermont, but the 87 % decrease in active dairy farms between 1947 and 2003 means that preservation of the dairy barns has increasingly become dependent upon a commitment to maintaining a legacy rather than basic need in the agricultural economy. The Vermont Barn Census, organized by a collaboration of educational and nonprofit state and local historic preservation programs, has developed educational and administrative systems for recording the number, condition, and features of barns throughout Vermont.
In 2009 there were 543 organic farms. Twenty percent of the dairy farms were organic and 23 % (128) vegetable farms were organic. Organic farming increased in 2006 -- 07, but leveled off in 2008 -- 09. Nor are any expected for 2010.
A significant amount of milk is shipped into the Boston market. Therefore the Commonwealth of Massachusetts certifies that Vermont farms meet Massachusetts sanitary standards. Without this certification, a farmer may not sell milk for distribution into the bulk market.
Forest products have always been a staple to the economy comprising 1 % of the total gross state output and 9 % of total manufacturing as of 2013. In 2007 Windham County contained the largest concentration of kilns for drying lumber east of the Mississippi River. The decline of farms has resulted in a regrowth of Vermont 's forests due to ecological succession. Today, most of Vermont 's forests are secondary. The state and non-profit organizations are actively encouraging regrowth and careful forest management. Over 78 % of the land area of the state is forested compared to only 37 % forest in 1880s when sheep farming was at its peak and large amounts of acreage were cleared for grazing land. Over 85 % of that area is non-industrial, private forestland owned by individuals or families. In 2013 73.054 million cubic feet of wood was harvested in Vermont. A large amount of Vermont forest products are exports with 21.504 million feet being shipped overseas plus an additional 16.384 million cubic feet to Canada. Most of it was processed within the state. In this century the manufacture of wood products has fallen by almost half. The annual net growth has been estimated at 172.810 million cubic feet. The USDA estimates that 8.584 billion cubic feet remain in the state. Forest products also add to carbon sequestration since lumber and timber used in houses and furniture hold carbon for long periods of time while the trees that were removed are replaced overtime with new growing stock. While wood pellets are replacing coal in European power plants reducing CO2 emissions by up to 90 % and preventing mountaintop removal for coal mining.
in 2017, the price of wood products had either plummeted or remained the same when compared to previous decades. Workers are discouraged. For example, in 1994, the price of a thousand board feet was $300, the same as it was in 2017. The price of wood chips has halved in the same timeframe. In 1980, the price for a cord of wood was $50; in 2017, $25. For lack of demand, Vermont 's forests are growing twice as fast as they are being cut.
An important and growing part of Vermont 's economy is the manufacture and sale of artisan foods, fancy foods, and novelty items trading in part upon the Vermont "brand, '' which the state manages and defends. Examples of these specialty exports include Cabot Cheese, the Vermont Teddy Bear Company, Fine Paints of Europe, Vermont Butter and Cheese Company, several micro breweries, ginseng growers, Burton Snowboards, Lake Champlain Chocolates, King Arthur Flour, and Ben and Jerry 's Ice Cream.
There were about 2,000 maple products producers in 2010. Production rose to 920,000 US gallons (3,500,000 l; 770,000 imp gal) in 2009. The state 's share of the nation 's production rose to 42 % in 2013. It had the second lowest price at $33.40 / gallon.
Wine industry in Vermont started in 1985. As of 2007 there were 14 wineries.
As of 2015, GlobalFoundries was the largest private employer in the state and provides jobs to 3,000 employees at its plant in the village of Essex Junction within Chittenden County.
A 2010 University of Connecticut study reported that Vermont, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire tied as the most costly states in the U.S. for manufacturers.
An increasingly aging population is expected to improve the position of aging services and health care in the state economy. In 2013, Fletcher Allen Health Care, with 7,100 employees, was the second - largest employer of people in the state and the largest private employer.
In 2010, all of Vermont 's hospitals billed patients $3.76 billion, and collected $2 billion. 92,000 people are enrolled in Medicare. In 2011, Medicare spent $740 million on health care in the state.
In 2007, Vermont was the 17th highest state in the nation for mortgage affordability. However, in 41 other states, inhabitants contributed within plus or minus 4 % of Vermont 's 18.4 % of household income to a mortgage.
Housing prices did not rise much during the early 2000s. As a result, the collapse in real estate values was not that precipitous either. While foreclosure rose significantly in 2007, the state stood 50th -- the most favorable -- in ratio of foreclosure filings to households. While housing sales dropped annually from 2004 to 2008, prices continued to rise.
In 2007, Vermont was best in the country for construction of new energy efficient homes as evaluated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency under the Energy Star program. However, about 60 % of Vermont homes were heated with oil in 2008. In August 2008 the cost in Vermont of various heating sources per 1 million BTU ranged from $14.39 for cord wood to $43.50 for kerosene.
While the number of houses sold in the state has dropped from 8,318 in 2004 to 8,120 in 2005, 6,919 in 2006, and 5,820 in 2007, the average price has continued to rise to $202,500 in 2008 ($200,000 in 2007).
In 2009, the average rent for a two - bedroom apartment was $920 per month. Rental vacancy was 5.4 %, the lowest in the nation. 2,800 people were counted as homeless in January 2010, 22 % more than in 2008.
In 2011, Vermont was fifth among the states with the greatest backlog of foreclosures needing court processing, taking an estimated 18 years. The national average was eight years.
As of 2006 there were 305,000 workers in Vermont. Eleven percent of these are unionized. Out of a workforce of 299,200 workers, 52,000 were government jobs, federal, state and local.
A modern high unemployment rate of 9 % was reached in June 1976. A modern low of 2.4 % was measured in February 2000. As of September 2010 the unemployment rate was 5.8 %.
Employment grew 7.5 % from 2000 to 2006. From 1980 to 2000, employment grew by 3.4 %; nationally it was up 4.6 %. Real wages were $33,385 in 2006 constant dollars and remained there in 2010; the nation, $36,871.
Captive insurance plays an increasingly large role in Vermont 's economy. With this form of alternative insurance, large corporations or industry associations form standalone insurance companies to insure their own risks, thereby substantially reducing their insurance premiums and gaining a significant measure of control over types of risks to be covered. There are also significant tax advantages to be gained from the formation and operation of captive insurance companies. According to the Insurance Information Institute, Vermont in 2009 was the world 's third - largest domicile for captive insurance companies, following Bermuda and the Cayman Islands. In 2009 there were 560 such companies. In 2010 the state had 900 such companies.
Tourism is an important industry to the state. Some of the largest ski areas in New England are located in Vermont. Skiers and snowboarders visit Burke Mountain Ski Area, Bolton Valley, Smugglers ' Notch, Killington Ski Resort, Mad River Glen, Stowe Mountain Resort, Sugarbush, Stratton, Jay Peak, Okemo, Suicide Six, Mount Snow, Bromley, and Magic Mountain Ski Area. Summer visitors tour resort towns like Stowe, Manchester, Quechee, Wilmington and Woodstock. Resorts, hotels, restaurants, and shops, designed to attract tourists, employ people year - round. Summer camps contribute to Vermont 's tourist economy.
Visitors participate in trout fishing, lake fishing, and ice fishing. Some hike the Long Trail.
In winter, Nordic and backcountry skiers visit to travel the length of the state on the Catamount Trail. Several horse shows are annual events. Vermont 's state parks, historic sites, museums, golf courses, and new boutique hotels with spas were designed to attract tourists.
According to the 2000 Census, almost 15 % of all housing units in Vermont were vacant and classified "for seasonal, recreational, or occasional use ''. This was the second highest percentage nationwide, after Maine. In some Vermont cities, vacation homes owned by wealthy residents of New England and New York constitute the bulk of all housing stock. According to one estimate, as of 2009, 84 % of all houses in Ludlow were owned by out - of - state residents. Other notable vacation - home resorts include Manchester and Stowe.
In 2005 visitors made an estimated 13.4 million trips to the state, spending $1.57 billion. In 2012 fall accounted for $460 million of income, about one - quarter of all tourism.
In 2011 the state government earned $274 million in taxes and fees from tourism. 89 % of the money came from out - of - state visitors. Tourism supported over 26,000 jobs, 7.2 % of total employment.
In 2000 -- 01 there were 4,579,719 skier and snowboarder visits to the state. There were 4,125,082 visits in 2009 -- 2010, a rise from recent years.
In 2008 there were 35,000 members of 138 snowmobiling clubs in Vermont. The combined association of clubs maintains 6,000 miles (9,700 km) of trail often over private lands. The industry is said to generate "hundreds of millions of dollars worth of business. ''
Hunting is controlled for black bear, wild turkeys, deer, and moose. There are 5,500 bears in the state. The goal is to keep the numbers between 4,500 and 6,000. In 2010 there were about 141,000 deer in the state, which is in range of government goals. However, these are distributed unevenly and when in excess of 10 -- 15 per square mile, negatively impact timber growth.
In 2012 hunting of migratory birds was limited to October 13 to December 16. Waterfowl hunting is also controlled by federal law.
The towns of Rutland and Barre are the traditional centers of marble and granite quarrying and carving in the U.S. For many years Vermont was also the headquarters of the smallest union in the U.S., the Stonecutters Association, of about 500 members. The first marble quarry in America was on Mount Aeolus overlooking East Dorset. The granite industry attracted numerous skilled stonecutters in the late 19th century from Italy, Scotland, and Ireland. Barre is the location of the Rock of Ages quarry, the largest dimension stone granite quarry in the United States. Vermont is the largest producer of slate in the country. The highest quarrying revenues result from the production of dimension stone. The Rock of Ages Quarry in Barre is one of the leading exporters of granite in the country. The work of the sculptors of this corporation can be seen 3 miles (4.8 km) down the road at the Hope Cemetery, where there are gravestones and mausoleums.
There were 2,682 non-profit organizations in Vermont in 2008, with $2.8 billion in revenue. The state ranked ninth in the country for volunteerism for the period 2005 -- 08. 35.6 % of the population volunteered during this period. The national average was 26.4 %.
Vermont 's main mode of travel is by automobile. 5.7 % of Vermont households did not own a car in 2008. In 2012 there were 605,000 motor vehicles registered, nearly one car for every person in the state. This is similar to average car ownership nationwide. In 2012 about half the carbon emissions in the state resulted from vehicles.
On average, 20 -- 25 people die each year from drunk driving incidents; as well as 70 -- 80 people in fatal car crashes in the state. Motorists have the highest rate of insurance in the country, 93 %, tied with Pennsylvania.
In 2010, Vermont owned 2,840 miles (4,570 km) of highway. This was the third smallest quantity among the 50 states. 2.5 % of the highways were listed as "congested, '' the 5th lowest in the country. The highway fatality rate was 1 per 100,000,000 miles (160,000,000 km), tenth lowest in the nation. The highways cost $28,669 per 1 mile (1.6 km) to maintain, the 17th highest in the states. 34.4 % of its bridges were rated deficient or obsolete, the 8th worst in the nation.
Individual communities and counties have public transit, but their breadth of coverage is frequently limited. Greyhound Lines services a number of small towns. Two Amtrak trains serve Vermont, the Vermonter and the Ethan Allen Express. In 2011 Amtrak evaluated the track used by the Ethan Allen Express between Rutland and Whitehall as the worst in the nation.
Trucks weighing less than 80,000 pounds (36,000 kg) can use Vermont 's interstate highways. The limit for state roads is 99,000 pounds (45,000 kg). This means that vehicles too heavy for the turnpikes can legally only use secondary roads.
In 1968, Vermont outlawed the use of billboards for advertisement along its roads. It is one of four states in the U.S. to have done this, along with Hawaii, Maine, and Alaska.
The state has 2,843 miles (4,575 km) of highways under its control.
A 2005 -- 06 study ranked Vermont 37th out of the states for "cost - effective road maintenance '', a decline of thirteen places since 2004 -- 05.
Federal data indicates that 16 % of Vermont 's 2,691 bridges had been rated structurally deficient by the state in 2006. In 2007 Vermont had the sixth worst percentage of structurally deficient bridges in the country.
The state is served by Amtrak 's Vermonter and Ethan Allen Express, the New England Central Railroad, the Vermont Railway, and the Green Mountain Railroad.
The Ethan Allen Express serves Castleton and Rutland, while the Vermonter serves St. Albans, Essex Junction, Waterbury, Montpelier, Randolph, White River Junction, Windsor, Bellows Falls, and Brattleboro.
Greyhound Lines stops at Bellows Falls, Brattleboro, Burlington, Montpelier, and White River Junction. Megabus, as of November 2014, stops in Burlington and Montpelier. Vermont Translines, an intercity bus company started by Premier Coach in 2013 partnering with Greyhound and starting service on June 9, 2014, serves Milton, Colchester, Burlington, Middlebury, Brandon, Rutland, Wallingford, Manchester and Bennington on its Burlington to Albany line, and Rutland, Killington, Bridgewater, Woodstock, Queechee and White River Junction along the US Route 4 corridor. The town of Bennington also has the weekday - operating Albany - Bennington Shuttle, an intercity bus operated by Yankee Trails World Travel.
Other transportation includes:
There is ferry service to New York State from Burlington, Charlotte, Grand Isle, and Shoreham. All but the Shoreham ferry are operated by the LCTC (Lake Champlain Transportation Company).
Vermont is served by two commercial airports:
Vermont statute requires the Vermont Secretary of State to designate newspapers that provide general coverage across the state as the "Newspapers of Record. '' On June 30, 2010, the secretary of state designated the following newspapers for publishing administrative rule notices during the period of July 1, 2010 through June 30, 2011:
Vermont hosts 93 radio broadcast stations. The top categories are talk / information (11), country (9) and classic rock (9). The top owner of radio broadcast stations is Vermont Public Radio (11 broadcast frequencies and 13 low - power, local transmitters). Other companies had five or fewer stations. The state has 15 online radio stations.
Vermont hosts 10 high - power television broadcast stations, three of which are satellites of a primary station. Represented are the following networks and number of high - power transmitters, ABC (1), CBS (1), Fox (1), NBC (2), PBS (4), and RTV (1). In addition, it has 17 low - power television broadcast stations, which in several cases are satellites of the high - power stations.
2008 peak demand in the state was 1,100 megawatts (MW).
In May 2009 Vermont created the first state - wide renewable energy feed - in law. In 2010 there were about 150 methane digesters in the nation, Vermont led the nation with six online.
While Vermont paid the lowest rates in New England for power in 2007, it is still ranked among the highest eleven states in the nation; that is, about 16 % higher than the national average.
In 2009 the state paid the highest rates for energy (including heating) in the U.S. and had the worst affordability gap nationwide.
In 2009 the state received one - third (400 MW) of its power from Hydro - Québec and one - third from Vermont Yankee. In total, the state got half its power from Canada and other states. It received 75 % of the power it generated in the state from Vermont Yankee. The state is part of the Northeast Power Coordinating Council for the distribution of electricity.
The state 's two largest electric utilities, Green Mountain Power Corporation and Central Vermont Public Service Corporation, together serve 80 % of Vermont households.
The state has 78 hydropower dams. They generate 143 MW, about 12 % of the state 's total requirement. Vermont experts estimate that the state has the capacity to ultimately generate from 134 to 175 megawatts of electricity from hydro power.
In 2006 the total summer generating capacity of Vermont was 1,117 megawatts. In 2005, the inhabitants of the state used an average of 5,883 kilowatt - hours (21,180 MJ) of electricity per capita. Another source says that each household consumed 7,100 kilowatt - hours (26,000 MJ) annually in 2008.
Until the Vermont Yankee nuclear power plant was shut down in 2014, Vermont had the highest rate of nuclear - generated power in the nation, 73.7 %. Vermont is one of two states with no coal - fired power plants.
All Vermont utilities get their power from lines run by ISO New England. Each utility pays a share of transmitting power over these lines. Vermont 's share is about 4.5 %.
A 2013 survey found that of 18,790 miles (30,240 km) of roads surveyed, all but 3,118 mi had cellular coverage by at least one carrier. The roads surveyed are concentrated in the more heavily populated areas.
A June 2013 survey found that of nearly 249,976 addresses surveyed, 84.7 % had fixed (as opposed to mobile) broadband available. It was projected that all but 29 addresses would have fixed broadband available by the end of 2013.
Vermont is federally represented in the United States Congress by two senators and one representative.
The state is governed by a constitution which divides governmental duties into legislative, executive and judicial branches: the Vermont General Assembly, the Governor of Vermont and the Vermont Supreme Court. The governorship and the General Assembly serve two - year terms including the governor and 30 senators. There are no term limits for any office. The state capital is in Montpelier.
There are three types of incorporated municipalities in Vermont: towns, cities, and villages. Like most of New England, there is slight provision for autonomous county government. Counties and county seats are merely convenient repositories for various government services such as state courts, with several elected officers such as a state 's Attorney and sheriff. All county services are directly funded by the state of Vermont. The next effective governmental level below state government are municipalities. Most of these are towns.
Vermont is the only state in the union not to have a balanced budget requirement, yet Vermont has had a balanced budget every year since 1991. In 2007 Moody 's gave its top bond credit rating (Aaa) to the state.
The state uses enterprise funds for operations that are similar to private business enterprises. The Vermont Lottery Commission, the Liquor Control Fund, and the Unemployment Compensation Trust Fund, are the largest of the State 's enterprise funds.
In 2007 Vermont was the 14th highest out of 50 states and the District of Columbia for state and local taxation, with a per capita load of $3,681. The national average was $3,447. However, CNNMoney ranked Vermont highest in the nation based on the percentage of per capita income. The rankings showed Vermont had a per capita tax load of $5,387, 14.1 % of the per capita income of $38,306.
Vermont collects a state personal income tax in a progressive structure of five different income brackets, with marginal tax rates ranging from 3.6 % to 9.5 %. In 2008, the top 1 % of Vermont residents provided 30 % of the income tax revenue; around 2,000 people had sufficient income to be taxed at the highest marginal rate of 9.5 %.
Vermont 's general state sales tax rate is 6 %, which is imposed on sales of tangible personal property, amusement charges, fabrication charges, some public utility charges and some service contracts. Some towns and cities impose an additional 1 % Local Option Tax. There are 46 exemptions from the sales tax, including exemptions for food, medical items, manufacturing machinery, equipment and fuel, residential fuel and electricity, clothing, and shoes. A use tax is imposed on the buyer at the same rate as the sales tax. The buyer pays the use tax when the seller fails to collect the sales tax or the items are purchased from a source where no tax is collected. The use tax applies to items taxable under the sales tax.
Vermont does not collect inheritance taxes, but does impose a state estate tax; a Vermont estate tax return must be filed if the estate must file a federal estate tax return (the requirement for which depends on federal law).
Vermont does not collect a state gift tax.
Property taxes are levied by municipalities for the support of education and municipal services. Vermont does not assess tax on personal property. Property taxes are based on appraisal of the fair market value of real property. Rates vary from 0.97 % on homesteaded property in Ferdinand, Essex County, to 2.72 % on nonresidents ' property in Barre City. Statewide, towns average 1.77 % to 1.82 % tax rate. In 2007, Vermont counties were among the highest in the country for property taxes. Chittenden ($3,809 median), Windham ($3,412), Addison ($3,352), and Windsor ($3,327) ranked in the top 100, out of 1,817 counties in the nation with populations greater than 20,000. Twelve of the state 's 14 counties stood in the top 20 %. Median annual property taxes as a percentage of median homeowners income, 5.4 %, was rated as the third highest in the nation in 2011.
To equitably support education, some towns are required by Act 60 to send some of their collected taxes to be redistributed to school districts lacking adequate support.
Vermont is one of four states that were once independent nations (the others being Texas, California, and Hawaii). Notably, Vermont is the only state to have voted for a presidential candidate from the Anti-Masonic Party, and Vermont was one of only two states to vote against Franklin D. Roosevelt in all four of his presidential campaigns (the other was Maine).
Vermont 's history of independent political thought has led to movements for the establishment of the Second Vermont Republic and other plans advocating secession.
Vermont is the only state in the United States that requires voters to be sworn in, having established the voter 's oath or affirmation in 1777.
Republicans dominated local Vermont politics from the party 's founding in 1854 until the mid-1970s. Before the 1960s, rural interests dominated the legislature. As a result, cities, particularly the older sections of Burlington and Winooski, were neglected and fell into decay. People began to move out to newer suburbs.
Vermont was for many years a stronghold of the Republican Party. Ethno - political culture of the last century has seen a dramatic shift in voter turnout in the Green Mountain State. Since 1992, Vermont has voted for the Democrat in every Presidential election. Before 1992, Vermont voted for the Republican in every single Presidential election with the exception of 1964.
A series of one man, one vote decisions made by the United States Supreme Court in the 1960s required states to redraw their legislative districts to accurately reflect population. As a result, urban areas in Vermont gained political power.
The legislature was redistricted under one - person, one - vote in the 1960s It passed the Land Use and Development Law (Act 250) in 1970 to discourage suburban sprawl and to limit major growth to already developed areas. The law, the first of its kind in the nation, created nine District Environmental Commissions appointed by the Governor, who judged land development and subdivision plans that would have a significant impact on the state 's environment and many small communities. As a result of Act 250, Vermont was the last state to get a Wal - Mart (there are now five Wal - Marts in the state, as of December 2013, but only two -- in Williston and St. Albans -- were newly built from the ground up). Because of the successful attempts to dilute what is perceived as the original intent of Act 250, and other development pressures, Vermont has been designated one of America 's most "endangered historic places '' by the National Trust for Historic Preservation.
In 1995 the state banned the spreading of manure from December 15 to April 1, to prevent runoff and protect the water. Therefore farms must have environmentally approved facilities to store manure during this time frame.
While the state voted largely Democratic, Republican Governor Douglas won all counties but Windham in the 2006 election.
A controversy dating from 1999 has been over the adoption of civil unions, an institution which grants same - sex couples nearly all the rights and privileges of marriage at the state, but not federal, level. In Baker v. Vermont (1999), the Vermont Supreme Court ruled that, under the Constitution of Vermont, the state must either allow same - sex marriage or provide a separate but equal status for them. The state legislature chose the second option by creating the institution of civil union; the bill was passed by the legislature and signed into law by Governor Howard Dean. In April 2009 the state legislature overrode governor Jim Douglas 's veto to allow same - sex marriage, becoming the first state in the nation to legalize same - sex marriage through legislation. In September 2009 Vermont became the fourth state in which same - sex couples could marry.
In 2007 the state 's House of Representatives rejected a measure which would have legalized assisted suicide for the terminally ill, by a vote of 82 -- 63. Then with the governor 's signature on May 20, 2013, Vermont became the fourth state to pass a "death with dignity '' law -- the first to be passed through legislation rather than by ballot initiative.
Minor parties and Independents flourish. Rules which eliminate smaller parties from the ballot in most states do not exist in Vermont. As a result, voters often have extensive choices for general elections. Among others, this more open policy enabled independents like Bernie Sanders to win election as mayor of Burlington, U.S. Congressman and U.S. Senator.
A political issue has been Act 60, which balances taxation for education funding. This has resulted in the town of Killington trying to secede from Vermont and join New Hampshire due to what the locals say is an unfair tax burden.
The Vermont constitution and the courts supports the right of a person to walk (fish and hunt) on any unposted, unfenced land. That is, trespass must be proven by the owner; it is not automatically assumed.
The state is an alcoholic beverage control state. In 2007, through the Vermont Department of Liquor Control, it took in over $14 million from the sale and distribution of liquor.
In 2013 Vermont became the 17th state to decriminalize marijuana. The statute makes possession of less than an ounce of the drug punishable by a small fine rather than arrest and possible jail time.
In 2014 Vermont became the first state to call for a constitutional convention to overturn the Supreme Court 's decision in Citizens United v. FEC.
In 2014 Vermont became the first state to mandate labeling of genetically modified organisms in the retail food supply.
Historically, Vermont was considered one of the most reliably Republican states in the country in terms of national elections. From 1856 to 1988, Vermont voted Democratic only once, in Lyndon B. Johnson 's landslide victory of 1964 against Barry M. Goldwater. It was also one of only two states -- the other being Maine -- where Franklin D. Roosevelt was completely shut out in all four of his presidential bids. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Republican presidential candidates frequently won the state with over 70 % of the vote.
In the 1980s and 1990s many people moved in from out of state. Much of this immigration included the arrival of more liberal political influences of the urban areas of New York and the rest of New England in Vermont. The brand of Republicanism in Vermont has historically been a moderate one, and combined with the newcomers from out of state, this made Vermont friendlier to Democrats as the national GOP moved to the right. As evidence of this, in 1990 Bernie Sanders, a self - described democratic socialist, was elected to Vermont 's lone seat in the House as an independent. Sanders became the state 's junior Senator in 2007. However, for his entire career in the House and Senate, Sanders has caucused with the Democrats and is counted as a Democrat for the purposes of committee assignments and voting for party leadership.
After narrowly supporting George H.W. Bush in 1988, it gave Democrat Bill Clinton a 16 - point margin in 1992 -- the first time the state had gone Democratic since 1964. Vermont has voted Democratic in every presidential election since.
Since 2004, Vermont has been one of the Democrats ' most loyal states. It gave John Kerry his fourth - largest margin of victory in the presidential campaign against George W. Bush; he won the state 's popular vote by 20 percentage points, taking almost 59 % of the vote. (Kerry, from neighboring Massachusetts, also became the first Northern Democrat ever to carry Vermont; Johnson was from Texas, Clinton from Arkansas and Al Gore, triumphant in the Green Mountain State in 2000, from Tennessee.) Essex County in the state 's northeastern section was the only county to vote for Bush. Vermont is the only state that did not receive a visit from George W. Bush during his tenure as President of the United States. Indeed, George W. Bush and Donald Trump are the only Republicans to win the White House without carrying Vermont. In 2008, Vermont gave Barack Obama his third - largest margin of victory (37 percentage points) and third - largest vote share in the nation by his winning the state 68 % to 31 %. Only Obama 's birth state of Hawaii and Washington, D.C. were stronger Democratic victories. The same held true in 2012, when Obama carried Vermont 67 % of the vote vs 31 % for Romney, and in 2016, when Clinton won with 55.7 % of the vote vs 29.8 % for Trump.
Vermont 's two Senators are Democrat Patrick Leahy, the longest - serving member of the Senate, and independent Bernie Sanders. The state is represented by an at - large member of the House, Democrat Peter Welch, who succeeded Sanders in 2007.
In 2010 Vermont was the sixth highest ranked state for Well - Being in a study by Gallup and Healthways. In 2010 the state stood third in physical well - being of children.
In 2010 Vermont was ranked the highest in the country for health outcomes.
In 2000 the state implemented the Vermont Child Health Improvement Program to improve preventive services and management of chronic conditions. In 2011, the state ranked third in the nation in child health system performance. In 2011, the March of Dimes gave Vermont an "A, '' ranking it number one in the country on its Prematurity Report Card.
In 2008 Vermont was ranked number one in the nation as the healthiest place to live for the seventh time in eight years. Criteria included low teenage birth rate, strong health coverage, the lowest AIDS rate in the country, and 18 other factors. The state scored well in cessation of smoking, obesity, fewer occupational fatalities, prevalence of health insurance, and low infant mortality. A problem area was a high prevalence of binge drinking. While ranking sixth from best for adults in obesity in 2009, the state still had 22 % obese with a rate of 27 % for children 10 -- 17. The ranking for children was ninth best in the nation. In 1993, the obesity rate for adults was 12 %. Vermonters spend $141 million annually in medical costs related to obesity. The combined figures for overweight and obese adults rose from 40.7 % in 1990 to 58.4 % in 2010. This is better than most other states.
In 2011 Vermont led the nation in the rate of young people who had consumed alcohol in the past month; one - third of people aged 11 through 20. One - fifth of that group had binged during that time. The state was second for the use of marijuana by young people; 30 % of adults 18 to 25 in the past month.
In 2009 Vermont was ranked second in the nation for safety. Crime statistics on violence were used for the criteria.
Vermont has some of the least restrictive gun control laws in the country. A permit or license is not required for purchasing or carrying firearms. concealed carry and open carry of a firearm is legal over the age of 16, with those below 16 requiring parental permission.
In 2007 Vermont was ranked among the best five states in the country for preventing "premature death '' in people under 75 years of age. The rate of survival was twice that of the five lowest performing states.
In 2007 Vermont was ranked the third safest state for highway fatalities. In 2007 a third of fatal crashes involved a drunken driver. In 2008, Vermont was the fifth best state for fewest uninsured motorists -- 6 %.
Parts of the state have been declared federal disaster areas on 28 occasions from 1963 to 2008.
In 2007 the Environmental Protection Agency cited Chittenden and Bennington as counties with 70 parts per billion of smog which is undesirable.
In northern Vermont particularly, moose are not uncommon, including in urban areas. They constitute a traffic threat since they are unaware of vehicles. There are several deaths each year from automobiles striking moose.
In 2008 about 100,000 Vermonters got their health care through the federal government, Medicare, Tri-Care and the Veteran 's Administration. An additional 10,000 work for employers who provide insurance under federal law under ERISA. About 20 % of Vermonters receive health care outside of Vermont; 20 % of the care provided within the state is to non-Vermonters. In 2008 the state had an estimated 7.6 % with no medical insurance, down from 9.8 % in 2005. In 2008 the Vermont Health Access Program for low - income, uninsured adults cost from $7 to $49 per month. A "Catamount Health '' premium assistance program was available for Vermonters who do not qualify for other programs. Total monthly premiums ranged from $60 to $393 for an individual. There was a $250 deductible. Insured paid $10 toward each generic prescription. 16.9 % of residents 18 to 35 were uninsured, the highest group.
Health care spending increased from $2.3 billion in 2000 to $4.8 billion in 2009. In 2009, adult day care services cost more in Vermont than any other state -- $150 daily.
The state started air drops of rabies bait for raccoons in 1997. Known rabies cases in raccoons peaked in 2007 at 165. The program is in cooperation with neighboring states and Canada.
Vermont was named the nation 's smartest state in 2005 and 2006. In 2006 there was a gap between state testing standards and national, which is biased in favor of the state standards by 30 %, on average. This puts Vermont 11th - best in the nation. Most states have a higher bias. However, when allowance for race is considered, a 2007 US Government list of test scores shows Vermont white fourth graders performed 25th in the nation for reading (229), 26th for math (247). White eighth graders scored 18th for math (292) and 12th for reading (273). The first three scores were not considered statistically different from average. White eighth graders scored significantly above average in reading. Statistics for black students were not reliable because of their small representation in the testing.
The average effective spending per pupil in Vermont was $11,548 in 2008.
Education Week ranked the state second in high school graduation rates for 2007.
In 2011, 91 % of the population had graduated from high school compared with 85 % nationally. Almost 34 % have at least an undergraduate degree compared with 28 % nationally.
In 2013 the ratio of pupils to teachers was the lowest in the country.
Experimentation at the University of Vermont by George Perkins Marsh, and later the influence of Vermont - born philosopher and educator John Dewey brought about the concepts of electives and learning by doing.
Vermont has five colleges within the Vermont State Colleges system, University of Vermont (UVM), and fourteen other private, degree - granting colleges, including Bennington College, Burlington College, Champlain College, Goddard College, Marlboro College, Middlebury College, Saint Michael 's College, the Vermont Law School, and Norwich University.
In 2016, Vermont charged the second highest tuition in the nation for four years, $61,000 for in - state students, to $147,000 for out - of - state students. This compares with an average of 34,800 nationally for in - state students.
Vermont festivals include the Vermont Maple Festival, Festival on the Green, The Vermont Dairy Festival in Enosburg Falls, the Apple Festival (held each Columbus Day Weekend), the Marlboro Music Festival, and the Vermont Brewers Festival. The Vermont Symphony Orchestra is supported by the state and performs throughout the area.
Since 1973 the Sage City Symphony, formed by composer Louis Calabro, has performed in the Bennington area. In 1988 a number of Vermont - based composers including Gwyneth Walker formed the Vermont Composers Consortium, which was recognized by the governor proclaiming 2011 as The Year of the Composer.
Burlington, Vermont 's largest town, hosts the annual Vermont International Film Festival in October, that presents 10 days of independent film from the US and around the world. The Brattleboro - based Vermont Theatre Company presents an annual summer Shakespeare festival. Brattleboro also hosts the summertime Strolling of the Heifers parade which celebrates Vermont 's dairy culture. The annual Green Mountain Film Festival is held in Montpelier.
In the Northeast Kingdom, the Bread and Puppet Theatre holds weekly shows in Glover in a natural outdoor amphitheater.
Vermont 's most recent best known musical talent was the group Phish, whose members met while attending school in Vermont and spent much of their early years playing at venues across the state.
The Vermont - based House of LeMay performs several shows a year, hosts the annual "Winter is a Drag Ball, '' and performs for fundraisers.
Examples of folk art found in Vermont include the Vermontasaurus in Post Mills, a community in Thetford.
The rate of volunteerism in Vermont was eighth in the nation with 37 % in 2007. The state stood first in New England. In 2011 Vermont residents were ranked as the healthiest in the country. Also in 2011, Vermont was ranked as the fourth most peaceful state in the United States. In 2011 Vermont residents were ranked as the sixth most fit / leanest in the country. Vermonters were the second most active citizens of state with 55.9 % meeting the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 's physical activity requirements. Vermont was ranked as the 12th happiest state in the country.
There are a number of museums in the state.
Winter sports are popular in New England, and Vermont 's winter sports attractions are a big part of Vermont tourism. Some well known attractions include Burke Mountain ski area, Jay Peak Resort, Killington Ski Resort, the Quechee Club Ski Area, and Smugglers ' Notch Resort.
Vermont natives in the snowboarding profession include Kevin Pearce, Ross Powers, Hannah Teter, and Kelly Clark. Others learned snowboarding in the state, such as Louie Vito and Ellery Hollingsworth.
Vermont Olympic gold medalists include Barbara Cochran, Hannah Kearney, Kelly Clark, Ross Powers, and Hannah Teter.
The largest professional franchise is the Vermont Lake Monsters, a single - A minor league baseball affiliate of the Oakland Athletics, based in Burlington. They were named the Vermont Expos before 2006. Up until the 2011 season, they were the affiliate of the Washington Nationals (formerly the Montreal Expos).
Currently the highest teams in basketball, representing Vermont are the NCAA 's Vermont Catamounts -- male and female.
The Vermont Frost Heaves, the 2007 and 2008 American Basketball Association national champions, were a franchise of the Premier Basketball League, and were based in Barre and Burlington from the fall of 2006 through the winter of 2011.
The Vermont Bucks, an indoor football team, is based in Burlington and began play in 2017 as the founding team in the Can - Am Indoor Football League. For 2018, it joined the American Arena League.
The Vermont Voltage is a USL Premier Development League soccer club that plays in St. Albans.
Annually since 2002, high school statewide all stars compete against New Hampshire in ten sports during "Twin State '' playoffs.
Vermont also has a few auto racing venues. The most popular of them is Thunder Road International Speedbowl in Barre, Vermont. It is well known for its tight racing and has become well known in short track stock car racing. Other racing circuits include the USAC sanctioned Bear Ridge Speedway, and the NASCAR sanctioned Devil 's Bowl Speedway. Some NASCAR Cup drivers have come to Vermont circuits to compete against local weekly drivers such as Tony Stewart, Clint Bowyer, Kevin Harvick, Kenny Wallace, and Joe Nemechek. Kevin Lepage from Shelburne, Vermont is one of a few professional drivers from Vermont. Racing series in Vermont include NASCAR Whelen All - American Series, American Canadian Tour, and Vermont 's own Tiger Sportsman Series.
State symbols include:
Vermont is the birthplace of former U.S. Presidents Chester A. Arthur and Calvin Coolidge.
The following were either born in Vermont or resided there for a substantial period during their lives.
The State House in Montpelier -- Vermont 's capital city
Church Street in Burlington -- Vermont 's largest city
Mount Mansfield -- Vermont 's highest mountain
Burke Mountain from Lyndonville -- in the state 's "Northeast Kingdom ''
Coordinates: 44 ° 00 ′ N 72 ° 42 ′ W / 44 ° N 72.7 ° W / 44; - 72.7
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who talks for bob on bob's burgers | List of Bob 's Burgers characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters from American animated television series Bob 's Burgers.
The Belcher family is a family who runs the family business called Bob 's Burgers. Loren Bouchard described their ethnicity:
The Belcher family consists of:
As shown in the flashback during "Father of the Bob, '' the "Burger of the Day '' special stems from an incident in which he customized a burger by adding chives to it, calling it "Baby You Can Chive My Car. '' He tried to serve it to one of Big Bob 's regular customers who normally ordered a tuna melt, but Big Bob threw the burger away in front of the whole diner. Ten years later, still resentful over not being allowed to cook the way he wanted, Bob turned down Big Bob 's offer of a partnership in the diner and opened his own restaurant.
Bob prides himself on giving the customer a quality meal and goes the extra mile to ensure that, choosing fresh ingredients he gets from the local farmer 's markets and co-op's. His biggest accomplishment is the Meatsiah, a concoction that consists of a steak tartare center with a medium - well cooked burger surrounding it and a burger Wellington surrounding the burger. Bob is allergic to lobster, as it causes his face to swell any time he touches it. This is problematic, as the town the Belchers live in has an annual lobster festival (which Bob hates because it takes away from his business). He is also allergic to cats. Bob, along with Linda, enjoys drinking and many of the episode gags involve Bob or Linda drinking and getting drunk from wine. Bob also has a tendency to take mind - altering substances such as crack in "Sheesh! Cab, Bob? '', absinthe in "An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal '', pain relievers in "Housetrap '', and his pain medication in "Burgerboss ''.
Bob 's Burgers features regular ups and downs in customer volume, but 2 loyal customers help keep the restaurant open.
The following characters work at Wagstaff School:
The following students attend Wagstaff school with the Belcher siblings and the Pesto siblings:
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when is the alabama special election for senator | United States Senate special election in Alabama, 2017 - Wikipedia
Jones
Moore
Luther Strange Republican
Doug Jones Democratic
A special election for the United States Senate in Alabama took place on December 12, 2017, to fill a vacancy in the Senate through the end of the term ending on January 3, 2021, arising from the resignation on February 8, 2017, of Jeff Sessions to serve as U.S. Attorney General. Democratic candidate Doug Jones defeated Republican candidate Roy Moore by a margin of 21,924 votes (1.7 %). Jones is the first Democrat to win a U.S. Senate seat in the state since 1992.
On February 9, 2017, Governor Robert J. Bentley named Luther Strange, the Attorney General of Alabama, to fill the vacancy until a special election could take place. Bentley controversially scheduled the special election to align with the 2018 general election instead of sooner. When Kay Ivey succeeded Bentley as Governor, she rescheduled the special election for December 12, 2017.
Jones, a former U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Alabama, won the Democratic primary election. Moore, a former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Alabama, competed with Strange and Mo Brooks in the Republican primary, and Moore advanced with Strange to a runoff. President Donald Trump supported Moore 's opponent Strange during the primary runoff, and almost the whole national Republican establishment wanted Strange to win, including Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, who made the success of Strange 's candidacy a major priority. Trump 's efforts on behalf of Strange included a rally in Huntsville, Alabama, plus tweeting, and Vice-President Mike Pence also campaigned for Strange. With McConnell 's help, Strange outspent Moore by a margin of 10 - to - 1. However, Moore won the primary runoff in September 2017. This was the first time that an incumbent U.S. Senator having active White House support lost a primary since Arlen Specter lost to Joe Sestak in 2010.
In mid-November, multiple women alleged that Moore had made unwanted advances or sexual assaults on them when he was in his early thirties and they were in their teens (the youngest was 14 at the time). As a result of these allegations, many national Republican leaders and office holders called for Moore to withdraw from the special election or withdrew their endorsements of him. However, Donald Trump and many Alabama Republicans reaffirmed their support. At the time of the revelations, it was too late to remove his name from the ballot. Many Republican leaders proposed shifting their support to a write - in candidate such as Strange. Moore has stated that he never engaged in sexual misconduct, although he has not denied that he approached or dated teenagers over the age of 16 while he was in his 30s. Sixteen is the legal age of consent in Alabama. In late November, retired Marine Colonel Lee Busby launched a write - in campaign.
At 9: 23 p.m. CST, the Associated Press called the election for Jones, though Moore refused to concede. Jones is the first Democratic candidate to win a statewide election in Alabama since former Lieutenant Governor Lucy Baxley was elected president of the Alabama Public Service Commission in 2008.
Jones was sworn into office on January 3, 2018, becoming the first Democratic U.S. Senator from Alabama since Howell Heflin 's retirement in 1997.
Following then - President - elect Donald Trump 's nomination of then - Senator Sessions to be U.S. Attorney General, Robert Aderholt, a member of the United States House of Representatives, had asked to be appointed to the seat. Representative Mo Brooks had also expressed interest in the seat, while Strange had stated before being selected that he would run for the seat in the special election whether or not he was appointed. Other potential choices Bentley interviewed for the appointment included Moore, Del Marsh, the President Pro Tem of the Alabama Senate, and Jim Byard, the director of the Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs.
The Republican primary attracted national attention, especially following Trump 's endorsement of incumbent Senator Luther Strange. Strange was backed by several key figures within the Republican establishment, most notably Mitch McConnell. His two main rivals in the primary consisted of former state judge Roy Moore and Mo Brooks. While Strange showed no signs of losing the first round of the primary, almost every opinion poll showed him trailing Roy Moore in a runoff. Strange came in second place in the first round of the primary behind Roy Moore, securing a spot in the runoff.
National interest in the race dramatically increased in the month before the runoff. Strange maintained his endorsement from Trump, who campaigned for him in Huntsville during the closing days of the campaign. Trump 's endorsement of Strange sparked criticism among his own base, many of whom preferred Moore and detested Strange for his seemingly establishment feel. Several notable people close to Trump broke from the President to endorse Moore, including HUD Secretary Ben Carson and Breitbart Executive Chairman Steve Bannon. Despite the endorsement of Trump, Strange was handily defeated by Roy Moore in the runoff.
President Donald Trump supported Moore 's opponent Strange during the primary runoff, and almost the whole national Republican establishment wanted Strange to win. Trump 's efforts on behalf of Strange included a rally in Alabama, plus tweeting.
administered
Moore
Strange
Brooks
Moore
Strange
Jones
Boyd
On November 9, The Washington Post reported that four women had accused Roy Moore of engaging in sexual conduct with them when they were teenagers and he was an assistant district attorney in his thirties. One of the women was 14 years old at the time, below the legal age of consent. A few days later a fifth woman said that she had received unwanted attention from Moore when she was 15 years old, and that in December 1977 or January 1978, when she was 16, Moore sexually assaulted her. Moore denied the allegations.
After this, certain Republican leaders and conservative organizations withdrew their endorsements of Moore or asked him to drop out of the campaign. These included Texas Senator Ted Cruz, U.S. Attorney General Jeff Sessions, Ivanka Trump, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, former Republican presidential nominees Mitt Romney and John McCain, Republican Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, Ohio Governor John Kasich, Utah Senator Mike Lee, Montana Senator Steve Daines, and House Representatives Barbara Comstock, Carlos Curbelo, and Adam Kinzinger, as well as the Young Republican Federation of Alabama. Other conservative websites and organizations such as National Review urged readers not to vote for Moore. Moore continued to receive support from the state party. A week before the election, President Donald Trump strongly endorsed Moore. Following Trump 's endorsement, the RNC reinstated their support for him, and Republican leaders said they would "let the people of Alabama decide '' whether to elect Moore.
At the time of the revelations, it was too close to the election for Moore 's name to be removed from the ballot. Republican officials proposed various ways to promote an alternate Republican candidate. One suggestion was to ask Governor Kay Ivey to delay the special election until 2018, but Ivey said she had no plans to change the election date. Some Republicans such as Senator Lisa Murkowski floated the prospect of a write - in campaign to elect Luther Strange, with Utah Senator Orrin Hatch actively endorsing a write - in campaign for Strange. However, Strange said it was "highly unlikely '' that he would run a write - in campaign. Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell proposed Attorney General Jeff Sessions, who formerly held the Senate seat, as a write - in candidate. In late November, Retired Marine Col. Lee Busby launched a write - in campaign stating that he thought there is room for a centrist in the race.
Republican nominee Roy Moore refused to debate Democratic nominee Doug Jones. Moore turned down debate invitations extended by the League of Women Voters, WHNT - TV and AL.com. Jones ' campaign said that Jones was "willing to debate Roy Moore anytime, anywhere '' and accused Moore of "hiding from the voters, from the media and from his record for weeks. '' Moore and his campaign stated that he refused to debate Jones because their policy positions were already clear to voters and thus there was no need for a formal debate.
* Unpublished poll released on December 15
Doug Jones defeated Roy Moore by a margin of 21,924 votes. Voter turnout was 40.54 % of Alabama 's 3,326,812 registered voters.
Jones won primarily by running up huge margins in the state 's major cities. The state 's four largest counties -- Jefferson (home to the state 's largest city of Birmingham), Mobile (home to Mobile), Montgomery (home to the state capital of Montgomery) and Madison (home to Huntsville) -- all gave Jones 56 percent or more of the vote. He carried Jefferson by over 83,800 votes, and Montgomery by almost 30,500 votes; either county would have been more than enough to give him the victory. Jones also dominated the Black Belt. He took over 96 percent of the black vote, and 61 percent of votes from those under 45. While Moore dominated the state 's rural areas, he significantly underperformed Trump 's totals in those areas, as well as the suburbs.
As of December 15, Moore demanded a recount and refused to concede the race, despite being urged by Trump, Bannon, and others to do so. If the final margin of victory is less than 0.5 %, then a recount would have been automatically triggered. If not, then either candidate can request a recount at his expense. However, Alabama Secretary of State John Merrill estimates that a recount could cost anywhere from $1 million to $1.5 million, an amount that must be paid in full when the request is made. Moore had only $636,046 on hand by the time the campaign ended. A number of right - leaning websites have pushed conspiracy theories about voter fraud providing the margin for Jones. Merrill noted on December 20 that the only remaining ballots to count are 366 military ballots and 4,967 provisional ballots left to be counted; even if all those votes were for Moore, the margin would not be sufficient to trigger an automatic recount.
Because the number of write - in votes was larger than Jones ' margin of victory, the names written in were both counted and listed. Luther Strange, who lost the Republican primary to Moore, received the most write - in votes, followed by former White House aide Lee Busby, U.S. Rep. Mo Brooks, who also ran in the Republican Senate primary, Libertarian write - in candidate Ron Bishop, Attorney General Jeff Sessions, and Alabama football coach Nick Saban.
After the election, Moore filed a lawsuit attempting to block the state from certifying the election and calling for an investigation into voter fraud. On December 28, 2017, a judge dismissed this lawsuit and state officials certified the election results, officially declaring Doug Jones the winner. Jones was sworn into office on January 3, 2018, by Vice President Mike Pence. Jones became the first Democrat to win a statewide race in Alabama since former Lieutenant Governor Lucy Baxley was elected President of the Alabama Public Service Commission in 2008 over Republican Twinkle Andress Cavanaugh. Prior to that, Democrat Jim Folsom Jr. was elected Lieutenant Governor of Alabama in 2006 over Republican Luther Strange. The last Democrat to win a federal statewide election in Alabama was Richard Shelby in 1992, who switched to the Republican Party in late 1994.
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who discoverd river niger and in which years he died | Mungo Park (explorer) - wikipedia
Mungo Park (11 September 1771 -- 1806) was a Scottish explorer of West Africa. He was the first Westerner known to have travelled to the central portion of the Niger River, and his account of his travels is still in print.
Mungo Park was born in Selkirkshire, Scotland, at Foulshiels on the Yarrow Water, near Selkirk, on a tenant farm which his father rented from the Duke of Buccleuch. He was the seventh in a family of thirteen. Although tenant farmers, the Parks were relatively well - off. They were able to pay for Park to receive a good education, and Park 's father died leaving property valued at £ 3,000 (equivalent to £ 222,289 in 2016). His parents had originally intended him for the Church of Scotland.
He was educated at home before attending Selkirk grammar school. At the age of fourteen, he was apprenticed to Thomas Anderson, a surgeon in Selkirk. During his apprenticeship, Park became friends with Anderson 's son Alexander and was introduced to Anderson 's daughter Allison, who would later become his wife.
In October 1788, Park enrolled at the University of Edinburgh, attending for four sessions studying medicine and botany. Notably, during his time at university, he spent a year in the natural history course taught by Professor John Walker. After completing his studies, he spent a summer in the Scottish Highlands, engaged in botanical fieldwork with his brother - in - law, James Dickson, a gardener and seed merchant in Covent Garden. In 1788 Dickson along with Sir James Edward Smith and six other fellows founded the Linnean Society of London.
In 1792 Park completed his medical studies at University of Edinburgh. Through a recommendation by Banks, he obtained the post of assistant surgeon on board the East India Company 's ship Worcester. In February 1793 the Worcester sailed to Benkulen in Sumatra. Before departing, Park wrote his friend Alexander Anderson in terms that reflect his Calvinist upbringing:
My hope is now approaching to a certainty. If I be deceived, may God alone put me right, for I would rather die in the delusion than wake to all the joys of earth. May the Holy Spirit dwell in your heart, my dear friend, and if I ever see my native land again, may I rather see the green sod on your grave than see you anything but a Christian.
On his return in 1794, Park gave a lecture to the Linnaean Society, describing eight new Sumatran fish. The paper was not published until three years later. He also presented Banks with various rare Sumatran plants.
On 26 September 1794 Mungo Park offered his services to the African Association, then looking for a successor to Major Daniel Houghton, who had been sent in 1790 to discover the course of the Niger River and had died in the Sahara. Supported by Sir Joseph Banks, Park was selected.
On 22 May 1795, Park left Portsmouth, England, on the brig Endeavour, a vessel travelling to Gambia to trade for beeswax and ivory.
On 21 June 1795, he reached the Gambia River and ascended it 200 miles (300 km) to a British trading station named Pisania. On 2 December, accompanied by two local guides, he started for the unknown interior. He chose the route crossing the upper Senegal basin and through the semi-desert region of Kaarta. The journey was full of difficulties, and at Ludamar he was imprisoned by a Moorish chief for four months. On 1 July 1796, he escaped, alone and with nothing but his horse and a pocket compass, and on the 21st reached the long - sought Niger River at Ségou, being the first European to do so. He followed the river downstream 80 miles (130 km) to Silla, where he was obliged to turn back, lacking the resources to go further.
On his return journey, begun on 29 July, he took a route more to the south than that originally followed, keeping close to the Niger River as far as Bamako, thus tracing its course for some 300 miles (500 km). At Kamalia he fell ill, and owed his life to the kindness of a man in whose house he lived for seven months. Eventually he reached Pisania again on 10 June 1797, returning to Scotland by way of Antigua on 22 December. He had been thought dead, and his return home with news of the discovery of the Niger River evoked great public enthusiasm. An account of his journey was drawn up for the African Association by Bryan Edwards, and his own detailed narrative appeared in 1799 (Travels in the Interior of Africa).
Park was convinced that:
whatever difference there is between the negro and European, in the conformation of the nose, and the colour of the skin, there is none in the genuine sympathies and characteristic feelings of our common nature.
Park encountered a group of slaves when traveling through Mandinka country Mali:
They were all very inquisitive, but they viewed me at first with looks of horror, and repeatedly asked if my countrymen were cannibals. They were very desirous to know what became of the slaves after they had crossed the salt water. I told them that they were employed in cultivating the land; but they would not believe me; and one of them putting his hand upon the ground, said with great simplicity, "have you really got such ground as this, to set your feet upon? '' A deeply - rooted idea that the whites purchase Negroes for the purpose of devouring them, or of selling them to others that they may be devoured hereafter, naturally makes the slaves contemplate a journey towards the Coast with great terror, insomuch that the Slatees are forced to keep them constantly in irons, and watch them very closely, to prevent their escape.
His book Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa became a best - seller because it detailed what he observed, what he survived, and the people he encountered. His dispassionate -- if not scientific or objective -- descriptions set a standard for future travel writers to follow and gave Europeans a glimpse of Africa 's humanity and complexity. Park introduced them to a vast continent unexplored by Europeans, and proposed by example that Europeans could exploit it. After his death, European public and political interest in Africa began to increase. Perhaps the most lasting effect of Park 's travels, though, was their influence on European imperialism and colonialism.
Settling at Foulshiels, in August 1799 Park married Allison, daughter of his old master, Thomas Anderson. A project to go to New South Wales in some official capacity came to nothing, and in October 1801 Park moved to Peebles, where he practised as a physician.
In the autumn of 1803 Mungo Park was invited by the government to lead another expedition to the Niger. Park, who chafed at the hardness and monotony of life at Peebles, accepted the offer, but the expedition was delayed. Part of the waiting time was occupied perfecting his Arabic; his teacher, Sidi Ambak Bubi, was a native of Mogador whose behavior both amused and alarmed the people of Peebles.
In May 1804 Park went back to Foulshiels, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Walter Scott, then living nearby at Ashiesteil and with whom he soon became friendly. In September, Park was summoned to London to leave on the new expedition; he left Scott with the hopeful proverb on his lips, "Freits (omens) follow those that look to them. ''
Park had at that time adopted the theory that the Niger and the Congo were one, and in a memorandum drawn up before he left Britain he wrote: "My hopes of returning by the Congo are not altogether fanciful. ''
On 31 January 1805 he sailed from Portsmouth for Gambia, having been given a captain 's commission as head of the government expedition. Alexander Anderson, his brother - in - law and second - in - command, had received a lieutenancy. George Scott, a fellow Borderer, was draughtsman, and the party included four or five artificers. At Gorée (then in British occupation) Park was joined by Lieutenant Martyn, R.A., thirty - five privates and two seamen.
The expedition did not reach the Niger until mid-August, when only eleven Europeans were left alive; the rest had succumbed to fever or dysentery. From Bamako the journey to Ségou was made by canoe. Having received permission from the local ruler, Mansong Diarra, to proceed, at Sansanding, a little below Ségou, Park made ready for his journey down the still unknown part of the river. Helped by one soldier, the only one capable of work, Park converted two canoes into one tolerably good boat, 40 feet (12 m) long and 6 feet (2 m) broad. This he christened H.M. schooner Joliba (the native name for the Niger River), and in it, with the surviving members of his party, he set sail downstream on 19 November.
Anderson had died at Sansanding on 28 October, and in him Park had lost the only member of the party -- except Scott, already dead -- "who had been of real use. '' Those who embarked in the Joliba were Park, Martyn, three European soldiers (one extremely mad), a guide and three slaves. Before his departure, Park gave to Isaaco, a Mandingo guide who had been with him thus far, letters to take back to Gambia for transmission to Britain.
The spirit with which Park began the final stage of his enterprise is well illustrated by his letter to the head of the Colonial Office: "I shall '', he wrote, "set sail for the east with the fixed resolution to discover the termination of the Niger or perish in the attempt. Though all the Europeans who are with me should die, and though I were myself half dead, I would still persevere, and if I could not succeed in the object of my journey, I would at least die on the Niger. ''
To his wife, Park wrote of his intention not to stop nor land anywhere until he reached the coast, where he expected to arrive about the end of January 1806.
These were the last communications received from Park, and nothing more was heard of the party until reports of disaster reached Gambia.
At length, the British government engaged Isaaco to go to the Niger to ascertain Park 's fate. At Sansanding, Isaaco found Amadi Fatouma (Isaaco calls him Amaudy), the guide who had gone downstream with Park, and the substantial accuracy of the story he told was later confirmed by the investigations of Hugh Clapperton and Richard Lander.
Amadi Fatouma stated that Park 's canoe had descended the river as far as Sibby without incident. After Sibby three canoes chased them and Park 's party repulsed them with firearms. A similar incident occurred at Cabbara and again at Toomboucouton. At Gouroumo seven canoes pursued them. One of the party died of sickness leaving "four white men, myself (Amadi), and three slaves ''. Each person (including the slaves) had "15 musquets apiece, well loaded and always ready for action ''. After passing the residence of the king of Goloijigi 60 canoes came after them which they "repulsed after killing many natives ''. Further along they encountered an army of the Poule nation and kept to the opposite bank to avoid an action. After a close encounter with a hippopotamus they continued past Caffo (3 canoes) to an island where Isaaco was taken prisoner. Park rescued him, and 20 canoes chased them. This time they merely asked Amadi for trinkets which Park supplied. At Gourmon they traded for provisions and were warned of an ambush up ahead. They passed the army "being all Moors '' and entered Haoussa, finally arriving at Yauri (which Amadi calls Yaour), where he (Fatouma) landed. In this long journey of some 1,000 miles (1,600 km) Park, who had plenty of provisions, stuck to his resolution of keeping aloof from the natives. Below Djenné, came Timbuktu, and at various other places the natives came out in canoes and attacked his boat. These attacks were all repulsed, Park and his party having plenty of firearms and ammunition and the natives having none. The boat also escaped the many perils attendant on navigating an unknown stream strewn with many rapids; Park had built Joliba so that she drew only 1 foot (30 cm) of water.
At Haoussa Amadi traded with the local chief. Amadi reports that Park gave him five silver rings, some powder and flints to give as a gift to the chief of the village. The following day Amadi visited the king where Amadi was accused of not having given the chief a present. Amadi was "put in irons ''. The king then sent an army to Boussa where there is a natural narrowing of the river commanded by high rock. But at the Bussa rapids, not far below Yauri, the boat became stuck on a rock and remained fast. On the bank were gathered hostile natives, who attacked the party with bow and arrow and throwing spears. Their position being untenable, Park, Martyn and the two remaining soldiers sprang into the river and were drowned. The sole survivor was one of the slaves. After three months in irons, Amadi was released and talked with the surviving slave, from whom was obtained the story of the final scene.
Amadi paid a Peulh man to obtain Park 's sword belt. Amadi then returned first to Sansanding and then to Segou. After, Amadi went to Dacha and told the king what had passed. The king sent an army past "Tombouctou '' (Timbuktu) to Sacha but decided that Haoussa was too far for a punitive expedition. Instead they went to Massina, a small "Paul '' Peulh country where they took all the cattle and returned home. Amadi appears to have been part of this expedition: "We came altogether back to Sego '' (Segou). Amadi then returned to Sansanding via Sego. Eventually the Peulh man obtained the sword belt and after a voyage of eight months met up with Amadi and gave him the belt. Isaaco met Amadi in Sego and having obtained the sword belt returned to Senegal.
Isaaco, and later Richard Lander, obtained some of Park 's effects, but his journal was never recovered. In 1827 his second son, Thomas, landed on the Guinea coast, intending to make his way to Bussa, where he thought his father might be detained a prisoner; but after penetrating a little distance inland he died of fever. Park 's widow, Allison, received a previously agreed upon £ 4,000 settlement from the African Association as a result of the death of Mungo Park. She died in 1840. Mungo Park 's remains are believed to have been buried along the banks of the River Niger in Jebba, Nigeria.
The Royal Scottish Geographical Society award the Mungo Park Medal annually in Park 's honour.
Mungo Park appears as one of the two protagonists in Water Music by T.C. Boyle.
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where does the black country name come from | Black Country - wikipedia
Coordinates: 52 ° 32 ′ N 2 ° 2 ′ W / 52.533 ° N 2.033 ° W / 52.533; - 2.033
The Black Country is a region of the West Midlands in England, west of Birmingham, and commonly refers to all or part of the four Metropolitan Boroughs of Dudley, Sandwell, Walsall and Wolverhampton. During the Industrial Revolution, it became one of the most industrialised parts of Britain with coal mines, coking, iron foundries, glass factories, brickworks and steel mills producing a high level of air pollution.
The 14 - mile (23 km) road between Wolverhampton and Birmingham was described as "one continuous town '' in 1785. The first trace of "The Black Country '' as an expression dates from the 1840s. The name is believed to come from the soot from the heavy industries that covered the area, although the 30 - foot - thick (10 metre) coal seam close to the surface is another possible origin.
Although the heavy polluting industry that gave the region its name has long since disappeared, a sense of shared history and tradition in the area has kept the term in use. In addition, the regeneration of the area by local and national government has brought official recognition to the region and has, to some extent, defined its boundary.
The Black Country has no single set of defined boundaries. Some traditionalists have tended to define it as "the area where the coal seam comes to the surface -- so West Bromwich, Oldbury, Blackheath, Cradley Heath, Old Hill, Bilston, Dudley, Tipton, Wednesfield and parts of Halesowen, Wednesbury and Walsall but not Wolverhampton, Stourbridge and Smethwick or what used to be known as Warley ''. There are records from the 18th century of shallow coal mines in Wolverhampton, however. Others have included areas slightly outside the coal field which were associated with heavy industry. Today it commonly refers to the majority or all of the four Metropolitan Boroughs of Dudley, Sandwell, Walsall and Wolverhampton although it is said that "no two Black Country men or women will agree on where it starts or ends ''.
Official use of the name came in 1987 with the Black Country Development Corporation, an urban development corporation covering the metropolitan boroughs of Sandwell and Walsall, which was disbanded in 1998. The Black Country Consortium (founded in 1999) and the Black Country Local Enterprise Partnership (founded in 2011) both define the Black Country as the four metropolitan boroughs of Dudley, Sandwell, Walsall and Wolverhampton, an approximate area of 138 square miles (360 km).
The borders of the Black Country can be defined by using the special cultural and industrial characteristics of the area. Areas around the canals (the cut) which had mines extracting mineral resources and heavy industry refining these are included in this definition. Cultural parameters include unique or characteristic foods such as Groaty pudding, Grey Peas and Bacon, faggots, gammon or pork hocks and pork scratchings; Black Country Humour; and the Black Country dialect.
The Black Country Society defines the Black Country 's borders as the area on the thirty foot coal seam, regardless the depth of the seam. This definition includes West Bromwich and Oldbury, which had many deep pits, and Smethwick. The thick coal that underlies Smethwick was not mined until the 1870s and Smethwick has retained more Victorian character than most West Midland areas. Sandwell Park Colliery 's pit was located in Smethwick and had ' thick coal ' as shown in written accounts from 1878 and coal was also heavily mined in Hamstead further east. Smethwick and Dudley Port were described as "a thousand swarming hives of metallurgical industries '' by Samuel Griffiths in 1872. The Black Country Society excludes Wolverhampton (West Midlands conurbation) and Stourbridge geologically but includes them culturally, linguistically and in terms of heavy industry as both had iron and steel works, manufacturing industries and contributed enormously to the region. Warley is also included, despite lacking industry and canals, as housing for industrial workers in Smethwick and Oldbury was built there.
Another geological definition, the seam outcrop definition, only includes areas where the coal seam is shallow making the soil black at the surface. Some coal mining areas to the east and west of the geologically defined Black Country are therefore excluded by this definition because the coal here is too deep down and does not outcrop. The seam outcrop definition excludes areas in North Worcestershire and South Staffordshire.
Since the geological definitions are narrower and exclude many areas which are culturally and industrially similar to the rest of the Black Country, they are irritants to those now wishing to extend the area known as the Black Country for social or commercial reasons. This is the basis for much of the controversy over definitions.
The first recorded use of the term "the Black Country '' may be from a toast given by a Mr Simpson, town clerk to Lichfield, addressing a Reformer 's meeting on 24 November 1841, published in the Staffordshire Advertiser. He describes going into the "black country '' of Staffordshire - Wolverhampton, Bilston and Tipton. In published literature, the first reference dates from 1846 and occurs in the novel Colton Green: A Tale of the Black Country by the Reverend William Gresley, who was then a prebendary of Lichfield Cathedral. He introduces the area as "that dismal region of mines and forges, commonly called ' the Black Country ' '', implying that the term was already in use. Gresley 's opening paragraph stated "The scene of this story lies in that part of Staffordshire to which the constant exhumation of its mineral resources has long since given the well - known name of the Black Country '', implying that the original Black Country may not have included Dudley which was in Worcestershire. He also stated that the ' Black Country was twenty miles in length ', which is also at odds with the ' restricted coalfield ' version propsed by the Black Country Society. The phrase was used again, though as a description rather than a proper noun, by the Illustrated London News in an 1849 article on the opening of the South Staffordshire Railway. An 1851 guidebook to the London and North Western Railway included an entire chapter entitled "The Black Country '', including an early description:
In this Black Country, including West Bromwich, Dudley, Darlaston, Bilston, Wolverhampton and several minor villages, a perpetual twilight reigns during the day, and during the night fires on all sides light up the dark landscape with a fiery glow. The pleasant green of pastures is almost unknown, the streams, in which no fishes swim, are black and unwholesome; the natural dead flat is often broken by high hills of cinders and spoil from the mines; the few trees are stunted and blasted; no birds are to be seen, except a few smoky sparrows; and for miles on miles a black waste spreads around, where furnaces continually smoke, steam engines thud and hiss, and long chains clank, while blind gin horses walk their doleful round. From time to time you pass a cluster of deserted roofless cottages of dingiest brick, half swallowed up in sinking pits or inclining to every point of the compass, while the timbers point up like the ribs of a half decayed corpse. The majority of the natives of this Tartarian region are in full keeping with the scenery -- savages, without the grace of savages, coarsely clad in filthy garments, with no change on weekends or Sundays, they converse in a language belarded with fearful and disgusting oaths, which can scarcely be recognised as the same as that of civilized England.
This work was also the first to explicitly distinguish the area from nearby Birmingham, noting that "On certain rare holidays these people wash their faces, clothe themselves in decent garments, and, since the opening of the South Staffordshire Railway, take advantage of cheap excursion trains, go down to Birmingham to amuse themselves and make purchases ''.
The geologist Joseph Jukes made it clear in 1858 that he felt the meaning of the term was self - explanatory to contemporary visitors, remarking that "It is commonly known in the neighbourhood as the ' Black Country ', an epithet the appropriateness of which must be acknowledged by anyone who even passes through it on a railway ''. Jukes based his Black Country on the seat of the great iron manufacture, which for him was geographically determined by the ironstone tract of the coalfield rather than the thick seam, running from Wolverhampton to Bloxwich, to West Bromwich, to Stourbridge and back to Wolverhampton again. A travelogue published in 1860 made the connection more explicit, calling the name "eminently descriptive, for blackness everywhere prevails; the ground is black, the atmosphere is black, and the underground is honeycombed by mining galleries stretching in utter blackness for many a league ''. An alternative theory for the meaning of the name is proposed as having been caused by the darkening of the local soil due to the outcropping coal and the seam near the surface.
It was however the American diplomat and travel writer Elihu Burritt who brought the term "the Black Country '' into widespread common usage with the third, longest and most important of the travel books he wrote about Britain for American readers, his 1868 work Walks in The Black Country and its Green Borderland. Burritt had been appointed United States consul in Birmingham by Abraham Lincoln in 1864, a role that required him to report regularly on "facts bearing upon the productive capacities, industrial character and natural resources of communities embraced in their Consulate Districts '' and as a result travelled widely from his home in Harborne, largely on foot, to explore the local area. Burritt 's association with Birmingham dated back 20 years and he was highly sympathetic to the industrial and political culture of the town as well as being a friend many of its leading citizens, so his portrait of the surrounding area was largely positive. He was the author of the famous early description of the Black Country as "black by day and red by night '', adding appreciatively that it "can not be matched, for vast and varied production, by any other space of equal radius on the surface of the globe ''. Burritt used the term to refer to a wider area than its common modern usage, however, devoting the first third of the book to Birmingham, which he described as "the capital, manufacturing centre, and growth of the Black Country '', and writing "plant, in imagination, one foot of your compass at the Town Hall in Birmingham, and with the other sweep a circle of twenty miles (30 km) radius, and you will have, ' the Black Country ''. However he also described a ' Black Country proper ' including Wolverhampton, Dudley, and several smaller towns.
Bilston - born Samuel Griffiths, in his 1876 Griffiths Guide to the Iron Trade of Great Britain, stated "The Black Country commences at Wolverhampton, extends a distance of sixteen miles to Stourbridge, eight miles to West Bromwich, penetrating the northern districts through Willenhall to Bentley, The Birchills, Walsall and Darlaston, Wednesbury, Smethwick and Dudley Port, West Bromwich and Hill Top, Brockmoor, Wordsley and Stourbridge. As the atmosphere becomes purer, we get to the higher ground of Brierley Hill, nevertheless here also, as far as the eye can reach, on all sides, tall chimneys vomit forth great clouds of smoke ''. He also stated that "Wolverhampton is considered to be The Capital of the Black Country '', as well as "The Capital of the Iron Trade in the Black Country ''.
A few Black Country places such as Wolverhampton, Bilston and Wednesfield are mentioned in Anglo - Saxon charters and chronicles and the forerunners of a number of Black Country towns and villages such as Cradley, Dudley, Smethwick, and Halesowen are included in the Domesday Book of 1086. At this early date, the area was mostly rural. A monastery was founded in Wolverhampton in the Anglo - Saxon period and a castle and priory was built at Dudley during the period of Norman rule. Another religious house, Premonstratensian Abbey of Halesowen, was founded in the early 13th century. A number of Black Country villages developed into market towns and boroughs in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, notably Dudley, Walsall and Wolverhampton. Coal mining was carried out for several centuries in the Black Country, starting from medieval times, and metalworking was important in the Black Country area as early as the 16th century spurred on by the presence of iron ore and coal in a seam 30 feet (9 m) thick, the thickest seam in Great Britain, which outcropped in various places. Many people had an agricultural smallholding and supplemented their income by working as nailers or smiths, an example of a phenomenon known to economic historians as proto - industrialisation and by the 1620s "Within ten miles (16 km) of Dudley Castle there were 20,000 smiths of all sorts ''.
In 1642 at the start of the Civil War, Charles I failed to capture the two arsenals of Portsmouth and Hull, which although in cities loyal to Parliament were located in counties loyal to him. As he had failed to capture the arsenals, Charles did not possess any supply of swords, pikes, guns, or shot; all these the Black Country could and did provide. From Stourbridge came shot, from Dudley cannon. Numerous small forges which then existed on every brook in the north of Worcestershire turned out successive supplies of sword blades and pike heads. It was said that among the many causes of anger Charles had against Birmingham was that one of the best sword makers of the day, Robert Porter, who manufactured swords in Digbeth, Birmingham, refused at any price to supply swords for "that man of blood '' (A Puritan nickname for King Charles), or any of his adherents. As an offset to this sword - cutler and men like him in Birmingham, the Royalists had among their adherents Colonel Dud Dudley, who had invented a means of smelting iron by the use of coke, and who claimed he could turn out "all sorts of bar iron fit for making of muskets, carbines, and iron for great bolts '', both more cheaply, more speedily and more excellent than could be done in any other way. His method was employed on the King 's behalf.
An important milestone in the establishment of Black Country industry came when John Wilkinson set up an iron works at Bradley near Bilston. In 1757 he started making iron there by coke - smelting rather than using charcoal. His example was followed by others and iron making spread rapidly across the Black Country. Another important development of the 18th century was the construction of canals to link the Black Country mines industries to the rest of the country. Between 1768 and 1772 a canal was constructed by James Brindley starting in Birmingham through the heart of the Black Country and eventually leading to the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal.
By the 19th century or early 20th century, many villages had their characteristic manufacture, but earlier occupations were less concentrated. Some of these concentrations are less ancient than sometimes supposed. For example, chain making in Cradley Heath seems only to have begun in about the 1820s, and the Lye holloware industry is even more recent.
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, coal and limestone were worked only on a modest scale for local consumption, but during the Industrial Revolution by the opening of canals, such as the Birmingham Canal Navigations, Stourbridge Canal and the Dudley Canal (the Dudley Canal Line No 1 and the Dudley Tunnel) opened up the mineral wealth of the area to exploitation. Advances in the use of coke for the production in iron enabled iron production (hitherto limited by the supply of charcoal) to expand rapidly.
By Victorian times, the Black Country was one of the most heavily industrialised areas in Britain, and it became known for its pollution, particularly from iron and coal industries and their many associated smaller businesses. This led to the expansion of local railways and coal mine lines. The line running from Stourbridge to Walsall via Dudley Port and Wednesbury closed in the 1960s, but the Birmingham to Wolverhampton line via Tipton is still a major transport route.
The anchors and chains for the ill - fated liner RMS Titanic were manufactured in the Black Country in the area of Netherton. Three anchors and accompanying chains were manufactured; and the set weighed in at 100 tons. The centre anchor alone weighed 12 tons and was pulled through Netherton on its journey to the ship by 20 Shire horses.
In 1913, the Black Country was the location of arguably one of the most important strikes in British trade union history when the workers employed in the area 's steel tube trade came out for two months in a successful demand for a 23 shilling minimum weekly wage for unskilled workers, giving them pay parity with their counterparts in nearby Birmingham. This action commenced on 9 May in Wednesbury, at the Old Patent tube works of John Russell & Co. Ltd., and within weeks upwards of 40,000 workers across the Black Country had joined the dispute. Notable figures in the labour movement, including a key proponent of Syndicalism, Tom Mann, visited the area to support the workers and Jack Beard and Julia Varley of the Workers ' Union were active in organising the strike. During this confrontation with employers represented by the Midlands Employers ' Federation, a body founded by Dudley Docker, the Asquith Government 's armaments programme was jeopardised, especially its procurement of naval equipment and other industrial essentials such as steel tubing, nuts and bolts, destroyer parts, etc. This was of national significance at a time when Britain and Germany were engaged in the Anglo - German naval arms race that preceded the outbreak of the First World War. Following a ballot of the union membership, a settlement of the dispute was reached on 11 July after arbitration by government officials from the Board of Trade led by the Chief Industrial Commissioner Sir George Askwith, 1st Baron Askwith. One of the important consequences of the strike was the growth of organised labour across the Black Country, which was notable because until this point the area 's workforce had effectively eschewed trade unionism.
The area had earlier gained widespread notoriety for its hellish appearance. Charles Dickens 's novel The Old Curiosity Shop, written in 1841, described how the area 's local factory chimneys "Poured out their plague of smoke, obscured the light, and made foul the melancholy air ''. In 1862, Elihu Burritt, the American Consul in Birmingham, described the region as "black by day and red by night '', because of the smoke and grime generated by the intense manufacturing activity and the glow from furnaces at night. Early 20th century representations of the region can be found in the Mercian novels of Francis Brett Young, most notably My Brother Jonathan (1928).
Carol Thompson the curator "The Making of Mordor '' at Wolverhampton Art Gallery in the last quarter of 2014 stated that J.R.R. Tolkien 's description of the grim region of Mordor "resonates strongly with contemporary accounts of the Black Country '', in his famed novel The Lord of the Rings. Indeed, in the Elvish Sindarin language, Mor - Dor means Dark (or Black) Land. It is also claimed by one Black Country scholar (Peter Higginson) that the character of Bilbo Baggins may have been based on Tolkien 's observation of Mayor Ben Bilboe of Bilston in The Black Country, who was a Communist and Labour Party member from the Lunt in Bilston. But the scholarly evidence for this is still questionable.
The 20th century saw a decline in coal mining in the Black Country, with the last colliery in the region -- Baggeridge Colliery near Sedgley -- closing on 2 March 1968, marking the end of an era after some 300 years of mass coal mining in the region, though a small number of open cast mines remained in use for a few years afterwards.
As the heavy industry that had named the region faded away, in the 1970 's a museum, called the Black Country Living Museum started to take shape on derelict land near to Dudley. Today this museum demonstrates Black Country crafts and industry from days gone by and includes many original buildings which have been transported and reconstructed at the site.
The history of industry in the Black Country is connected directly to its underlying geology. Much of the region lies upon an exposed coalfield forming the southern part of the South Staffordshire Coalfield where mining has taken place since the Middle Ages. There are, in fact several coal seams, some of which were given names by the miners. The top, thin coal seam is known as Broach Coal. Beneath this lies successively the Thick Coal, Heathen Coal, Stinking Coal, Bottom Coal and Singing Coal seams. Other seams also exist. The Thick Coal seam was also known as the "Thirty Foot '' or "Ten Yard '' seam and is made up of a number of beds that have come together to form one thick seam. Interspersed with the coal seams are deposits of iron ore and fireclay. The Black Country coal field is bounded on the north by the Bentley Fault, to the north of which lies the Cannock Chase Coalfield. Around the exposed coalfield, separated by geological faults, lies a concealed coalfield where the coal lies at much greater depth. A mine was sunk between 1870 and 1874 over the eastern boundary of the then known coal field in Smethwick and coal was discovered at a depth of over 400 yards. In the last decade of the 19th century, coal was discovered beyond the western boundary fault at Baggeridge at a depth of around 600 yards.
A broken ridge runs across the Black Country in a north - westerly direction from Rowley Regis through Dudley, Wrens Nest and Sedgley, separating the Black Country into two regions. This ridge forms part of a major watershed of England with streams to the north taking water to the Tame and then via the Trent into the North Sea whilst to the south of the ridge, water flows into the Stour and thence to the Severn and the Bristol Channel.
At Dudley and Wrens Nest, limestone was mined. This rock formation was formed in the Silurian period and contain many fossils. One particular fossilized creature, the trilobite Calymene blumenbachii, was so common that it became known as the "Dudley Bug '' or "Dudley Locust '' and was incorporated into the coat - of - arms of the County Borough of Dudley.
In recent years the Black Country has seen the adoption of symbols and emblems with which to represent itself. The first of these to be registered was the Black Country tartan in 2009, designed by Philip Tibbetts from Halesowen.
In 2008 the idea of a flag for the region was first raised. After four years of campaigning a competition was successfully organised with the Black Country Living Museum. This resulted in the adoption of the Flag of the Black Country as designed by Gracie Sheppard of Redhill School in Stourbridge and was registered with the Flag Institute in July 2012.
The flag was unveiled at the museum on 14 July 2012 as part of celebration in honour of the 300th anniversary of the erection of the first Newcomen atmospheric engine. Following this it was agreed by the museum and Black Country society for 14 July to be recognised as Black Country Day to celebrate the areas role in the Industrial Revolution. The day was marked by Department for Communities and Local Government in 2013 and following calls to do more in 2014 more events were planned around the region.
Black Country Day takes place on 14 July each year, originally organised by Steven Edwards. Originally in March, the day was later moved to 14 July - the anniversary of the invention of the Newcomen steam engine.
The heavy industry which once dominated the Black Country has now largely gone. The 20th century saw a decline in coal mining and the industry finally came to an end in 1968 with the closure of Baggeridge Colliery near Sedgley. Clean air legislation has meant that the Black Country is no longer black. The area still maintains some manufacturing, but on a much smaller scale than historically. Chainmaking is still a viable industry in the Cradley Heath area where the majority of the chain for the Ministry of Defence and the Admiralty fleet is made in modern factories.
Much but not all of the area now suffers from high unemployment and parts of it are amongst the most economically deprived communities in the UK. This is particularly true in parts of the metropolitan boroughs of Sandwell, Walsall and Wolverhampton. According to the Government 's 2007 Index of Deprivation (ID 2007), Sandwell is the third most deprived authority in the West Midlands region, after Birmingham and Stoke - on - Trent, and the 14th most deprived of the UK 's 354 districts. Wolverhampton is the fourth most deprived district in the West Midlands, and the 28th most deprived nationally. Walsall is the fifth most deprived district in the West Midlands region, and the 45th most deprived in the country. Dudley fares better, but still has pockets of deprivation. Overall Dudley is the 100th most deprived district of the UK, but the second most affluent of the seven metropolitan districts of the West Midlands, with Solihull coming top.
As with many urban areas in the UK, there is also a significant ethnic minority population in parts: in Sandwell, 22.6 per cent of the population are from ethnic minorities, and in Wolverhampton the figure is 23.5 per cent. However, in Walsall 84.6 per cent of the population is described as white, while in Dudley 92 per cent of the population is white. Resistance to mass immigration in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s led to the slogan "Keep the Black Country white! ''.
The Black Country suffered its biggest economic blows in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when unemployment soared largely because of the closure of historic large factories including the Round Oak Steel Works at Brierley Hill and the Patent Shaft steel plant at Wednesbury. Unemployment rose drastically across the country during this period as a result of the Thatcher government 's neo-liberal economic policies; later, in an implicit acknowledgement of the social problems this had caused, these areas were designated as Enterprise Zones, and some redevelopment occurred. Round Oak and the surrounding farmland was developed as the Merry Hill Shopping Centre and Waterfront commercial and leisure complex, while the Patent Shaft site was developed as an industrial estate.
Unemployment in Brierley Hill peaked at more than 25 % -- around double the national average at the time -- during the first half of the 1980s following the closure of Round Oak Steel Works, giving it one of the worst unemployment rates of any town in Britain. The Merry Hill development between 1985 and 1990 managed to reduce the local area 's unemployment dramatically, however.
The Black Country Living Museum in Dudley recreates life in the Black Country in the early 20th century, and is a popular tourist attraction. On 17 February 2012 the museum 's collection in its entirety was awarded Designation by Arts Council England (ACE). Designation is a mark of distinction that celebrates unique collections of national and international importance.
The fouir metropolitan boroughs of the Black Country form part of the Birmingham metropolitan economy, the second largest in the United Kingdom.
In 2011, the government announced the creation of the Black Country Enterprise Zone. The zone includes 5 sites in Wolverhampton and 14 in Darlaston. The i54 business park in Wolverhampton is the largest of the 19 sites; its tenants include Jaguar Land Rover. The largest site in Darlaston is that of the former IMI James Bridge Copper Works.
The traditional Black Country dialect, known as "Black Country Spake '' (as in "Where 's our Spake Gone '' a 2014 - 16 lottery funded project to preserve and document the dialect) preserves many archaic traits of Early Modern English and even Middle English and can be very confusing for outsiders. Thee, Thy and Thou are still in use, as is the case in parts of Yorkshire and Lancashire.
"' Ow B'ist, '' or "Ow b'ist gooin '' (How are you / how are you going), to which typical responses would be "Bostin ah kid '' (Bostin means "Bursting '', and implies being filled with good, and "Ah Kid '' (our kid) is a term of endearment) or "' Bay too bah, '' ("I be not too bad '' / I 'm not too bad).
Ai n't is in common use as when "I have n't seen her '' becomes "I ay sid ' er. ''
Black Country dialect often uses "ar '' where other parts of England use "yes '' (this is common as far away as Yorkshire). Similarly, the local version of "you '' is pronounced / ˈjaʊ / YOW, rhyming with "now. ''
The local pronunciation includes "goo '' (elsewhere "go '') or "gewin ' '' is similar to that elsewhere in the Midlands. It is quite common for broad Black Country speakers to say "' agooin ' '' where others say "going. '' A woman is a "wench '', a man is a "mon '', a nurse is a "nuss '' and home is "wom ''. An apple is an "opple ''.
Other examples are "code '' for the word cold, and "goost '' for the word Ghost. A Sofa becomes a "sofie '', and a Fag (cigarette), a "fake ''. Seen becomes "Sid ''. Put together, "I just sid a Goost, so I bist gooin to sit on ma sofie and have a fake '' (I have just seen a ghost, so I am going to sit upon my sofa and have a cigarette)
Some idioms link to local landmarks, some quite recent, such as saying a woman of loose morals is "a wench what goos up t'back a Rackhams '' ("a woman who goes behind the Rackham 's Department Store in Birmingham ''), as this area was once connected with prostitution.
Food may be called "fittle '' (after victuals or "vittles ''), so "Bostin fittle '' is "good food ''.
One participant in the "Where 's our Spake Gone '' project related the following: "Day say yom call oos rabbits up ere. I say We day, dey say yow say "Tah rah rabbits ''. Weem say Tah - Ra a bit, un to dem, it sound like weem calling dem rabbits. '' ("They say you call us rabbits there, I said we do n't, (but) they say you say "Tah Rah Rabbits ''. We say "Tah Rah A bit '' (Tah Rah for a little while) and to them, it sounds like we are calling them rabbits. ")
The dialect has local differences, and sounds and phrases differ across the towns; often people can mishear a word or phrase and write it down wrong as in "shut charow up, '' which actually is "shut ya row up, '' so one has to be careful when hearing words and phrases.
The Black Country is notable for its small breweries and brewpubs which, unlike most in Britain, continued brewing their own beer alongside larger breweries which opened in the Industrial Revolution. Small breweries and brewpubs in the Black Country include Bathams in Brierley Hill, Holdens in Woodsetton, Sarah Hughes in Sedgley and the Old Swan Inn (Ma Pardoe 's) in Netherton. They produce light and dark mild ales, as well as malt - accented bitters and seasonal strong ales.
The Black Country is home to one television station Made in Birmingham and three region wide radio stations -- BBC WM, Free Radio and Free Radio 80s. Both Free Radio (formerly Beacon Radio) and Free Radio 80s (formerly Beacon 303, Radio WABC & Gold) have broadcast since 1976 from transmitters at Turner 's Hill and Sedgley, with the studios which were previously located in Wolverhampton being moved to Oldbury and Birmingham respectively.
The area also has three other radio stations which only officially cover part of the region. Black Country Radio (born from a merger of 102.5 The Bridge and BCCR) who are based in Stourbridge, Signal 107 who broadcast from Wolverhampton and Ambur Radio who broadcast from Walsall.
The Express and Star is one of the region 's two daily newspapers, publishing eleven local editions from its Wolverhampton headquarters and its five district offices (for example the Dudley edition is considerably different in content from the Wolverhampton or Stafford editions). It is the biggest selling regional paper in the UK. Incidentally, the Express and Star, traditionally a Black Country paper, has expanded to the point where they sell copies from vendors in Birmingham city centre.
The Black Country Mail -- a local edition of the Birmingham Mail -- is the region 's other daily newspaper. Its regional base is in Walsall town centre.
Established in 1973, from a site in High Street, Cradley Heath, the Black Country Bugle has also contributed to the region 's history. It started as a fortnightly publication, but due to its widespread appeal, now appears on a weekly basis. It is now located above the Dudley Archives and Local History Centre on Tipton Road, Dudley.
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what is the function of the cell sap vacuole | Vacuole - wikipedia
A vacuole (/ ˈvækjuːoʊl /) is a membrane - bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed. Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these. The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the needs of the cell.
The function and significance of vacuoles varies greatly according to the type of cell in which they are present, having much greater prominence in the cells of plants, fungi and certain protists than those of animals and bacteria. In general, the functions of the vacuole include:
Vacuoles also play a major role in autophagy, maintaining a balance between biogenesis (production) and degradation (or turnover), of many substances and cell structures in certain organisms. They also aid in the lysis and recycling of misfolded proteins that have begun to build up within the cell. Thomas Boller and others proposed that the vacuole participates in the destruction of invading bacteria and Robert B. Mellor proposed organ - specific forms have a role in ' housing ' symbiotic bacteria. In protists, vacuoles have the additional function of storing food which has been absorbed by the organism and assisting in the digestive and waste management process for the cell.
The vacuole probably evolved several times independently, even within the Viridiplantae.
Contractile vacuoles ("stars '') were first observed by Spallanzani (1776) in protozoa, although mistaken for respiratory organs. Dujardin (1841) named these "stars '' as vacuoles. In 1842, Schleiden applied the term for plant cells, to distinguish the structure with cell sap from the rest of the protoplasm.
In 1885, de Vries named the vacuoule membrane as tonoplast.
Large vacuoles are found in three genera of filamentous sulfur bacteria, the Thioploca, Beggiatoa and Thiomargarita. The cytosol is extremely reduced in these genera and the vacuole can occupy between 40 -- 98 % of the cell. The vacuole contains high concentrations of nitrate ions and is therefore thought to be a storage organelle.
Gas vacuoles, which are freely permeable to gas, are present in some species of Cyanobacteria. They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy.
Most mature plant cells have one large vacuole that typically occupies more than 30 % of the cell 's volume, and that can occupy as much as 80 % of the volume for certain cell types and conditions. Strands of cytoplasm often run through the vacuole.
A vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast (word origin: Gk tón (os) + - o -, meaning "stretching '', "tension '', "tone '' + comb. form repr. Gk plastós formed, molded) and filled with cell sap. Also called the vacuolar membrane, the tonoplast is the cytoplasmic membrane surrounding a vacuole, separating the vacuolar contents from the cell 's cytoplasm. As a membrane, it is mainly involved in regulating the movements of ions around the cell, and isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell.
Transport of protons from the cytosol to the vacuole stabilizes cytoplasmic pH, while making the vacuolar interior more acidic creating a proton motive force which the cell can use to transport nutrients into or out of the vacuole. The low pH of the vacuole also allows degradative enzymes to act. Although single large vacuoles are most common, the size and number of vacuoles may vary in different tissues and stages of development. For example, developing cells in the meristems contain small provacuoles and cells of the vascular cambium have many small vacuoles in the winter and one large one in the summer.
Aside from storage, the main role of the central vacuole is to maintain turgor pressure against the cell wall. Proteins found in the tonoplast (aquaporins) control the flow of water into and out of the vacuole through active transport, pumping potassium (K) ions into and out of the vacuolar interior. Due to osmosis, water will diffuse into the vacuole, placing pressure on the cell wall. If water loss leads to a significant decline in turgor pressure, the cell will plasmolyze. Turgor pressure exerted by vacuoles is also required for cellular elongation: as the cell wall is partially degraded by the action of expansins, the less rigid wall is expanded by the pressure coming from within the vacuole. Turgor pressure exerted by the vacuole is also essential in supporting plants in an upright position. Another function of a central vacuole is that it pushes all contents of the cell 's cytoplasm against the cellular membrane, and thus keeps the chloroplasts closer to light. Most plants store chemicals in the vacuole that react with chemicals in the cytosol. If the cell is broken, for example by a herbivore, then the two chemicals can react forming toxic chemicals. In garlic, alliin and the enzyme alliinase are normally separated but form allicin if the vacuole is broken. A similar reaction is responsible for the production of syn - propanethial - S - oxide when onions are cut.
Vacuoles in fungal cells perform similar functions to those in plants and there can be more than one vacuole per cell. In yeast cells the vacuole is a dynamic structure that can rapidly modify its morphology. They are involved in many processes including the homeostasis of cell pH and the concentration of ions, osmoregulation, storing amino acids and polyphosphate and degradative processes. Toxic ions, such as strontium (Sr), cobalt (II) (Co), and lead (II) (Pb) are transported into the vacuole to isolate them from the rest of the cell.
In animal cells, vacuoles perform mostly subordinate roles, assisting in larger processes of exocytosis and endocytosis.
Animal vacuoles are smaller than their plant counterparts but also usually greater in number. There are also animal cells that do not have any vacuoles.
Exocytosis is the extrusion process of proteins and lipids from the cell. These materials are absorbed into secretory granules within the Golgi apparatus before being transported to the cell membrane and secreted into the extracellular environment. In this capacity, vacuoles are simply storage vesicles which allow for the containment, transport and disposal of selected proteins and lipids to the extracellular environment of the cell.
Endocytosis is the reverse of exocytosis and can occur in a variety of forms. Phagocytosis ("cell eating '') is the process by which bacteria, dead tissue, or other bits of material visible under the microscope are engulfed by cells. The material makes contact with the cell membrane, which then invaginates. The invagination is pinched off, leaving the engulfed material in the membrane - enclosed vacuole and the cell membrane intact. Pinocytosis ("cell drinking '') is essentially the same process, the difference being that the substances ingested are in solution and not visible under the microscope. Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are both undertaken in association with lysosomes which complete the breakdown of the material which has been engulfed.
Salmonella is able to survive and reproduce in the vacuoles of several mammal species after being engulfed.
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when did high court judges began to emerge | High Court judge (England and Wales) - wikipedia
A Justice of the High Court, commonly known as a ' High Court judge ', is a judge of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales, and represents the third highest level of judge in the courts of England and Wales. High Court judges are referred to as puisne (pronounced puny) judges. High Court Judges wear red and black robes.
Upon appointment, all male High Court judges are appointed Knight Bachelor and female judges made Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire.
In court, a High Court judge is referred to as My Lord or Your Lordship if male, or as My Lady or Your Ladyship if female. High Court judges use the title in office of Mr Justice for men or, normally, Mrs Justice for women, even if unmarried. When Alison Russell was appointed in 2014, she took the title "Ms Justice Russell ''. The style of The Honourable (or The Hon) is also used during office. For example, Sir Joseph Bloggs would be referred to as The Hon Mr Justice Bloggs Kt. and Dame Jane Bloggs DBE as The Hon Mrs Justice Bloggs DBE. When there is already or has until recently been a judge with the same (or a confusingly similar) surname as a new appointee, the new judge will often use a first name as part of his or her official title. Many judges have done this, such as Mr Justice Christopher Clarke (Sir Christopher Simon Courtenay Stephenson Clarke) and Mr Justice Roderick Evans (Sir David Roderick Evans).
When referring to a High Court judge in a legal context, the judge is identified by use of the surname (or first name and surname if appropriate), followed by the letter ' J '. For example, Mr Justice Bloggs or Mrs Justice Bloggs would be referred to as "Bloggs J ''. When two or more judges are listed the letters ' JJ ' are used; for example, "Bloggs, Smith and Jones JJ ''.
High Court judges are appointed by The Queen on the advice of the Lord Chancellor. Under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 the Judicial Appointments Commission has removed the appointment of judges from the overtly political arena. High Court judges, as with other judges, are appointed on open competition.
High Court judges, as with all judges in England and Wales, hold office during good behaviour; this is laid down in the Bill of Rights 1689. A High Court judge can only be removed by the Queen upon an Address of both Houses of Parliament.
Formerly, High Court judges could only be appointed from among barristers of at least 10 years ' standing. Before the qualifications changed, a typical appointee had in the region of twenty to thirty years ' experience as a lawyer. Only four solicitors had been appointed as puisne judges -- Michael Sachs in 1993, Lawrence Collins in 2000, Henry Hodge in 2004, and Gary Hickinbottom in 2008. Collins was elevated further to the Court of Appeal in 2007 and became a law lord in 2009. Occasionally more junior members of the judiciary are elevated to this rank, such as Mr Justice Crane who was formerly a Circuit Judge and Mrs Justice Butler - Sloss (now Baroness Butler - Sloss) who was previously a Registrar in the Principal Registry of the Family Division of the High Court. A few distinguished academics have also made it on to the High Court bench, including Mrs Justice Hale (now Baroness Hale of Richmond) and, more recently, Mr Justice Beatson. In 2004, calls for increased diversity among the judiciary were recognised and the qualification period was changed so that, as of 21 July 2008, a potential High Court Judge must satisfy the judicial - appointment eligibility condition on a seven - year basis.
While High Court judges all have the same jurisdiction, an appointee is in practice allocated to one of the High Court 's three divisions: The Chancery Division, the Queen 's Bench Division and the Family Division.
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where is boardwalk hall located in atlantic city | Boardwalk Hall - Wikipedia
Liberty Bowl (NCAA) (1964) Atlantic City Boardwalk Bullies (ECHL) (2001 -- 2005) Atlantic City CardSharks (NIFL) (2004) Albany Devils (AHL) (2010 -- 2014) (Alternate venue)
Boardwalk Hall, formerly known as the Historic Atlantic City Convention Hall, is an arena in Atlantic City, Atlantic County, New Jersey, United States. It was Atlantic City 's primary convention center until the opening of the Atlantic City Convention Center in 1997. Boardwalk Hall was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1987. The venue seats 10,500 people for ice hockey, and at maximum capacity can accommodate 14,770 for concerts. Boardwalk Hall is the home of the Miss America Pageant.
Boardwalk Hall contains the world 's largest musical instrument, a pipe organ of over 33,000 pipes, eight chambers, its console the world 's largest of seven manuals and over 1000 stop keys, and one of two 64 - foot stops (the other found in the Sydney Town Hall). Also included in this organ are pipes operating on 100 inches of pressure, the Grand Ophicleide being the loudest and also most famous. The Guinness Book of World Records states the following "... a pure trumpet note of ear - splitting volume,... six times louder than the loudest train whistle. '' However, these stops are actually well - refined and are not overpowering in Boardwalk Hall due to its huge interior.
Edward L. Bader, mayor of Atlantic City from 1924 -- 1929, led the initiative to acquire the land for Convention Hall, now Boardwalk Hall, and construction was underway at the time of his death. The hall, designed by the architectural firm Lockwood Greene, was built in 1926.
The main hall measures 456 by 310 feet (139 by 94 m). The barrel vault ceiling is 137 feet (42 m) high. Ten pairs of three - hinged steel trusses support this unusually large clear span; there are no supporting columns. Each pair of trusses spans 350 feet (110 m) and weighs 220 short tons (200 t). The trusses are tied to the frame columns to allow the building to flex slightly with wind and ground pressure. The barrel ceiling consists of painted aluminum tiles. It is decorated to resemble Roman bath tiles, and extends over 196,000 square feet (18,200 m).
The Miss America Pageant, founded in 1921 in Atlantic City, used Boardwalk Hall from the hall 's opening in 1940 until 2006. The Pageant returned to the hall in 2013.
It was also the venue for the August 1964 Democratic National Convention that nominated U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson as the Democratic Party 's candidate for the 1964 U.S. presidential election, nine months after the assassination of his predecessor, John F. Kennedy, in November 1963.
The following week, The Beatles held one of their largest concerts on their first U.S. tour at the hall.
The hall was also the venue for the concert by The Rolling Stones on their Steel Wheels Tour in 1989. The concert, which was shown on pay - per - view television, is widely remembered by fans for a mishap where viewers were cut off from the performance during the song "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction ''.
On March 7, 2003, Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band performed. Tickets for the event were immediately sold - out. Springsteen returned to perform a solo show on his Devils & Dust Tour on November 13, 2005.
Phish played three nights at Boardwalk Hall for Halloween in both 2010 and 2013. The 2010 Halloween concert featured a performance of Little Feat 's Waiting For Columbus album in its entirety. The 2013 show included the debut of Phish 's unrecorded album Wingsuit, which would later become the album Fuego.
Jennifer Lopez performed a sold out show in front of 11,220 people during her Dance Again World Tour on July 29, 2012
American pop star Madonna performed at the venue four times, with the first sold - out show at arena in front of 12,322 people during her Confessions Tour on September 15, 2006, she performed the second show in front of 13,293 people during her Sticky & Sweet Tour on November 22, 2008, and the third show in front of 12,207 people during her MDNA Tour on September 15, 2012, The fourth and last time in front of 9,498 people during her Rebel Heart Tour on October 3, 2015.
Britney Spears performed a sold out show in December 2001, and again for her Femme Fatale Tour on August 6, 2011.
Lady Gaga was scheduled to perform here on March 2, 2013 for her Born This Way Ball, but the show was later cancelled due to a hip injury which required surgery. She has previously performed at the arena on July 4, 2010 and February 19, 2011 as a part of her Monster Ball Tour. She performed a sold out show on June 28, 2014 for her Artrave: The Artpop Ball Tour.
Beyoncé performed at the venue for the first time on The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour. The show sold out within its first few days of sales and took place on July 26, 2013.
Journey and Rascal Flatts made a stop at the hall for one - night shows, performing separately.
On May 22, 2015, The Who stopped at the Hall to celebrate their 50th anniversary on their tour, The Who Hits 50!
Mike Tyson fought in Boardwalk Hall several times as Heavyweight champion including four of his seven defenses as Undisputed Champion. Among his title defenses in Boardwalk Hall was a Fourth Round TKO over former champion Larry Holmes on January 22, 1988. His most famous bout at the venue was the 91 second Knockout of former champion and previously undefeated Michael Spinks on June 27, 1988.
On April 19, 1991, Undisputed Heavyweight Champion Evander Holyfield defeated former champion George Foreman in his first title defense.
Other fighters who have had boxing matches (many of which were title fights) in Boardwalk Hall include Sugar Ray Leonard, Oscar De La Hoya, Roberto Duran, Lennox Lewis, Roy Jones Jr., Floyd Mayweather Jr., Bernard Hopkins, Riddick Bowe, Julio César Chávez, Héctor Camacho, Micky Ward, and Arturo Gatti.
In September 2007, it was the venue for the Kelly Pavlik - Jermain Taylor boxing match for the World Boxing Council, World Boxing Organization and The Ring magazine 's middleweight championships.
On December 12, 1965, the New York Ukrainians defeated Philadelphia Ukrainian Nationals 3 - 2 in the first regulation indoor soccer match at the Convention Hall before more than 3,000 spectators.
Prior to 1973, the NCAA was divided into two divisions, University and College. Boardwalk Hall hosted bowl games in both divisions; the University Division later became NCAA Division I, while the College Division became Division II and Division III.
In 1959, A.F. "Bud '' Dudley, a former Villanova University athletic director, created the Liberty Bowl, an annual post-season college - football bowl game in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The game was played at Philadelphia Municipal Stadium, but as the only cold - weather bowl game, it was plagued by poor attendance. A group of Atlantic City businessmen convinced Dudley to move his game from Philadelphia to Boardwalk Hall for 1964 and guaranteed Dudley $25,000.
The 1964 Liberty Bowl was the first major (University Division) collegiate bowl game played indoors and was also the first indoor football game broadcast nationwide on U.S. television. Since artificial turf was still in its developmental stages and was unavailable for the game, the hall was equipped with a four - inch - thick grass surface with two inches of burlap underneath it (as padding) on top of concrete. To keep the grass growing, artificial lighting was installed and kept on 24 hours a day. The entire process cost about $16,000. End zones were only eight yards long instead of the usual ten yards.
6,059 fans saw the Utah Utes rout the West Virginia Mountaineers, 32 -- 6. Dudley was paid $25,000 from Atlantic City businessmen, $60,000 from ticket sales, and $95,000 from television revenues, for a $10,000 net profit. This would be the only time the game was played in Atlantic City, as Dudley moved it the following year to Memphis, Tennessee, where it remains to this day.
Boardwalk Hall was also the venue of the former Boardwalk Bowl post-season game from 1961 to 1973. From 1961 through 1967, the games were the "Little Army - Navy Game '', featuring the College Division 's Pennsylvania Military College and the Merchant Marine Academy. From 1968 through 1972, the bowl was the East regional final for the College Division; Delaware won four times, and Massachusetts won once. The final playing of the bowl was in 1973, as a Division II quarterfinal; Grambling defeated Delaware.
The Syracuse Nationals and the Philadelphia Warriors played a regular season game at the arena on December 29, 1949. The game was part of a double header. The opening game was an exhibition basketball game between selected players of the Philadelphia Eagles and the Washington Redskins.
From 2007 through 2012, the Atlantic 10 Conference held its men 's basketball championship at Boardwalk Hall. The 2013 tournament was held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York.
The Brooklyn Nets and the Philadelphia 76ers played a preseason game at the arena on October 13, 2012.
It played host to the Atlantic City Boardwalk Bullies, an ice - hockey team, from 2001 -- 2005. From 2011 to 2013, ECAC Hockey held its men 's ice hockey championship at Boardwalk Hall.
During the 2010 -- 2011 season, Boardwalk Hall hosted four home games for the Albany Devils and one home game for the Trenton Devils both affiliated with the New Jersey Devils. The Albany Devils returned to play four home games during the 2012 -- 13 and 2013 - 14 seasons.
Despite not having a team in Atlantic City, the American Hockey League hosted the 2012 All - Star Classic at Boardwalk Hall.
On November 24, 2012, Boardwalk Hall hosted "Operation Hat Trick '', a charity hockey game to raise money for Hurricane Sandy victims. Among the NHL players who particated were Martin Brodeur, Andy Greene, Henrik Lundqvist, Bobby Ryan, and James van Riemsdyk.
It was the home of the Atlantic City CardSharks, a professional, indoor football team, in 2004.
In 1996, the hall was used for the women 's tennis Fed Cup during which the U.S. beat Spain 5 -- 0 in the Fed Cup women 's tennis. This event was Monica Seles 's return to tennis following her 1993 stabbing.
The Hall hosted the World Wrestling Entertainment 's WrestleMania IV and V in 1988 and 1989, respectively, although on the television coverage it was referred to as "Trump Plaza '' because the adjacent casino hotel was the primary sponsor (though in the opening to WM4 celebrity guest Bob Uecker does refer to the building as the ' convention center '). WrestleMania IV was attended by 18,165 fans while WrestleMania V had an attendance of 18,946 putting the respective shows 23rd and 20th on the all - time WrestleMania attendances (out of 31 as of 2016).
Many WWE shows have also been held with both WWE Raw and WWE SmackDown making appearances. Referred to as the Atlantic City Convention Center during the WrestleMania broadcasts, as of WrestleMania 33 (2017), it is the only venue to host the annual Pay - per - view event in consecutive years.
The PBR hosted a Built Ford Tough Series bull riding event at Boardwalk Hall during the 2003 season and is expected to return in the 2018 season.
The New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association uses the hall to host the annual individual state wrestling tournament.
The Ultimate Fighting Championship has held four events in the hall, UFC 41: Onslaught in 2003, UFC 50: The War of ' 04 in 2004, UFC 53: Heavy Hitters in 2005, and most recently UFC Fight Night: Barboza vs. Lee in 2018.
The 2005 edition of the Skate America figure skating competition was held at Boardwalk Hall.
Midget car racing events have been held at the Boardwalk Hall since 1938. Since 2003 it hosts the Atlantic City Indoor Races, a round of the Indoor Auto Racing Championship Series.
A $90 - million restoration designed by EwingCole was completed in 2001 and received several awards, including the 2003 National Preservation Award and Building magazine 's 2002 Modernization Award.
Constructed between May 1929 and December 1932, the Main Auditorium Organ is the "Poseidon '' Midmer - Losh pipe organ, the world 's - largest, as listed in The Guinness Book of World Records. The instrument has approximately 33,000 pipes and requires approximately 600 horsepower (450 kW) of blowers to operate. The condition of the organ was allowed to deteriorate and as a result of gross carelessness during hall renovation in 2001, was no longer functional, although since about 2007 when repairs began, bringing it back to about 25 % functionality by 2013.
Boardwalk Hall 's attached ballroom contains a 55 - rank Kimball concert / theater pipe organ -- originally installed to accompany silent movies -- that was severely damaged during the hall 's renovation. Compared to the Main Auditorium organ, this organ looks tiny. The Ballroom organ is actually one of the largest theater organs by rank count, second to Radio City Hall 's WurliTzer theater organ (58 ranks).
Restoration efforts have been underway, originally overseen by the Atlantic City Convention Hall Organ Society, now renamed Boardwalk Pipes, initially funded by private donations and federal Save America 's Treasures grants. The organ restoration is overseen by the Historic Organ Restoration Committee, a 501 (c) 3 nonprofit chartered by the state of New Jersey for the restoration and preservation of the two pipe organs of Historic Boardwalk Hall. With additional foundation and private funding, the committee forecasts completion of restoration in 2023.
Billboard magazine recognized Boardwalk Hall as the top - grossing mid-sized arena in the U.S. in 2003 and 2004. In 2003, The Ring magazine Fight of the Year was Gatti vs Ward which was hosted at the Hall.
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is it possible to estimate the gains from trade | Gains from trade - wikipedia
In economics, gains from trade are the net benefits to economic agents from being allowed an increase in voluntary trading with each other. In technical terms, they are the increase of consumer surplus plus producer surplus from lower tariffs or otherwise liberalizing trade.
Gains from trade are commonly described as resulting from:
Market incentives, such as reflected in prices of outputs and inputs, are theorized to attract factors of production, including labor, into activities according to comparative advantage, that is, for which they each have a low opportunity cost. The factor owners then use their increased income from such specialization to buy more - valued goods of which they would otherwise be high - cost producers, hence their gains from trade. The concept may be applied to an entire economy for the alternatives of autarky (no trade) or trade. A measure of total gains from trade is the sum of consumer surplus and producer profits or, more roughly, the increased output from specialization in production with resulting trade. Gains from trade may also refer to net benefits to a country from lowering barriers to trade such as tariffs on imports.
David Ricardo in 1817 first clearly stated and proved the principle of comparative advantage, termed a "fundamental analytical explanation '' for the source of gains from trade. But from publication of Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations in 1776, it was widely argued, that, with competition and absent market distortions, such gains are positive in moving toward free trade and away from autarky or prohibitively high import tariffs. Rigorous early contemporary statements of the conditions under which this proposition holds are found in Samuelson in 1939 and 1962. For the analytically tractable general case of Arrow - Debreu goods, formal proofs came in 1972 for determining the condition of no losers in moving from autarky toward free trade.
It does not follow that no tariffs are the best an economy could do. Rather, a large economy might be able to set taxes and subsidies to its benefit at the expense of other economies. Later results of Kemp and others showed that in an Arrow - Debreu world with a system of lump - sum compensatory mechanisms, corresponding to a customs union for a given subset set of countries (described by free trade among a group of economies and a common set of tariffs), there is a common set of world ' tariffs such that no country would be worse off than in the smaller customs union. The suggestion is that if a customs union has advantages for an economy, there is a worldwide customs union that is at least as good for each country in the world.
Classical economists maintain that there are two methods to measure the gains from trade: 1) international trade increases national income which helps us to get low priced imports; 2) gains are measured in terms of trade. To measure the gains from the trade, comparison of a country 's cost of production with a foreign country 's cost of production for the same product is required. However, it is very difficult to acquire the knowledge of cost of production and cost of imports in a domestic country. Therefore, terms of trade method is preferable to measure the gains from trade.
There are several factors which determine the gains from international trade:
The gains from trade can be clad into static and dynamic gains from trades. Static Gains means the increase in social welfare as a result of maximized national output due to optimum utilization of country 's factor endowments or resources. Dynamic gains from trade, are those benefits which accelerate economic growth of the participating countries.
Static gains are the result of the operation of the theory of comparative cost in the field of foreign trade. On this principle countries make the optimum use of their available resources so that their national output is greater which also raises the level of social welfare in the country. When there is an introduction of foreign trade in the economy the result is called the static gains from trade.
Dynamic gains from trade relate to economic development of the economy. Specialization of the country for the production of best suited commodities which result in a large volume of quality production which promotes growth. Thus the extension of domestic market to foreign market will accelerate economic growth.
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who played roseanne's sister on the tv show roseanne | Laurie Metcalf - Wikipedia
Laura Elizabeth "Laurie '' Metcalf (born June 16, 1955) is an American actress. She is known for her television roles as Jackie Harris on the ABC sitcom Roseanne (1988 -- 97); Carolyn Bigsby on Desperate Housewives (2006); the recurring role of Mary Cooper on The Big Bang Theory (2007 -- present); Dr. Jenna James on Getting On (2013 -- 15), and Marjorie McCarthy in The McCarthys (2014 -- 15). She voiced the role of Mrs. Davis in the Toy Story film series. Her other film appearances include Making Mr. Right (1987), JFK (1991), Mistress (1992), and as Debbie Salt / Mrs. Loomis in Scream 2 (1997). She has also appeared in commercials for Plan USA, a humanitarian organization which helps children in need around the world.
Metcalf began her career with the Steppenwolf Theater Company and frequently works in Chicago theater, including the 1983 revival of Balm in Gilead. A ten - time Emmy Award nominee, she won three consecutive Emmys for Roseanne from 1992 to 1994. In 2012, she starred as Mary Tyrone in a London production of Eugene O'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night at the Apollo Theatre. She has received a Theatre World Award and two Obie Awards for her Off - Broadway work. A four - time Tony Award nominee for her work on Broadway, Metcalf won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play in 2017 for her role in A Doll 's House, Part 2.
Metcalf was born in Carbondale, Illinois, the eldest of three children, with her brother James, and sister Linda, and was raised in Edwardsville, Illinois, which she has said "is n't anywhere near a theatre ''. Her father, James, was the budget director at Southern Illinois University - Edwardsville at the time of his sudden death in 1984, and her mother, Libby, was a librarian. Her great - aunt was the Pulitzer Prize - winning playwright Zoë Akins. She is an alumna of Illinois State University, class of 1976.
Metcalf worked as a "damn good '' secretary while in college and thoroughly enjoyed seeing a pile of paper in the to - do box on one side of her desk move over to the completed side by the end of the day, as she often zoned in on the task at hand and worked through lunch. She originally majored in German thinking she could work as an interpreter and then in Anthropology before accepting that majoring in Theatre was her true passion, and has said that theatre work also involves the interpreting and studying human behavior. She has described herself as hideously shy, yet found the courage to audition for a few plays in high school and was "hooked '', yet never considered acting as a career because of the unlikelihood of it actually leading to regular work.
Metcalf attended Illinois State University and earned her Bachelor of Arts in Theater in 1976. While at ISU, she met fellow theater students, among them John Malkovich, Glenne Headly, Joan Allen, Terry Kinney, and Jeff Perry, the latter two of whom, along with Perry 's high school classmate Gary Sinise, went on to establish Chicago 's famed Steppenwolf Theatre Company. Metcalf began her professional career at Steppenwolf, of which she was a charter member. Metcalf went to New York to appear in an Off - Broadway Steppenwolf production of Balm in Gilead at Circle Repertory in 1984 for which she received the 1984 Obie Award for Best Actress and a 1984 -- 85 Theatre World Award (for best debut in a Broadway or Off - Broadway performance). Metcalf was praised for her performance as "Darlene, '' and was specifically singled out for her tour de force twenty - minute Act Two monologue.
There 's a moment when Laurie Metcalf -- who plays this poor young thing that comes to the big city and hangs out at this greasy spoon diner where the play is set -- is talking about her once boyfriend who is an albino; I think it 's a monologue of about five, six, seven minutes. Just to sit there and watch and hear Laurie unspool that story, it just brought tears coming down your eyes -- oh, boy, it was something.
Thereafter, Metcalf relocated to New York City and began to work in both film and theater, including such productions as David Mamet 's November on Broadway in 2008.
Through June 2009, Metcalf starred with French Stewart in Justin Tanner 's play, Voice Lessons, in Hollywood before beginning rehearsals to play Kate Jerome in the Broadway revival of Neil Simon 's semi-autobiographical plays Brighton Beach Memoirs and Broadway Bound, directed by David Cromer. The former production 's run, however, lasted for 9 performances in October 2009, while the latter was canceled prior to opening.
Voice Lessons, however, with its original cast intact, went on to two more runs -- one Off - Broadway in May 2010, and another in Hollywood in May 2011.
In September 2010, Metcalf returned to Steppenwolf and starred in Lisa D'Amour 's play, Detroit.
In March 2011, she appeared Off - Broadway in The Other Place by Sharr White. She won the 2011 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Lead Actress, and the 2011 Obie Award, Performance for The Other Place.
In 2012, Metcalf joined David Suchet in a West End production of Eugene O'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night, for which she was nominated for the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actress.
The Other Place transferred to Broadway in 2013, with Metcalf reprising her role and earning Tony and Drama League nominations. She starred with her real - life daughter, Zoe Perry.
In October 2013, Metcalf performed with Jeff Goldblum in Domesticated, by Bruce Norris at the Off - Broadway Mitzi Newhouse Theater of Lincoln Center. She was nominated for the 2014 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Play; the 2014 Drama League Award, Distinguished Performance; and the 2014 Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actress in a Play for Domesticated.
She was then cast in the role of Annie Wilkes in the Broadway production of Stephen King 's Misery, opposite Bruce Willis. The play premiered on November 15, 2015. It received mixed reviews from critics, however Metcalf 's performance was widely acclaimed. She was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, her third Tony nomination overall.
Metcalf returned to Broadway in A Doll 's House, Part 2 by Lucas Hnath, which opened in April 2017. She received critical acclaim for her performance and earned nominations for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, the Drama Desk Award, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance, and the Outer Critics Circle Award, winning the Tony Award.
Metcalf has performed in roles that range from very large to very small in many films, including Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), Making Mr. Right (1987), Miles from Home, Internal Affairs, Stars and Bars, Beer League, Mistress, A Dangerous Woman, Uncle Buck, Blink, The Secret Life of Houses, Treasure Planet, Toy Story, Runaway Bride, Bulworth, Meet the Robinsons, Georgia Rule (2007), Fun with Dick and Jane, Leaving Las Vegas, Scream 2, Stop Loss (2008), and Hop.
Metcalf has often appeared against type in both film and television; in JFK (1991), she played a dramatic role as one of Jim Garrison 's chief investigators. She appeared as the murderous mother of Billy Loomis in the horror film Scream 2 (1997); and portrayed real - life Carolyn McCarthy in the television movie The Long Island Incident (1998).
Metcalf has appeared in several television series, including being a cast member for a single episode of Saturday Night Live -- the final episode of the show 's tumultuous 1980 -- 1981 season. In 1981, she appeared as a feature player on the first Dick Ebersol - produced episode of Saturday Night Live following the firing of Jean Doumanian. She appeared in a Weekend Update segment about taking a bullet for the President of the United States. Because of the sketch show 's severe decline in quality at the time and the 1981 Writers Guild of America strike, the show was put on hiatus for retooling. Metcalf was never asked back to be a cast member.
Metcalf is perhaps best known for her role as "Jackie '', the multiple - careered, low self - esteemed, amiable sister of the title character in the hit series Roseanne. Her performance garnered her three consecutive Emmy Awards. Roseanne ran from 1988 to 1997, and Metcalf appeared as Jackie over the show 's entire run.
She subsequently appeared with Norm Macdonald on The Norm Show (or Norm), which ran for three seasons (1999 -- 2001), and was also a regular character on the 2003 Nathan Lane series Charlie Lawrence, which was cancelled after the airing of two episodes. Metcalf has made guest appearances on Absolutely Fabulous, Malcolm in the Middle, My Boys, Dharma & Greg, Frasier, The Big Bang Theory, Without a Trace, 3rd Rock from the Sun, and Monk. She was nominated for the Emmy Award as Outstanding Guest Actress In A Comedy Series for both of the latter two listed roles.
Metcalf took a recurring role on Desperate Housewives -- for which she received Emmy (also in the category Outstanding Guest Actress In A Comedy Series) and Satellite Award nominations -- and also appeared alongside her ex-husband Jeff Perry in an episode of Grey 's Anatomy. In fall 2008, Metcalf starred in the CW dramedy Easy Money, as the matriarch of a family of loan sharks. The series was canceled after three episodes.
Metcalf starred in HBO 's Getting On during its run from 2013 -- 15.
On April 28, 2017 it was announced that a revival of Roseanne was in the works and that Metcalf along with most of the original cast and some of the producers would return for the limited series that was being shopped around with ABC and Netflix the front runners to land the show. On May 16, 2017 it was confirmed that eight episodes would air mid-season in 2018 on ABC.
In 1983, Metcalf married Jeff Perry, co-founding member of Steppenwolf Theatre Company. They had a daughter, Zoe Perry, in 1984, and later divorced, in 1992.
Metcalf later began a relationship with Matt Roth, the Roseanne co-star who played her abusive boyfriend, Fisher. By November 1993 they had a son, Will, and eventually married. They also worked together on occasion, as in the 1994 feature film thriller Blink and the 1998 drama Chicago Cab; they also appeared together in an episode of Desperate Housewives. Their daughter, Mae Akins, was born in 2005 via surrogate. They had a second son, Donovan, whom they fostered at six years old in 2006 and permanently adopted. On November 26, 2008, Metcalf and Roth separated. In September 2011, Roth filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. In May 2014, the divorce was finalized.
Metcalf has self - disclosed as a workaholic and that she is hard on herself during rehearsals. She has often said that she prefers theatre to any acting medium as it is where she feels most comfortable.
Sources: TCM; Film Reference; Rotten Tomatoes; AllMovie
Sources: Film Reference; Rotten Tomatoes; AllMovie
Sources: Emmy Awards; Golden Globe Awards; Tony Awards
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when does an election have to be held according to the constitution | Elections in the United states - Wikipedia
Elections in the United States are held for government officials at the federal, state, and local levels. At the federal level, the nation 's head of state, the President, is elected indirectly by the people of each state, through an Electoral College. Today, these electors almost always vote with the popular vote of their state. All members of the federal legislature, the Congress, are directly elected by the people of each state. There are many elected offices at state level, each state having at least an elective Governor and legislature. There are also elected offices at the local level, in counties, cities, towns, townships, boroughs, and villages. According to a study by political scientist Jennifer Lawless, there were 519,682 elected officials in the United States as of 2012.
While the United States Constitution does set parameters for the election of federal officials, state law, not federal, regulates most aspects of elections in the U.S., including primaries, the eligibility of voters (beyond the basic constitutional definition), the running of each state 's electoral college, as well as the running of state and local elections. All elections -- federal, state, and local -- are administered by the individual states.
The restriction and extension of voting rights to different groups has been a contested process throughout United States history. The federal government has also been involved in attempts to increase voter turnout, by measures such as the National Voter Registration Act of 1993. The financing of elections has also long been controversial, because private sources make up substantial amounts of campaign contributions, especially in federal elections. Voluntary public funding for candidates willing to accept spending limits was introduced in 1974 for presidential primaries and elections. The Federal Elections Commission, created in 1975 by an amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act has the responsibility to disclose campaign finance information, to enforce the provisions of the law such as the limits and prohibitions on contributions, and to oversee the public funding of U.S. Presidential elections.
The most common method used in U.S. elections is the first - past - the - post system, where the highest polling candidate wins the election. Some may use a two - round system, where if no candidate receives a required number of votes then there is a runoff between the two candidates with the most votes.
Since 2002, several cities have adopted instant - runoff voting in their elections. Voters rank the candidates in order of preference rather than voting for a single candidate. If a candidate secures more than half of votes cast, that candidate wins. Otherwise, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. Ballots assigned to the eliminated candidate are recounted and assigned to those of the remaining candidates who rank next in order of preference on each ballot. This process continues until one candidate wins by obtaining more than half the votes.
The eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the constitution and also regulated at state level. The constitution states that suffrage can not be denied on grounds of race or color, sex, or age for citizens eighteen years or older. Beyond these basic qualifications, it is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate voter eligibility. Some states ban convicted criminals, especially felons, from voting for a fixed period of time or indefinitely. The number of American adults who are currently or permanently ineligible to vote due to felony convictions is estimated to be 5.3 million. Some states also have legacy constitutional statements barring legally declared incompetent from voting; such references are generally considered obsolete and are being considered for review or removal where they appear.
While the federal government has jurisdiction over federal elections, most election laws are decided at the state level. All U.S. states except North Dakota require that citizens who wish to vote be registered. Traditionally, voters had to register at state offices to vote, but in the mid-1990s efforts were made by the federal government to make registering easier, in an attempt to increase turnout. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (the "Motor Voter '' law) required state governments that receive certain types of federal funding to make the voter registration process easier by providing uniform registration services through drivers ' license registration centers, disability centers, schools, libraries, and mail - in registration. Other states allow citizens same - day registration on Election Day.
In many states, citizens registering to vote may declare an affiliation with a political party. This declaration of affiliation does not cost money, and does not make the citizen a dues - paying member of a party. A party can not prevent a voter from declaring his or her affiliation with them, but it can refuse requests for full membership. In some states, only voters affiliated with a party may vote in that party 's primary elections (see below). Declaring a party affiliation is never required. Some states, including Georgia, Michigan, Minnesota, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Washington, practice non-partisan registration.
Voters unable or unwilling to vote at polling stations on Election Day can vote via absentee ballots. Absentee ballots are most commonly sent and received via the United States Postal Service. Despite their name, absentee ballots are often requested and submitted in person. About half of all states and U.S. territories allow "no excuse absentee, '' where no reason is required to request an absentee ballot. Others require a valid reason, such as infirmity or travel, be given before a voter can participate using an absentee ballot. Some states, including California, and Washington allow citizens to apply for permanent absentee voter status, which will automatically receive an absentee ballot for each election. Typically a voter must request an absentee ballot before the election occurs.
A significant source of absentee ballots is the population of Americans living outside the United States. In 1986 Congress enacted the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA). UOCAVA requires that the states and territories allow members of the United States Uniformed Services and merchant marine, their family members, and United States citizens residing outside the United States to register and vote absentee in elections for Federal offices. Though many states had pre-existing statutes in place UOCAVA made it mandatory and nationally uniform. "Generally, all U.S. citizens 19 years or older who are or will be residing outside the United States during an election period are eligible to vote absentee in any election for Federal office. In addition, all members of the Uniformed Services, their family members and members of the Merchant Marine and their family members, who are U.S. citizens, may vote absentee in Federal, state and local elections. '' Absentee ballots from these voters can often be transmitted private delivery services, fax, or email.
Mail ballots are similar in many respects to an absentee ballot. However they are used for Mailing Precincts where on Election Day no polling place is opened for a specific precinct. In Oregon, Washington, and Colorado, all ballots are delivered through the mail.
Early voting is a formal process where voters can cast their ballots prior to the official Election Day. Early voting in person is allowed in 33 states and in Washington, D.C., with no excuse required.
Voters casting their ballots in polling places record their votes most commonly with optical scan voting machines or DRE voting machines. Voting machine selection is typically done through a state 's local election jurisdiction including counties, cities, and townships. Many of these local jurisdictions have changed their voting equipment since 2000 due to the passage of the Help America Vote Act (HAVA), which allocated funds for the replacement of lever machine and punch card voting equipment.
Since the 1980s many jurisdictions and voting locations have given out "I Voted '' stickers to people casting ballots. In the state of Illinois it 's a state law to have stickers available to voters after they have cast their ballots. State and local governments pay $30 million per year for the stickers that cost about one cent each.
The United States has a presidential system of government, which means that the executive and legislature are elected separately. Article One of the United States Constitution requires that any election for the U.S. President must occur on a single day throughout the country; elections for Congressional offices, however, can be held at different times. Congressional and presidential elections take place simultaneously every four years, and the intervening Congressional elections, which take place every two years, are called Midterm elections.
The constitution states that members of the United States House of Representatives must be at least 25 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least nine years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. The President must be at least 35 years old, a natural born citizen of the United States and a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years. It is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate the qualifications for a candidate appearing on a ballot paper, although in order to get onto the ballot, a candidate must often collect a legally defined number of signatures.
The President and the Vice President are elected together in a Presidential election. It is an indirect election, with the winner being determined by votes cast by electors of the Electoral College. In modern times, voters in each state select a slate of electors from a list of several slates designated by different parties or candidates, and the electors typically promise in advance to vote for the candidates of their party (whose names of the presidential candidates usually appear on the ballot rather than those of the individual electors). The winner of the election is the candidate with at least 270 Electoral College votes. It is possible for a candidate to win the electoral vote, and lose the (nationwide) popular vote (receive fewer votes nationwide than the second ranked candidate). Prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1804), the runner - up in a Presidential election became the Vice President.
Electoral College votes are cast by individual states by a group of electors; each elector casts one electoral college vote. Until the Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1961 the District of Columbia citizens did not have representation and / or electors in the electoral college. In modern times, with electors usually committed to vote for a party candidate in advance, electors that vote against the popular vote in their state are called faithless electors, and occurrences are rare. State law regulates how states cast their electoral college votes. In all states except Maine and Nebraska, the candidate that wins the most votes in the state receives all its electoral college votes (a "winner takes all '' system). From 1969 in Maine, and from 1991 in Nebraska, two electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election, and the rest (two in Maine, three in Nebraska) go to the highest vote - winner in each of the state 's congressional districts.
Congress has two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Senate has 100 members, elected for a six - year term in dual - seat constituencies (2 from each state), with one - third being renewed every two years. The group of the Senate seats that is up for election during a given year is known as a "class ''; the three classes are staggered so that only one of the three groups is renewed every two years. Until the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, States chose how to elect Senators, and they were often elected by state legislatures, not the electorate of states.
The House of Representatives has 435 members, elected for a two - year term in single - seat constituencies. House of Representatives elections are held every two years on the first Tuesday after November 1 in even years. Special House elections can occur between if a member dies or resigns during a term. House elections are first - past - the - post elections that elect a Representative from each of 435 House districts which cover the United States. The non-voting delegates of Washington, D.C. and the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected.
House elections occur every two years, correlated with presidential elections or halfway through a President 's term. The House delegate of Puerto Rico, officially known as the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, is elected to a four - year term, coinciding with those of the President.
As the redistricting commissions of states are often partisan, districts are often drawn which benefit incumbents. An increasing trend has been for incumbents to have an overwhelming advantage in House elections, and since the 1994 election, an unusually low number of seats has changed hands in each election. Due to gerrymandering, fewer than 10 % of all House seats are contested in each election cycle. Over 90 % of House members are reelected every two years, due to lack of electoral competition. Gerrymandering of the House, combined with the divisions inherent in the design of the Senate and of the Electoral College, result in a discrepancy between the percentage of popular support for various political parties and the actual level of the parties ' representation.
State law and state constitutions, controlled by state legislatures regulate elections at state level and local level. Various officials at state level are elected. Since the separation of powers applies to states as well as the federal government, state legislatures and the executive (the governor) are elected separately. Governors and lieutenant governor are elected in all states, in some states on a joint ticket and in some states separately, some separately in different electoral cycles. The governors of the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected. In some states, executive positions such as Attorney General and Secretary of State are also elected offices. All members of state legislatures and territorial jurisdiction legislatures are elected. In some states, members of the state supreme court and other members of the state judiciary are elected. Proposals to amend the state constitution are also placed on the ballot in some states.
As a matter of convenience and cost saving, elections for many of these state and local offices are held at the same time as either the federal presidential or midterm elections. There are a handful of states, however, that instead hold their elections during odd - numbered "off years. ''
At the local level, county and city government positions are usually filled by election, especially within the legislative branch. The extent to which offices in the executive or judicial branches are elected vary from county - to - county or city - to - city. Some examples of local elected positions include sheriffs at the county level and mayors and school board members at the city level. Like state elections, an election for a specific local office may be held at the same time as either the presidential, midterm, or off - year elections.
Americans vote for a specific candidate instead of directly selecting a particular political party. The United States Constitution has never formally addressed the issue of political parties. The Founding Fathers such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison did not support domestic political factions at the time the Constitution was written. In addition, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was not a member of any political party at the time of his election or throughout his tenure as president. Furthermore, he hoped that political parties would not be formed, fearing conflict and stagnation. Nevertheless, the beginnings of the American two - party system emerged from his immediate circle of advisers, with Hamilton and Madison ending up being the core leaders in this emerging party system.
Thus, it is up to the candidate to decide under what party he / she should run, registers to run, pays the fees, etc. In the primary elections, the party organization stays neutral until one candidate has been elected. The platform of the party is written by the winning candidate (in presidential elections; in other elections no platform is involved). Each candidate has his or her own campaign, fund raising organization, etc. The primary elections in the main parties are organized by the states, who also register the party affiliation of the voters (this also makes it easier to gerrymander the congressional districts). The party is thus little more than a campaign organization for the main elections.
However, elections in the United States often do become de facto national races between the political parties. In what is known as "presidential coattails '', candidates in presidential elections usually bring out supporters who then vote for his or her party 's candidates for other offices, usually resulting in the presidential winner 's party gaining seats in Congress. On the other hand, midterm elections are sometimes regarded as a referendum on the sitting president 's and / or incumbent party 's performance. There is a historical pattern that the incumbent president 's party loses seats in midterm elections. This may be because the President 's popularity has slipped since election, or because the President 's popularity encouraged supporters to come out to vote for him or her in the presidential election, but these supporters are less likely to vote when the President is not up for election.
Ballot access refers to the laws which regulate under what conditions access is granted for a candidate or political party to appear on voters ' ballots. Each State has its own ballot access laws to determine who may appear on ballots and who may not. According to Article I, Section 4, of the United States Constitution, the authority to regulate the time, place, and manner of federal elections is up to each State, unless Congress legislates otherwise. Depending on the office and the state, it may be possible for a voter to cast a write - in vote for a candidate whose name does not appear on the ballot, but it is extremely rare for such a candidate to win office.
The funding of electoral campaigns has always been a controversial issue in American politics. Infringement of free speech (First Amendment) is an argument against restrictions on campaign contributions, while allegations of corruption arising from unlimited contributions and the need for political equality are arguments for the other side. Private funds are a major source of finance, from individuals and organizations. The first attempt to regulate campaign finance by legislation was in 1867, but major legislation, with the intention to widely enforce, on campaign finance was not introduced until the 1970s.
Money contributed to campaigns can be classified into "hard money '' and "soft money ''. Hard money is money contributed directly to a campaign, by an individual or organization. Soft money is money from an individual or organization not contributed to a campaign, but spent in candidate specific advertising or other efforts that benefits that candidate by groups supporting the candidate, but legally not coordinated by the official campaign.
The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 required candidates to disclose sources of campaign contributions and campaign expenditure. It was amended in 1974 to legally limit campaign contributions. It banned direct contributing to campaigns by corporations and trade unions and limited individual donations to $1,000 per campaign. It introduced public funding for Presidential primaries and elections. The Act also placed limits of $5,000 per campaign on PACs (political action committees). The limits on individual contributions and prohibition of direct corporate or labor union campaigns led to a huge increase in the number of PACs. Today many labor unions and corporations have their own PACs, and over 4,000 in total exist. The 1974 amendment also specified a Federal Election Commission, created in 1975 to administer and enforce campaign finance law. Various other provisions were also included, such as a ban on contributions or expenditures by foreign nationals (incorporated from the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) (1966)).
The case of Buckley v. Valeo (1976) challenged the Act. Most provisions were upheld, but the court found that the mandatory spending limit imposed was unconstitutional, as was the limit placed on campaign spending from the candidate 's personal fortune and the provision that limited independent expenditures by individuals and organizations supporting but not officially linked to a campaign. The effect of the first decision was to allow candidates such as Ross Perot and Steve Forbes to spend enormous amounts of their own money in their own campaigns. The effect of the second decision was to allow the culture of "soft money '' to develop.
A 1979 amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act allowed political parties to spend without limit on get - out - the - vote and voter registration activities conducted primarily for a presidential candidate. Later, they were permitted by FECA to use "soft money '', unregulated, unlimited contributions to fund this effort. Increasingly, the money began to be spent on issue advertising, candidate specific advertising that was being funded mostly by soft money.
The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 banned local and national parties from spending "soft money '' and banned national party committees from accepting or spending soft money. It increased the limit of contributions by individuals from $1,000 to $2,000. It banned corporations or labor unions from funding issue advertising directly, and banned the use of corporate or labor money for advertisements that mention a federal candidate within 60 days of a general election or 30 days of a primary. The constitutionality of the bill was challenged and in December 2003, the Supreme Court upheld most provisions of the legislation. (See McConnell v. FEC.)
A large number of "527 groups '' were active for the first time in the 2004 election. These groups receive donations from individuals and groups and then spend the money on issue advocacy, such as the anti-Kerry ads by Swift Boat Veterans For Truth. This is a new form of soft money, and not surprisingly it is controversial. Many 527 groups have close links with the Democratic or Republican Parties, even though legally they can not coordinate their activities with them. John McCain, one of the Senators behind the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, and President Bush have both declared a desire to ban 527s.
Changing campaign finance laws is a highly controversial issue. Some reformers wish to see laws changed in order to improve electoral competition and political equality. Opponents wish to see the system stay as it is, whereas other reformers wish even fewer restrictions on the freedom to spend and contribute money. The Supreme Court has made it increasingly difficult for those who wish to regulate election financing, but options like partial public funding of campaigns are still possible and offer the potential to address reformers ' concerns with minimal restrictions on the freedom to contribute.
In partisan elections, candidates are chosen by primary elections (abbreviated to "primaries '') and caucuses in the states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
A primary election is an election in which registered voters in a jurisdiction (nominating primary) select a political party 's candidate for a later election. There are various types of primary: either the whole electorate is eligible, and voters choose one party 's primary at the polling booth (an open primary); or only independent voters can choose a party 's primary at the polling booth (a semi-closed primary); or only registered members of the party are allowed to vote (closed primary). The blanket primary, when voters could vote for all parties ' primaries on the same ballot was struck down by the United States Supreme Court as violating the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of assembly in the case California Democratic Party v. Jones. Primaries are also used to select candidates at the state level, for example in gubernatorial elections.
Caucuses also nominate candidates by election, but they are very different from primaries. Caucuses are meetings that occur at precincts and involve discussion of each party 's platform and issues such as voter turnout in addition to voting. Eleven states: Iowa, New Mexico, North Dakota, Maine, Nevada, Hawaii, Minnesota, Kansas, Alaska, Wyoming, Colorado and the District of Columbia use caucuses, for one or more political parties.
The primary and caucus season in Presidential elections lasts from the Iowa caucus in January to the last primaries in June. Front - loading - when larger numbers of contests take place in the opening weeks of the season -- can have an effect on the nomination process, potentially reducing the number of realistic candidates, as fund - raisers and donors quickly abandon those they see as untenable. However, it is not the case that the successful candidate is always the candidate that does the best in the early primaries. There is also a period dubbed the "invisible primary '' that takes place before the primary season, when candidates attempt to solicit media coverage and funding well before the real primary season begins.
A state 's presidential primary election or caucus usually is an indirect election: instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for President, it determines how many delegates each party 's national political convention will receive from their respective state. These delegates then in turn select their party 's presidential nominee. Held in the summer, a political convention 's purpose is also to adopt a statement of the party 's principles and goals known as the platform and adopt the rules for the party 's activities.
The day on which primaries are held for congressional seats, and state and local offices may also vary between states. The only federally mandated day for elections is Election Day for the general elections of the President and Congress; all other elections are at the discretion of the individual state and local governments.
In most states of the U.S., the chief election officer is the Secretary of state. In some states, local officials like a county Registrar of Voters or Supervisor of Elections manages the conduct of elections under the supervision of (or in coordination with) the chief election officer of the state. Many of these state and county offices have web sites that provide information to help voters obtain information on their polling places for each election, the various districts to which they belong (e.g., house and senate districts in the state and federal legislature, school boards, water districts, municipalities, etc.), as well as dates of elections and deadlines to file to run or register to vote. Some allow voters to download a sample ballot in advance of the election.
Beyond this, various media outlets provide information they think will interest their audience.
More systematic coverage is provided by web sites devoted specifically to collecting election information and making it available to the public. Two of the better known such sites are Ballotpedia and Vote Smart. These are run by non-profit, non-partisan organizations. They have paid staffs and are much more tightly controlled than Wikipedia.
USElections.com tries to provide similar information but relies on volunteers in a way that is more like Wikipedia than Ballotpedia and Vote Smart.
The website 270towin provides actual electoral college maps (both current and historic) but also the ability to use an interactive 3d map in order to make election predictions. Ongoing election news is reported as well as data on Senate and House races.
The Center for Responsive Politics (opensecrets.org) and the National Institute on Money in State Politics (followthemoney.org) also provide useful election information focusing especially on campaign finance.
In 2014 scientists from Princeton University did a study on the influence of the "elite '', and their derived power from special interest lobbying, versus the "ordinary '' US citizen within the US political system. They found that the US was looking more like an oligarchy than a real representative democracy; thus eroding a government of the people, by the people, for the people as stated by Abraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address. In fact, the study found that average citizens had an almost nonexistent influence on public policies and that the ordinary citizen had little or no independent influence on policy at all.
There were many US presidential elections in which foreign countries manipulate the voters. Electoral College is criticised for being un-democratic (it can choose candidate who did not win the popular vote) and for focusing campaigns only on swing states.
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images of khushi in iss pyaar ko kya naam doon | Sanaya Irani - Wikipedia
Sanaya Irani (born 17 September 1983) is an Indian television actress. She is the recipient of several awards including Indian Television Academy Award and People 's Choice Awards India. She is the only Indian television actress to be listed in People Magazine 's (India) forty most beautiful women. Apart from acting, she is known for her dancing skills.
Her first major role was in the Indian youth show Miley Jab Hum Tum. She appeared in the lead role as Khushi Kumari Gupta in the highly successful show Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? opposite Barun Sobti. Afterwards, she appeared in Chhanchhan and the show Rangrasiya.
In 2015, Irani participated in Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa and became a first finalist. She later participated in Nach Baliye in 2017 with her partner Mohit Sehgal and stood as 2nd runner up.
Irani was born on 17 September 1983 in Mumbai. Irani spent seven years in a boarding school in Ooty. Following this, she graduated from Sydenham College and wanted to pursue an MBA degree but decided to become an actress. At the beginning of her career, Irani was n't fluent in Hindi and spoke of her struggles with the language on several occasions.
Irani 's first modelling portfolio was done by photographer - turned actor Boman Irani. Irani made her acting debut with a cameo in the Yash Raj Film Fanaa as Mehbooba (2006). The actress spoke about her role, "It was by accident that I got that role. It was like a dream come true for me, since Aamir Khan and Kajol are my favourite actors. '' The actress spent the year doing ad commercials with Bollywood stars like Shahrukh Khan, Kareena Kapoor and others before entering television.
Her television debut was in the SAB TV drama Left Right Left (2007) as Cadet Sameera Shroff. This was followed by a negative role in Radhaa Ki Betiyaan Kuch Kar Dikhayengi (2008) on Imagine TV.
Irani 's first lead role as a protagonist was in STAR One 's Miley Jab Hum Tum (2008 - 2010), as the simple, studious and reclusive Gunjan. She was seen opposite Mohit Sehgal, Rati Pandey and Arjun Bijlani. Irani briefly hosted the second season of Zara Nachke Dikha on STAR Plus with boyfriend Mohit Sehgal (2010). She was also seen as a panel member in Meethi Chorii No. 1 opposite Ragini Khanna (2010).
Irani has received three ' Face of The Year ' awards and was the only television actress to be included in People Magazine (India) 's forty most beautiful women. She was titled the 3rd Sexiest Asian Woman Alive.
She portrayed the bubbly and loving Khushi Kumari Gupta, the female protagonist of Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? (2011 - 2012) opposite Barun Sobti. Irani 's portrayed characters in Miley Jab Hum Tum and Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?. The show, which aired its final episode on 30 November 2012, had consistently maintained its position as one of the top ten daily dramas on Indian general entertainment channels.
In early 2013, Irani hosted Ishq Wala Love opposite Karan Grover. She later appeared as a contestant in Welcome - Baazi Mehmaan - Nawaazi ki (2013), hosted by Ram Kapoor. The actress was seen in Week One of the reality show opposite Ragini Khanna, Nigaar Khan and others. She also hosted Zee TV 's Valentine 's Day special Ishq Wala Love with Karan Grover (2013).
She played the role of a vivacious and modern girl in Chhan Chhan (2013). The show was loosely based on the Hindi movie Khubsoorat. Irani then appeared in Rangrasiya (2014) as Parvati. The show was produced by Saurabh Tiwari, head of Tequila Shots Production. The story followed a border security personnel and an orphan girl who were ideologically different. It ended in September. She was seen opposite Ashish Sharma.
In November 2014, Sanaya was approached for Bigg Boss 8 but she declined it.
Irani also participated in Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 8 in 2015 which aired on Colors. Irani portrayed the role of Khushi Kumari Gupta Singh Raizada again in its sequel mini series Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?... Ek Jashan (2015) which ended on December. In 2017, Irani participated in the dance show Nach Baliye 8 with her husband Mohit Sehgal. During Nach Baliye Sanaya & Mohit were in a controversy as fans of Divyanka Tripathi had claimed that they are the fixed winners but she lashed at the trollers on Instagram and said this is untrue.
Irani went on a U.K. tour on behalf of Star Plus. She made an appearance in Birmingham, London on April 30, 2013 and in Leicester on May 1, 2013 to have a meet and greet with fans where she was welcomed by a huge crowd. Irani visited London a second time for the Star Parivaar Live event on November 25, 2013. She visited Los Angeles, CA on December 8, 2013 to attend the Artesia Shopping Festival and have a meet and greet with fans.
In August 2013, Irani made a brief guest appearance in the dance show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa to support her best friend Drashti Dhami. She again made an appearance in the seventh season of Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa to support Ashish Sharma in June 2014. In December 2013, Irani made a special guest appearance in Bigg Boss 7 in the grand finale along with Ashish Sharma, Preetika Rao and Harshad Arora. She also made special appearance in Beintehaa in March and June 2014.
Irani announced her relationship with her co-star Mohit Sehgal from the serial Miley Jab Hum Tum on 19 November 2010, the last day of the shoot.
In December 2015, Irani got engaged to Sehgal and later on 25 January 2016, then got married in Goa.
List of Indian television actresses
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a procedure that uses wood or metal braces to reinforce trench walls is called | Shoring - wikipedia
Shoring is the process of temporarily supporting a building, vessel, structure, or trench with shores (props) when in danger of collapse or during repairs or alterations. Shoring comes from shore a timber or metal prop. Shoring may be vertical, angled, or horizontal.
Raking Shores consist of one or more timbers sloping between the face of the structure to be supported and the ground. The most effective support is given if the raker meets the wall at an angle of 60 to 70 degrees. A wall - plate is typically used to increase the area of support.
Foundations
Shoring is commonly used when installing the foundation of a building. A shoring system such as piles and lagging or shotcrete will support the surrounding loads until the underground levels of the building are constructed.
During excavation, shoring systems provide safety for workers in a trench and speeds up excavation. In this case, shoring should not be confused with shielding. Shoring is designed to prevent collapse where shielding is only designed to protect workers when collapses occur. Concrete structures shoring, in this case also referred to as falsework, provides temporary support until the concrete becomes hard and achieves the desired strength to support loads.
Hydraulic Shoring
Hydraulic shoring is the use of hydraulic pistons that can be pumped outward until they press up against the trench walls. They are typically combined with steel plate or plywood, either being 1 - 1 / 8 '' thick plywood, or special heavy Finland Form (FINFORM) 7 / 8 '' thick.
Beam and Plate
Beam and Plate steel I - beams are driven into the ground and steel plates are slid in amongst them. A similar method that uses wood planks is called soldier boarding. Hydraulics tend to be faster and easier; the other methods tend to be used for longer term applications or larger excavations.
Soil Nailing
Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are reinforced by the insertion of relatively slender elements - normally steel reinforcing bars. The bars are usually installed into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted into place or drilled and grouted simultaneously. They are usually installed untensioned at a slight downward inclination. A rigid or flexible facing (often sprayed concrete) or isolated soil nail heads may be used at the surface.
Shoring is used on board when damage has been caused to a vessel 's integrity, and to hold leak - stopping devices in place to reduce or stop incoming water. Generally consists of timber 100 mm x 100 mm and used in conjunction with wedges, to further jam shoring in place, pad pieces to spread the load and dogs to secure it together. also used on board is mechanical shoring as a quick, temporary solution, however it is n't favoured due to its inability to move with the vessel.
Square Shoring
This consists of a timber member jammed on a pad piece on either the deck or deck head depending on water levels in the compartment and a strong point, this is called the proud. Then there is a horizontal timber cut to size to fit between this and what it is shoring up, e.g. a splinter box, bulkhead or door. Timber wedges are then used to tighten up the structure if necessary
Vertical Shoring This is to support a hatch or splint box on the deck, consisting of a vertical timber between the deck and deck head, with to wedges used opposing each other to tighten it. pad pieces are used to spread the load on weak structures.
Vertical or dead shore system, typically used in formwork.
Single steel raking shore system specifically for tilt slab shoring.
Angkor Wat complex, simple combination of timber raking and dead shores.
Sketch of a timber double raking shore. Projected centre lines of floors and shores meet.
Carpentry detail of the joint at the top of a timber raking shore.
Sketch of a timber single flying shore between adjacent buildings.
Traditional trench shoring or Timbering.
Schematic sketch of a modern steel trench shore being lowered into a trench.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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who voices the prince in happily never after | Happily N'Ever After - wikipedia
Happily N'Ever After is a 2007 American - German computer - animated fantasy family film directed by Paul J. Bolger, produced by John H. Williams, written by Rob Moreland and based on the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen. The title is the opposite of a stock phrase, happily ever after; the name is contracted with an apostrophe between the N and the E. The film stars the voices of Sarah Michelle Gellar, Freddie Prinze, Jr., Andy Dick, Wallace Shawn, Patrick Warburton, Sigourney Weaver, and George Carlin in his final film appearance. The film premiered on December 16, 2006 and was theatrically released on January 5, 2007 by Lionsgate, and was released on DVD and Blu - ray on May 1, 2007 by Roadshow Entertainment. The film earned $38 million on a $47 million budget. A direct - to - video sequel, Happily N'Ever After 2: Snow White Another Bite @ the Apple, was released on March 24, 2009.
The story begins with the idea that the Wizard (George Carlin) controls all of the fairy tales and maintains the balance of good and evil in Fairy Tale Land. With the help of his assistants the uptight Munk (Wallace Shawn) and the decidedly goofy Mambo (Andy Dick), the Wizard is checking to make sure that all the fairy tales under his care are "on track '' to have their traditional happy endings. As we meet him however, the Wizard is leaving for Scotland for a long - overdue vacation. He leaves the kingdom in the hands of Munk and Mambo.
Ella is a girl who is better known as Cinderella (Sarah Michelle Gellar). She lives as a servant to her step family, dreams of the Prince (Patrick Warburton) who will sweep her off her feet. Her best friend at the palace is Rick (Freddie Prinze, Jr.), the palace dishwasher. Rick takes it upon himself to deliver the invitations to the royal ball to Ella. Ella sees Rick only as a friend, but Rick secretly loves Ella, although he is too cool and proud to admit it. Rick ca n't really understand what Ella likes about the Prince. Rick 's Three Amigos, the comic chefs (all voiced by Phil Proctor, Rob Paulsen and Tom Kenny) in the palace kitchen, believe that Rick has a bad case of "Prince envy ''. The Prince does everything by the book, and plans to meet his maiden at the ball.
However, things do n't go as planned at the ball. Thanks to the assistants, Ella 's evil stepmother, Frieda (Sigourney Weaver) gains access to the Wizard 's lair during the Prince 's ball. She manages to chase off Munk and Mambo and tip the scales of good and evil, causing a series of fairy tales to go wrong and have unhappy endings, including Jack getting stepped on by the Giant (John DiMaggio) yet surviving, Rumpelstiltskin (Michael McShane) winning his bet with the miller 's daughter (Jill Talley) and taking her baby, and the unseen demise of Little Red Riding Hood. She summons an army of Trolls, witches (Tress MacNeille and Jill Talley), three Big Bad Wolves (Jon Polito and Tom Kenny), the Giant (John DiMaggio), and Rumpelstiltskin to her castle. Ella finds out and escapes to the woods where she meets Munk and Mambo. The trio set out to find the prince who has goes looking for his maiden (not knowing it was actually Ella) in hopes that he will defeat Frieda and save the day.
Together, they flee to the Seven Dwarfs (all played by Tom Kenny and John DiMaggio) home. Witches and trolls led by The Ice Queen attack them. The Seven Dwarfs hold off the trolls, while they flee with the help of Rick who had stolen a flying broom. Frieda decides to go after Ella herself. She succeeds in capturing her and returns to the palace, with Rick, Munk and Mambo in pursuit. Frieda tortures Ella because if the story had run its course she would have married the prince while Frieda would never get anywhere in life. Rick, Munk, and Mambo slip into the castle and attack Frieda. During the fight, Frieda generates a pit in the floor. Mambo knocks her in, but she uses her staff to fly back up again. After a short battle, in which Rick takes a blast meant for Ella and falls into a deep sleep, Frieda creates a portal by accident. Ella knocks Frieda back and punches her into the portal. Rick awakes from the spell and he and Ella kiss, finally admitting their feelings for each other.
Ella and her true love Rick decide to choose their destinies in a world of happy endings and get married. Rumpelstiltskin has shown throughout the movie that he has come to care for the baby and the miller 's daughter lets him stay in the castle as the baby 's nanny. The Wizard returns from vacation where he was n't told about what happened while he was away.
In the final scene, Frieda is shown trapped in the Arctic surrounded by elephant seals.
Additional voices include Lee Arenberg, John Cygan, Robert Bergen, Jennifer Darling, Debi Derryberry, Patti Deutsch, Shae D'Lyn, Andrew Dolan, Bill Farmer, Jack Fletcher, Roger L. Jackson, Sherry Lynn, Mickie McGowan, Natalie Nassar, Laraine Newman, Jan Rabson, Kevin Michael Richardson, Jim Ward and April Winchell.
The film was theatrically released on January 5, 2007 by Lionsgate and was released on DVD and Blu - ray on May 1, 2007 by Roadshow Entertainment.
Rotten Tomatoes reports that 4 % of 79 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review. The critical consensus is: "Happily N'Ever After has none of the moxy, edge or postmodern wit of the other fairy - tales - gone - haywire CG movie it so blatantly rips off. ''
The film opened # 6 behind Dreamgirls, Freedom Writers, Children of Men, The Pursuit of Happyness, and Night at the Museum, which was at its third week at the # 1 position. The film made $6,608,244 during its opening weekend. The film made a total of $15,589,393 at the US box office and $15,300,096 foreign, grossing a worldwide total of only $30,889,489, on a $47 million budget. By August 2010, the movie has grossed $38,085,778 worldwide, making it a box office letdown. It made $16,666,054 in DVD sales in the United States.
A direct - to - video sequel, Happily N'Ever After 2: Snow White Another Bite @ the Apple, was released on March 24, 2009.
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who said let them freeze in the dark | National Energy Program - Wikipedia
The National Energy Program (NEP) was an energy policy of the Government of Canada from 1980 to 1985. It was created under the Liberal government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau by Minister of Energy Marc Lalonde in 1980, and administered by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources.
In his preamble to the announcement of the National Energy Program, introduced as part of the October 1980 federal budget, Finance Minister Allan MacEachen echoed concerns by leaders of developed countries globally regarding the recession following the two oil crises of the 1970s and the "deeply troubling air of uncertainty and anxiety '' shared by Canadians. The Bank of Canada reported on economic problems that were accelerated and magnified. Inflation was most commonly between 9 and 10 percent annually and prime interest rates over 10 percent.
"... ever since the oil crisis of 1973 industrial countries have had to struggle with the problems of inflation and stubbornly high rates of unemployment. In 1979 the world was shaken by a second major oil shock. For the industrial world this has meant a sharp renewal of inflationary forces and real income losses. For the developing world this second oil shock has been a major tragedy. Their international deficits are now three to four times the sum they receive in aid from the rest of the world... They are not just Canadian problems... they are world - wide problems. At the Venice Summit and at meetings of Finance Ministers of the IMF and OECD, we have seen these new themes emerge. ''
Historically, the United States had been by far the world 's largest oil producer, and the world oil market had been dominated by a small number of giant multinational (mostly American) oil companies (the so - called "Seven Sisters of oil '': Standard Oil of New Jersey, alias Exxon (US); Standard Oil of New York, alias Mobil (US / UK); Standard Oil of California, alias Chevron (US), Gulf Oil, now part of Chevron (US); Texaco, now part of Chevron (US); Anglo - Persian Oil Company, alias BP (UK); and Royal Dutch Shell, alias Shell (UK / Netherlands). During the late 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, the discovery and development of a large number of giant oil and gas fields outside of the United States by these and other companies kept the world flooded with cheap oil. At the same time, global demand increased to take advantage of the increased global supply at lower prices. In particular, American oil consumption increased faster than American production, and the US, which had previously been a net oil exporter, became a major oil importer.
In 1970, US oil production unexpectedly peaked and started to decline, causing global oil markets to tighten rapidly as the US started to import more and more Arab oil. As the decade continued, global demand caught up with global supply, and there were two major oil price shocks: the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 oil crisis. The first occurred when the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) (whose membership consists of the Arab members of the similarly - named Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), plus Egypt, Syria, and Tunisia) imposed an embargo on oil exports to the US, the UK, the Netherlands, Japan, and Canada in retaliation for those countries ' support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War. US producers had been able to defeat the previous 1967 oil embargo by ramping up domestic production, flooding the world market with additional product at cut - rate prices, but declining domestic production combined with the ongoing rise in global demand made a similar response to the 1973 Arab embargo impossible. The result was immediate shortages and lineups for gasoline in the importing countries, particularly the US, signaling the end of decades of cheap oil and a change in the balance of power from the consuming countries (which now included the United states) to the producing countries. On October 16, 1973, the Ministerial Committee of the Persian Gulf OPEC membership announced an immediate rise in their posted price from $2.18 to $5.12 per barrel of oil. "Thus for the first time in oil history, the producing countries assumed power to consider and set the oil price unilaterally, and independently of the '' Seven Sisters.
The Yom Kippur war ended in October, but the price of oil continued to increase, and by January 1974 it had quadrupled to US $12 a barrel. "The more than seven-fold increase in the oil price from $1.80 / b in 1970 to $13.54 / b in 1978 created profound and far reaching changes in the world oil balance, as well as the prevailing relationships among major oil producers, principal oil importers, and the major oil companies... (and the) spectacular jump of the crude spot price to more than $ US40 / b following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, turned the global oil market into total disarray. '' Norwegian economics historian Ola Honningdal Grytten described this period in the 1970s as one of a prolonged global recession and slow growth that affected most developed economies.
The 1979 oil crisis, precipitated by the Iranian Revolution and compounded by the Iran -- Iraq War, was the second major market disturbance of the 1970s. "The curtailment of oil supplies and the skyrocketing of oil prices had far - reaching effects on producers, consumers, and the oil industry itself. ''
In his State of the Union Address in January 1980 President Jimmy Carter described how United States ' "excessive dependence on foreign oil is a clear and present danger '', and he called for a "clear, comprehensive energy policy for the United States ''.
The Canadian petroleum industry arose in parallel with that of the United States. The first oil well in North America was dug in Ontario in 1848 using picks and shovels, the year before the first oil well in the United States was drilled in Pennsylvania. By 1870 Canada had 100 oil refineries in operation and was exporting oil to Europe. However, the oil fields of Ontario were shallow and small, and oil production started to decline around 1900, at the same time as the automobile started to become popular. In contrast, oil production in the United States grew rapidly after huge discoveries were made in Texas, Oklahoma, California and elsewhere. By the end of World War II, Canada was importing 90 % of its oil, most of it from the United States.
The situation changed dramatically in 1947, when Imperial Oil drilled a well near Leduc, Alberta, to see what was causing peculiar anomalies on its newly introduced reflection seismology surveys. The peculiar anomalies turned out to be oil fields, and Leduc No. 1 was the discovery well for the first of many large oil fields. As a consequence of these large finds, cheap and plentiful Alberta oil produced a huge surplus of oil on the Canadian Prairies, which had no immediate market since the major oil markets were in Ontario and Quebec. In 1949, Imperial Oil applied to the federal government to build the Interprovincial Pipeline (IPL) to Lake Superior, which allowed it to supply the US Midwestern United States. By 1956 the pipeline was extended via Sarnia, Ontario, to Toronto and became, at 3,100 kilometres (1,900 mi) the longest oil pipeline in the world. In the other direction, the federal government gave approval to build a pipeline west, and in 1953 the 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) Transmountain Pipeline was built from Edmonton to Vancouver, British Columbia, with an extension to Seattle, Washington. The pipelines did more to improve the energy security of the United States than that of Canada; the Canadian government was more interested in Canada 's trade balance than in military or energy security. The Canadian government assumed that eastern Canada could always import enough oil to meet its needs, and that imported oil would always be cheaper than domestic oil.
The National Energy Board (NEB) was created in 1959 "to monitor and report on all federal matters of energy as well as regulate pipelines, energy imports and exports and utility rates and tariffs ''. The NEB regulated mostly the construction and operation of oil and natural gas pipelines crossing provincial or international borders. The Board approved pipeline traffic, tolls and tariffs under the authority of the National Energy Board Act.
From its introduction in 1961 to its end in September 1973, the National Oil Policy (NOP), was the cornerstone of Canadian energy policy. The NOP "established a protected market for domestic oil west of the Ottawa Valley, which freed the industry from foreign competition '', while the five eastern provinces, which included major refineries in Ontario and Quebec, continued to rely on foreign imports of crude oil, for example from Venezuela. In 1973 "the federal government announced the extension of the inter-provincial oil pipeline to Montreal (completed in 1976), froze prices of domestic crude and certain oil products, and sought to control export prices. The federal government announced this change in policy so that supply problems in the United States would not automatically raise prices for Canadian consumers. '' After the first OPEC price shock in 1973 the federal government "formally broke the link between domestic prices and international prices. The objective of ' made - in - Canada ' prices for crude oil was to protect Canadians across the country from the whims of the world oil market and to provide producers with enough incentives to develop new energy resources. ''
In 1981, Edmonton eonomist Brian Scarfe claimed that the NEB setting the price of oil and natural gas in Canada meant that producers did not receive full world prices for the resource and consumers were not charged world prices. He claimed that these subsidies had a number of side effects, including larger trade deficits, larger federal budget deficits, higher real interest rates, and higher inflation.
In 1974, Canada inaugurated its first system for pricing oil, with three objectives: to regulate prices of domestic crude oil through federal - provincial agreements, to subsidize imported oil so that consumers in eastern Canada would enjoy lower prices, and to control prices and quantities of crude oil and products in the export market. Synthetic crude oil (upgraded petroleum from oil sands) was exempted from this policy and sold at the world price. The federal government levied a tax on all oil refined in Canada to pay for the difference between the prices of synthetic and conventional crude oil.
The Canadian federal budget of October 1980 reflected the concern that Canada could "become increasingly dependent on insecure foreign supplies and, therefore, unnecessarily subject to the vagaries of the world oil market. ''
On 28 October 1980, the Minister of Finance, Allan J. MacEachen, introduced the National Energy Program but cautioned that things could get worse if there were "new shocks coming from the price of oil or food or if the upward momentum of costs and prices proves impervious to the economic climate I am seeking to create. ''
"The new energy policy limits the rise in prices of oil and gas to domestic consumers and thus continues to protect us from the violent shocks of OPEC price increases. It strengthens our specific measures to promote the most economical use of energy and in particular the displacement of oil by other fuels. It provides new impetus to the development of new sources of supply, through direct government programs and through new incentives of particular value to Canadian - owned producers. Energy policy is only the most urgent element of our new strategy. Renewed growth in productivity and lower costs are needed throughout the economy. Within the overall expenditure plan which I will lay before the House, we have assigned clear priority to economic development. ''
In 1975 the federal government created Petro - Canada, a Crown Corporation of Canada and national oil company in response to the world energy crisis. Petro - Canada was involved in the big Hibernia oil find off Newfoundland and was a partner in the Syncrude oil sands venture in Fort McMurray, Alberta. At that time the Alberta oil industry was overwhelmingly owned by Americans. The United States was also the major importer of Albertan oil. The Petro - Canada Centre (1975 -- 2009) was known in the oil patch as "Red Square '' until it was purchased by Suncor. The NEP included plans for a "greatly expanded Petro - Canada ''
The goals of the Program were "security of supply and ultimate independence from the world oil market; opportunity for all Canadians to participate in the energy industry; particularly oil and gas, and to share in the benefits of its expansion; and fairness, with a pricing and revenue - sharing regime which recognizes the needs and rights of all Canadians. ''
The NEP was designed to promote oil self - sufficiency for Canada, maintain the oil supply, particularly for the industrial base in eastern Canada, promote Canadian ownership of the energy industry, promote lower prices, promote exploration for oil in Canada, promote alternative energy sources, and increase government revenues from oil sales through a variety of taxes and agreements.
The NEP 's Petroleum Gas Revenue Tax (PGRT) instituted a double - taxation mechanism that did not apply to other commodities, such as gold and copper (see "Program details '' item (c), below). The program would "... redistribute revenue from the (oil) industry and lessen the cost of oil for Eastern Canada... '' in an attempt to insulate the Canadian economy from the shock of rising global oil prices (see "Program details '' item (a), below). In 1981 Scarfe argued that by keeping domestic oil prices below world market prices, the NEP was essentially mandating provincial generosity and subsidizing all Canadian consumers of fuel, thanks to Alberta and the other oil producing provinces (such as Newfoundland, which as a result of the NEP received funding for the Hibernia project).
The National Energy Program "had three principles: (1) security of supply and ultimate independence from the world market, (2) opportunity for all Canadians to participate in the energy industry, particularly oil and gas, and to share in the benefits of its expansion, and (3) fairness, with a pricing and revenue - sharing regime which recognizes the needs and rights of all Canadians. ''
"The main elements of the program included:
(a) a blended or ' made - in - Canada ' price of oil, an average of the costs of imported and domestic oil, which will rise gradually and predictably but will remain well below world prices and will never be more than 85 per cent of the lower of the price of imported oil or of oil in the US, and which will be financed by a Petroleum Compensation Charge levied on refiners...;
(b) natural gas prices which will increase less quickly than oil prices, but which will include a new and rising federal tax on all natural gas and gas liquids;
(c) a petroleum and gas revenue tax of 8 per cent applied to net operating revenues before royalty and other expense deductions on all production of oil and natural gas in Canada...;
(d) the phasing out of the depletion allowances for oil and gas exploration and development, which will be replaced with a new system of direct incentive payments, structured to encourage investment by Canadian companies, with added incentives for exploration on Canada Lands (lands which the federal government held the mineral rights as opposed to private lands and lands which provinces held the mineral rights);
(e) a federal share of petroleum production income at the wellhead which will rise from about 10 per cent in recent years to 24 per cent over the 1980 - 83 period, with the share of the producing provinces falling from 45 to 43 per cent and that of the industry falling from 45 to 33 per cent over the same period;
(f) added incentives for energy conservation and energy conversion away from oil, particularly applicable to Eastern Canada, including the extension of the natural gas pipe - line system to Quebec City and the maritimes, with the additional transport charges being passed back to the producer; and
(g) a Canadian ownership levy to assist in financing the acquisition of the Canadian operations of one or more multinational oil companies, with the objective of achieving at least 50 per cent Canadian ownership of oil and gas production by 1990, Canadian control of a significant number of the major oil and gas corporations, and an early increase in the share of the oil and gas sector owned by the Government of Canada. ''
In the early 1980s, the global economy deepened into the worst economic downturn since the Great Depression. Canada, along with all of the economies of Europe (except for Norway due to their petroleum industry) and the economy of the United States, fell into a worldwide recession.
National Post journalist Jen Gerson would state that "the NEP was considered by Albertans to be among the most unfair federal policies ever implemented. Scholars calculated the program cost Alberta between $50 and $100 billion. ''
In 1981, Trudeau and Lougheed signed "an oil and gas prices and revenue sharing '' agreement, marking an end to "long bitter dispute. ''
"The agreement sets a series of price increases for old oil starting with a $2.50 a barrel increase on October 1, 1981 and "generous '' near world prices for new oil, effective January 1, 1982, which will see an estimated wellhead price of $49.22 per barrel by July 1, 1982. New oil is defined as oil from pools initially discovered after December 31, 1980. It includes new conventional oil found in Alberta, synthetic oil, including existing production from the SUNCOR and SYNCRUDE plants, and new oil from Canada lands... At their press conference Tuesday, the leaders of both parties estimated the deal is worth an approximate $212.8 billion in revenues to Ottawa, Alberta and the petroleum industry over the next five years. An estimate of the revenue share compared to the NEP proposal indicated the federal government will receive $14 billion more than in the NEP schedule, the industry will receive $10 billion more and Alberta will receive $8 billion more. According to Lalonde, in percentage terms compared to the NEP, Ottawa 's share will rise from 24 % to 29 %, Alberta 's share will rise to 34 % from 33 %, and industry 's share will drop from 43 % to 33 % aver the life of the agreement. Lougheed said because of the pact industry will receive about 25 % more cash flow due to the two - tier new and old pricing scheme, which represents an improvement in cash flow of at least $2 billion for each year of the agreement. ''
Helliwell et al. (1983) reported that energy price declines of the early 1980s prompted the federal and provincial governments to update their revenue sharing agreements. The amended agreements allowed for $4.2 billion in higher revenues ($1.7 billion federal government, $1.2 billion each for provincial government and industry), which was 30 per cent of the increase that would have been gained from going to world prices. According to Helliwell et al., under the NEP, industry was in fact not significantly exposed to the declining global oil prices but rather the largest part of direct revenue losses accrued to governments, meaning that the industry operated throughout the period of the NEP under relatively similar oil prices, the ' made - in - Canada ' price of oil (see item (a) in National Energy Program Details, above).
In 1981 Edmonton Economist Scarfe argued that the greatest impact was the NEP 's failure to deliver the revenues forecast originally in the 1980 federal budget. The 1980 federal government budget introduced by Minister of Finance Allan MacEachen projected a reduction of federal deficits from $14.2 billion in 1980 to $11.8 billion in fiscal 1984 due primarily to substantial increases in revenues from the oil and gas sector while maintaining expenditures. Scarfe speculated the NEP would discourage large - scale oil investment projects and thus reduce these projected revenues. Federal deficits had been expected to decrease primarily due to substantial increases in revenues from the oil and gas sector. Instead, by 1983 the Department of Finance had concluded that the federal government had established a structural deficit of $29.7 billion, an increase from 3.5 per cent of GNP in 1980 to 6.2 per cent of GNP in 1983.
Canada experienced higher inflation, interest rates and underemployment than the United States during this recession. The bank of Canada rate hit 21 % in August 1981, and the inflation rate averaged more than 12 %. According to the Bank of Canada, during this inflationary period, Canadians sought to protect themselves through investment in the housing market. Some saw an advantage to high interest rates through speculation in real estate and other assets. This increase in transactions was financed through borrowing and ultimately caused debt levels to rise. In the early 1980s, Canada 's unemployment rate peaked at 12 %. It took almost four years for the number of full - time jobs to be restored.
As cited in a report by Phillips, Hager and North, the U.S. Office of the Federal Housing Oversight (OFHEO) reported overall declines in real estate prices of between 10 % and 15 % from 1980 through 1985. That same report presents information from the Canadian Real Estate Association (CREA) showing that during those years (1980 -- 1985) most eastern Canadian markets fell 10 % - 15 % and the Toronto market held relatively steady. In contrast, the CREA historical data shows a decline from 1980 through to 1985 of approximately 20 % for Vancouver, Saskatoon and Winnipeg while the drop approached 40 % in the oil dominated economies of Edmonton and Calgary, yet through those years oil prices were still historically high (see figure Long - Term Oil Prices, 1861 -- 2007).
Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the retail price of petroleum in Canada consistently remained close to the price of gasoline in the United States (and at oftentimes lower than prices seen in the U.S., especially during the price spikes of the 1970s). Following NEP (which raised the price of fuel in the West and coincided with a hike in provincial gas taxes in Ontario and Quebec), the retail price of gasoline in Canada became noticeably higher than in the U.S. (a trend which continues to this day).
In 1982 during the severe worldwide economic depression, there were over 30,000 consumer bankruptcies in Canada, a 33 % increase over the previous year. The bankruptcy rate began to fall from 1983 to 1985 as the economy strengthened. For the period 1980 through 1985, bankruptcies per 1,000 businesses in Canada peaked at 50 % above the 1980 rate.
During that same time the bankruptcy rate in Alberta 's economy rose by 150 % after the NEP took effect despite those years being amongst the most expensive for oil prices on record (see figure Long - Term Oil Prices, 1861 -- 2007).
Given that bankruptcies and real estate prices did not fare as negatively in Central Canada as in the rest of Canada and the United States during the NEP, it is possible that the NEP had a positive effect in Central Canada.
Furthermore, given that bankruptcies and real estate did much worse in Alberta than in other parts of Canada and the United States, petroleum exporting economies like Norway performed well, coupled with the estimated loss of between $50 and $100 billion in provincial GDP (at the time, this was an entire year 's GDP for the province) due to the NEP during this period, it is unquestionable that the NEP had a negative effect in Alberta.
The key areas of GDP, per capita federal contributions (since this was a federal program), housing prices and bankruptcy rates during the years of the NEP (1980 -- 1985) are examined in this section. For housing prices and bankruptcy rates, the experience of Alberta in particular is contrasted to the other regions of the country in an attempt to see whether the problems experienced due to the early 1980s recession were worse in Alberta perhaps due to the NEP.
Alberta GDP was between $60 billion and $80 billion annually through the years of the NEP, 1980 to 1986. While it is unclear whether the estimates took into account the decline in world crude oil prices that began only a few months after the NEP came into force, the graph of long - term oil prices show that prices adjusted for inflation did not drop below pre-1980s levels until 1985. Given that the program was cancelled in 1986, the NEP was active for five years which are amongst the most expensive for oil prices on record and the NEP prevented Alberta 's economy from fully realising those prices.
In inflation adjusted 2004 dollars, the year the NEP took effect (1980) per capita fiscal contributions by Alberta to the federal government increased 77 % over 1979 levels - from $6,578 in 1979 to $11,641 in 1980. In the five years prior to the NEP (1975 -- 1979), the per capita contributions by Alberta had approximated the fluctuations in the price of oil (see graph Fluctuations: Oil Prices & Alberta Per Capita Federal Contributions 1975 - 1981). In 1980, however, the inflation adjusted average price of oil was only 5 % higher than the previous year yet the per capita contributions from Alberta rose 77 % (see graph Fluctuations: Oil Prices & Alberta Per Capita Federal Contributions 1975 - 1981). Again in inflation adjusted 2004 dollars, the year the NEP was terminated (1986) per capita contributions to the federal government by Alberta collapsed to $680, a mere 10 % of 1979 levels.
During the NEP years, 1980 -- 1985, only one other province was a net contributor per capita to the federal government. It was Saskatchewan, another oil producer. In 1980 and 1981 Saskatchewan was a net per capita contributor to the federal government with their peak in 1981 at a mere $514 in comparison to Alberta 's peak of $12,735 that same year, both values being 2004 inflation adjusted dollars. Thus, during the NEP years from 1980 to 1985 the province of Alberta was the sole overall net contributor to the federal government while all other provinces enjoyed being net recipients.
In around 1970 Norway started to become an oil dominated export economy comparable to Alberta. As with most of the world 's manufacturing economies, Norway 's manufacturing experienced recession beginning in the 1970s. However, in the late 1970s the rise in oil prices saw Norway 's oil exports grow and provide the nation with a trade surplus (see figure North Sea Oil Prices and Norway 's Trade Balance, 1975 -- 2000).
According to Grytten, "Norway saw de-industrialization at a more rapid pace than most of her largest trading partners. Due to the petroleum sector, however, Norway experienced high growth rates in all the three last decades of the twentieth century, bringing Norway to the top of the world GDP per capita list at the dawn of the new millennium. ''
Thus, not all oil based economies suffered as Alberta did during the global slowdown of the early 1980s. Norway experienced an economic boom during the NEP years thanks to the historically high oil prices (see figure Long - Term Oil Prices, 1861 -- 2007). The economic boom of the early 1980s in Norway lasted until the price of oil collapsed in late 1985 just before the NEP was terminated (see figure North Sea Oil Prices and Norway 's Trade Balance, 1975 -- 2000).
The NEP was extremely unpopular in Western Canada, especially in Alberta where most of Canada 's oil is produced. With natural resources falling constitutionally within the domain of provincial jurisdictions, many Albertans viewed the NEP as a detrimental intrusion by the federal government into the province 's affairs. Edmonton economist Scarfe argued that in Western Canada -- and Alberta especially -- the NEP was perceived to be at their expense in benefiting the eastern provinces. Particularly vilified was Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, whose Liberals did n't hold a seat west of Manitoba. Ed Clark, a senior bureaucrat in the Trudeau Liberal government, helped develop the National Energy Program earning himself the moniker "Red Ed '' in the Alberta oil industry. Shortly after Brian Mulroney took office, Clark was fired.
Petro - Canada, established in 1976, was responsible for implementing much of the Program. Petro - Canada was backronymed to "Pierre Elliott Trudeau Rips Off Canada '' by opponents of the National Energy Program.
According to Mary Elizabeth Vicente, an Edmonton librarian who wrote an article on the National Energy Program in 2005, the popular western slogan during the NEP -- appearing on many bumper stickers -- was "Let the Eastern bastards freeze in the dark ''.
McKenzie argued in 1981 that politically the NEP heightened distrust of the federal government in Western Canada, especially in Alberta where many Albertans believed that the NEP was an intrusion of the federal government into an area of provincial jurisdiction.
According to a National Post journalist,
"The anger and alienation of this era would provide much of the fuel behind the rise of Reform and Canadian Alliance parties, becoming the Conservative party that rules Ottawa today. The anger and alienation of Albertans also led Mr. Lougheed to oppose many of Mr. Trudeau 's proposed plans for the Constitution Act of 1982; he argued against granting Ontario and Quebec veto powers, fought for provincial resource rights and insisted on the notwithstanding clause.
The rationale for the program weakened when world oil prices began to slowly decline in the early 1980s and then collapsed in late 1985 (see figure Long - Term Oil Prices, 1861 -- 2007). A phased shutdown was commenced by Jean Chrétien while he was Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources.
In the 1984 election the Progressive Conservative Party of Brian Mulroney was elected to a majority in the House of Commons with the support of Western Canada after campaigning against the NEP. However, Mulroney did not eliminate the last vestiges of the program until two and a half years later, at which time world oil prices had dropped below pre-1980s levels (as adjusted for inflation - see figure Long - Term Oil Prices, 1861 -- 2007).
In 1985, the Western Accord deregulated "domestic oil prices. The accord abolished import subsidies, the export tax on crude and oil products, and the petroleum compensation charge. It also phased out PIP grants and the PGRT. In addition, controls were lifted on oil exports. ''
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who sings the song everybody wants to rule the world | Everybody Wants to Rule the World - wikipedia
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' is a song by English band Tears for Fears. Originally released in the UK on 22 March 1985 it was the band 's ninth single release in the United Kingdom and the third from their second LP Songs from the Big Chair. It was their seventh UK Top 30 chart hit, peaking at number two in April 1985, and thus becoming the group 's highest - charting UK single. In the US, it was the lead single from the album and gave the band their first Billboard Hot 100 number - one hit on 8 June 1985, remaining there for two weeks. It also reached number one on both the Hot Dance Club Play and Hot Dance Music / Maxi - Singles Sales charts in the US. The song has since become the pinnacle of Tears for Fears ' chart success.
In 1986, the song won "Best Single '' at the Brit Awards.
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' was somewhat of an afterthought during the recording of Songs from the Big Chair. According to Roland Orzabal, he initially regarded the song as a lightweight that would not fit with the rest of the album. Originally, the lyrics of the song were "everybody wants to go to war '', which Orzabal felt was lacklustre. It was producer Chris Hughes who convinced him to try recording it, in a calculated effort to gain American chart success.
It was written and recorded in two weeks and was the final track to be added to the Songs from the Big Chair album. The shuffle beat was alien to our normal way of doing things. It was jolly rather than square and rigid in the manner of ' Shout ', but it continued the process of becoming more extrovert.
The concept is quite serious -- it 's about everybody wanting power, about warfare and the misery it causes.
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' is a new wave song set in the key of D major with a time signature and a tempo of 112 beats per minute. The band have stated that the driving shuffle rhythm was influenced by Simple Minds ' "Waterfront '', released in 1983.
As was the case with the three hit singles from Tears for Fears ' debut LP The Hurting, the song featured bassist Curt Smith on lead vocals.
In 1986, the song won "Best Single '' at the Brit Awards. Band member and co-writer Roland Orzabal argued that the song deserved to win the Ivor Novello International Hit of the Year award, claiming that the winner -- "19 '' by Paul Hardcastle -- was not an actual song, but only a "dialogue collage ''.
In 2015, 30 years after its release, the song was honoured at the annual BMI Awards in London for achieving 6 million radio airplays.
"Pharaohs '' is the B - side to the "Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' single. It is a slower, largely instrumental variation of "Everybody Wants To Rule The World '', featuring a recording of BBC Radio 4 announcer Brian Perkins reading the Shipping Forecast for the sea lanes around the United Kingdom (see below). The title of the song is a play on the name of the Faroe Islands ("Faroes ''), one of the places referenced in the forecast. This is one of the few songs in the Tears for Fears catalogue on which founding member Curt Smith shares a writing credit. The song has since been included in the band 's 1996 B - sides and rarities collection Saturnine Martial & Lunatic, as well as the remastered and deluxe edition reissues of Songs from the Big Chair. "Pharaohs '' is also included on the Groove Armada compilation album Back to Mine.
No matter how horrifying the conditions may really be, the voice reading the shipping forecast is deliberately calm and relaxed. Recorded at the Wool Hall for the B - side of ' Everybody ' in a calm and relaxed way.
"Pharaohs '' shipping forecast read by Brian Perkins (BBC Radio 4, c. 1984):
There are warnings of gales in Viking, Forties, Cromarty, Forth, Fisher, Dover, Wight, Portland, Plymouth, Finisterre, Sole, Lundy, Fastnet, Shannon, Rockall, Malin, Hebrides, Bailey, Fair Isle, Faroes and Southeast Iceland. The general synopsis at one eight double - O: low just north of Viking, nine double - seven, moving steadily east - northeast. Low 300 miles south of Iceland. Atlantic low forming, moving steadily northeast. A ridge of high pressure has swayed between North and South Utsire. The area forecast for the next twenty - four hours. Viking, Forties, Cromarty, Forth.
The promotional clip for "Everybody Wants to Rule the World '', filmed in early 1985, was the third Tears for Fears clip directed by music video producer Nigel Dick. It features Curt Smith driving an antique Austin - Healey 3000 sports car around numerous Southern California locales, including Salton Sea and Cabazon. Interspersed with these clips are shots of the full band performing the song in a London studio. Along with the clip for "Shout '', the "Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' video had a big hand in helping establish Tears for Fears in America, due to its heavy amount of play on the music video channel MTV.
The single was released on a wide variety of formats in the United Kingdom, including a standard 7 ", a 7 '' double pack, two separate 12 '' versions, and a 10 '' single.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"Everybody Wants to Run the World '' is a re-recording of the "Everybody Wants to Rule the World ''. The reworked single was released in 1986 to promote the Sport Aid campaign, a charitable event held to raise money for famine relief in Africa. It was a success in the UK Singles Chart, becoming the band 's sixth top 5 hit, peaking at number 5 in June 1986. The song also reached number 4 in Ireland.
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' has seen relatively few remixes. Extended, instrumental, and "urban mix '' versions were done by producer Chris Hughes for inclusion on the single 's various 7 '' and 12 '' releases. The only other remix of note was one done by electronica act The Chosen Few, included on the 2004 reissue of the greatest hits compilation Tears Roll Down (Greatest Hits 82 -- 92). A version labelled as the 7 '' version is included on the 2006 remaster of Songs from the Big Chair, but is actually the album version.
New Zealand singer Lorde recorded a cover of the song for The Hunger Games: Catching Fire -- Original Motion Picture Soundtrack in addition to the Epix promo for the premiere of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire. The cover was produced by Peter Shurkin and Natalie Baartz with arrangement by Michael A. Levine and Lucas Cantor. It was later used in the cinematic trailer of Assassin 's Creed Unity at E3 2014, the "Rule the World '' trailer celebrating the fifteenth anniversary of the Creative Assembly 's Total War video game series, promotional videos for the new network BBC First and 2015 BBC TV series Banished, the 2014 ABC show How to Get Away with Murder, season 4 of Homeland, season 1 finale of The Royals, in Sky Sports F1 's coverage of the 2014 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix and in the trailer for the 2014 film Dracula Untold. Her cover appeared on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 14. It reached number 53 in Australia, number 65 in the UK, number 93 in France, and number 27 on the US Hot Rock Songs chart.
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who plays the lead role in phantom of the opera | The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical) - wikipedia
The Phantom of the Opera is a musical with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Charles Hart and Richard Stilgoe. Lloyd Webber and Stilgoe also wrote the musical 's book together. Based on the French novel Le Fantôme de l'Opéra by Gaston Leroux, its central plot revolves around a beautiful soprano, Christine Daaé, who becomes the obsession of a mysterious, disfigured musical genius living in the subterranean labyrinth beneath the Opera Populaire.
The musical opened in London 's West End in 1986, and on Broadway in 1988. It won the 1986 Olivier Award and the 1988 Tony Award for Best Musical, and Michael Crawford (in the title role) won the Olivier and Tony Awards for Best Actor in a Musical. It is the longest running show in Broadway history by a wide margin, and celebrated its 10,000 th Broadway performance on 11 February 2012, the first production ever to do so. It is the second longest - running West End musical, after Les Misérables, and the third longest - running West End show overall, after The Mousetrap.
With total estimated worldwide gross receipts of over $ 5.6 billion and total Broadway gross of $845 million, Phantom was the most financially successful entertainment event until The Lion King surpassed it in 2014. By 2011, it had been seen by over 130 million people in 145 cities across 27 countries, and continues to play in London and New York.
In 1984, Lloyd Webber contacted Cameron Mackintosh, the co-producer of Cats and Song and Dance, to propose a new musical. He was aiming for a romantic piece, and suggested Gaston Leroux 's book The Phantom of the Opera as a basis. They screened both the 1925 Lon Chaney and the 1943 Claude Rains motion picture versions, but neither saw an effective way to make the leap from film to stage. Later, in New York, Lloyd Webber found a second - hand copy of the original, long - out - of - print Leroux novel, which supplied the necessary inspiration to develop a musical: "I was actually writing something else at the time, and I realised that the reason I was hung up was because I was trying to write a major romantic story, and I had been trying to do that ever since I started my career. Then with the Phantom, it was there! ''
Lloyd Webber first approached Jim Steinman to write the lyrics because of his "dark obsessive side '', but he declined in order to fulfill his commitments on a Bonnie Tyler album. Alan Jay Lerner was then recruited, but he became seriously ill after joining the project and was forced to withdraw; none of his contributions (mostly involving the song "Masquerade '') are credited in the show. Richard Stilgoe, the lyricist for Starlight Express, wrote most of the original lyrics for the production. Charles Hart, a young and then - relatively unknown lyricist, later rewrote many of the lyrics, along with original lyrics for "Think of Me ''. Some of Stilgoe 's original contributions are still present in the final version, however.
Inspired in part by an earlier musical version of the same story by Ken Hill, Lloyd Webber 's score is sometimes operatic in style but maintains the form and structure of a musical throughout. The full - fledged operatic passages are reserved principally for subsidiary characters such as Andre and Firmin, Carlotta, and Piangi. They are also used to provide the content of the fictional "operas '' that are taking place within the show itself, viz., Hannibal, Il Muto, and the Phantom 's masterwork, Don Juan Triumphant. "Here, Lloyd Webber pastiched various styles from the grand operas of Meyerbeer through to Mozart and even Gilbert and Sullivan. '' These pieces are often presented as musical fragments, interrupted by dialogue or action sequences in order to clearly define the musical 's "show within a show '' format. The musical extracts from the Phantom 's opera, "Don Juan Triumphant '', during the latter stages of the show, are dissonant and modern -- "suggesting, perhaps, that the Phantom is ahead of his time artistically ''.
Maria Björnson designed the sets and over 200 costumes, including the elaborate gowns in the "Masquerade '' sequence. Her set designs, including the chandelier, subterranean gondola, and sweeping staircase, earned her multiple awards. Hal Prince, director of Cabaret, Candide, Follies, and Lloyd Webber 's Evita, directed the production, while Gillian Lynne, associate director and choreographer of Cats, provided the integral musical staging and choreography.
A preview of the first act was staged at Sydmonton (Lloyd Webber 's home) in 1985, starring Colm Wilkinson (later the star of the Toronto production) as the Phantom, Sarah Brightman as Kristin (later Christine), and Clive Carter (later a member of the London cast) as Raoul. This very preliminary production used Richard Stilgoe 's original unaltered lyrics, and many songs sported names that were later changed, such as "What Has Time Done to Me '' ("Think of Me ''), and "Papers '' ("Notes ''). The Phantom 's original mask covered the entire face and remained in place throughout the performance, obscuring the actor 's vision and muffling his voice. Björnson designed the now - iconic half - mask to replace it, and the unmasking sequence was added. Clips of this preview performance were included on the DVD of the 2004 film production.
Phantom began previews at Her Majesty 's Theatre in London 's West End on 27 September 1986 under the direction of Hal Prince, then opened on 9 October. It was choreographed by Gillian Lynne and the sets were designed by Maria Björnson, with lighting by Andrew Bridge. Michael Crawford starred in the title role with Sarah Brightman as Christine and Steve Barton as Raoul. The production, still playing at Her Majesty 's, celebrated its 10,000 th performance on 23 October 2010, with Lloyd Webber and the original Phantom, Michael Crawford, in attendance. It is the second longest - running musical in West End (and world) history behind Les Misérables, and third overall behind The Mousetrap.
A 25th - anniversary stage performance was held in London on 1 and 2 October 2011 at the Royal Albert Hall and was screened live in cinemas worldwide. The production was produced by Cameron Mackintosh, directed by Laurence Connor, musical staging & choreography by Gillian Lynne, set design by Matt Kinley, costume design by Maria Björnson, lighting design by Patrick Woodroffe, and sound design by Mick Potter. The cast included Ramin Karimloo as the Phantom, Sierra Boggess as Christine, Hadley Fraser as Raoul, Wynne Evans as Piangi, Wendy Ferguson as Carlotta, Barry James as Monsieur Firmin, Gareth Snook as Monsieur Andre, Liz Robertson as Madame Giry, and Daisy Maywood as Meg Giry. Lloyd Webber and several original cast members, including Crawford and Brightman, were in attendance. A DVD and Blu - ray of the performance was released in February 2012, and it began airing in March 2012 on PBS 's "Great Performances '' television series.
In March 2012, a new production directed by Laurence Connor began a UK and Ireland tour to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the show, beginning at the Theatre Royal Plymouth and travelled to Manchester, Bristol, Dublin, Leeds, Edinburgh, Milton Keynes, Cardiff, and Southampton. John Owen - Jones and Earl Carpenter alternated as the Phantom with Katie Hall and Olivia Brereton as Christine and Simon Bailey as Raoul.
Phantom began Broadway previews at the Majestic Theatre on 9 January 1988 and opened on 26 January. Crawford, Brightman, and Barton reprised their respective roles from the West End. The production continues to play at the Majestic, where it became the first Broadway musical in history to surpass 10,000 performances on 11 February 2012. On 26 January 2013, the production celebrated its 25th anniversary with its 10,400 th performance. It is, by over 3,500 performances, the longest - running show in Broadway history. By November 2016, Phantom had been staged over 12,000 times over 28 years. The 30th anniversary was on January 26, 2018 with an extra matinee and the regularly scheduled Friday evening performance. The celebration performance was performed on the 24th, with members of the original cast and alumni in attendance along with an invite - only audience.
In 2013, the rights to perform "Phantom '' were released to non-professional groups. CLOC musical theatre staged the world amateur premiere in May 2013 at the National Theatre in Melbourne, Australia. In June 2013, Windmill Theatre Company staged the production at the Drum Theatre in Dandenong. Also in June 2013, Wellington Musical Theatre debuted the New Zealand premiere starring Chris Crowe and Barbara Graham.
In 1905 Paris, the Opéra Populaire hosts an auction of old theatrical props. Among the attendees is the Vicomte Raoul de Chagny, who purchases a papier - mâché music box and eyes it sadly, remarking how the details are "exactly as she said. '' The auctioneer presents "a chandelier in pieces '' as the next item up for bid, alluding to a connection with "the Phantom of the Opera ''. As the porters remove the drop cloth covering the fixture, it flickers to life and ascends to the ceiling as the auditorium 's former grandeur is restored ("Overture '').
It is now 1881 and the cast of a new production, Hannibal, are rehearsing onstage when they learn that new owners, Firmin and André, are taking over the Opéra Populaire. Carlotta, the Opéra 's resident soprano prima donna, begins to perform an aria for the new managers when a backdrop inexplicably falls from the flies, barely missing her and prompting anxious chorus girls to whisper, "He 's here! The Phantom of the Opera! ''. The managers try to downplay the incident, but Carlotta angrily insists that such things happen all the time and she storms out. Madame Giry, the Opéra 's ballet mistress, informs Firmin and André that Christine Daaé, a chorus girl and orphaned daughter of a prominent violinist, has been "well taught '' and can sing Carlotta 's role. With cancellation of the sold out show being their only other alternative, the managers reluctantly audition Christine and are surprised to discover that she is indeed up to the challenge. As Christine sings the aria during the evening performance, the Opéra 's new patron, Raoul, the Vicomte de Chagny, recognizes her as his childhood friend and playmate ("Think of Me '').
Backstage after her triumphant début, Christine confesses to her best friend Meg (Madame Giry 's daughter) that she knows her mysterious teacher only as an invisible "Angel of Music '' ("Angel of Music ''). Raoul pays a visit to Christine 's dressing room. The two reminisce about the "Angel of Music '' stories that her late father used to tell them and Christine confides that the Angel has visited her and taught her to sing ("Little Lotte ''). Raoul indulges what he assumes are fantasies and insists on taking Christine to dinner. When Raoul leaves to fetch his hat, Christine hears the jealous Phantom 's voice and she entreats him to reveal himself. The Phantom obliges by appearing as a ghostly, partially masked face in her mirror ("The Mirror / Angel of Music (Reprise) ''). Believing him to be the Angel of Music sent by her deceased father, Christine is irresistibly drawn through the mirror to the Phantom, who leads her down into the cellars of the Opéra house. The two then board a small boat and cross a subterranean lake to his secret lair ("The Phantom of the Opera ''). The Phantom explains that he has chosen Christine to sing his music and serenades her. When he reveals a mirror that reflects an image of her in a wedding dress, the figure in the mirror gestures to Christine and she faints. The Phantom then covers her tenderly with his cloak ("The Music of the Night '').
As the Phantom is composing music at his organ, Christine awakens to the sound of the monkey music box ("I Remember ''). Overcome with curiosity, she slips behind the Phantom, lifts his mask, and beholds his grotesquely disfigured face. The Phantom rails at her prying gesture, as Christine hides in fear. He then ruefully expresses his longing to look normal, and to be loved by her ("Stranger Than You Dreamt It ''). Moved by pity, Christine returns the Phantom 's mask to him and the Phantom shepherds her back above ground.
Meanwhile, Joseph Buquet, the Opéra 's chief stagehand, regales the chorus girls with tales of the "Opéra Ghost '' and his terrible Punjab lasso ("Magical Lasso ''). Madame Giry arrives and warns Buquet to exercise restraint or face the Phantom 's wrath. In the managers ' office, André and Firman read notes from the Phantom aloud and are interrupted by Raoul, who accuses them of sending him a note saying that he should make no attempt to see Christine again. Carlotta and Piangi then burst into the office, demanding to know who sent Carlotta a note saying that her days at the Opera Populaire are numbered. As André and Firmin try to calm the distressed Carlotta, Madame Giry delivers another note from the Phantom: he demands that Christine replace Carlotta in the new opera, Il Muto, lest they face a "disaster beyond imagination '' ("Notes... ''). Firmin and André dismiss the threat and assure an enraged Carlotta that she will remain their star ("Prima Donna '').
The première of Il Muto initially goes well, until the voice of the Phantom suddenly cuts through the performance, enraged that Box 5 was not kept empty for him. As Christine whispers that she knows the Phantom is near, Carlotta reminds her that her role is silent, calling her a "little toad ''. The Phantom states that it is Carlotta who is the toad and reduces Carlotta 's voice to a frog - like croak. Firmin quickly tries to calm the situation by telling the audience that Christine will take over the starring role, moving forward the ballet to keep the audience entertained. Suddenly, the corpse of Joseph Buquet drops from the rafters, hanging from the Punjab lasso. Firmin and André plead for calm as mayhem erupts and the Phantom 's diabolical laughter is heard throughout the auditorium ("Poor Fool, He Makes Me Laugh '').
In the ensuing chaos, Christine escapes with Raoul to the roof and tells him about her subterranean encounter with the Phantom ("Why Have You Brought Me Here? / Raoul, I 've Been There ''). Raoul is skeptical but promises to love and protect her, and Christine reciprocates his vow ("All I Ask of You ''). The heartbroken Phantom, having overheard their entire conversation, angrily vows revenge before returning to the auditorium and bringing down the chandelier. ("All I Ask of You (Reprise) '').
Six months later, in the midst of a masquerade ball, the Phantom makes his first appearance since the chandelier disaster, in costume as the Red Death. He announces that he has written an opera entitled Don Juan Triumphant and demands that it be produced immediately, with Christine (who is now secretly engaged to Raoul) in the lead role, and he warns of dire consequences if his demands are not met ("Masquerade / Why So Silent? ''). Noticing an engagement ring on a chain around Christine 's neck, the Phantom angrily pulls it from her and vanishes in a blinding flash of light. As the masquerade attendees scatter in fear, Raoul accosts Madame Giry and demands that she reveal what she knows about the Phantom. Giry reluctantly explains that the Phantom is actually a brilliant scholar, magician, architect, inventor, and composer who was born with a terrifyingly deformed face. Feared and reviled by society, he was cruelly exhibited in a cage as part of a travelling fair until he eventually escaped and disappeared. He has since taken refuge beneath the opera house, which has now become his home.
During rehearsals, Raoul -- tired of the tyranny with which the Phantom rules the Opera -- thinks to use the première of Don Juan Triumphant as a trap to capture the Phantom and put an end to his reign of terror once and for all. Carlotta falsely accuses Christine of being the mastermind and that it is her plan so she can be the star. Christine angrily defends herself, saying she is not the Phantom 's accomplice, but his victim. Raoul, knowing of the Phantom 's obsession with his fiancée, asserts that the Phantom will be sure to attend the opera 's première, and begs Christine to help him lure the Phantom into the trap ("Notes / Twisted Every Way ''). Torn between her love for Raoul and her fear of the Phantom, Christine visits her father 's grave, longing for his guidance but understanding that she must move on ("Wishing You Were Somehow Here Again ''). The Phantom appears atop the mausoleum, again under the guise of the Angel of Music ("Wandering Child ''), and sings to Christine. Christine, tired and heartbroken, once again accepts her "Angel '' as a friend, nearly succumbing to the Phantom 's influence, but Raoul arrives to both rescue her and confront The Phantom. The Phantom taunts Raoul, hurling fire balls at him until Christine begs Raoul to leave with her ("Bravo Monsieur ''). Furious, the Phantom declares war upon them both and causes flames to spring up around the mausoleum.
With armed policemen having secured the auditorium and watching for the Phantom, Don Juan Triumphant premieres with Christine and Piangi singing the lead roles. During Don Juan 's and Aminta 's duet, Christine comes to the sudden realization that she is singing not with Piangi, but with the Phantom himself ("The Point of No Return ''). Mimicking Raoul 's vow of devotion on the rooftop, the Phantom once again expresses love for Christine and forces his ring onto her finger; Christine rips off his mask, exposing his horrifically deformed face to the shocked audience. The opera house is plunged into chaos. Piangi 's garroted body is revealed backstage, the cast and audience fly into a state of panic, and the Phantom seizes Christine and flees the theatre. An angry mob, vowing vengeance for the murders of Buquet and Piangi, searches the theatre for the Phantom, while Madame Giry tells Raoul how to find the Phantom 's subterranean lair, and warns him to beware his magical lasso. ("Down Once More / Track Down This Murderer '').
In the lair, Christine is forced to don a wedding dress. Raoul finds the lair and attempts to persuade the Phantom to spare Christine, begging him to show compassion. The Phantom refuses, and captures Raoul with the Punjab lasso. The Phantom tells Christine that he will free Raoul if she agrees to stay with him forever, but if she refuses, Raoul will die. Christine, heartbroken, tells the Phantom that it is his soul that is deformed, not his face. As the Phantom and Raoul both plead to her, Christine mournfully wonders what kind of life the Phantom has known. She tells the Phantom that he is not alone and kisses him, showing him compassion for the first time in his life. The Phantom, having experienced kindness at last, understands that he can not compel Christine to love him, and sets them both free. Raoul hurries Christine out of the lair, but she returns alone to give the Phantom back his ring. The Phantom tells Christine he loves her, before she tearfully exits with Raoul. The weeping Phantom huddles on his throne and covers himself with his cloak. The mob, led by Meg, enters the lair. Meg pulls the Phantom 's cloak from the throne, finding only his mask on the seat. She lifts the mask up into the light and gazes at it in wonder as the curtain falls.
The original casts of the major productions of The Phantom of the Opera:
† The role of Christine Daaé is double - cast in most professional productions. The secondary actress performs the role twice a week (on Broadway, Thursday evening and Saturday matinée).
‡ Three roles (The Phantom, Christine, and Carlotta) were double - cast in the original Las Vegas production, with the two actors in each pair singing alternate performances. Later, Las Vegas casting became identical to that in the Broadway production, with single casting for all characters except Christine.
There are several orchestrations:
The current Broadway orchestration is what is licensed by R&H Theatricals for amateur and professional productions. The only difference between the 29 - and 27 - piece orchestras is the lack of Violins VII & VIII in the 27 - piece orchestra.
The Broadway production originally used a 29 - piece pit orchestra:
Percussion is split between two books -- regular percussion and mallets
Cast recordings have been made of the London, Austrian, Dutch, German, Japanese, Swedish, Korean, Hungarian, Mexican, Polish, Russian and Canadian productions.
The recording of the 1986 original London cast, released by Polydor Records in 1987, was released in both a single CD Highlights From The Phantom of the Opera and a two CD Phantom of the Opera, both of which have been certified 4 × Platinum in the US and sold 4.97 million copies as of January 2017. "The Complete Recordings '' edition has sold 507,000 copies since 1991. Phantom was also certified 3 × Platinum in the UK. The Canadian cast recording went 2 × Platinum in Canada. In Switzerland, Phantom was certified 3 × Platinum and Highlights was certified 2 × Platinum. Recordings of the Vienna cast and the Hamburg cast produced by Jimmy Bowien were certified Gold and triple Platinum, respectively, in Germany. The original album recording has sold an alleged 24 million copies worldwide.
A live recording of The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall was released in the UK on 15 November 2011 and subsequently in the US and Canada on 7 February 2012, along with Blu - ray and DVD videos, and a collectors ' box set of the Royal Albert concert, the original cast recording, and the sequel, Love Never Dies.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1987 the heirs of Giacomo Puccini charged in a lawsuit that the climactic phrase in "Music of the Night '' closely resembled a similar phrase in the sequence "Quello che tacete '' from Puccini 's opera Girl of the Golden West. The litigation was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount.
In 1990 a Baltimore songwriter named Ray Repp filed a lawsuit alleging that the title song from Phantom was based on a song that he wrote in 1978 called "Till You ''. After eight years of litigation -- including an unsuccessful countersuit by Lloyd Webber claiming that "Till You '' was itself a plagiarism of "Close Every Door '' from Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat -- the jury found in Lloyd Webber 's favour.
Former Pink Floyd vocalist Roger Waters has repeatedly claimed in interviews that the signature descending / ascending half - tone chord progression from Phantom 's title song was plagiarised from the bass line of a track on the 1971 Pink Floyd album Meddle called "Echoes ''. He has never taken any legal action. "Life 's too long to bother with suing Andrew fucking Lloyd Webber, '' he said. "I think that might make me really gloomy. ''
Phantom has been translated into several languages and produced in over 28 countries on 6 continents. With only the exception of Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, New Zealand, Panama, Poland, Romania, and the 25th Anniversary UK and US Tours, these productions have all been "clones '', using the original staging, direction, sets, and costume concepts. Notable international productions include the following:
A film version, directed by Joel Schumacher and starring Gerard Butler as the Phantom, Emmy Rossum as Christine, Patrick Wilson as Raoul, Minnie Driver as Carlotta, and Miranda Richardson as Madame Giry, opened on 22 December 2004 in the US.
An edited production renamed Phantom: The Las Vegas Spectacular opened 24 June 2006 at The Venetian in Las Vegas, Nevada, in a theatre built specifically for the show to resemble the Opéra Garnier in Paris. The production ran 95 minutes with no intermission, and was directed and choreographed by Harold Prince and Gillian Lynne, with scenic designs by David Rockwell. The show featured updated technology and effects, including a re-engineered chandelier capable of reassembling in midair during the overture while the entire interior of the venue (not merely the stage) returned to its 1880s halcyon days. Almost 45 minutes ' worth of material was eliminated, such as the Don Juan Triumphant rehearsal. "Poor Fool, He Makes Me Laugh '' and "The Point of No Return '' were significantly shortened. Other changes resembled those in the 2004 film, such as staging the chandelier crash at the plot 's climax (during performance of "The Point of No Return '') rather than mid-story. The Las Vegas production closed on 2 September 2012.
In 2011 The Really Useful Group (copyright owners of Phantom) released certain rights to the play in celebration of its 25th anniversary. In March 2011 Reed - Custer High School in Braidwood, Illinois, became the first school to perform Phantom under the new rights. Later in 2011, Stanwell School in Penarth became the first school in the UK to perform the show.
The sequel to Phantom, written by Lloyd Webber, Ben Elton, Frederick Forsyth and Glenn Slater, is called Love Never Dies. It was loosely adapted from the 1999 novel The Phantom of Manhattan, by Forsyth. Set in 1907 (a decade after the conclusion of Phantom according to the production 's announcement, but actually 26 years later, as the original show was set in 1881), Christine is invited to perform at Phantasma, a new attraction at Coney Island, by an anonymous impresario. With her husband, Raoul, and son, Gustave, in tow she journeys to Brooklyn, unaware that it is the Phantom who has arranged her appearance at the popular beach resort.
The original production was directed by Jack O'Brien and choreographed by Jerry Mitchell with set and costume designs by Bob Crowley, and opened at the Adelphi Theatre in the West End on 9 March 2010. Though it ran for over 17 months and closed on 27 August 2011, the production received mixed reviews. A scheduled Broadway opening in November 2010 was postponed until Spring 2011 and later cancelled. A revamped Australian production, starring Ben Lewis and Anna O'Byrne, opened 21 May 2011 at the Regent Theatre in Melbourne to more favourable notices. After the Melbourne run ended on 12 December 2011 the production moved to the Capitol Theatre in Sydney where it played from January to April 2012.
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central board of secondary education in tamil meaning | Central Board of Secondary Education - Wikipedia
The Central Board of Secondary Education (abbreviated as CBSE) is a Board of Education for public and private schools, under the Union Government of India. Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has asked all schools affiliated to follow only NCERT curriculum.
The first education board to be set up in India was the Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education in 1921, which was under jurisdiction of Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior. In 1929, the government of India set up a joint Board named "Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana ''. This included Ajmer, Merwara, Central India and Gwalior. Later it was confined to Ajmer, Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh. In 1952, it became the "Central Board of Secondary Education ''.
CBSE affiliates all Kendriya Vidyalayas, all Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, private schools and most of the schools approved by central government of India.
CBSE conducts the final examinations for Class 10 and Class 12 every year in the month of March. The results are announced by the end of May. The board earlier conducted the AIEEE Examination for admission to undergraduate courses in engineering and architecture in colleges across India. However the AIEEE exam was merged with the IIT - Joint Entrance Exam (JEE) in 2013. The common examination is now called JEE (Main).
CBSE also conducts AIPMT (All India Pre Medical Test) for admission to major medical colleges in India. In 2014, the conduct of the National Eligibility Test for grant of junior research fellowship and eligibility for assistant professor in institutions of higher learning was outsourced to CBSE. Apart from these tests, CBSE also conducts the central teachers eligibility test and the Class X optional proficiency test. With the addition of NET in 2014, the CBSE has become the largest exam conducting body in the world.
Presently CBSE has 10 regional offices:
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where is chichen itza located on a map | Chichen Itza - wikipedia
Chichen Itza (/ tʃ iː ˈtʃɛn iː ˈtsɑː / chee - CHEN eet - SAH, Spanish: Chichén Itzá (tʃiˈtʃen iˈtsa), often with the emphasis reversed in English to / ˈtʃiːtʃɛn ˈiːtsə / CHEE - chen EET - sə; from Yucatec Maya: Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha ' (tɕhiʔtɕʼèːn ìːtshaʔ) "at the mouth of the well of the Itza people '') was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal Classic period. The archaeological site is located in Tinúm Municipality, Yucatán State, Mexico.
Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the Northern Maya Lowlands from the Late Classic (c. AD 600 -- 900) through the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800 -- 900) and into the early portion of the Postclassic period (c. AD 900 -- 1200). The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion.
Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have been one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans, referred to in later Mesoamerican literature. The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site.
The ruins of Chichen Itza are federal property, and the site 's stewardship is maintained by Mexico 's Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History). The land under the monuments had been privately owned until 29 March 2010, when it was purchased by the state of Yucatán.
Chichen Itza is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico; an estimated 1.4 million tourists visit the ruins every year.
The Maya name "Chichen Itza '' means "At the mouth of the well of the Itza. '' This derives from chi ', meaning "mouth '' or "edge, '' and ch'en or ch'e'en, meaning "well. '' Itzá is the name of an ethnic - lineage group that gained political and economic dominance of the northern peninsula. One possible translation for Itza is "enchanter (or enchantment) of the water, '' from its, "sorcerer, '' and ha, "water. ''
The name is spelled Chichén Itzá in Spanish, and the accents are sometimes maintained in other languages to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllable. Other references prefer the Maya orthography, Chichen Itza ' (pronounced (tʃitʃʼen itsáʔ)). This form preserves the phonemic distinction between ch ' and ch, since the base word ch'e'en (which, however, is not stressed in Maya) begins with a postalveolar ejective affricate consonant. The word "Itza ' '' has a high tone on the "a '' followed by a glottal stop (indicated by the apostrophe).
Evidence in the Chilam Balam books indicates another, earlier name for this city prior to the arrival of the Itza hegemony in northern Yucatán. While most sources agree the first word means seven, there is considerable debate as to the correct translation of the rest. This earlier name is difficult to define because of the absence of a single standard of orthography, but it is represented variously as Uuc Yabnal ("Seven Great House ''), Uuc Hab Nal ("Seven Bushy Places ''), Uucyabnal ("Seven Great Rulers '') or Uc Abnal ("Seven Lines of Abnal ''). This name, dating to the Late Classic Period, is recorded both in the book of Chilam Balam de Chumayel and in hieroglyphic texts in the ruins.
Chichen Itza is located in the eastern portion of Yucatán state in Mexico. The northern Yucatán Peninsula is arid, and the rivers in the interior all run underground. There are two large, natural sink holes, called cenotes, that could have provided plentiful water year round at Chichen, making it attractive for settlement. Of the two cenotes, the "Cenote Sagrado '' or Sacred Cenote (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous.
According to post-Conquest sources (Maya and Spanish), pre-Columbian Maya sacrificed objects and human beings into the cenote as a form of worship to the Maya rain god Chaac. Edward Herbert Thompson dredged the Cenote Sagrado from 1904 to 1910, and recovered artifacts of gold, jade, pottery and incense, as well as human remains. A study of human remains taken from the Cenote Sagrado found that they had wounds consistent with human sacrifice.
Several archaeologists in the late 1980s suggested that unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichen Itza may not have been governed by an individual ruler or a single dynastic lineage. Instead, the city 's political organization could have been structured by a "multepal '' system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.
This theory was popular in the 1990s, but in recent years, the research that supported the concept of the "multepal '' system has been called into question, if not discredited. The current belief trend in Maya scholarship is toward the more traditional model of the Maya kingdoms of the Classic Period southern lowlands in Mexico.
Chichen Itza was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its apogee. Participating in the water - borne circum - peninsular trade route through its port site of Isla Cerritos on the north coast, Chichen Itza was able to obtain locally unavailable resources from distant areas such as obsidian from central Mexico and gold from southern Central America.
Between AD 900 and 1050 Chichen Itza expanded to become a powerful regional capital controlling north and central Yucatán. It established Isla Cerritos as a trading port.
The layout of Chichen Itza site core developed during its earlier phase of occupation, between 750 and 900 AD. Its final layout was developed after 900 AD, and the 10th century saw the rise of the city as a regional capital controlling the area from central Yucatán to the north coast, with its power extending down the east and west coasts of the peninsula. The earliest hieroglyphic date discovered at Chichen Itza is equivalent to 832 AD, while the last known date was recorded in the Osario temple in 998.
The Late Classic city was centered upon the area to the southwest of the Xtoloc cenote, with the main architecture represented by the substructures now underlying the Las Monjas and Observatorio and the basal platform upon which they were built.
Chichen Itza rose to regional prominence towards the end of the Early Classic period (roughly 600 AD). It was, however, towards the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands. The ascension of Chichen Itza roughly correlates with the decline and fragmentation of the major centers of the southern Maya lowlands.
As Chichen Itza rose to prominence, the cities of Yaxuna (to the south) and Coba (to the east) were suffering decline. These two cities had been mutual allies, with Yaxuna dependent upon Coba. At some point in the 10th century Coba lost a significant portion of its territory, isolating Yaxuna, and Chichen Itza may have directly contributed to the collapse of both cities.
According to some colonial Mayan sources (e.g., the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel), Hunac Ceel, ruler of Mayapan, conquered Chichen Itza in the 13th century. Hunac Ceel supposedly prophesied his own rise to power. According to custom at the time, individuals thrown into the Cenote Sagrado were believed to have the power of prophecy if they survived. During one such ceremony, the chronicles state, there were no survivors, so Hunac Ceel leaped into the Cenote Sagrado, and when removed, prophesied his own ascension.
While there is some archaeological evidence that indicates Chichén Itzá was at one time looted and sacked, there appears to be greater evidence that it could not have been by Mayapan, at least not when Chichén Itzá was an active urban center. Archaeological data now indicates that Chichen Itza declined as a regional center by 1250, before the rise of Mayapan. Ongoing research at the site of Mayapan may help resolve this chronological conundrum.
After Chichén Itzá elite activities ceased, the city may not have been abandoned. When the Spanish arrived, they found a thriving local population, although it is not clear from Spanish sources if Maya were living in Chichen Itza or nearby. The relatively high population density in the region was a factor in the conquistadors ' decision to locate a capital there. According to post-Conquest sources, both Spanish and Maya, the Cenote Sagrado remained a place of pilgrimage.
In 1526 Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo (a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for a charter to conquer Yucatán. His first campaign in 1527, which covered much of the Yucatán Peninsula, decimated his forces but ended with the establishment of a small fort at Xaman Ha ', south of what is today Cancún. Montejo returned to Yucatán in 1531 with reinforcements and established his main base at Campeche on the west coast. He sent his son, Francisco Montejo The Younger, in late 1532 to conquer the interior of the Yucatán Peninsula from the north. The objective from the beginning was to go to Chichén Itzá and establish a capital.
Montejo the Younger eventually arrived at Chichen Itza, which he renamed Ciudad Real. At first he encountered no resistance, and set about dividing the lands around the city and awarding them to his soldiers. The Maya became more hostile over time, and eventually they laid siege to the Spanish, cutting off their supply line to the coast, and forcing them to barricade themselves among the ruins of the ancient city. Months passed, but no reinforcements arrived. Montejo the Younger attempted an all out assault against the Maya and lost 150 of his remaining troops. He was forced to abandon Chichén Itzá in 1534 under cover of darkness. By 1535, all Spanish had been driven from the Yucatán Peninsula.
Montejo eventually returned to Yucatán and, by recruiting Maya from Campeche and Champoton, built a large Indio - Spanish army and conquered the peninsula. The Spanish crown later issued a land grant that included Chichen Itza and by 1588 it was a working cattle ranch.
Chichen Itza entered the popular imagination in 1843 with the book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens (with illustrations by Frederick Catherwood). The book recounted Stephens ' visit to Yucatán and his tour of Maya cities, including Chichén Itzá. The book prompted other explorations of the city. In 1860, D ésiré Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).
In 1875, Augustus Le Plongeon and his wife Alice Dixon Le Plongeon visited Chichén, and excavated a statue of a figure on its back, knees drawn up, upper torso raised on its elbows with a plate on its stomach. Augustus Le Plongeon called it "Chaacmol '' (later renamed "Chac Mool '', which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica). Teobert Maler and Alfred Maudslay explored Chichén in the 1880s and both spent several weeks at the site and took extensive photographs. Maudslay published the first long - form description of Chichen Itza in his book, Biologia Centrali - Americana.
In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward Herbert Thompson, purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included the ruins of Chichen Itza. For 30 years, Thompson explored the ancient city. His discoveries included the earliest dated carving upon a lintel in the Temple of the Initial Series and the excavation of several graves in the Osario (High Priest 's Temple). Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first - ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons. Thompson shipped the bulk of the artifacts to the Peabody Museum at Harvard University.
In 1913, the Carnegie Institution accepted the proposal of archaeologist Sylvanus G. Morley and committed to conduct long - term archaeological research at Chichen Itza. The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability, as well as World War I, delayed the project by a decade.
In 1923, the Mexican government awarded the Carnegie Institution a 10 - year permit (later extended another 10 years) to allow U.S. archaeologists to conduct extensive excavation and restoration of Chichen Itza. Carnegie researchers excavated and restored the Temple of Warriors and the Caracol, among other major buildings. At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo and the Great Ball Court.
In 1926, the Mexican government charged Edward Thompson with theft, claiming he stole the artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado and smuggled them out of the country. The government seized the Hacienda Chichén. Thompson, who was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatán. He wrote about his research and investigations of the Maya culture in a book People of the Serpent published in 1932. He died in New Jersey in 1935. In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichen Itza to his heirs. The Thompsons sold the hacienda to tourism pioneer Fernando Barbachano Peon.
There have been two later expeditions to recover artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado, in 1961 and 1967. The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests. Both projects were supervised by Mexico 's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). INAH has conducted an ongoing effort to excavate and restore other monuments in the archaeological zone, including the Osario, Akab D'zib, and several buildings in Chichén Viejo (Old Chichen).
In 2009, to investigate construction that predated El Castillo, Yucatec archaeologists began excavations adjacent to El Castillo under the direction of Rafael (Rach) Cobos.
Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities, with the relatively densely clustered architecture of the site core covering an area of at least 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi). Smaller scale residential architecture extends for an unknown distance beyond this. The city was built upon broken terrain, which was artificially levelled in order to build the major architectural groups, with the greatest effort being expended in the levelling of the areas for the Castillo pyramid, and the Las Monjas, Osario and Main Southwest groups.
The site contains many fine stone buildings in various states of preservation, and many have been restored. The buildings were connected by a dense network of paved causeways, called sacbeob. Archaeologists have identified over 80 sacbeob criss - crossing the site, and extending in all directions from the city. Many of these stone buildings were originaly painted in red, green, blue and purple colors. Pigments were chosen according to what was most easily available in the area. The site must be imagined as a colorful one, not like it is today. Just like gothic cathedrals in Europe, colors provided a greater sense of completeness and contributed greatly to the symbolic impact of the buildings.
The architecture encompasses a number of styles, including the Puuc and Chenes styles of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The buildings of Chichen Itza are grouped in a series of architectonic sets, and each set was at one time separated from the other by a series of low walls. The three best known of these complexes are the Great North Platform, which includes the monuments of El Castillo, Temple of Warriors and the Great Ball Court; The Osario Group, which includes the pyramid of the same name as well as the Temple of Xtoloc; and the Central Group, which includes the Caracol, Las Monjas, and Akab Dzib.
South of Las Monjas, in an area known as Chichén Viejo (Old Chichén) and only open to archaeologists, are several other complexes, such as the Group of the Initial Series, Group of the Lintels, and Group of the Old Castle.
The Puuc - style architecture is concentrated in the Old Chichen area, and also the earlier structures in the Nunnery Group (including the Las Monjas, Annex and La Iglesia buildings); it is also represented in the Akab Dzib structure. The Puuc - style building feature the usual mosaic - decorated upper façades characteristic of the style but differ from the architecture of the Puuc heartland in their block masonry walls, as opposed to the fine veneers of the Puuc region proper.
At least one structure in the Las Monjas Group features an ornate façade and masked doorway that are typical examples of Chenes - style architecture, a style centred upon a region in the north of Campeche state, lying between the Puuc and Río Bec regions.
Those structures with sculpted hieroglyphic script are concentrated in certain areas of the site, with the most important being the Las Monjas group.
Dominating the North Platform of Chichen Itza is the Temple of Kukulkan (a Maya feathered serpent deity similar to the Aztec Quetzalcoatl), usually referred to as El Castillo ("the castle ''). This step pyramid stands about 30 metres (98 ft) high and consists of a series of nine square terraces, each approximately 2.57 metres (8.4 ft) high, with a 6 - metre (20 ft) high temple upon the summit.
The sides of the pyramid are approximately 55.3 metres (181 ft) at the base and rise at an angle of 53 °, although that varies slightly for each side. The four faces of the pyramid have protruding stairways that rise at an angle of 45 °. The talud walls of each terrace slant at an angle of between 72 ° and 74 °. At the base of the balustrades of the northeastern staircase are carved heads of a serpent.
Mesoamerican cultures periodically superimposed larger structures over older ones, and El Castillo is one such example. In the mid-1930s, the Mexican government sponsored an excavation of El Castillo. After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the pyramid. By digging from the top, they found another temple buried below the current one.
Inside the temple chamber was a Chac Mool statue and a throne in the shape of Jaguar, painted red and with spots made of inlaid jade. The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up the earlier pyramid 's stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists. In 2006, INAH closed the throne room to the public.
On the Spring and Autumn equinoxes, in the late afternoon, the northwest corner of the pyramid casts a series of triangular shadows against the western balustrade on the north side that evokes the appearance of a serpent wriggling down the staircase, which some scholars have suggested is a representation of the feathered - serpent god Kukulkan.
Archaeologists have identified thirteen ballcourts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame in Chichen Itza, but the Great Ball Court about 150 metres (490 ft) to the north - west of the Castillo is by far the most impressive. It is the largest and best preserved ball court in ancient Mesoamerica. It measures 168 by 70 metres (551 by 230 ft).
The parallel platforms flanking the main playing area are each 95 metres (312 ft) long. The walls of these platforms stand 8 metres (26 ft) high; set high up in the centre of each of these walls are rings carved with intertwined feathered serpents.
At the base of the high interior walls are slanted benches with sculpted panels of teams of ball players. In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated; the wound emits streams of blood in the form of wriggling snakes.
At one end of the Great Ball Court is the North Temple, also known as the Temple of the Bearded Man (Templo del Hombre Barbado). This small masonry building has detailed bas relief carving on the inner walls, including a center figure that has carving under his chin that resembles facial hair. At the south end is another, much bigger temple, but in ruins.
Built into the east wall are the Temples of the Jaguar. The Upper Temple of the Jaguar overlooks the ball court and has an entrance guarded by two, large columns carved in the familiar feathered serpent motif. Inside there is a large mural, much destroyed, which depicts a battle scene.
In the entrance to the Lower Temple of the Jaguar, which opens behind the ball court, is another Jaguar throne, similar to the one in the inner temple of El Castillo, except that it is well worn and missing paint or other decoration. The outer columns and the walls inside the temple are covered with elaborate bas - relief carvings.
The Tzompantli, or Skull Platform (Plataforma de los Cráneos), shows the clear cultural influence of the central Mexican Plateau. Unlike the tzompantli of the highlands, however, the skulls were impaled vertically rather than horizontally as at Tenochtitlan.
The Platform of the Eagles and the Jaguars (Plataforma de Águilas y Jaguares) is immediately to the east of the Great Ballcourt. It is built in a combination Maya and Toltec styles, with a staircase ascending each of its four sides. The sides are decorated with panels depicting eagles and jaguars consuming human hearts.
This Platform of Venus is dedicated to the planet Venus. In its interior archaeologists discovered a collection of large cones carved out of stone, the purpose of which is unknown. This platform is located north of El Castillo, between it and the Cenote Sagrado.
The Temple of the Tables is the northernmost of a series of buildings to the east of El Castillo. Its name comes from a series of altars at the top of the structure that are supported by small carved figures of men with upraised arms, called "atlantes. ''
The Steam Bath is a unique building with three parts: a waiting gallery, a water bath, and a steam chamber that operated by means of heated stones.
Sacbe Number One is a causeway that leads to the Cenote Sagrado, is the largest and most elaborate at Chichen Itza. This "white road '' is 270 metres (890 ft) long with an average width of 9 metres (30 ft). It begins at a low wall a few metres from the Platform of Venus. According to archaeologists there once was an extensive building with columns at the beginning of the road.
The Yucatán Peninsula is a limestone plain, with no rivers or streams. The region is pockmarked with natural sinkholes, called cenotes, which expose the water table to the surface. One of the most impressive of these is the Cenote Sagrado, which is 60 metres (200 ft) in diameter and surrounded by sheer cliffs that drop to the water table some 27 metres (89 ft) below.
The Cenote Sagrado was a place of pilgrimage for ancient Maya people who, according to ethnohistoric sources, would conduct sacrifices during times of drought. Archaeological investigations support this as thousands of objects have been removed from the bottom of the cenote, including material such as gold, carved jade, copal, pottery, flint, obsidian, shell, wood, rubber, cloth, as well as skeletons of children and men.
The Temple of the Warriors complex consists of a large stepped pyramid fronted and flanked by rows of carved columns depicting warriors. This complex is analogous to Temple B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two regions. The one at Chichen Itza, however, was constructed on a larger scale. At the top of the stairway on the pyramid 's summit (and leading towards the entrance of the pyramid 's temple) is a Chac Mool.
This temple encases or entombs a former structure called The Temple of the Chac Mool. The archeological expedition and restoration of this building was done by the Carnegie Institution of Washington from 1925 to 1928. A key member of this restoration was Earl H. Morris who published the work from this expedition in two volumes entitled Temple of the Warriors.
Along the south wall of the Temple of Warriors are a series of what are today exposed columns, although when the city was inhabited these would have supported an extensive roof system. The columns are in three distinct sections: A west group, that extends the lines of the front of the Temple of Warriors. A north group runs along the south wall of the Temple of Warriors and contains pillars with carvings of soldiers in bas - relief;
A northeast group, which apparently formed a small temple at the southeast corner of the Temple of Warriors, contains a rectangular decorated with carvings of people or gods, as well as animals and serpents. The northeast column temple also covers a small marvel of engineering, a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some 40 metres (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a former cenote.
To the south of the Group of a Thousand Columns is a group of three, smaller, interconnected buildings. The Temple of the Carved Columns is a small elegant building that consists of a front gallery with an inner corridor that leads to an altar with a Chac Mool. There are also numerous columns with rich, bas - relief carvings of some 40 personages.
A section of the upper façade with a motif of x 's and o 's is displayed in front of the structure. The Temple of the Small Tables which is an unrestored mound. And the Thompson 's Temple (referred to in some sources as Palace of Ahau Balam Kauil), a small building with two levels that has friezes depicting Jaguars (balam in Maya) as well as glyphs of the Maya god Kahuil.
This square structure anchors the southern end of the Temple of Warriors complex. It is so named for the shelf of stone that surrounds a large gallery and patio that early explorers theorized was used to display wares as in a marketplace. Today, archaeologists believe that its purpose was more ceremonial than commercial.
South of the North Group is a smaller platform that has many important structures, several of which appear to be oriented toward the second largest cenote at Chichen Itza, Xtoloc.
The Osario itself, like El Castillo, is a step - pyramid temple dominating its platform, only on a smaller scale. Like its larger neighbor, it has four sides with staircases on each side. There is a temple on top, but unlike El Castillo, at the center is an opening into the pyramid which leads to a natural cave 12 metres (39 ft) below. Edward H. Thompson excavated this cave in the late 19th century, and because he found several skeletons and artifacts such as jade beads, he named the structure The High Priests ' Temple. Archaeologists today believe neither that the structure was a tomb nor that the personages buried in it were priests.
The Temple of Xtoloc is a recently restored temple outside the Osario Platform is. It overlooks the other large cenote at Chichen Itza, named after the Maya word for iguana, "Xtoloc. '' The temple contains a series of pilasters carved with images of people, as well as representations of plants, birds and mythological scenes.
Between the Xtoloc temple and the Osario are several aligned structures: The Platform of Venus (which is similar in design to the structure of the same name next to El Castillo), the Platform of the Tombs, and a small, round structure that is unnamed. These three structures were constructed in a row extending from the Osario. Beyond them the Osario platform terminates in a wall, which contains an opening to a sacbe that runs several hundred feet to the Xtoloc temple.
South of the Osario, at the boundary of the platform, there are two small buildings that archaeologists believe were residences for important personages. These have been named as the House of the Metates and the House of the Mestizas.
South of the Osario Group is another small platform that has several structures that are among the oldest in the Chichen Itza archaeological zone.
The Casa Colorada (Spanish for "Red House '') is one of the best preserved buildings at Chichen Itza. Its Maya name is Chichanchob, which according to INAH may mean "small holes ''. In one chamber there are extensive carved hieroglyphs that mention rulers of Chichen Itza and possibly of the nearby city of Ek Balam, and contain a Maya date inscribed which correlates to 869 AD, one of the oldest such dates found in all of Chichen Itza.
In 2009, INAH restored a small ball court that adjoined the back wall of the Casa Colorada.
While the Casa Colorada is in a good state of preservation, other buildings in the group, with one exception, are decrepit mounds. One building is half standing, named La Casa del Venado (House of the Deer). This building 's name has been long used by the local Maya, and some authors mention that it was named after a deer painting over stucco that does n't exist anymore.
Las Monjas is one of the more notable structures at Chichen Itza. It is a complex of Terminal Classic buildings constructed in the Puuc architectural style. The Spanish named this complex Las Monjas ("The Nuns '' or "The Nunnery '') but it was actually a governmental palace. Just to the east is a small temple (known as the La Iglesia, "The Church '') decorated with elaborate masks.
The Las Monjas group is distinguished by its concentration of hieroglyphic texts dating to the Late to Terminal Classic. These texts frequently mention a ruler by the name of Kakupakal.
El Caracol ("The Snail '') is located to the north of Las Monjas. It is a round building on a large square platform. It gets its name from the stone spiral staircase inside. The structure, with its unusual placement on the platform and its round shape (the others are rectangular, in keeping with Maya practice), is theorized to have been a proto - observatory with doors and windows aligned to astronomical events, specifically around the path of Venus as it traverses the heavens.
Akab Dzib is located to the east of the Caracol. The name means, in Yucatec Mayan, "Dark Writing ''; "dark '' in the sense of "mysterious ''. An earlier name of the building, according to a translation of glyphs in the Casa Colorada, is Wa (k) wak Puh Ak Na, "the flat house with the excessive number of chambers, '' and it was the home of the administrator of Chichén Itzá, kokom Yahawal Cho ' K'ak '.
INAH completed a restoration of the building in 2007. It is relatively short, only 6 metres (20 ft) high, and is 50 metres (160 ft) in length and 15 metres (49 ft) wide. The long, western - facing façade has seven doorways. The eastern façade has only four doorways, broken by a large staircase that leads to the roof. This apparently was the front of the structure, and looks out over what is today a steep, dry, cenote.
The southern end of the building has one entrance. The door opens into a small chamber and on the opposite wall is another doorway, above which on the lintel are intricately carved glyphs -- the "mysterious '' or "obscure '' writing that gives the building its name today. Under the lintel in the doorjamb is another carved panel of a seated figure surrounded by more glyphs. Inside one of the chambers, near the ceiling, is a painted hand print.
Old Chichen (or Chichén Viejo in Spanish) is the name given to a group of structures to the south of the central site, where most of the Puuc - style architecture of the city is concentrated. It includes the Initial Series Group, the Phallic Temple, the Platform of the Great Turtle, the Temple of the Owls, and the Temple of the Monkeys.
Chichen Itza also has a variety of other structures densely packed in the ceremonial center of about 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi) and several outlying subsidiary sites.
Approximately 4 km (2.5 mi) south east of the Chichen Itza archaeological zone are a network of sacred caves known as Balankanche (Spanish: Gruta de Balankanche), Balamka'anche ' in Yucatec Maya). In the caves, a large selection of ancient pottery and idols may be seen still in the positions where they were left in pre-Columbian times.
The location of the cave has been well known in modern times. Edward Thompson and Alfred Tozzer visited it in 1905. A.S. Pearse and a team of biologists explored the cave in 1932 and 1936. E. Wyllys Andrews IV also explored the cave in the 1930s. Edwin Shook and R.E. Smith explored the cave on behalf of the Carnegie Institution in 1954, and dug several trenches to recover potsherds and other artifacts. Shook determined that the cave had been inhabited over a long period, at least from the Preclassic to the post-conquest era.
On 15 September 1959, José Humberto Gómez, a local guide, discovered a false wall in the cave. Behind it he found an extended network of caves with significant quantities of undisturbed archaeological remains, including pottery and stone - carved censers, stone implements and jewelry. INAH converted the cave into an underground museum, and the objects after being catalogued were returned to their original place so visitors can see them in situ.
Chichen Itza is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico; in 2014 it was estimated to receive an average of 1.4 million visitors every year.
Tourism has been a factor at Chichen Itza for more than a century. John Lloyd Stephens, who popularized the Maya Yucatán in the public 's imagination with his book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, inspired many to make a pilgrimage to Chichén Itzá. Even before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emanuel von Friedrichsthal traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found. Friedrichsthal was the first to photograph Chichen Itza, using the recently invented daguerreotype.
After Edward Thompson in 1894 purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included Chichen Itza, he received a constant stream of visitors. In 1910 he announced his intention to construct a hotel on his property, but abandoned those plans, probably because of the Mexican Revolution.
In the early 1920s, a group of Yucatecans, led by writer / photographer Francisco Gomez Rul, began working toward expanding tourism to Yucatán. They urged Governor Felipe Carrillo Puerto to build roads to the more famous monuments, including Chichen Itza. In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza. Gomez Rul published one of the first guidebooks to Yucatán and the ruins.
Gomez Rul 's son - in - law, Fernando Barbachano Peon (a grandnephew of former Yucatán Governor Miguel Barbachano), started Yucatán 's first official tourism business in the early 1920s. He began by meeting passengers who arrived by steamship at Progreso, the port north of Mérida, and persuading them to spend a week in Yucatán, after which they would catch the next steamship to their next destination. In his first year Barbachano Peon reportedly was only able to convince seven passengers to leave the ship and join him on a tour. In the mid-1920s Barbachano Peon persuaded Edward Thompson to sell 5 acres (20,000 m) next to Chichen for a hotel. In 1930, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.
In 1944, Barbachano Peon purchased all of the Hacienda Chichén, including Chichen Itza, from the heirs of Edward Thompson. Around that same time the Carnegie Institution completed its work at Chichen Itza and abandoned the Hacienda Chichén, which Barbachano turned into another seasonal hotel.
In 1972, Mexico enacted the Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (Federal Law over Monuments and Archeological, Artistic and Historic Sites) that put all the nation 's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at Chichen Itza, under federal ownership. There were now hundreds, if not thousands, of visitors every year to Chichen Itza, and more were expected with the development of the Cancún resort area to the east.
In the 1980s, Chichen Itza began to receive an influx of visitors on the day of the spring equinox. Today several thousand show up to see the light - and - shadow effect on the Temple of Kukulcan in which the feathered serpent god appears to crawl down the side of the pyramid. Tourists are also amazed by the acoustics at Chichen Itza. For instance a handclap in front of the staircase of the El Castillo pyramid is followed by an echo that resembles the chirp of a quetzal as investigated by Declercq.
Chichen Itza, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the second-most visited of Mexico 's archaeological sites. The archaeological site draws many visitors from the popular tourist resort of Cancún, who make a day trip on tour buses. In 2007, Chichen Itza 's El Castillo was named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World after a worldwide vote. Despite the fact that the vote was sponsored by a commercial enterprise, and that its methodology was criticized, the vote was embraced by government and tourism officials in Mexico who project that as a result of the publicity the number of tourists expected to visit Chichen will double by 2012.
The ensuing publicity re-ignited debate in Mexico over the ownership of the site, which culminated on 29 March 2010 when the state of Yucatán purchased the land upon which the most recognized monuments rest from owner Hans Juergen Thies Barbachano.
Over the past several years, INAH, which manages the site, has been closing monuments to public access. While visitors can walk around them, they can no longer climb them or go inside their chambers. The most recent was El Castillo, which was closed after a San Diego, California, woman fell to her death in 2006.
El Caracol, observatory of Chichen Itza
Temple of the Warriors in 1986. Note that the Temple of the Big Tables, immediately to the left, was unrestored at that time.
Stone Ring located 9 m (30 ft) above the floor of the Great Ballcourt
Venus Platform in the Great Plaza
Kukulcán pyramid
Grand Ballcourt from El Castillo
Mosaic mask on the western face of La Iglesia
Elaborate mosaic masks
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what does god mean when he says i am | I am that I am - wikipedia
I Am that I Am (אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה ' ehyeh ' ăšer ' ehyeh (ʔɛhˈjɛh ʔaˈʃɛr ʔɛhˈjɛh)) is the common English translation (JPS among others) of the response that God used in the Hebrew Bible when Moses asked for his name (Exodus 3: 14). It is one of the most famous verses in the Torah. Hayah means "existed '' in Hebrew; ' ehyeh is the first person singular imperfect form and is usually translated in English Bibles as "I am '' or "I will be '' (or "I shall be ''), for example, at Exodus 3: 14. ' ehyeh ' ăšer ' ehyeh literally translates as "I Am Who I Am. '' The ancient Hebrew of Exodus 3: 14 lacks a future tense such as modern English has, yet a few translations render this name as "I Will Be What I Will Be, '' given the context of Yahweh 's promising to be with his people through their future troubles. Both the literal present tense "I Am '' and the future tense "I will be '' have given rise to many attendant theological and mystical implications in Jewish tradition. However, in most English Bibles, in particular the King James Version, the phrase is rendered as I am that I am.
Ehyeh - Asher - Ehyeh (often contracted in English as "I AM '') is one of the Seven Names of God accorded special care by medieval Jewish tradition. The phrase is also found in other world religious literature, used to describe the Supreme Being, generally referring back to its use in Exodus. The word ' ehyeh is considered by many rabbinical scholars to be a first - person derivation of the Tetragrammaton, see for example Yahweh.
The word ' ehyeh is used a total of 43 places in the Hebrew Bible, where it is often translated as "I will be '' -- as is the case for its first occurrence, in Genesis 26: 3 -- or "I shall be, '' as is the case for its final occurrence in Zechariah 8: 8. Whether YHWH is derived from AahYah or whether the two are individual concepts is a subject of debate among historians and theologians.
In appearance, it is possible to render YHWH (יהוה) as an archaic third person singular imperfect form of the verb ahyah (אהיה) "to be '' meaning, therefore, "He (הוא) is ''. This interpretation agrees with the meaning of the name given in Exodus 3: 14, where God is represented as speaking, and hence as using the first person -- AahYah "I am ''. Other scholars regard the triconsonantal root of hawah (הוה) as a more likely origin for the name Yahweh. It is notably distinct from the root El, which can be used as a simple noun to refer to the creator deity in general, as in Elohim, meaning simply "God '' (or gods).
In the Hellenistic Greek literature of the Jewish diaspora the phrase "' ehyeh ' ăšer ' ehyeh '' was rendered in Greek εγώ ειμι ὁ ων, "ego eimi ho on '', "I am the BEING ''.
This usage is also found in the Christian New Testament:
The Roman Catholic Church 's interpretation has been summarized in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The interpretation is found in numbers 203 - 213.
Some of the salient points are the following:
Some religious groups and theologians regard this phrase or at least the "I am '' part of the phrase as an actual name of God, or to lesser degree the sole name of God. It can be found in many listings of other common names of God.
In the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Amharic Bible, it is written as Yale'na Yeminor (I am that exists and will exists).
The conceptualization of the omnipresence of the divine being has led to the consideration of simplicity. The unified perspectival concept of "I '' combined with the supposition of omnipresence creates an atmosphere in which the unity of divine being and self can be easily understood.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge predicates much of the theoretical frame of his Biographia Literaria on what he calls ' the great I AM ' (that is, God the Father) and ' the filial WORD that re-affirmeth it... ' (Christ, reaffirming his father 's statement ') '... from Eternity to Eternity, whose choral Echo is the Universe. ' Coleridge 's argument is that these two things together work to create the ground for all meaning, especially poetic and artistic meaning.
The South Indian sage Ramana Maharshi mentions that in the Hindu Advaita Vedanta school, of all the definitions of God, "none is indeed so well put as the biblical statement ' I am that I am ' ''. He maintained that although Hindu scripture contains similar statements in the Mahavakyas, these are not as direct as given in Exodus. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj explains the "I am '' as an abstraction in the mind of the Stateless State, of the Absolute, or the Supreme Reality, called Parabrahman: it is pure awareness, prior to thoughts, free from perceptions, associations, memories.
Victor P. Hamilton suggests "some legitimate translations (...): (1) ' I am who I am '; (2) ' I am who I was '; (3) ' I am who I shall be '; (4) ' I was who I am '; (5) ' I was who I was '; (6) ' I was who I shall be '; (7) ' I shall be who I am '; (8) ' I shall be who I was '; (9) ' I shall be who I shall be. ' ''
The Bahá'í Faith reference to "I Am '' can be found in on page 316 of The Dawn - Breakers: Nabíl 's Narrative of the Early Days of the Bahá'í Revelation. "I am, '' thrice exclaimed The Bab, "I am, I am, the promised One! I am the One whose name you have for a thousand years invoked, at whose mention you have risen, whose advent you have longed to witness, and the hour of whose Revelation you have prayed God to hasten. Verily I say, it is incumbent upon the peoples of both the East and the West to obey My word and to pledge allegiance to My person. ''
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the overseas school of colombo sri jayawardenepura kotte | Overseas school of Colombo - wikipedia
The Overseas School of Colombo is a multinational English medium international school located in Pelawatte near Battaramulla, a suburb of Colombo, Sri Lanka. The school offers IB programs from Pre-K through to 12th grade in Sri Lanka. OSC is accredited by the Council of International Schools and the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.
Founded in 1957 as a non-profit organisation under Sri Lankan law, the school was named The Colombo School for Overseas Children. It was located at Queen 's Street in Colombo Fort when the school opened on 23 September 1957. The founders were from diplomatic missions (British High Commission, Burmese High Commission and Dutch Embassy) and the business community; this still reflects the school population today.
In September 1961, the school leased the premises known as "Rippleworth '' at Turret Road (Dharmapala Mawatha) in Colombo 3. The younger children remained at the Fort while the older children moved to Rippleworth. In August 1963 the school in Fort had 100 children, while the school at Rippleworth, known as the Upper School, had about 72 children. In 1967 the school gained accreditation by the International Schools Association in Geneva, Switzerland.
To cope with an increasing numbers of pupils, in 1971 the school relocated to 51 Muttiah Road in Colombo 2 (Rivington) until finally in 1983 the school was relocated to its present address Pelawatte, Battaramulla. During the same year the school obtained accreditation by the International Baccalaureate (IB) Organisation as an IB World School offering the IB Diploma Programme. In 1982, the school changed its name to Overseas Children 's School (OCS).
In 1990 the school received further accreditations from ECIS (European Council of International Schools) and MSA (Middle States Association of Colleges & Schools) and over the next five years opened a gymnasium and swimming pool. As the school developed it became recognised as an Office of Overseas sponsored school and has built close ties with the US Embassy while maintaining links with the other diplomatic missions. In 1996 the school took its present name, The Overseas School of Colombo. Continuing its campus development programme, the school built a performing arts facility in 2005, renovated its primary and secondary libraries, and inaugurated a new sports facility in 2009.
The Overseas School of Colombo remains Sri Lanka 's oldest internationally accredited educational institution. It is the only school in Sri Lanka to offer the International Baccalaureate Programme from Pre-school to Grade 12.
OSC is a full IB World school offering the IB Primary Years Programme, Middle Years Programme and Diploma Programme.
Primary School:
The Primary Years Programme (PYP) is for pupils aged 3 to 11, and focuses on the development of the whole child in the classroom and in the world outside.
PYP subjects (units of inquiry)
In Pre-school the children study four PYP units of inquiry during the course of each year, while in all other Grades, students study six PYP units of inquiry. All units are taught in a trans - disciplinary way, incorporating all disciplines and relevant skills and concepts.
The six main PYP subjects are:
OSC students are also taught:
Teaching
Within the Primary OSC is a "Learning Leadership Team '' composed of a Primary Years Programme Coordinator, Primary Principal, and for 2010 / 11 a mathematics leader. Class teachers are supported by a team of Assistant Teachers.
The school day for Kindergarten to Grade 1 students is 07.30 - 13.30; Grades 2 - 5 continue until 14.40.
Secondary School:
The IB Middle Years Programme (MYP) is designed to meet the educational requirements of students in Grades 6 - 10 (11 -- 16 years of age).
The MYP is an international curriculum framework. Known as the MYP, it is part of the IB continuum at OSC, linking with the Primary Years Programme and the Diploma Programme.
IB Middle Years Programme subjects
The MYP curriculum requires the teaching of eight compulsory subjects. The subject groups are:
The IB Middle Years Programme Personal Project
The Personal Project is a long term project, consisting of a significant body of work, undertaken by all Grade 10 MYP students. It is the product of the student 's own initiative and creativity. The product is presented to the school community on Personal Project Presentation Night. The final 1 - 7 MYP Grade for the Personal Project is awarded by the supervisor, an internal moderator, and in some cases, an external IB moderator.
Teaching
Within the Secondary School, OSC has a "Secondary Educational Learning Leadership Team '' comprising the IB MYP and IB DP Coordinators, our Counselor, Head of Technology and the Secondary School Principal. The subject teachers are supported by a team of Department Heads.
The school day for Grades 6 - 12 is 07.30 - 14.40. On Wednesdays there is a fixed timetable with classes concluding at 13.30 to allow for teacher collaboration and planning.
For the 2010 - 11 school year, the student body numbers 410, from 40 nationalities. The largest percentage of students are Sri Lankan 19 % with Americans comprising 14 %, Indians 10 %, British 9 % and Australian 6 %.
The majority of the families come from foreign missions, United Nations organisations and NGOs, while the rest are mainly from the corporate sector. The average annual turnover of students is 25 % due to families being transferred to other posts abroad. OSC graduates go on to universities in the United States, England, Canada, Australia, and Sri Lanka among other countries.
Every student at the OSC is a member of the Student Government Association (SGA) a forum for their voices. The organisation helps maintain a high level of cooperation and school spirit, extending to the Primary School also in the form of the PSGA.
The SGA consists of an Executive Committee and a membership of two elected representatives from each grade level guided by a teacher supervisor. The representatives attend weekly meetings to provide feedback on students ' requirements, ideas and issues, and two SGA representatives also attend School Board meetings.
OSC students participate in community service activities. All Secondary School students enroll in community service projects which mostly take place on Thursday afternoons. The projects range from work with sick or orphaned children, to support for street dogs through inoculations.
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summary of the book i'll give you the sun | I 'll Give You the Sun - wikipedia
I 'll Give You the Sun is a young adult novel by author Jandy Nelson. Published in September 2014, it is Nelson 's second novel. Nelson won several awards for this novel, including the 2015 Printz Award for Excellence in Young Adult Literature. In June 2015, Warner Bros. optioned for movie rights and Natalie Krinsky has signed on to write the script. Denise Di Novi and Alison Greenspan are said to be producing the movie.
The novel is about twins, Jude and her brother Noah. Although the twins were incredibly close at thirteen, three years later they are hardly speaking to each other. The early years are narrated by Noah as he struggles with an enormous secret that affects his past, present, and future. The later years are narrated by Jude and everything changes when she meets an arrogant and broken, yet beautiful boy. Jude also encounters a tormented, mysterious artist -- an even more unpredictable force that changes her life, and Noah 's, forever.
Noah and Jude Sweetwine are twins. As they enter their teen years, they grow apart. This is partly due to their sibling rivalry, as they both compete for the attention of their mother, Dianna; and partly due to their struggle to be able to understand their separate identities. Furthermore, both twins want to apply to the same highly competitive art school. On one hand, Noah clearly revels in his artistic talent, while hiding the fact that he is crushing on a neighborhood boy named Brian. On the other hand, Jude is reserved about her art, but is openly welcome to male attention.
The early years are from Noah 's point of view. By spying on her, Noah is aware of Jude 's artistic abilities. However, he does whatever he can to stop their mother from realizing Jude 's gift. One day, Dianna walks in on Noah and Brian naked together. Noah is horrified and wrongly embarrassed, because he is gay. Brian freaks out because he is still in the closet and ends their relationship. Then, Noah discovers his mom having an affair after he sees Dianna kissing the local sculptor, Guillermo Garcia. Noah runs away, and leaves a drawing of the scene on Dianna 's bed. Dianna talks with Noah and says that she is in love with Guillermo and wants to divorce his dad. The two fight and Dianna drives away to go propose to Guillermo. On the way, Dianna gets into a fatal accident and dies. Noah seeks Guillermo out to yell at him and lies by saying that his parents were planning to stay together. Furthermore, Noah is under the impression that his application to art school was rejected. He is lost, confused, and still hung up over Brian.
The later years are from Jude 's point of view. Evidently, instead of ensuring both of their applications were mailed out, Jude threw away Noah 's application and only sent out her own. Jude is not doing well coping with her mother 's death. She is miserable in school and is nearly failing out. She is convinced that her mother 's ghost is destroying all her art. Therefore, she finds Guillermo Garcia, who she convinces to take her on as an apprentice. Jude wants to make stone sculptures that, she believes, her mother will be unable to demolish. Meanwhile, Jude finds herself hopelessly attracted to Oscar, a British boy who Guillermo views like a son. Oscar flirts with Jude but she does not allow it to go far because she has sworn off boys. The day Dianna got into the accident, Jude was having sex for the first time. The experience was awful and Jude feels responsible for her mother 's death.
Working on her stone sculpture helps Jude process her issues. She knows that she needs to tell Noah about what she did with his art school application. Meanwhile, Noah has discovered that Guillermo is Jude 's mentor. He is concerned that Jude will learn that Noah was responsible for their mother 's accident. Hopelessly, Noah gets drunk during a drinking game and nearly commits suicide by jumping off a cliff. However, Jude and Oscar stop him. The twins talk and reveal all their secrets to each other. Noah reveals Dianna 's affair with Guillermo and Jude tells him about the sabotaged art application. Guillermo is relieved Dianna still loved him when she died and wants to continue to mentor Jude. Oscar and Jude admit to their feelings for each other. Noah is finally accepted into art school, and gets back together with Brian who is now openly gay. With all their misunderstandings cleared up, the twins are ready to reconnect and rebuild their relationship.
Some of the major themes in I 'll Give You the Sun are sexuality, identity, family, change, and art. Noah struggles with his sexuality throughout the novel. He battles with the instinct that tells him his sexuality should remain a secret. Although Noah identifies himself as gay he struggles to fit into a world that does not seem to welcome him. Identity also plays a large role in the book as the twins try to authentically express themselves, as separate individuals, to the world. Family values are questioned in the novel that cause the twins to doubt each other. Many changes affect the twins ' lives and it takes them a long time to accept and process these changes. Art is a large theme of the novel because the characters often find themselves processing and expressing their feelings through the medium of art.
The style of I 'll Give You the Sun is complex. Jude and Noah narrate the same story, just from their own, different perspectives. Also, Jandy Nelson constantly utilizes vivid imagery to describe her characters, their actions, and their emotions. These emotions play a large part in the plot, as the characters ' complex emotions contribute to the intricacy of the plot. However, Nelson 's writing is compassionate, which helps make her characters relatable and lovable, despite their many flaws.
When asked where the idea for I 'll Give You the Sun, Nelson responds that, "These characters -- Jude and Noah -- pretty much crash - landed in my brain, almost fully formed. They brought with them this tragedy and their "first love '' stories. '' She mentions the complications that came with writing this novel, "The challenge became how to tell their really complicated story, because there is a lot going on between and among all these characters. '' Nelson talks about the different approach and writing process she took with this novel. She says, "The Sky Is Everywhere I wrote like a normal person, but for this book I wrote the entire thing in a pitch - black room with earplugs in. The only available light was the light coming from the computer screen. '' Apparently, this process worked, as Nelson continues by commenting, "There was something about being in that dark room like a lunatic, not letting my world in at all, that allowed me to stay in their story. ''
I 'll Give You the Sun received an overwhelming amount of positive reviews. The New York Times praised the novel by calling it, "Breathtaking. You get the sense (the) characters are bursting through the words, breaking free of normal metaphors and constructions, jubilantly trying to rise up from the prison of language... '' Likewise, The Guardian said that I 'll Give You the Sun is "... About many things: grief, sexuality, creativity, bravery, identity, guilt. But mostly it 's about love... This book will make you realize how beautiful words can be. ''
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what branch of the us military is the oldest | List of oldest military units and formations in continuous operation - wikipedia
This is a list of oldest military units and formations in continuous operation.
Note: As the modern standing armies first developed in the 15th century, the terminology for modern military units and formations, such as company, battalion, regiment etc. mostly arose in the early modern period, during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Entries in this table predate some of those listed above, but are no longer considered active.
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where are you going to scarborough fair lyrics | Scarborough Fair (ballad) - wikipedia
"Scarborough Fair '' is a traditional English ballad about the Yorkshire town of Scarborough.
The song relates the tale of a young man who instructs the listener to tell his former love to perform for him a series of impossible tasks, such as making him a shirt without a seam and then washing it in a dry well, adding that if she completes these tasks he will take her back. Often the song is sung as a duet, with the woman then giving her lover a series of equally impossible tasks, promising to give him his seamless shirt once he has finished.
As the versions of the ballad known under the title "Scarborough Fair '' are usually limited to the exchange of these impossible tasks, many suggestions concerning the plot have been proposed, including the hypothesis that it is about the Great Plague of the late Middle Ages. The lyrics of "Scarborough Fair '' appear to have something in common with an obscure Scottish ballad, The Elfin Knight (Child Ballad # 2), which has been traced at least as far back as 1670 and may well be earlier. In this ballad, an elf threatens to abduct a young woman to be his lover unless she can perform an impossible task ("For thou must shape a sark to me / Without any cut or heme, quoth he ''); she responds with a list of tasks that he must first perform ("I have an aiker of good ley - land / Which lyeth low by yon sea - strand '').
The melody is in Dorian mode, and is very typical of the middle English period.
As the song spread, it was adapted, modified, and rewritten to the point that dozens of versions existed by the end of the 18th century, although only a few are typically sung nowadays. The references to the traditional English fair, "Scarborough Fair '' and the refrain "parsley, sage, rosemary, and thyme '' date to 19th century versions, and the refrain may have been borrowed from the ballad Riddles Wisely Expounded, (Child Ballad # 1), which has a similar plot. A number of older versions refer to locations other than Scarborough Fair, including Wittingham Fair, Cape Ann, "twixt Berwik and Lyne '', etc. Many versions do not mention a place - name, and are often generically titled ("The Lovers ' Tasks '', "My Father Gave Me an Acre of Land '', etc.).
As a popular and widely distributed song from 1946 - 1968, there are many versions of the lyrics. The one here, intended as a duet by a man and a woman, includes the place after which it is named:
Male part:
Female part:
The oldest versions of "The Elfin Knight '' (circa 1650) contain the refrain "my plaid away, my plaid away, the wind shall not blow my plaid away ''. Slightly more recent versions often contain one of a group of related refrains:
These are usually paired with "Once (s) he was a true love of mine '' or some variant. "Parsley, sage, rosemary, and thyme '' may simply be an alternate rhyming refrain to the original based on a corruption of "grows merry in time '' into "rosemary and thyme ''.
The earliest commercial recording of the ballad was by actor / singers Gordon Heath and Lee Payant, Americans who ran a cafe and nightclub, L'Abbaye, on the Rive Gauche in Paris. They recorded the song on the Elektra album Encores From The Abbaye in 1955. Their version used the melody from Frank Kidson 's collection Traditional Tunes, published in 1891, which reported it as being "as sung in Whitby streets twenty or thirty years ago '' -- that is, in about the 1860s.
The song was also included on A.L. Lloyd 's 1955 album The English And Scottish Popular Ballads, using Kidson 's melody. The version using the melody later used by Simon & Garfunkel in "Scarborough Fair / Canticle '' was first recorded on a 1956 album, English Folk Songs, by Audrey Coppard. It was included by Ewan MacColl on Matching Songs For The British Isles And America (1957), by McColl and Peggy Seeger on The Singing Island (1960), and by Shirley Collins on the album False True Lovers (1959). It is likely that both Coppard and Collins learned it from MacColl, who claimed to have collected it "in part '' from a Scottish miner. According to the Teesdale Mercury and Martin Carthy 's daughter, it emerged that researcher - musician MacColl wrote a book of Teesdale folk songs after hearing Mark Anderson sing in the late 1940s. The book included Anderson 's rendition of a little - known song called "Scarborough Fair ''. However, according to Alan Lomax, MacColl 's source was probably Cecil Sharp 's One Hundred English Folk Songs, published in 1916.
In April 1966, Marianne Faithfull recorded and released her own take on "Scarborough Fair '' on her album North Country Maid about six months prior to Simon & Garfunkel 's release of their single version of the song in October 1966.
Paul Simon learned the song in London in 1965 from Martin Carthy, who had picked up the tune from the songbook by Ewan MacColl and Peggy Seeger and included it on his eponymous 1965 album. Simon & Garfunkel set it in counterpoint with "Canticle '' -- a reworking of the lyrics from Simon 's 1963 anti-war song, "The Side of a Hill '', set to a new melody composed mainly by Art Garfunkel. It was the lead track of the 1966 album Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme, and was released as a single after being featured on the soundtrack to The Graduate in 1968. The copyright credited only Simon and Garfunkel as the authors, causing ill - feeling on the part of Carthy, who felt the "traditional '' source should have been credited. This rift remained until Simon invited Carthy to perform the song with him as a duet at a London concert in 2000. Simon performed this song with The Muppets when he guest starred on The Muppet Show.
Before Simon had learned the song, Bob Dylan had borrowed the melody and several lines from Carthy 's arrangement to create his song, "Girl from the North Country '', which appeared on The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan (1963), Nashville Skyline (1969) (together with Johnny Cash), Real Live (1984) and The 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration (1993).
The Coolies ' first album, dig...?, released in 1986 by DB Records, consisted of nine tongue - in - cheek covers of Simon & Garfunkel classics, including this track. "Scarborough Fair '' b / w "The Sound of Silence '' was released as a 7 '' single.
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which was not a tenet of late han buddhism | Chinese Buddhism - wikipedia
Chinese Buddhism has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine, and material culture.
The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations together with works composed in China into a printed canon had far - reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the Chinese cultural sphere, including Korea, Japan, Ryukyu Islands and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism is also marked by the interaction between Indian religions, Chinese religion, and Taoism.
Various legends tell of the presence of Buddhism in Chinese soil in very ancient times. Nonetheless, the scholarly consensus is that Buddhism first came to China in the first century CE during the Han dynasty, through missionaries from India.
Generations of scholars have debated whether Buddhist missionaries first reached Han China via the maritime or overland routes of the Silk Road. The maritime route hypothesis, favored by Liang Qichao and Paul Pelliot, proposed that Buddhism was originally practiced in southern China, the Yangtze River and Huai River region, where prince Ying of Chu (present day Jiangsu) was jointly worshipping the Yellow Emperor, Laozi, and Buddha in 65 CE. The overland route hypothesis, favored by Tang Yongtong, proposed that Buddhism disseminated eastward through Yuezhi and was originally practiced in western China, at the Han capital Luoyang (present day Henan), where Emperor Ming of Han established the White Horse Temple in 68 CE. Rong Xinjiang, a history professor at Peking University, reexamined the overland and maritime hypotheses through a multi-disciplinary review of recent discoveries and research, including the Gandhāran Buddhist Texts, and concluded:
The view that Buddhism was transmitted to China by the sea route comparatively lacks convincing and supporting materials, and some arguments are not sufficiently rigorous. Based on the existing historical texts and the archaeological iconographic materials discovered since the 1980s, particularly the first - century Buddhist manuscripts recently found in Afghanistan, the commentator believes that the most plausible theory is that Buddhism reached China from the Greater Yuezhi of northwest India and took the land route to reach Han China. After entering into China, Buddhism blended with early Daoism and Chinese traditional esoteric arts and its iconography received blind worship.
A number of popular accounts in historical Chinese literature have led to the popularity of certain legends regarding the introduction of Buddhism into China. According to the most popular one, Emperor Ming of Han (28 -- 75 CE) precipitated the introduction of Buddhist teachings into China. The (early 3rd to early 5th century) Mouzi Lihuolun first records this legend:
In olden days Emperor Ming saw in a dream a god whose body had the brilliance of the sun and who flew before his palace; and he rejoiced exceedingly at this. The next day he asked his officials: "What god is this? '' the scholar Fu Yi said: "Your subject has heard it said that in India there is somebody who has attained the Dao and who is called Buddha; he flies in the air, his body had the brilliance of the sun; this must be that god. ''
The emperor then sent an envoy to Tianzhu (Southern India) to inquire about the teachings of the Buddha. Buddhist scriptures were said to have been returned to China on the backs of white horses, after which White Horse Temple was named. Two Indian monks also returned with them, named Dharmaratna and Kaśyapa Mātaṅga.
An 8th - century Chinese fresco at Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu portrays Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141 -- 87 BCE) worshiping statues of a golden man; "golden men brought in 121 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads ''. However, neither the Shiji nor Book of Han histories of Emperor Wu mentions a golden Buddhist statue (compare Emperor Ming above).
The first documented translation of Buddhist scriptures from various Indian languages into Chinese occurs in 148 CE with the arrival of the Parthian prince - turned - monk An Shigao (Ch. 安 世 高). He worked to establish Buddhist temples in Luoyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselytism that was to last several centuries. An Shigao translated Buddhist texts on basic doctrines, meditation, and abhidharma. An Xuan (Ch. 安 玄), a Parthian layman who worked alongside An Shigao, also translated an early Mahāyāna Buddhist text on the bodhisattva path.
Mahāyāna Buddhism was first widely propagated in China by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. 支 婁 迦 讖, active c. 164 -- 186 CE), who came from the ancient Buddhist kingdom of Gandhāra. Lokakṣema translated important Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, as well as rare, early Mahāyāna sūtras on topics such as samādhi, and meditation on the buddha Akṣobhya. These translations from Lokakṣema continue to give insight into the early period of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This corpus of texts often includes emphasizes ascetic practices and forest dwelling, and absorption in states of meditative concentration:
Paul Harrison has worked on some of the texts that are arguably the earliest versions we have of the Mahāyāna sūtras, those translated into Chinese in the last half of the second century CE by the Indo - Scythian translator Lokakṣema. Harrison points to the enthusiasm in the Lokakṣema sūtra corpus for the extra ascetic practices, for dwelling in the forest, and above all for states of meditative absorption (samādhi). Meditation and meditative states seem to have occupied a central place in early Mahāyāna, certainly because of their spiritual efficacy but also because they may have given access to fresh revelations and inspiration.
During the early period of Chinese Buddhism, the Indian early Buddhist schools recognized as important, and whose texts were studied, were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas, Kāśyapīyas, Sarvāstivādins, and the Mahāsāṃghikas.
The Dharmaguptakas made more efforts than any other sect to spread Buddhism outside India, to areas such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China, and they had great success in doing so. Therefore, most countries which adopted Buddhism from China, also adopted the Dharmaguptaka vinaya and ordination lineage for bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs. According to A.K. Warder, in some ways in those East Asian countries, the Dharmaguptaka sect can be considered to have survived to the present. Warder further writes that the Dharmaguptakas can be credited with effectively establishing Chinese Buddhism during the early period:
It was the Dharmaguptakas who were the first Buddhists to establish themselves in Central Asia. They appear to have carried out a vast circling movement along the trade routes from Aparānta north - west into Iran and at the same time into Oḍḍiyāna (the Suvastu valley, north of Gandhāra, which became one of their main centres). After establishing themselves as far west as Parthia they followed the "silk route '', the east - west axis of Asia, eastwards across Central Asia and on into China, where they effectively established Buddhism in the second and third centuries A.D. The Mahīśāsakas and Kāśyapīyas appear to have followed them across Asia into China. (...) For the earlier period of Chinese Buddhism it was the Dharmaguptakas who constituted the main and most influential school, and even later their Vinaya remained the basis of the discipline there.
Initially, Buddhism in China faced a number of difficulties in becoming established. The concept of monasticism and the aversion to social affairs seemed to contradict the long - established norms and standards established in Chinese society. Some even declared that Buddhism was harmful to the authority of the state, that Buddhist monasteries contributed nothing to the economic prosperity of China, that Buddhism was barbaric and undeserving of Chinese cultural traditions. However, Buddhism was often associated with Daoism in its ascetic meditative tradition, and for this reason a concept - matching system was used by some early Indian translators, to adapt native Buddhist ideas onto Daoist ideas and terminology.
Buddhism appealed to Chinese intellectuals and elites and the development of gentry Buddhism was sought as an alternative to Confucianism and Daoism, since Buddhism 's emphasis on morality and ritual appealed to Confucianists and the desire to cultivate inner wisdom appealed to Daoists. Gentry Buddhism was a medium of introduction for the beginning of Buddhism in China, it gained imperial and courtly support. By the early 5th century Buddhism was established in south China. During this time, Indian monks continued to travel along the Silk Road to teach Buddhism, and translation work was primarily done by foreign monks rather than Chinese.
When the famous monk Kumārajīva was captured during the Chinese conquest of the Buddhist kingdom of Kucha, he was imprisoned for many years. When he was released in AD 401, he immediately took a high place in Chinese Buddhism and was appraised as a great master from the West. He was especially valued by Emperor Yao Xing of the state of Later Qin, who gave him an honorific title and treated him like a god. Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism with his high quality translations (from AD 402 - 413), which are still praised for their flowing smoothness, clarity of meaning, subtlety, and literary skill. Due to the efforts of Kumārajīva, Buddhism in China became not only recognized for its practice methods, but also as high philosophy and religion. The arrival of Kumārajīva also set a standard for Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, effectively doing away with previous concept - matching systems.
The translations of Kumārajīva have often remained more popular than those of other translators. Among the most well - known are his translations of the Diamond Sutra, the Amitabha Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, and the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
Around the time of Kumārajīva, the four major Sanskrit āgamas were also translated into Chinese. Each of the āgamas was translated independently by a different Indian monk. These āgamas comprise the only other complete surviving Sūtra Piṭaka, which is generally comparable to the Pali Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism. The teachings of the Sūtra Piṭaka are usually considered to be one of the earliest teachings on Buddhism and a core text of the Early Buddhist Schools in China.
Due to the wide proliferation of Buddhist texts available in Chinese and the large number of foreign monks who came to teach Buddhism in China, much like new branches growing from a main tree trunk, various specific focus traditions emerged. Among the most influential of these was the practice of Pure Land Buddhism established by Hui Yuan, which focused on Amitābha Buddha and his western pure land of Sukhāvatī. Other early traditions were the Tiantai, Huayan and the Vinaya school. Such schools were based upon the primacy of the Lotus Sūtra, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, and the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, respectively, along with supplementary sūtras and commentaries. The Tiantai founder Zhiyi wrote several works that became important and widely read meditation manuals in China such as the "Concise samatha - vipasyana '', and the "Great samatha - vipasyana. ''
In the 5th century, the Chán (Zen) teachings began in China, traditionally attributed to the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma, a legendary figure. The school heavily utilized the principles found in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, a sūtra utilizing the teachings of Yogācāra and those of Tathāgatagarbha, and which teaches the One Vehicle (Skt. Ekayāna) to buddhahood. In the early years, the teachings of Chán were therefore referred to as the "One Vehicle School. '' The earliest masters of the Chán school were called "Laṅkāvatāra Masters '', for their mastery of practice according to the principles of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.
The principal teachings of Chán were later often known for the use of so - called encounter stories and koans, and the teaching methods used in them. Nan Huai - Chin identifies the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) as the principle texts of the Chán school, and summarizes the principles succinctly:
The Zen teaching was a separate transmission outside the scriptural teachings that did not posit any written texts as sacred. Zen pointed directly to the human mind to enable people to see their real nature and become buddhas.
During the early Tang dynasty, between 629 and 645, the monk Xuanzang journeyed to India and visited over one hundred kingdoms, and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. During his travels he visited holy sites, learned the lore of his faith, and studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nālanda University. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. Xuanzang also returned with relics, statues, and Buddhist paraphernalia loaded onto twenty - two horses. With the emperor 's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present - day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra, or "Consciousness - only ''.
The force of his own study, translation and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school in East Asia. Although the school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang 's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang 's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lack the necessary background in Indian logic. Another important disciple was the Korean monk Woncheuk.
Xuanzang 's translations were especially important for the transmission of Indian texts related to the Yogācāra school. He translated central Yogācāra texts such as the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra and the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, as well as important texts such as the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra and the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabharāja Sūtra (Medicine Buddha Sūtra). He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun (Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi Śāstra) as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sūtra became and remains the standard in all East Asian Buddhist sects. The proliferation of these sūtras expanded the Chinese Buddhist canon significantly with high quality translations of some of the most important Indian Buddhist texts.
The popularization of Buddhism in this period is evident in the many scripture - filled caves and structures surviving from this period. The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan and the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi are the most renowned examples from the Northern, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.
Monks and pious laymen spread Buddhist concepts through story - telling and preaching from sutra texts. These oral presentations were written down as bianwen (transformation stories) which influenced the writing of fiction by their new ways of telling stories combining prose and poetry. Popular legends in this style included Mulian Rescues His Mother, in which a monk descends into hell in a show of filial piety.
Making duplications of Buddhist texts was considered to bring meritorious karma. Printing from individually carved wooden blocks and from clay or metal movable type proved much more efficient than hand copying and eventually eclipsed it. The Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) of 868 CE, a Buddhist scripture discovered in 1907 inside the Mogao Caves, is the first dated example of block printing.
The Kaiyuan 's Three Great Enlightened Masters, Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, established Esoteric Buddhism in China from AD 716 to 720 during the reign of emperor Xuanzong. They came to Daxing Shansi (大 行善 寺, Great Propagating Goodness Temple), which was the predecessor of Temple of the Great Enlightener Mahavairocana. Daxing Shansi was established in the ancient capital Chang'an, today 's Xi'an, and became one of the four great centers of scripture translation supported by the imperial court. They had translated many Buddhist scriptures, sutra and tantra, from Sanskrit to Chinese. They had also assimilated the prevailing teachings of China: Daoism and Confucianism, with Buddhism, and had further evolved the practice of the Esoteric school.
They brought to the Chinese a mysterious, dynamic, and magical teaching, which included mantra formula and detailed rituals to protect a person or an empire, to affect a person 's fate after death, and, particularly popular, to bring rain in times of drought. It is not surprising, then, that all three masters were well received by the emperor Tang Xuanzong, and their teachings were quickly taken up at the Tang court and among the elite. Mantrayana altars were installed in temples in the capital, and by the time of emperor Tang Daizong (r. 762 - 779) its influence among the upper classes outstripped that of Daoism. However, relations between Amoghavajra and Daizong were especially good. In life the emperor favored Amoghavajra with titles and gifts, and when the master died in 774, he honored his memory with a stupa, or funeral monument. The Esoteric Buddhist lineage of China (and almost all of Buddhism in China at the time) was nearly wiped out by the Emperor Tang Wuzong, leading to the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution. Historically, the Hanmi Chinese Esoteric School of Buddhism was also thought to have been lost when Emperor Tang Wuzong banned the teaching. Huiguo, the last known disciple of Amoghavajra, left China with Kukai traveling to Japan to establish the Japanese Esoteric school of Buddhism, later known as Shingon.
A disciple of Amoghavajra, Huisu, secretly continued the lineage in China and has been passed on through one master per generation. In 1989 the 48th Maha - Acharya Master Huiling of the Chinese Esoteric School passed the teaching to the 49th Lineage Bearer Master Yu Tian Jian who revived the school.
The Esoteric Buddhist lineages transmitted to Japan under the auspices of the monks Kūkai and Saicho, later formulated the teachings transmitted to them to create the Shingon sect and the Tendai sect.
There were several components that led to opposition of Buddhism. One factor is the foreign origins of Buddhism, unlike Daoism and Confucianism. Han Yu wrote, "Buddha was a man of the barbarians who did not speak the language of China and wore clothes of a different fashion. His sayings did not concern the ways of our ancient kings, nor did his manner of dress conform to their laws. He understood neither the duties that bind sovereign and subject, nor the affections of father and son. ''
Other components included the Buddhists ' withdrawal from society, since the Chinese believed that Chinese people should be involved with family life. Wealth, tax - exemption status and power of the Buddhist temples and monasteries also annoyed many critics.
As mentioned earlier, persecution came during the reign of Emperor Wuzong in the Tang Dynasty. Wuzong was said to hate the sight of Buddhist monks, who he thought were tax - evaders. In 845, he ordered the destruction of 4,600 Buddhist monasteries and 40,000 temples. More than 400,000 Buddhist monks and nuns then became peasants liable to the Two Taxes (grain and cloth). Wuzong cited that Buddhism was an alien religion, which is the reason he also persecuted the Christians in China. David Graeber argues that Buddhist institutions had accumulated so much precious metals which the government needed to secure the money supply. Ancient Chinese Buddhism never fully recovered from the persecution.
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (simplified Chinese: 五代 十 国; traditional Chinese: 五代 十 國; pinyin: Wǔdài Shíguó) was an era of political upheaval in China, between the fall of the Tang Dynasty and the founding of the Song Dynasty. During this period, five dynasties quickly succeeded one another in the north, and more than 12 independent states were established, mainly in the south. However, only ten are traditionally listed, hence the era 's name, "Ten Kingdoms ''. Some historians, such as Bo Yang, count eleven, including Yan and Qi, but not Northern Han, viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han. This era also led to the founding of the Liao Dynasty.
After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, China was without effective central control during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. China was divided into several autonomous regions. Support for Buddhism was limited to a few areas. The Hua - yen and T'ien - t'ai schools suffered from the changing circumstances, since they had depended on imperial support. The collapse of T'ang society also deprived the aristocratic classes of wealth and influence, which meant a further drawback for Buddhism. Shenxiu 's Northern Chán School and Henshui 's Southern Chán School did n't survive the changing circumstances. Nevertheless, Chán emerged as the dominant stream within Chinese Buddhism, but with various schools developing various emphasises in their teachings, due to the regional orientation of the period. The Fayan school, named after Fa - yen Wen - i (885 - 958) became the dominant school in the southern kingdoms of Nan - T'ang (Jiangxi, Chiang - hsi) and Wuyue (Che - chiang).
The Song Dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song (Chinese: 北宋, 960 -- 1127), the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of inner China. The Southern Song (Chinese: 南宋, 1127 -- 1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jin dynasty. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze River and established their capital at Lin'an (now Hangzhou). Although the Song Dynasty had lost control of the traditional birthplace of Chinese civilization along the Yellow River, the Song economy was not in ruins, as the Southern Song Empire contained 60 percent of China 's population and a majority of the most productive agricultural land.
During the Song Dynasty, Chán (禪) was used by the government to strengthen its control over the country, and Chán grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. An ideal picture of the Chán of the Tang period was produced, which served the legacy of this newly acquired status.
In the early Song Dynasty "Chán - Pure Land syncretism became a dominant movement. '' Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Daoism, due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Various Confucian scholars of the Song dynasty, including Zhu Xi (wg: Chu Hsi), sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo-Confucianism.
During the Song Dynasty, in 1021 CE, it is recorded that there were 458,855 Buddhist monks and nuns actively living in monasteries. The total number of monks was 397,615, while the total number of nuns was recorded as 61,240.
During the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol emperors made Esoteric Buddhism an official religion of China, and Tibetan lamas were given patronage at the court. A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Mongol Yuan Dynasty was overthrown and the Ming Dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path.
According to Weinstein, by the Ming Dynasty, the Chan school was so firmly established that all monks were affiliated with either the Linji school or the Caodong school.
During the Ming Dynasty, Hanshan Deqing was one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chán and Pure Land methods, and advocated the use of the nianfo ("Mindfulness of the Buddha '') technique to purify the mind for the attainment of self - realization. He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator, and admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.
According to Jiang Wu, for Chan masters in this period such as Hanshan Deqing, training through self - cultivation was encouraged, and clichéd or formulaic instructions were despised. Eminent monks who practiced meditation and asceticism without proper Dharma transmission were acclaimed for having acquiring "wisdom without a teacher. ''
The Qing court endorsed the Gelukpa School of Tibetan Buddhism. Early in the Taiping rebellion, the Taiping rebels targeted Buddhism. In the Battle of Nanjing (1853), the Taiping army butchered thousands of monks in Nanjing. But from the middle of the Taiping rebellion, Taiping leaders took a more moderate approach, demanding that monks should have licences.
Around 1900, Buddhists from other Asian countries showed a growing interest in Chinese Buddhism. Anagarika Dharmapala visited Shanghai in 1893, intending "to make a tour of China, to arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole world '', but eventually limiting his stay to Shanghai. Japanese Buddhist missionaries were active in China in the beginning of the 20th century.
The modernisation of China led to the end of the Chinese Empire, and the installation of the Republic of China, which lasted on the mainland until the Communist Revolution and the installation of the People 's Republic of China on the in 1949 which saw the ROC government went on an exodus to Taiwan.
Under influence of the western culture, attempts were being made to revitalize Chinese Buddhism. Most notable were the Humanistic Buddhism of Taixu, and the revival of Chinese Chán by Hsu Yun. Hsu Yun is generally regarded as one of the most influential Buddhist teachers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Other influential teachers in the early 20th century included Pure land Buddhist Yin Guang (印 光) and artist Hong Yi. Layman Zhao Puchu worked much on the revival.
Until 1949, monasteries were built in the Southeast Asian countries, for example by monks of Guanghua Monastery, to spread Chinese Buddhism. Presently, Guanghua Monastery has seven branches in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. Several Chinese Buddhist teachers left mainland China during the Communist Revolution, and settled in Hong Kong and Taiwan.
Master Hsing Yun (1927 -- present) is the founder of Fo Guang Shan monastery and lay organization the Buddha 's Light International Association. Born in Jiangsu Province in mainland China, he entered the Sangha at the age of 12, and came to Taiwan in 1949. He founded Fo Guang Shan monastery in 1967, and the Buddha 's Light International Association in 1992. These are among the largest monastic and lay Buddhist organizations in Taiwan from the late 20th to early 21st centuries. He advocates Humanistic Buddhism, which the broad modern Chinese Buddhist progressive attitude towards the religion.
Master Sheng Yen (1930 - 2009) was the founder of the Dharma Drum Mountain, a Buddhist organization based in Taiwan. During his time in Taiwan, Sheng Yen was well known as one of the progressive Buddhist teachers who sought to teach Buddhism in a modern and Western - influenced world.
Master Wei Chueh was born in 1928 in Sichuan, mainland China, and ordained in Taiwan. In 1982, he founded Lin Quan Temple in Taipei County and became known for his teaching on Ch'an practices by offering many lectures and seven - day Ch'an retreats.
Unlike Catholicism and other branches of Christianity, there was no organization in China that embraced all monastics in China, nor even all monastics within the same sect. Traditionally each monastery was autonomous, with authority resting on each respective abbot. In 1953, the Chinese Buddhist Association was established at a meeting with 121 delegates in Beijing. The meeting also elected a chairman, 4 honorary chairmen, 7 vice-chairmen, a secretary general, 3 deputy secretaries - general, 18 members of a standing committee, and 93 directors. The 4 elected honorary chairmen were the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama, the Grand Lama of Inner Mongolia, and Venerable Master Hsu Yun.
Since the reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a new revival of Chinese Buddhism has been taking place. Ancient Buddhist temples are being restored and new Buddhist temples are being built.
Chinese Buddhist temples, administrated by local governments, have become increasingly commercialized by sales of tickets, incense, or other religious items; soliciting donations; and even the listing of temples on the stock market and local governments obtain large incomes. In October 2012, the State Administration for Religious Affairs announced a crackdown on religious profiteering. Many sites have done enough repairs and have already cancelled ticket fares and are receiving voluntary donation instead.
The 108 - metre - high Guan Yin of the South Sea of Sanya statue was enshrined on April 24, 2005 with the participation of 108 eminent monks from various Buddhist groups from Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, and tens of thousands of pilgrims. The delegation also included monks from the Theravada and Tibetan Buddhist traditions. China is one of the countries with the most of the world 's highest statues, many of which are Buddhist statues.
In April 2006 China organized the World Buddhist Forum, an event now held every two years, and in March 2007 the government banned mining on Buddhist sacred mountains. In May of the same year, in Changzhou, the world 's tallest pagoda was built and opened. In March 2008 the Taiwan - based organizations Tzu Chi Foundation and Fo Guang Shan were approved to open a branch in mainland China.
Currently, there are about 1.3 billion Chinese living in the People 's Republic. Surveys have found that around 18.2 % to 20 % of this population adheres to Buddhism. Furthermore, PEW found that another 21 % of the Chinese population followed Chinese folk religions that incorporated elements of Buddhism.
Chinese Buddhism is mainly practiced by ethnic Han - Chinese in Southeast Asia.
The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua, who taught Chán and other traditions of Chinese Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s. He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas, a monastery and retreat center located on a 237 - acre (959,000 m2) property near Ukiah, California. Chuang Yen Monastery and Hsi Lai Temple are also large centers.
Sheng Yen also founded dharma centers in the USA.
In China and countries with large Chinese populations such as Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore, Esoteric Buddhism is most commonly referred to as the Chinese term Mìzōng (密宗), or "Esoteric School. '' Traditions of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism are most commonly referred to as referred as Tángmì (唐 密), "Tang Dynasty Esoterica, '' or Hànchuán Mìzōng (漢 傳 密宗), "Han Transmission Esoteric School '' (Hànmì 漢 密 for short), or Dōngmì (東 密), "Eastern Esoterica, '' separating itself from Tibetan and Newar traditions. These schools more or less share the same doctrines as Shingon, and in some cases, Chinese monks have traveled to Japan to train and to be given esoteric transmission at Mount Koya and Mount Hiei.
There are many sects and organisations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (fo or fu: "awakening '', "enlightenment '') that are not recognised as legitimate Buddhism by the Chinese Buddhist Association and the government of the People 's Republic of China. This group includes:
Vajrayana movements:
Chinese Buddhism incorporates elements of traditional Buddhism and Taoism.
Common practices include
During the Zhou dynasty, Chinese believed that smoke resulting from burning wood act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits. When Buddhism reached China, this wood evolved into sandalwood incense which were originally burned by Indian Buddhists so they could concentrate better.
It can be seen that incense burning as it is known today is a merger between Chinese culture and Buddhist culture.
In Chinese Buddhism, lay practitioners have traditionally played an important role, and lay practice of Buddhism has had similar tendencies to those of monastic Buddhism in China. Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci which provide extensive and revealing accounts to the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China.
Traditional practices such as meditation, mantra recitation, mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha, asceticism, and vegetarianism were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people. It is known from accounts in the Ming Dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chán traditions, as well as the study of the Buddhist sūtras. The Heart Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra were the most popular, followed by the Lotus Sūtra and the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.
Laypeople were also commonly devoted to the practice of mantras, and the Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī were very popular. Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the populace and the elite.
Mahāyāna figures such as Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva, Amitābha Buddha, and the Medicine Buddha, were all widely known and revered. Beliefs in karma and rebirth were held at all levels of Chinese society, and pilgrimages to well - known monasteries and the four holy mountains of China were undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.
These are the holy days that Chinese Buddhists celebrate by visiting temples to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers and donations. On such days they observe the moral precepts very strictly as well as a full day 's vegetarian diet, a practice originally from China.
The dates given are based on the Chinese calendar system so that 8.4 means the Eighth day of the fourth month in Chinese calendar and so on.
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what's the tallest mountain in the lower 48 | Mount Whitney - wikipedia
Mount Whitney is the tallest mountain in California, as well as the highest summit in the contiguous United States and the Sierra Nevada -- with an elevation of 14,505 feet (4,421 m). It is located on the boundary between California 's Inyo and Tulare counties, 84.6 miles (136.2 km) west - northwest of the lowest point in North America at Badwater Basin in Death Valley National Park at 282 ft (86 m) below sea level. The west slope of the mountain is in Sequoia National Park and the summit is the southern terminus of the John Muir Trail which runs 211.9 mi (341.0 km) from Happy Isles in Yosemite Valley. The east slope is in the Inyo National Forest in Inyo County.
The summit of Mount Whitney is on the Sierra Crest and the Great Basin Divide. It lies near many of the highest peaks of the Sierra Nevada. The peak rises dramatically above the Owens Valley, sitting 10,778 feet (3,285 m) or just over two miles above the town of Lone Pine 15 miles to the east, in the Owens Valley. It rises more gradually on the west side, lying only about 3,000 feet (910 m) above the John Muir Trail at Guitar Lake.
The mountain is partially dome - shaped, with its famously jagged ridges extending to the sides. Mount Whitney is above the tree line and has an alpine climate and ecology. Very few plants grow near the summit: one example is the Skypilot, a cushion plant that grows low to the ground. The only animals are transient, such as the butterfly Parnassius phoebus and the gray - crowned rosy finch.
The mountain is the highest point on the Great Basin Divide. Waterways on the west side of the peak flow into Whitney Creek, which flows into the Kern River. The Kern River terminates in the Tulare Basin. During very wet years, water overflows from the Tulare Basin into the San Joaquin River which flows to the Pacific Ocean. From the east, water from Mount Whitney flows to Lone Pine Creek, which joins the Owens River, which in turn terminates at Owens Lake, an endorheic lake of the Great Basin.
The estimated elevation of the summit of Mount Whitney has changed over the years. The technology of elevation measurement has become more refined and, more importantly, the vertical coordinate system has changed. The peak was commonly said to be at 14,494 ft (4,418 m) and this is the elevation stamped on the USGS brass benchmark disk on the summit. An older plaque on the summit (sheet metal with black lettering on white enamel) reads "elevation 14,496.811 feet '' but this was estimated using the older vertical datum (NGVD29) from 1929. Since then the shape of the Earth (the geoid) has been estimated more accurately. Using a new vertical datum established in 1988 (NAVD88) the benchmark is now estimated to be at 14,505 ft (4,421 m).
The eastern slope of Whitney is far steeper than its western slope because the entire Sierra Nevada is the result of a fault - block that is analogous to a cellar door: the door is hinged on the west and is slowly rising on the east.
The rise is caused by a normal fault system that runs along the eastern base of the Sierra, below Mount Whitney. Thus, the granite that forms Mount Whitney is the same as the granite that forms the Alabama Hills, thousands of feet lower down. The raising of Whitney (and the downdrop of the Owens Valley) is due to the same geological forces that cause the Basin and Range Province: the crust of much of the intermontane west is slowly being stretched.
The granite that forms Mount Whitney is part of the Sierra Nevada batholith. In Cretaceous time, masses of molten rock that originated from subduction rose underneath what is now Whitney and solidified underground to form large expanses of granite. In the last 2 to 10 million years, the Sierra was pushed up which enabled glacial and river erosion to strip the upper layers of rock to reveal the resistant granite that makes up Mount Whitney today.
In July 1864, the members of the California Geological Survey named the peak after Josiah Whitney, the State Geologist of California and benefactor of the survey. During the same expedition, geologist Clarence King attempted to climb Whitney from its west side, but stopped just short. In 1871, King returned to climb what he believed to be Whitney, but having taken a different approach, he actually summited nearby Mount Langley. Upon learning of his mistake in 1873, King finally completed his own first ascent of Whitney, but did so a month too late to claim the first recorded ascent. Just a month earlier, on August 18, 1873, Charles Begole, A.H. Johnson, and John Lucas, all of nearby Lone Pine, had become the first to reach the highest summit in the contiguous United States. As they climbed the mountain during a fishing trip to nearby Kern Canyon, they called the mountain Fisherman 's Peak.
In 1881 Samuel Pierpont Langley, founder of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory remained for some time on the summit, making daily observations on the solar heat. Accompanying Langley in 1881 was another party consisting of Judge William B. Wallace of Visalia, W.A. Wright and Reverend Frederick Wales. Wallace later wrote in his memoirs that "The Pi Ute (Paiute) Indians called Mt. Whitney "Too - man - i - goo - yah, '' which means "the very old man. '' They believe that the Great Spirit who presides over the destiny of their people once had his home in that mountain. '' The spelling Too - man - i - goo - yah is a transliteration from the indigenous Paiute Mono language. Other variations are Too - man - go - yah and Tumanguya.
In 1891, the United States Geological Survey 's Board on Geographic Names decided to recognize the earlier name Mount Whitney. Despite losing out on their preferred name, residents of Lone Pine financed the first trail to the summit, engineered by Gustave Marsh, and completed on July 22, 1904. Just four days later, the new trail enabled the first recorded death on Whitney. Having hiked the trail, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries employee Byrd Surby was struck and killed by lightning while eating lunch on the exposed summit. In response to this event, Marsh began work on the stone hut that would become the Smithsonian Institution Shelter, and completed it in 1909.
A movement after World War II began to rename the mountain for Winston Churchill. However, the name Mount Whitney has persisted.
The most popular route to the summit is by way of the Mount Whitney Trail which starts at Whitney Portal, at an elevation of 8,360 ft (2,550 m), 13 mi (21 km) west of the town of Lone Pine. The hike is about 22 mi (35 km) round trip with an elevation gain of over 6,100 ft (1,900 m). Permits are required year round, and to prevent overuse a limited number of permits are issued by the Forest Service between May 1 and November 1. The Forest Service holds an annual lottery for hiking and backpacking permits on the Mount Whitney Trail. Applications are accepted from February 1 through March 15. Any permits left over after the lottery is completed typically go on sale April 1. Most hikers do the trip in two days which is still considered a strenuous endeavor. Those in good physical condition sometimes attempt to reach the summit and return to Whitney Portal in one day, thus requiring only a somewhat easier - to - obtain "day use '' permit rather than the overnight permit, and prohibiting the use of overnight camping gear (sleeping bag and tent). This is considered an "extreme '' day hike, which normally involves leaving Whitney Portal before sunrise and 12 to 18 hours of strenuous hiking, while struggling with altitude sickness, cold air, and occasionally treacherous surface conditions (because snow and / or ice are normally present on parts of the trail, except for a short period from early July to late September).
Longer approaches to Whitney arrive at its west side, connecting to the Mount Whitney Trail near the summit by way of the John Muir Trail.
The "Mountaineer 's Route '', a gully on the north side of the east face first climbed by John Muir, is considered a scramble, class 3 (PD+). The fastest recorded time up this route to the summit and back to the portal is 3 hours 10 minutes, by Jason Lakey of Bishop.
The steep eastern side of the mountain offers a variety of climbing challenges. The East Face route, first climbed in 1931, is one of the Fifty Classic Climbs of North America routes and involves technical free climbing (class 5.7) but is mostly class 4. Other routes range up to grade 5.10 d.
South of the main summit there are a series of minor summits that are completely inconspicuous from the west but appear as a series of "needles '' from the east. The routes on these include some of the finest big - wall climbing in the high Sierra. Two of the needles were named after participants in an 1880 scientific expedition to the mountain. Keeler Needle was named for James Keeler and Day Needle was named for William Cathcart Day. The latter has now been renamed Crooks Peak after Hulda Crooks who hiked up Mount Whitney every year until well into her nineties.
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who wrote the song you're my everything | You 're My Everything (1931 song) - wikipedia
"You 're My Everything '' ' is a 1931 song with music by Harry Warren and lyrics by Mort Dixon and Joe Young. The song was written for the revue The Laugh Parade starring Ed Wynn which opened in New York City on November 2, 1931. The song was sung by Jeanne Aubert and Lawrence Gray.
The song also appears on the following albums:
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who won second place in the world cup 2018 | 2018 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup was the 21st FIFA World Cup, an international football tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA once every four years. It took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018. It was the first World Cup to be held in Eastern Europe, and the 11th time that it had been held in Europe. At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion, it was the most expensive World Cup. It was also the first World Cup to use the video assistant referee (VAR) system.
The finals involved 32 teams, of which 31 came through qualifying competitions, while the host nation qualified automatically. Of the 32 teams, 20 had also appeared in the previous tournament in 2014, while both Iceland and Panama made their first appearances at a FIFA World Cup. A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues across 11 cities.
The final took place on 15 July at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, between France and Croatia. France won the match 4 -- 2 to claim their second World Cup title, marking the fourth consecutive title won by a European team.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup tournaments began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids: England, Russia, Netherlands / Belgium, and Portugal / Spain.
The 22 - member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal / Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium / Netherlands third. England, which was bidding to host its second tournament, was eliminated in the first round.
The voting results were as follows:
The English Football Association and others raised concerns of bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption from FIFA members. They claimed that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter had said that it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win. The 2014 Garcia Report, an internal investigation led by Michael J. Garcia, was withheld from public release by Hans - Joachim Eckert, FIFA 's head of adjudication on ethical matters. Eckert instead released a shorter revised summary, and his (and therefore FIFA 's) reluctance to publish the full report caused Garcia to resign in protest. Because of the controversy, the FA refused to accept Eckert 's absolving of Russia from blame, with Greg Dyke calling for a re-examination of the affair and David Bernstein calling for a boycott of the World Cup.
For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations -- the 209 FIFA member associations minus automatically qualified hosts Russia -- applied to enter the qualifying process. Zimbabwe and Indonesia were later disqualified before playing their first matches, while Gibraltar and Kosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition. Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup. The first qualification game, between Timor - Leste and Mongolia, began in Dili on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, and the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015.
Of the 32 nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 20 countries competed at the previous tournament in 2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming the smallest country in terms of population to reach the World Cup. Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments include: Egypt, returning to the finals after their last appearance in 1990; Morocco, who last competed in 1998; Peru, returning after 1982; and Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter - finals in 2002. It is the first time three Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland and Sweden) and four Arab nations (Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia) have qualified for the World Cup.
Notable countries that failed to qualify include four - time champions Italy (for the first time since 1958), three - time runners - up and third placed in 2014 the Netherlands (for the first time since 2002), and four reigning continental champions: 2017 Africa Cup of Nations winners Cameroon, two - time Copa América champions and 2017 Confederations Cup runners - up Chile, 2016 OFC Nations Cup winners New Zealand, and 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup champions United States (for the first time since 1986). The other notable qualifying streaks broken were for Ghana and Ivory Coast, who had both made the previous three tournaments.
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate positions in the FIFA World Rankings at the time of the tournament.
The draw was held on 1 December 2017 at 18: 00 MSK at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow. The 32 teams were drawn into 8 groups of 4, by selecting one team from each of the 4 ranked pots.
For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based on the FIFA World Rankings of October 2017. Pot 1 contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to position A1) and the best seven teams, pot 2 contained the next best eight teams, and so on for pots 3 and 4. This was different from previous draws, when only pot 1 was based on FIFA rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, teams from the same confederation still were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except that two UEFA teams could be in each group.
Russia (65) (hosts) Germany (1) Brazil (2) Portugal (3) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Poland (6) France (7)
Spain (8) Peru (10) Switzerland (11) England (12) Colombia (13) Mexico (16) Uruguay (17) Croatia (18)
Denmark (19) Iceland (21) Costa Rica (22) Sweden (25) Tunisia (28) Egypt (30) Senegal (32) Iran (34)
Serbia (38) Nigeria (41) Australia (43) Japan (44) Morocco (48) Panama (49) South Korea (62) Saudi Arabia (63)
Initially, each team had to name a preliminary squad of 30 players but, in February 2018, this was increased to 35. From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by 4 June. Players in the final squad may be replaced for serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team 's first match and such replacements do not need to have been named in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 35 - player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May.
On 29 March 2018, FIFA released the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches. On 30 April 2018, FIFA released the list of 13 video assistant referees, who solely acted in this capacity in the tournament.
Referee Fahad Al - Mirdasi of Saudi Arabia was removed in 30 May 2018 over a match - fixing attempt, along with his two assistant referees, compatriots Mohammed Al - Abakry and Abdulah Al - Shalwai. A new referee was not appointed, but two assistant referees, Hasan Al Mahri of the United Arab Emirates and Hiroshi Yamauchi of Japan, were added to the list. Assistant referee Marwa Range of Kenya also withdrew after the BBC released an investigation conducted by a Ghanaian journalist which implicated Marwa in a bribery scandal.
Shortly after the International Football Association Board 's decision to incorporate video assistant referees (VARs) into the Laws of the Game, on 16 March 2018, the FIFA Council took the much - anticipated step of approving the use of VAR for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
VAR operations for all games are operating from a single headquarters in Moscow, which receives live video of the games and are in radio contact with the on - field referees. Systems are in place for communicating VAR - related information to broadcasters and visuals on stadiums ' large screens are used for the fans in attendance.
VAR had a significant impact in several games. On 15 June 2018, Diego Costa 's goal against Portugal became the first World Cup goal based on a VAR decision; the first penalty as a result of a VAR decision was awarded to France in their match against Australia on 16 June and resulted in a goal by Antoine Griezmann. A record number of penalties were awarded in the tournament, with this phenomenon being partially attributed to VAR. Overall, the new technology has been both praised and criticised by commentators. FIFA declared the implementation of VAR a success after the first week of competition.
Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov - on - Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. Most cities are in European Russia, while Sochi and Yekaterinburg are very close to the Europe - Asia border, to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA 's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed. ''
In October 2011, Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.
The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list. Of the 12 stadiums used for the tournament, 3 (Luzhniki, Yekaterinburg and Sochi) have been extensively renovated and the other 9 stadiums to be used are brand new; $11.8 billion has been spent on hosting the tournament.
Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that, given the concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums ''.
In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA 's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.
On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.
Of the twelve venues used, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium -- the two largest stadiums in Russia -- were used most, both hosting seven matches. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara all hosted six matches, including one quarter - final match each, while the Otkrytiye Stadium in Moscow and Rostov - on - Don hosted five matches, including one round - of - 16 match each. Volgograd, Kaliningrad, Yekaterinburg and Saransk all hosted four matches, but did not host any knockout stage games.
A total of twelve stadiums in eleven Russian cities were built and renovated for the FIFA World Cup.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team.
At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion as of June 2018, it is the most expensive World Cup in history, surpassing the cost of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil.
The Russian government had originally earmarked a budget of around $20 billion which was later slashed to $10 billion for the preparations of the World Cup, of which half is spent on transport infrastructure. As part of the program for preparation to the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a federal sub-program "Construction and Renovation of Transport Infrastructure '' was implemented with a total budget of 352.5 billion rubles, with 170.3 billion coming from the federal budget, 35.1 billion from regional budgets, and 147.1 billion from investors. The biggest item of federal spending was the aviation infrastructure (117.8 billion rubles). Construction of new hotels was a crucial area of infrastructure development in the World Cup host cities. Costs continued to balloon as preparations were underway.
Platov International Airport in Rostov - on - Don was upgraded with automated air traffic control systems, modern surveillance, navigation, communication, control, and meteorological support systems. Koltsovo Airport in Yekaterinburg was upgraded with radio - engineering tools for flight operation and received its second runway strip. Saransk Airport received a new navigation system; the city also got two new hotels, Mercure Saransk Centre (Accor Hotels) and Four Points by Sheraton Saransk (Starwood Hotels) as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities. In Samara, new tram lines were laid. Khrabrovo Airport in Kaliningrad was upgraded with radio navigation and weather equipment. Renovation and upgrade of radio - engineering tools for flight operation was completed in the airports of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Volgograd, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Kazan and Sochi. On 27 March, the Ministry of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sector of Russia reported that all communications within its area of responsibility have been commissioned. The last facility commissioned was a waste treatment station in Volgograd. In Yekaterinburg, where four matches are hosted, hosting costs increased to over 7.4 billion rubles, over-running the 5.6 billion rubles originally allocated from the state and regional budget.
Volunteer applications to the Russia 2018 Local Organising Committee opened on 1 June 2016. The 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Volunteer Program received about 177,000 applications, and engaged a total of 35,000 volunteers. They received training at 15 Volunteer Centres of the Local Organising Committee based in 15 universities, and in Volunteer Centres in the host cities. Preference, especially in the key areas, was given to those with knowledge of foreign languages and volunteering experience, but not necessarily to Russian nationals.
Free public transport services were offered for ticketholders during the World Cup, including additional trains linking between host cities, as well as services such as bus service within them.
The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick - off times, which were confirmed later). On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, six kick - off times were adjusted by FIFA.
Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and played in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June against Saudi Arabia, the two lowest - ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw. The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg hosted the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play - off on 14 July.
The opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, preceding the opening match of the tournament between hosts Russia and Saudi Arabia.
At the start of the ceremony, Russian president Vladimir Putin gave a speech, welcoming the countries of the world to Russia and calling football a uniting force. Brazilian World Cup - winning striker Ronaldo entered the stadium with a child in a Russia shirt. Pop singer Robbie Williams then sang two of his songs solo before he and Russian soprano Aida Garifullina performed a duet. Dancers dressed in the flags of the 32 competing teams appeared carrying a sign with the name of each nation. At the end of the ceremony Ronaldo reappeared with the official match ball which had returned from the International Space Station in early June.
Competing countries were divided into eight groups of four teams (groups A to H). Teams in each group played one another in a round - robin basis, with the top two teams of each group advancing to the knockout stage. Ten European teams and four South American teams progressed to the knockout stage, together with Japan and Mexico.
For the first time since 1938, Germany (reigning champions) did not advance past the first round. For the first time since 1982, no African team progressed to the second round. For the first time, the fair play criteria came into use, when Japan qualified over Senegal due to having received fewer yellow cards. Only one match, France v Denmark, was goalless. Until then there were a record 36 straight games in which at least one goal was scored.
All times listed below are local time.
The ranking of teams in the group stage was determined as follows:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
If a match went into extra time, each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this had been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match.
Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in 1998.
6 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
Source: FIFA
In total, only four players were sent off in the entire tournament, the fewest since 1978. International Football Association Board technical director David Elleray stated a belief that this was due to the introduction of VAR, since players would know that they would not be able to get away with anything under the new system.
A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences:
The following suspensions were served during the tournament:
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. The Golden Boot (top scorer), Golden Ball (best overall player) and Golden Glove (best goalkeeper) awards were all sponsored by Adidas.
Additionally, FIFA.com shortlisted 18 goals for users to vote on as the tournaments ' best. The poll closed on 23 July. The award was sponsored by Hyundai.
As was the case during the 2010 and 2014 editions, FIFA did not release an official All - Star Team, but instead invited users of FIFA.com to elect their Fan Dream Team.
FIFA also published an alternate team of the tournament based on player performances evaluated through statistical data.
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.
The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow 's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia 's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation '', and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul '' of the country. For the branding, Portuguese design agency Brandia Central created materials in 2014, with a typeface called Dusha (from душа, Russian for soul) designed by Brandia Central and edited by Adotbelow of DSType Foundry in Portugal.
The official mascot for the tournament was unveiled 21 October 2016, and selected through a design competition among university students. A public vote was used to select from three finalists -- a cat, a tiger, and a wolf. The winner, with 53 % of approximately 1 million votes, was Zabivaka -- an anthropomorphic wolf dressed in the colours of the Russian national team. Zabivaka 's name is a portmanteau of the Russian words забияка ("hothead '') and забивать ("to score ''), and his official backstory states that he is an aspiring football player who is "charming, confident and social ''.
The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12: 00 Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017.
The general visa policy of Russia did not apply to participants and spectators, who were able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship. Spectators were nonetheless required to register for a "Fan - ID '', a special photo identification pass. A Fan - ID was required to enter the country visa - free, while a ticket, Fan - ID and a valid passport were required to enter stadiums for matches. Fan - IDs also granted World Cup attendees free access to public transport services, including buses, and train service between host cities. Fan - ID was administered by the Ministry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media, who could revoke these accreditations at any time to "ensure the defence capability or security of the state or public order ''.
The official match ball of the 2018 World Cup group stage was "Telstar 18 '', based on the name and design of the first Adidas World Cup ball from 1970. It was introduced on 9 November 2017.
After the group stage, "Telstar Mechta '' was used for the knockout stage. The word mechta (Russian: мечта) means dream or ambition. The difference between Telstar 18 and Mechta is the red details on the design.
On 30 April 2018, EA announced a free expansion for FIFA 18 based on the 2018 FIFA World Cup, featuring all 32 participating teams and all 12 stadiums used at the 2018 World Cup.
Panini continued their partnership with FIFA by producing stickers for their World Cup sticker album. Panini also developed an app for the 2018 World Cup where fans could collect and swap virtual stickers, with five million fans gathering digital stickers for the tournament.
The official song of the tournament was "Live It Up '', with vocals from Will Smith, Nicky Jam and Era Istrefi, released on 25 May 2018. Its music video was released on 8 June 2018.
Thirty - three footballers who are alleged to be part of the steroid program are listed in the McLaren Report. On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football. On 22 May 2018 FIFA confirmed that the investigations concerning all Russian players named for the provisional squad of the FIFA World Cup in Russia had been completed, with the result that insufficient evidence was found to assert an anti-doping rule violation. FIFA 's medical committee also decided that Russian personnel would not be involved in performing drug testing procedures at the tournament; the action was taken to reassure teams that the samples would remain untampered.
The choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia 's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. In 2014, FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that "the World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work ''.
Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England 's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42 - page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans - Joachim Eckert. Eckert 's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete '' with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions '', and appealed to FIFA 's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA 's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership '' and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.
On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and former British Prime Minister David Cameron attended a meeting with FIFA vice-president Chung Mong - joon in which a vote - trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup in England was discussed.
In response to the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans. Iceland diplomatically boycotted the World Cup. Russia responded to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that "the west are trying to deny Russia the World Cup ''. The Russian Foreign Ministry denounced Boris Johnson 's statements that compared the event to the 1936 Olympics held in Nazi Germany as "poisoned with venom of hate, unprofessionalism and boorishness '' and "unacceptable and unworthy '' parallel towards Russia, a "nation that lost millions of lives in fighting Nazism ''.
The British Foreign Office and MPs had repeatedly warned English football fans and "people of Asian or Afro - Caribbean descent '' travelling to Russia of "racist or homophobic intimidation, hooligan violence and anti-British hostility ''. English football fans who have travelled have said they have received a warm welcome from ordinary citizens after arriving in Russia.
At the close of the World Cup Russia was widely praised for its success in hosting the tournament, with Steve Rosenberg of the BBC deeming it "a resounding public relations success '' for Putin, adding, "The stunning new stadiums, free train travel to venues and the absence of crowd violence has impressed visiting supporters. Russia has come across as friendly and hospitable: a stark contrast with the country 's authoritarian image. All the foreign fans I have spoken to are pleasantly surprised. ''
FIFA President Gianni Infantino stated, "Everyone discovered a beautiful country, a welcoming country, that is keen to show the world that everything that has been said before might not be true. A lot of preconceived ideas have been changed because people have seen the true nature of Russia. '' Infantino has proclaimed Russia 2018 to be "the best World Cup ever '', as 98 % of the stadiums were sold out, there were three billion viewers on TV all around the world and 7 million fans visited the fan fests.
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters.
In February 2018, Ukrainian rightsholder UA: PBC stated that it would not broadcast the World Cup. This came in the wake of growing boycotts of the tournament among the Football Federation of Ukraine and sports minister Ihor Zhdanov. Additionally, the Football Federation of Ukraine refused to accredit journalists for the World Cup and waived their quota of tickets. However, the Ukrainian state TV still broadcast the World Cup, and more than 4 million Ukrainians watched the opening match.
Broadcast rights to the tournament in the Middle East were hampered by an ongoing diplomatic crisis in Qatar over alleged support of extremist groups. Qatar is the home country of the region 's rightsholder, beIN Sports. Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates cut diplomatic ties with Qatar over the matter. On 2 June 2018, beIN pulled its channels from Du and Etisalat, but with service to the latter restored later that day. Etisalat subsequently announced that it would air the World Cup in the UAE, and continue to offer beIN normally and without interruptions. In Saudi Arabia, beIN 's channels have been widely and illegally repackaged by a broadcaster identifying itself as beoutQ; while FIFA attempted to indirectly negotiate the sale of a package consisting of Saudi matches, as well as the opening and final games, they were unable to do so. On 12 July 2018, FIFA stated that it "has engaged counsel to take legal action in Saudi Arabia and is working alongside other sports rights owners that have also been affected to protect its interests. ''
In the United States, the 2018 World Cup was the first men 's World Cup whose English rights were held by Fox Sports, and Spanish rights held by Telemundo. The elimination of the United States in qualifying led to concerns that US interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced (especially among "casual '' viewers interested in the US team), especially noting how much Fox paid for the rights, and that US games at the 2014 World Cup peaked at 16.5 million viewers. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity among US viewers (factoring Hispanic and Latino Americans). Fox stated that it was still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of coverage for the tournament. Viewership was down overall over 2014, citing additional factors such as viewer unfamiliarity with the new broadcasters, as well as match scheduling that was not as favourable to viewers in the Americas than 2014 (with many matches airing in the morning hours, although Telemundo 's broadcast of the Mexico - Sweden Group F match was announced as being its most - watched weekday daytime program in network history).
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where is cuba on a north america map | North America - Wikipedia
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere; it is also considered by some to be a northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea.
North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5 % of the earth 's land area and about 4.8 % of its total surface. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5 % of the world 's population, if nearby islands (most notably the Caribbean) are included.
North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 40,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so - called Paleo - Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso - Indian period). The Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended in 1492, and the transatlantic migrations -- the arrival of first European settlers to Americas during the Age of Discovery and the Early Modern period. Present - day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kinds of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants.
European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous influences are stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French and societies and states commonly reflect Western traditions.
The Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word "America '' on the continent of South America, in the middle of what is today Brazil. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio:
... ab Americo inventore... quasi Americi terram sive Americam (from Americus the discoverer... as if it were the land of Americus, thus America).
For Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespucci 's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form "America '', following the examples of "Europa '', "Asia '' and "Africa ''.
Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the northern continent, In 1538, Gerard Mercator used America on his map of the world for all the Western Hemisphere.
Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty and so a derivation from "Amerigo Vespucci '' could be problematic. Ricardo Palma (1949) proposed a derivation from the "Amerrique '' mountains of Central America -- Vespucci was the first to discover South America and the Amerrique mountains of Central America, which connected his discoveries to those of Christopher Columbus.
Alfred E. Hudd proposed a theory in 1908 that the continents are named after a Welsh merchant named Richard Amerike from Bristol, who is believed to have financed John Cabot 's voyage of discovery from England to Newfoundland in 1497. A minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of ' Amairick '. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language.
The term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States and Canada together. Alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico (as in the North American Free Trade Agreement), as well as offshore islands. The UN geoscheme for "North America '' separates Mexico from the United States and Canada, placing it instead within its designated "Central America '' region, while also treating the islands of the Caribbean separately from the US / Canada definition -- the UN 's "North America '' definition still includes the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Greenland together with the US / Canada continental definition, with both insular entities being tectonically on the North American plate.
In France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America, the cognates of North America usually designate a subcontinent of the Americas comprising Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and often Greenland, Saint Pierre et Miquelon, and Bermuda.
North America has been historically referred to by other names. Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico.
Geographically the North American continent has many regions and subregions. These include cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions included those formed by trade blocs, such as the North American Trade Agreement bloc and Central American Trade Agreement. Linguistically and culturally, the continent could be divided into Anglo - America and Latin America. Anglo - America includes most of Northern America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English - speaking populations (though sub-national entities, such as Louisiana and Quebec, have large Francophone populations; in Quebec, French is the sole official language).
The southern North American continent is composed of two regions. These are Central America and the Caribbean. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of "North America '', which encompasses the whole continent, the term "North America '' is sometimes used to refer only to Mexico, Canada, the United States, and Greenland.
The term Northern America refers to the northern-most countries and territories of North America: the United States, Bermuda, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Canada and Greenland. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America -- not to be confused with the Midwestern United States -- groups the regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.
The largest countries of the continent, Canada and the United States, also contain well - defined and recognized regions. In the case of Canada these are (from east to west) Atlantic Canada, Central Canada, Canadian Prairies, the British Columbia Coast, and Northern Canada. These regions also contain many subregions. In the case of the United States -- and in accordance with the US Census Bureau definitions -- these regions are: New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic States, East North Central States, West North Central States, East South Central States, West South Central States, Mountain States, and Pacific States. Regions shared between both nations included the Great Lakes Region. Megalopolises have formed between both nations in the case of the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes Megaregion.
Laurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern - day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 million years ago, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 million years ago, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 million years ago. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 million years ago, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago.
North America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur - bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western United States.
The indigenous peoples of North America have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation. The specifics of Paleo - Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present - day Alaska around 25,000 to 11,000 years ago. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 13,000 years before present. Some genetic research indicated secondary waves of migration occurred after the initial Paleo - Indian colonization, but prior to modern Inuit, Inupiat and Yupik expansions.
Before contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several "culture areas '', which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main lifeway or occupation of the people who lived there (e.g., the bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g., Athapascan or Uto - Aztecan). Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Anthropologists think that the Inuit people of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.
During the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest cultures yet found is the Clovis culture of modern New Mexico. Later cultures include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi river valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes and squash. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world 's major staples, maize (corn).
The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact by any European culture with the landmasses that geologically constitute the "mainland '' of modern North America has been dated to the end of the 10th century CE -- this site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, is known as L'Anse aux Meadows, where unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement was uncovered in the early 1960s.
As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many important cultural advances were made there. For example, the Maya civilization developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE, a few hundred years after the Mesopotamians. The Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish explorers arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés.
During the Age of Discovery, Europeans explored and staked claims to various parts of North America. Upon their arrival in the "New World '', the Native American population declined substantially, because of violent conflicts with the invaders and the introduction of European diseases to which the Native Americans lacked immunity. Native culture changed drastically and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly. The names and cultures that Europeans recorded were not necessarily the same as the names they had used a few generations before, or the ones in use today.
Britain, Spain, and France took over extensive territories in North America -- and fought over them. In the late 18th century and beginning of the 19th, independence movements that sprung up across the continent, led to the creation of the modern countries in the area. The 13 British colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, becoming the United States of America. Canada was formed from the unification of northern territories controlled by Britain and France. New Spain, a territory that stretched from modern - day southern US to Central America, declared independence in 1810, becoming the First Mexican Empire. In 1823 the former Captaincy General of Guatemala, then part of the Mexican Empire, became the first independent state in Central America, officially changing its name to the United Provinces of Central America.
North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which, less commonly, is considered by some as a single continent with North America a subcontinent). North America 's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Panama. The continent is delimited on the southeast by most geographers at the Darién watershed along the Colombia - Panama border, placing all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.
Before the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela.
There are numerous islands off the continent 's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self - governing Danish island, and the world 's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island which was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago. The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent.
The vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier.
The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.
The western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin -- a lower area containing smaller ranges and low - lying deserts -- in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.
The United States Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is "6 miles (10 km) west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota '' at about 48 ° 10 ′ N 100 ° 10 ′ W / 48.167 ° N 100.167 ° W / 48.167; - 100.167, about 24 kilometres (15 mi) from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that "No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 States, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent. '' Nonetheless, there is a 4.6 - metre (15 ft) field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located 1,650 km (1,030 mi) from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at 43 ° 22 ′ N 101 ° 58 ′ W / 43.36 ° N 101.97 ° W / 43.36; - 101.97 (Pole of Inaccessibility North America).
Geologically, Canada is one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada 's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world 's largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal - rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.
The lower 48 US states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces:
The geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot.
Central America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009.
Volcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.
Central America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops.
North America is a very large continent which surpasses the Arctic Circle, and the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from 10 to 20 ° C (50 to 68 ° F), but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes. Climate west of the Cascades is described as being a temperate weather with average precipitation 20 inches (510 mm). Climate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from 57 to 70 ° F (14 to 21 ° C) over the course of the year.
Stretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the continental - humid climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging 50 inches (1,300 mm). Starting at the southern border of the continental - humid climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S. with annual precipitation reaching 67 inches (1,700 mm) in Mobile, Alabama. Stretching from the borders of the continental humid and subtropical climates, and going west to the Cascades Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe / desert climate is the driest climate in the U.S. Highland climates cut from north to south of the continent, where subtropical or temperate climates occur just below the tropics, as in central Mexico and Guatemala. Tropical climates appear in the island regions and in the subcontinent 's bottleneck. Usually of the savannah type, with rains and high temperatures constants the whole year. Found in countries and states bathed by the Caribbean Sea or to south of the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean.
Notable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote and monarch butterfly.
Notable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper and vanilla.
Economically, Canada and the United States are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island - nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland 's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.
Demographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Caucasians, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups.
The dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo - America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the United States, but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the United States) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese (but French speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch -, English -, or French - speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana (France), and the Falkland Islands (UK)).
The French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95 % of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French - speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco - Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint - Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the US state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English.
Christianity is the largest religion in the United States, Canada and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77 % of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The United States has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70 %), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world 's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil. A 2015 study estimates about 493,000 Christian believers from a Muslim background in North America, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.
According to the same study religiously unaffiliated (include agnostic and atheist) make up about 17 % of the population of Canada and the United States. No religion make up about 24 % of the United States population, and 24 % of Canada total population.
Canada, the United States and Mexico host communities of both Jews (6 million or about 1.8 %), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1 %) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0 %). The biggest number of Jewish individuals can be found in the United States (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The United States host the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9 %, While Canada host about one million Muslim or 3.2 % of the population. While in Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in the country. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40 % are living in Southern California.
The predominant religion in Central America is Christianity (96 %). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Central America in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism became the most popular religion in the region until the first half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Also Christianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85 %). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro - American religions such as Santería and Vodou.
The most populous country in North America is the United States with 318.4 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112,322,757. Canada is the third most populous country with 32,623,490. The majority of Caribbean island - nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the United States), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world 's lowest population density at 0.026 pop. / km2 (0.067 pop. / mi2).
While the United States, Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the sunbelt regions of the United States, such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the United States border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.
Eight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the United States. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the United States, Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada -- United States border and Mexico -- United States border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit -- Windsor and San Diego -- Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit - Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US $13 billion was dependent on the Detroit -- Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego - Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US $20 billion.
North America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the United States exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megaregion, Gulf Coast Megaregion, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City -- Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe -- both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megaregion -- and megalopolis of Central Mexico. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston - Washington, D.C. Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000.
The top ten largest North American metropolitan areas by population as of 2013, based on national census numbers from the United States and census estimates from Canada and Mexico.
2011 Census figures.
North America 's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.
Canada, Mexico, and the United States have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The United States has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The United States ' services sector comprises 77 % of the country 's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22 % and agriculture comprises 1.2 %. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.
Canada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada 's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada 's services sector comprises 78 % of the country 's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20 % and agriculture comprises 2 %. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.
The North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the United States takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada - Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries.
The North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the United States and Mexico. While Canada and the United States already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship -- and to present day still do -- in the world and Canada -- United States trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty - free trade. The free trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on United States - Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all - time historical increase of 24.3 % or US $791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world 's largest with US $17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the United States is the world 's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other 's largest trade partners. The United States is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico; while Canada and Mexico are each other 's third largest trade partners.
The Caribbean trade bloc -- CARICOM -- came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US $96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on Free Trade Agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations (OTN) free trade agreements have been signed into effect.
Integration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. Recent implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the United States. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the United States, Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs. Currently under proposal, the Canada -- Central American Free Trade Agreement (CA4) would operate much the same as CAFTA with the United States does.
These nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The United States has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the US - Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans - Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand.
The Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly 48,000 km (30,000 mi) in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the US and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the US border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly 26,000 km (16,000 mi).
The First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern US with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern US railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) had, by 1867, already accumulated more than 2,055 km (1,277 mi) of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario.
A shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations.
Canada and the United States were both former British colonies. There is frequent cultural interplay between the United States and English - speaking Canada. Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous people of Canada but is considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark. Spanish - speaking North America shares a common past as former Spanish colonies. In Mexico and the Central American countries where civilizations like the Maya developed, indigenous people preserve traditions across modern boundaries. Central American and Spanish - speaking Caribbean nations have historically had more in common due to geographical proximity.
Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the United States. Of the aforementioned cities, Monterrey has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Immigration to the United States and Canada remains a significant attribute of many nations close to the southern border of the US. The Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America. In the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English - speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home. Northern Mexico, the Western United States and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture.
Canada, Mexico and the US submitted a joint bid to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue.
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Afro - Eurasia
America
Eurasia
Oceania
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ek tha raja ek thi rani serial cast name | Ek Tha Raja Ek Thi Rani - Wikipedia
Ek Tha Raja Ek Thi Rani (English: There Was Once A King, There Was Once A Queen) is an Indian television period drama that airs on Zee TV. It premiered on 27 July 2015 and airs on weekdays at 9: 30pm. In season 1 Drashti Dhami and Siddhant Karnick were the main lead. In season 2 Eisha Singh and Sartaj Gill played the main lead. In season 3, the main leads have been retained. The show went off air on 4 July 2017.
Ek Tha Raja Ek Thi Rani is the set in the 1940s. Gayatri is the daughter of a rich zameendar, who is considered manglik by the people. On the other hand, Rana Indravadhan Singh is the king of Amerkot, who is in trauma due to losing his first wife, Rani Sulakshana. Ranaji ' mother, Rajmata Priyamvada has a debt to pay with Gayatri 's father, so she gives an offer to marry Gayatri & Ranaji. Ranaji unwantedly marries Gayatri. After marriage, Ranaji and Gayatri slowly start to get together. But then, enters a number of villains like Badi Rani Maa, fake Sulakshana, Avdesh, Rageshowri and so on. Later in the story due to Badi Rani Maa & Rageshowri, Ranaji marries Rageshowri and he loses his memory and forgets Gayatri. To get back Ranaji 's love, Gayatri disguises as Savitri. After struggling a lot, she succeeds, and Ranaji gets his memory back. But the vengeful Badi Rani Maa brings Kaal, a jungle man and he kills Ranaji. Gayatri vows revenge but still she is killed by Badi Rani Maa after giving birth to a baby girl. Rajmata runs away with the baby girl. Ranaji and Gayatri are united in heaven.
Gayatri 's and Ranaji 's daughter, Rani grows up and she is taken care by Rajmata and Lakhan. She goes to the royal palace to work as a servant and there she befriends Raja, Jeevan and Bindu. Raja and Jeevan are Kaal 's sons and Bindu is Lakhan 's daughter. Kaal has now become the King. But their friendship is broken by the misunderstandings created by Badi Rani Maa. Soon, Raja and Rani get separated during their childhood.
Raja and Rani meet again in college. This time, when Raja meets Rani, he starts to create trouble for her as he believes that Rani was responsible for sending him to a boarding school. Still, their hate does n't last long and they fall in love. On the day of wedding, Raja finds out that Rani is Ranaji and Gayatri 's daughter and they were murdered by Kaal and Badi Rani Maa. Both of them get married. After marriage, they continue their romance and the villains like Jeevan, Bindu and Badi Rani Maa makes their life difficult. Raja imprisons Kaal and also Badi Rani Maa dies, while trying to kill Rani. Bindu is also arrested. Also Jeevan suicides due to losing his love, Rani. Rani punishes her parent 's criminals. Now, Nawaq Iqbal Khan has entered their life bringing a new challenge for Raja and Rani. Iqbal falls for Rani and troubles Raja to separate Rani. He shoots Raja and he falls down a cliff. After 4 months, Raja returns back. He was saved by Bindu. But when Raja returns back, he sees Rani and Iqbal together. So he plans revenge and disguises himself as Angad. But Rani soon recognizes him. Iqbal continues to plot against them and finally Raja starts to hate Rani. Raja falls in the bad company of dons. Rani and Iqbal die in a car accident.
Raja is now a don in Mumbai. A new girl, Naina, who is look - a-like of Rani enters. Raja starts to live with Laila, who is the daughter of a don and Raja has promised that he will take care of Laila. Naina is a junior artist in films and lives with her mother and sister. Raja thinks that Naina is Rani and starts to hate her. Naina, on the other hand, is liked by Vijay, a police. The show continues with the friendship and love triangle of Naina, Raja and Laila. When, Raja and Laila are about to get married, Raja says he do n't want to marry Laila. This makes Laila think that Naina has brainwashed Raja. So she turns negative towards Naina. Naina also encounters Rani 's spirit, who wants to unite Naina and Raja. Naina succeeds in telling Raja that Rani was innocent and truly loved him and she had sacrificed her life for him by dying. Also, Vijay tries to rape Naina and he breaks her legs. Raja and Vijay have a fight, where Vijay is stabbed by Trishula of Goddess Durga. But Laila makes a fake news that Naina is characterless. To protect Naina, Raja marries her. This makes Laila to hate Naina.
Laila decides to avenge Raja and Naina. The atrocities range from pushing Naina into the well to leaving her alone in a lake full of crocodiles. In the end, Laila dies. Raja thinks he 's getting a fresh start in his life and starts loving Naina and takes her on a honeymoon to Lonavala. Here, he meets Rani 's spirit that has turned dark. Rani wants Raja back and is ready to do anything for it. Raja asks Naina to pack and they leave only to find Rani at their home. It is shown that Rani is working under Badi Rani Maa 's spirit (BRM). BRM laters reveals that since her body was not cremated, her baba gifted her a new body. She is a dakini now.
All the inhabitants of the palace come to know of the return of Rani and BRM. All their efforts to send Rani back are in vain. Finally, after a lot of suffering, Rani is told by Raja that she means a lot to him. That he married Naina with her permission and would die and come with her. This makes Rani to attain salvation. They also manage to trick BRM into believing that Rajmata burnt herself alive. Upon finding the truth, BRM comes back and manages to kill both Raja and Naina. But she slips and touches their blood causing her to lose her powers.
Baba tells Rajmata that Raja - Rani will return to prove that nothing is stronger than the power of true love.
Soon it comes true by showing that Raja and Rani has re-taken birth as Raj - Rani respectively. Raj is appointed the bodyguard of Rani much to her dislike. She tries to send him out of the house but fails to do so. When her marriage to Kundan is fixed, she asks Raj to kidnap her. He also happens to be controlled by Anandi (Rani 's bua). During this time, Raj - Rani end up at Ameerkot and Rani feels a connection to the place. She finds Rani Gayatri 's (Dhrasti Dhami) diary and pursues Raj. But Raj denies love for her. Raj is then told to kill Rani to save his brother Dev held captive by Anandi. Raj confesses this to Rani but does not reveal Anandi 's name.
At home, Rani fakes her marriage to Raj and eventually manages to save both Raj and Dev. It is revealed that Anandi also killed her brother, Rani 's father. Rani tells Suminda that she will marry Kundan. Anandi has come out of jail. Kundan wishes to get Rani 's money for his London life and plans to leave her behind while Anandi wants Rani 's property. Rani has also signed the papers.
The show is produced by Sunjoy Wadhwa, Sphere Origins.
The show premiered at 09: 30 pm (IST) on Monday on 27th July, 2015 on Zee TV and airs every Monday to Friday, moving the show Qubool Hai to 07: 30 pm, fortifying the early primetime band.
Talking about introducing a fresh concept on primetime, Zee TV 's business head, Mr. Pradeep Hejmadi said, "Even when it comes to genres such as history and mythology, a most fascinating period that remains unexplored by Indian television is the pre-Independence era. This vibrant period of India 's history that saw a great upheaval also saw intense drama unfold in the lives of the royalty of the princely states. Behind empty walls of grandeur and fake displays of splendor was hidden the truth of erosion of wealth, insecurities, succumbing to British dominion, depression and bankruptcy. Ek Tha Raja Ek Thi Rani is a story of love set against this most interesting canvas. It aims to give viewers an up close and personal view of the lifestyles and some of the most closely guarded secrets of the rich and royal of the 1940s. It is a work of fiction that draws inspiration from the lives of the royalty of that period. ''
Producers Sunjoy and Comall Wadhwa of Sphere Origins further add, "The idea has been to look back at a glorious period of history for inspiration and churn out a timeless masterpiece that will entertain and enthrall TV audiences. The most daunting task at hand has been the re-creation of the pre-Independence era and the majestic lifestyles of the kings and queens of the princely states. Enormous research has gone to ensure authentic representation of the era and to create magic on screen. We have on board an ensemble of extremely impressive actors who beautifully fit the parts they are playing. The show will definitely turn out to be a clutter - breaker and hopefully, the biggest fiction show of the year. ''
Popular TV Actress, Drashti Dhami was roped in the play the lead as Gayatri. Speaking about her comeback to telvision post her last show Madhubala -- Ek Ishq Ek Junoon, she said "I do feel a little under pressure since ' Madhubala ' was such a success. But I am also looking forward to seeing my fans ' reaction to my new show. Even my family and friends are very excited, '' "It found it difficult to speak in the dialect which people spoke at that time. That was challenging. Other than that, I did not have any issues with the role, ''
Siddhant Karnick was roped to play the male lead opposite Drashti. The show also had other notable cast including Anita Raj, Moon Banerjee, Priya Tandon and Surekha Sikri who was seen in Balika Vadhu, Ajay Arya. In December 2015, Abhinam Nain entered the show. Later Anjum Fakih entered as the Main Antagonist as Rageshwari.
In May 2016, Drashti and Sidhant left the show as the show was gearing up for a leap. After Eisha Singh and Sartaj Gill enterecas the new Rani - Raja.
The show began with good ratings and became one of the most watched shows across all GEC 's and was one of the top ten serials of 2015. Later due to poor repetitive tracks the TRPs dropped and it was scheduled to go off air. These were the rumours by people that the show will be go to off air. The track of both leading pair Drashti Dhami and Siddhant Karnick will be ending in serial and both decided to quit the show because of the leap is taken. Then the season 2 start with good trp and the show highlight was the main lead chemistry.
The show was confirmed to go off air in April 2017 but got a 2 month extension and ended on 4 July.
In Pakistan, it airs on Geo Kahkashkouani. In Mauritius, it airs on MBC Digital 4. In South Africa it airs on Zee World. In the Arab world, it airs on Zee Alwan. In Germany it airs on Zee. One.
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movie by amy heckerling that is based on a classic novel about the perils of misconstrued romance | Amy Heckerling - wikipedia
Amy Heckerling (born May 7, 1954) is an American film director. She is an alumna of both New York University and the American Film Institute. She has had a commercially successful career with films including Fast Times at Ridgemont High, European Vacation, Look Who 's Talking, and Clueless.
Heckerling is a recipient of AFI 's Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal celebrating her creative talents and artistic achievements.
Heckerling was born in The Bronx, New York City, to a bookkeeper mother and an accountant father. She had a Jewish upbringing and remembers that the apartment building where she spent her early childhood was full of Holocaust survivors. "Most of them had tattoos on their arms and for me there was a feeling that all of these people had a story to tell. These were interesting formative experiences. '' Both of her parents worked full - time, so she frequently moved back and forth from her home in the Bronx, where Heckerling claims she was a latchkey kid sitting at home all day watching television, to her grandmother 's home in Brooklyn which she enjoyed much better. Here, she frequented Coney Island and stayed up watching films all night with her grandmother. At this time Heckerling loved television, where she watched numerous cartoons and old black and white movies. Her favorites were gangster movies, musicals and comedies. She had a particular fondness for James Cagney.
... when I saw Angels with Dirty Faces, Cagney was walking to the electric chair. Now I never understood what was going on in those movies, I just knew I loved them. I knew something bad was happening because of the music, so I started crying and crying. My mother told me that Cagney was going to the chair because he was a bad guy, and that he was going to die. I did n't know what that was, so she explained dying to me. It seemed pretty horrible, but then my mother told me that he was n't really going to die because he was in a movie. Well, it just all seemed to click then! That was the way to beat it! I could see James Cagney die a million times, but he was always there. This year (1986) I did n't believe it really happened. I kept expecting Cagney to get up.
After her father passed his CPA exam, the family became more financially stable and moved to Queens, where Heckerling felt more out of place than ever. She did not get along with other kids in her school there, nor did she want to continue to be classmates with them through high school, so she enrolled at the High School of Art and Design in Manhattan. On her first day of school there, Heckerling realized that she wanted to be a film director. During their first assignment, writing about what they wanted to do in life, Heckerling wrote that she wanted to be a writer or artist for Mad. She noticed that a boy next to her, that she claimed copied from her papers later on, wrote that he wanted to be a film director.
I was really annoyed because I thought that if an idiot like that guy could say he wanted to be a director, then so could I, and certainly I should be a director more than he should. It had never occurred to me that that was a job possibility. He put the thought in my head because until then I would never have thought of saying that I wanted to do that; it did n't seem to be one of the jobs in the world that could be open to me.
She graduated from high school in 1970, focused on directing and studying film at New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts. Her father made just slightly over the cut - off for financial aid for the school, so Heckerling had to take out a large loan to cover her expenses. She claims this caused considerable stress in her life, and she was unable to pay them off until the end of her twenties. When Heckerling was in high school and focused on directing, her father was opposed to the idea, wishing that she had chosen a more practical aspiration. Despite this, he gave her Parker Tyler 's book Classics of the Foreign Film: A Pictoral Legacy. Heckerling pored over the book, marking off films that she had seen until she had eventually watched most of them. She claims that by the time she got to NYU, because of this book, she had seen almost all of the films that they had to watch in her classes. Though Heckerling considered her time at NYU to be a great time where she learned a lot and made great connections, such as Martin Brest and noted screenwriter and satirist Terry Southern who was one of her professors, she later reflects on her time at the school as sloppy and unprofessional, claiming that she used very low - quality equipment and had a lot of technical problems.
During her time at NYU, Heckerling was making mostly musicals. "I was the only one doing them and they were weird. It was the mid-70s and it was a bizarre combination of long hair with bell bottoms, the tail end of the hippie movement at its schlumpiest. With this, I sort of infused a 1930s idiotic grace that did n't go with the post-Watergate mentality that was prevalent at the time. They were weird films, but they got me into AFI. ''
After graduating from NYU, Heckerling decided that she wanted to follow her friend Martin Brest to the American Film Institute in Los Angeles where she felt there would be more opportunities to break into the business. Heckerling experienced severe culture shock upon moving to LA from NYC, especially because she had never learned to drive before but was still used to navigating the city, free to go wherever she wanted due to NYC 's public transportation. When she did eventually learn to drive, she adjusted to LA life and started working. Her first studio job was lip - syncing dailies for a television show, where she started making connections in the business.
During her second year at AFI, Heckerling made her first short film, Getting it Over With, about a girl that wants to lose her virginity before she turns twenty and the adventures she has before midnight of her twentieth birthday. Heckerling continued to work on the film after she graduated from AFI with her MFA, using the editing studios at night to finish the project after work. As soon as she finished the edit and sent it away to be processed, she was in a car collision with a drunk driver who hit the side of her car, landing her in the hospital with a collapsed lung, bruised kidney, and mild amnesia, causing her to be fired from her editing job because she could not remember where certain footage was.
In an interview with Michael Singer, when asked about film 's ability to grant a form of immortality, Heckerling describes the experience during the accident: "There was the whole thing - the yellow light and all that stuff - and what went through my mind right then was, ' Well, at least I got the film to the lab. ' So it 's not going to save you from anything, obviously, but something about it pulls you forward. '' Eventually, she finished the film and held a screening that gained a very positive response, causing Heckering to call it one of the best days of her life. Her next step was to use the film to get a job. Tom Mount, president of Universal Pictures, showed a lot of interest in Heckerling but because she was not backed by an agent they could not hire her. After months of struggling to find an agent, Mount called Heckerling up on the phone and asked her to make a film.
Heckerling 's first feature was Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), based on the non-fiction account of a year - in - the - life of California high school students as observed by undercover Rolling Stone journalist Cameron Crowe. When Heckerling first signed on to do a feature for Universal, she read a lot of scripts, but it was Crowe 's script for Fast Times at Ridgemont High that really stuck out to her as a great script. She notes that the characters felt so real. Though she loved the script, she did feel that there was too much studio interference, so she read the novel, figured out which parts were strongest, and sat down with Crowe to rework the script. The film helped launch the careers of numerous stars including Phoebe Cates, Judge Reinhold, and Jennifer Jason Leigh. In addition, it marks early appearances by several actors who later became stars, including Nicolas Cage, then billing himself as Nicolas Coppola, Forest Whitaker, Eric Stoltz, and Anthony Edwards. Most notable, however, is the appearance of Sean Penn as Jeff Spicoli, who was launched into stardom with his iconic character. Heckerling describes casting Penn, whom she first met while he was sitting on the floor outside of the casting office, as a feeling of being overwhelmed by his intensity, even though all he had done was look up at her. She knew that this was her Spicoli, even though they had seen other people who had read better for the role. Penn had to do it. Ally Sheedy, whom Heckerling loved, read for the role of Leigh 's character Stacy Hamilton, but Heckerling decided that she wanted someone that seemed younger and more fragile. Heckerling was very discriminating about the film 's soundtrack. Originally, the film was supposed to have music in it by bands like the Eagles.
"I guess a lot of people like that stuff, but being young as I was at the time, I really wanted a new edgy eighties music soundtrack. I wanted Fear, Oingo Boingo, The Go - Gos, The Talking Heads, and the Dead Kennedys. I was one of those obnoxious teenagers that thought that the music I liked was great and everything else sucked. Getting that Oingo Boingo song in the film was a big fight. But I had to make some compromises and put in some songs that I did n't like at all. ''
The film 's cinematographer, Matthew F. Leonetti, who shot Poltergeist, was carefully chosen by Heckerling as well. The studio was unsure of how to market the film, and Heckerling guesses that they did not think that anyone would want to watch it. The studio decided to just open it in a few hundred or so theaters on the west coast without any advertisement. Once the film opened, it was a huge success so the studio quickly opened it at theaters around the country. It became an instant hit right out of the gate, eventually going on to become a pop culture touchstone. The film earned $27,092,880 at the box office in the USA. It also spawned a short - lived series on CBS called Fast Times, with Heckerling writing, directing and producing.
After doing Fast Times at Ridgemont High, Heckerling was bombarded with similar but lesser scripts. It was hard for her to find anything that was n't about high school, preppy kids, or story about a girl losing her virginity. Eventually she found her next film. Johnny Dangerously (1984), with Michael Keaton, Joe Piscopo, Danny DeVito, Dom DeLuise, and Peter Boyle, was an Airplane! - style spoof of gangster movies, but it failed to catch fire at the box office upon its initial release. Heckerling attributes the film 's failure to the public 's lack of familiarity with the gangster movies that the film was poking fun at. "It was pure satire of something nobody remembers. I think that was the main problem, because all the actors and writers did great jobs. But we were definitely satirizing something... I mean, unless you watch 1930s movies on TV at night, people do n't remember. Somebody told me that during a screening they were sitting next to Brian De Palma, who had just done Scarface, and he was in hysterics. If you studied those movies, you know what we were doing. '' In subsequent years, however, it has garnered a substantial cult audience.
The following year, she directed National Lampoon 's European Vacation (1985) with Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo, a sequel to the popular National Lampoon 's Vacation. With it, Heckerling scored her second solid hit, earning $74,964,621 at the box office. The film, like many of Heckerling 's films, received poor reviews from critics but proved to be very popular with audiences who just wanted to watch a funny movie. Heckerling, despite being well educated and loving the work of such intellectual writers at Franz Kafka admits that she loves "silly things '', which has proven to make her commercially successful in the comedy genre.
In 1989 Heckerling had her biggest success with Look Who 's Talking, starring John Travolta, Kirstie Alley and a baby voiced by Bruce Willis. Heckerling got the idea for the film while she was pregnant with her daughter and further developed it into a feature. Heckerling says that she loves to write comedies, such as Look Who 's Talking, because she notes that when a film is made, everyone working on it puts more than a year of their lives into making it, so she wants that year to be happy and fun. Heckerling, who loves Travolta, was ecstatic to work with him, though many people consider the film 's release to be during the end of a low point in Travolta 's career. The film has been Heckerling 's highest - grossing film to date, earning $296,999,813. After the film 's release, Heckerling was able to cross one of her two goals that she set for herself in college off of her list, the first being to make a studio feature, which she did with Fast Times at Ridgemont High and the second being: "I wanted to have hits the way boys had hits, not like a ' girl hit ' that made 50 million, but a boy hit that made 100s of million. ''
Two Look Who 's Talking sequels would follow -- 1990 's Look Who 's Talking Too -- also directed by Heckerling and co-written with her then - husband Neal Israel. The film added another baby to storyline and was a moderate success. Heckerling then produced, but did not direct, the third and final sequel, Look Who 's Talking Now -- a flop. The films also spawned a brief television show called Baby Talk that was largely written by Heckerling.
In 1995, she wrote and directed Clueless, reworking and updating Jane Austen 's Emma as a 1990s teen comedy about wealthy teenagers living in Beverly Hills. Heckerling originally thought of Clueless as a television show because she loved to write the character of Cher who she described as a "happy, optimistic, California girl '', and wanted to explore all of her adventures, but after she pitched it to her agent she was told that it would make a great feature. To research for the script, Heckerling sat in on classes at Beverly Hills High School where she observed how teenagers acted, though she admits that most of it was made up. She notes that teenagers at the high school did not dress in high fashion every day as the characters do in the film and that in reality the students there dressed just as frumpily as everyone else. She did, however draw on many of her observations, especially the tendency of teenage girls to groom themselves constantly. "You would think that within, you know, the few minutes that they 've been in class, that their makeup would n't be needing so much repair and yet they 're constantly painting and sculpting and... doing to themselves. '' As with Fast Times at Ridgemont High, it quickly caught on with teenagers and went on to become a significant pop culture reference point. The film went on to gross $56,631,572 and helped launch the careers of most of the cast, including Alicia Silverstone, Brittany Murphy, Paul Rudd, Donald Faison, Breckin Meyer, and Stacey Dash. It was spun off into a moderately successful TV series, with Heckerling penning the pilot, as well as directing several episodes from the first season. Heckerling describes the show as basically the same as the film, only cleaner, and says that she still loves the characters.
Later in Heckerling 's career, she decided that she just wanted to do what she loves. Heckerling directed and produced Loser (2000), a romantic college comedy with Jason Biggs and Mena Suvari. The film was not a critical or commercial success. After a break, Heckerling 's romantic comedy I Could Never Be Your Woman (2007), starring Michelle Pfeiffer and Paul Rudd, never opened in theaters; rather, it received a direct - to - video release, despite fairly good notices. Production of the film was troubled by financial issues, including the rights to distribution being sold off without Heckerling 's knowledge, making it difficult for her to sell the film to a studio. At the time, Heckerling was also taking care of both of her parents who were very ill (her father was in the hospital and her mother had cancer). Though Heckerling dislikes the baggage that the film carries and is upset about it not being released theatrically, she says that the experience was significant for her because she loved working with Rudd and Pfeiffer in England. Heckerling also directed an episode of the NBC version of The Office.
In 2011 Heckerling directed the horror - comedy film Vamps with Sigourney Weaver, Alicia Silverstone and Krysten Ritter, about two vampires living in New York City as best friends and roommates. The film was released to theatres on November 2, 2012, followed by a DVD release on November 13.
On July 4, 2016, Gilbert Gottfried posted an in - depth 81 - minute interview with Heckerling on his podcast.
In July 2017, a musical version of Clueless helmed by Tony - nominee Kristin Hanggi will receive a developmental lab in New York City. A previous workshop starring Taylor Louderman (Kinky Boots) and Dave Thomas Brown (Heathers) took place in 2016. Heckerling wrote the libretto for the musical.
Heckerling dated friend and fellow film director Martin Brest briefly when she first moved to Los Angeles. Though they later broke up, they remained good friends. Heckerling has married twice, first to David Brandt in 1981, who Heckerling claimed yelled at her a lot, especially while editing Fast Times at Ridgemont High. "I was fighting with my husband all the time, so the main thing was getting the phone out of the editing room, because he kept calling me and harassing me, then he 'd come stomping in unannounced and yell at me. '' They were divorced in 1983. In 1984, Heckerling briefly married director Neal Israel, though they divorced soon after. The couple had a daughter, Mollie Israel, in 1985. Heckerling has included Mollie in some of her films in bit parts, including Look Who 's Talking and Loser, though Heckerling claims that her daughter never wanted to be a "girly girl '' and distanced herself from much of her work, never adding any input to the lives of characters such as those in ' ' Clueless ' '. Despite this, the two get along very well and Mollie frequently introduces her mother to new music, such as OK Go and films. Today Mollie sings in the band The Lost Patrol. Heckerling lives in both Los Angeles and New York and continues to make films and do what she loves. Heckerling is one of the few women to have directed multiple box - office hits. When asked about the fact that only 5 % of movies are directed by women, Heckerling states:
"It 's a disgusting industry. I do n't know what else to say. Especially now. I ca n't stomach most of the movies about women. I just saw a movie last night. I do n't want to say the name -- but again with the fucking wedding and the only time women say anything is about men. ''
In 1995, Heckerling won the National Society of Film Critics Best Screenplay award and was nominated for the Writers Guild of America award for Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen for her screenplay, Clueless. In 1998, she received the Franklin J. Schaffner Medal from the American Film Institute. In 1999, she received the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through endurance and excellence, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry.
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where is the astroid belt in the solar system | Asteroid belt - wikipedia
The asteroid belt is the circumstellar disc in the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter. It is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets. The asteroid belt is also termed the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System such as near - Earth asteroids and trojan asteroids. About half the mass of the belt is contained in the four largest asteroids: Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea. The total mass of the asteroid belt is approximately 4 % that of the Moon, or 22 % that of Pluto, and roughly twice that of Pluto 's moon Charon (whose diameter is 1200 km).
Ceres, the asteroid belt 's only dwarf planet, is about 950 km in diameter, whereas 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygiea have mean diameters of less than 600 km. The remaining bodies range down to the size of a dust particle. The asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous unmanned spacecraft have traversed it without incident. Nonetheless, collisions between large asteroids do occur, and these can produce an asteroid family whose members have similar orbital characteristics and compositions. Individual asteroids within the asteroid belt are categorized by their spectra, with most falling into three basic groups: carbonaceous (C - type), silicate (S - type), and metal - rich (M - type).
The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals. Planetesimals are the smaller precursors of the protoplanets. Between Mars and Jupiter, however, gravitational perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much orbital energy for them to accrete into a planet. Collisions became too violent, and instead of fusing together, the planetesimals and most of the protoplanets shattered. As a result, 99.9 % of the asteroid belt 's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System 's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System, leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits.
Classes of small Solar System bodies in other regions are the near - Earth objects, the centaurs, the Kuiper belt objects, the scattered disc objects, the sednoids, and the Oort cloud objects.
On 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far - infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding was unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes ''. According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids. ''
In 1596, Johannes Kepler predicted "Between Mars and Jupiter, I place a planet '' in his Mysterium Cosmographicum. While analyzing Tycho Brahe 's data, Kepler thought that there was too large a gap between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
In an anonymous footnote to his 1766 translation of Charles Bonnet 's Contemplation de la Nature, the astronomer Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg noted an apparent pattern in the layout of the planets. If one began a numerical sequence at 0, then included 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, etc., doubling each time, and added four to each number and divided by 10, this produced a remarkably close approximation to the radii of the orbits of the known planets as measured in astronomical units provided one allowed for a "missing planet '' (equivalent to 24 in the sequence) between the orbits of Mars (12) and Jupiter (48). In his footnote, Titius declared "But should the Lord Architect have left that space empty? Not at all. ''
When William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, the planet 's orbit matched the law almost perfectly, leading astronomers to conclude that there had to be a planet between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi, chair of astronomy at the University of Palermo, Sicily, found a tiny moving object in an orbit with exactly the radius predicted by this pattern. He dubbed it "Ceres '', after the Roman goddess of the harvest and patron of Sicily. Piazzi initially believed it to be a comet, but its lack of a coma suggested it was a planet.
Thus, the aforementioned pattern, now known as the Titius -- Bode law, predicted the semi-major axes of all eight planets of the time (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus).
Fifteen months later, Heinrich Olbers discovered a second object in the same region, Pallas. Unlike the other known planets, Ceres and Pallas remained points of light even under the highest telescope magnifications instead of resolving into discs. Apart from their rapid movement, they appeared indistinguishable from stars.
Accordingly, in 1802, William Herschel suggested they be placed into a separate category, named "asteroids '', after the Greek asteroeides, meaning "star - like ''. Upon completing a series of observations of Ceres and Pallas, he concluded,
Neither the appellation of planets nor that of comets, can with any propriety of language be given to these two stars... They resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them. From this, their asteroidal appearance, if I take my name, and call them Asteroids; reserving for myself, however, the liberty of changing that name, if another, more expressive of their nature, should occur.
By 1807, further investigation revealed two new objects in the region: Juno and Vesta. The burning of Lilienthal in the Napoleonic wars, where the main body of work had been done, brought this first period of discovery to a close.
Despite Herschel 's coinage, for several decades it remained common practice to refer to these objects as planets and to prefix their names with numbers representing their date of discovery: 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, 4 Vesta. However, in 1845 astronomers detected a fifth object (5 Astraea) and, shortly thereafter, new objects were found at an accelerating rate. Counting them among the planets became increasingly cumbersome. Eventually, they were dropped from the planet list (as first suggested by Alexander von Humboldt in the early 1850s) and Herschel 's choice of nomenclature, "asteroids '', gradually came into common use.
The discovery of Neptune in 1846 led to the discrediting of the Titius -- Bode law in the eyes of scientists because its orbit was nowhere near the predicted position. To date, there is no scientific explanation for the law, and astronomers ' consensus regards it as a coincidence.
The expression "asteroid belt '' came into use in the very early 1850s, although it is hard to pinpoint who coined the term. The first English use seems to be in the 1850 translation (by E.C. Otté) of Alexander von Humboldt 's Cosmos: "(...) and the regular appearance, about the 13th of November and the 11th of August, of shooting stars, which probably form part of a belt of asteroids intersecting the Earth 's orbit and moving with planetary velocity ''. Another early appearance occurred in Robert James Mann 's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens: "The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space, extending between the extremes of (...) ''. The American astronomer Benjamin Peirce seems to have adopted that terminology and to have been one of its promoters.
One hundred asteroids had been located by mid-1868, and in 1891 the introduction of astrophotography by Max Wolf accelerated the rate of discovery still further. A total of 1,000 asteroids had been found by 1921, 10,000 by 1981, and 100,000 by 2000. Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever - increasing quantities.
In 1802, shortly after discovering Pallas, Olbers suggested to Herschel that Ceres and Pallas were fragments of a much larger planet that once occupied the Mars -- Jupiter region, this planet having suffered an internal explosion or a cometary impact many million years before. Over time, however, this hypothesis has fallen from favor. The large amount of energy required to destroy a planet, combined with the belt 's low combined mass, which is only about 4 % of the mass of the Moon, do not support the hypothesis. Further, the significant chemical differences between the asteroids become difficult to explain if they come from the same planet. Today, most scientists accept that, rather than fragmenting from a progenitor planet, the asteroids never formed a planet at all.
In general, in the Solar System, a planetary formation is thought to have occurred via a process comparable to the long - standing nebular hypothesis: a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed under the influence of gravity to form a rotating disc of material that then further condensed to form the Sun and planets. During the first few million years of the Solar System 's history, an accretion process of sticky collisions caused the clumping of small particles, which gradually increased in size. Once the clumps reached sufficient mass, they could draw in other bodies through gravitational attraction and become planetesimals. This gravitational accretion led to the formation of the planets.
Planetesimals within the region which would become the asteroid belt were too strongly perturbed by Jupiter 's gravity to form a planet. Instead, they continued to orbit the Sun as before, occasionally colliding. In regions where the average velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion, preventing the formation of planet - sized bodies. Orbital resonances occurred where the orbital period of an object in the belt formed an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, perturbing the object into a different orbit; the region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter contains many such orbital resonances. As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation, these resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region 's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other.
During the early history of the Solar System, the asteroids melted to some degree, allowing elements within them to be partially or completely differentiated by mass. Some of the progenitor bodies may even have undergone periods of explosive volcanism and formed magma oceans. However, because of the relatively small size of the bodies, the period of melting was necessarily brief (compared to the much larger planets), and had generally ended about 4.5 billion years ago, in the first tens of millions of years of formation. In August 2007, a study of zircon crystals in an Antarctic meteorite believed to have originated from 4 Vesta suggested that it, and by extension the rest of the asteroid belt, had formed rather quickly, within ten million years of the Solar System 's origin.
The asteroids are not samples of the primordial Solar System. They have undergone considerable evolution since their formation, including internal heating (in the first few tens of millions of years), surface melting from impacts, space weathering from radiation, and bombardment by micrometeorites. Although some scientists refer to the asteroids as residual planetesimals, other scientists consider them distinct.
The current asteroid belt is believed to contain only a small fraction of the mass of the primordial belt. Computer simulations suggest that the original asteroid belt may have contained the mass equivalent to the Earth. Primarily because of gravitational perturbations, most of the material was ejected from the belt within about a million years of formation, leaving behind less than 0.1 % of the original mass. Since their formation, the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable: there has been no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main - belt asteroids.
The 4: 1 orbital resonance with Jupiter, at a radius 2.06 AU, can be considered the inner boundary of the asteroid belt. Perturbations by Jupiter send bodies straying there into unstable orbits. Most bodies formed within the radius of this gap were swept up by Mars (which has an aphelion at 1.67 AU) or ejected by its gravitational perturbations in the early history of the Solar System. The Hungaria asteroids lie closer to the Sun than the 4: 1 resonance, but are protected from disruption by their high inclination.
When the asteroid belt was first formed, the temperatures at a distance of 2.7 AU from the Sun formed a "snow line '' below the freezing point of water. Planetesimals formed beyond this radius were able to accumulate ice. In 2006 it was announced that a population of comets had been discovered within the asteroid belt beyond the snow line, which may have provided a source of water for Earth 's oceans. According to some models, there was insufficient outgassing of water during the Earth 's formative period to form the oceans, requiring an external source such as a cometary bombardment.
Contrary to popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that it would be improbable to reach an asteroid without aiming carefully. Nonetheless, hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known, and the total number ranges in the millions or more, depending on the lower size cutoff. Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km, and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has 0.7 -- 1.7 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more. The apparent magnitudes of most of the known asteroids are 11 -- 19, with the median at about 16.
The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be 2.8 × 10 to 3.2 × 10 kilograms, which is just 4 % of the mass of the Moon. The four largest objects, Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygiea, account for half of the belt 's total mass, with almost one - third accounted for by Ceres alone.
The current belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids: C - type or carbonaceous asteroids, S - type or silicate asteroids, and M - type or metallic asteroids.
Carbonaceous asteroids, as their name suggests, are carbon - rich. They dominate the asteroid belt 's outer regions. Together they comprise over 75 % of the visible asteroids. They are redder in hue than the other asteroids and have a very low albedo. Their surface composition is similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. Chemically, their spectra match the primordial composition of the early Solar System, with only the lighter elements and volatiles removed.
S - type (silicate - rich) asteroids are more common toward the inner region of the belt, within 2.5 AU of the Sun. The spectra of their surfaces reveal the presence of silicates and some metal, but no significant carbonaceous compounds. This indicates that their materials have been significantly modified from their primordial composition, probably through melting and reformation. They have a relatively high albedo and form about 17 % of the total asteroid population.
M - type (metal - rich) asteroids form about 10 % of the total population; their spectra resemble that of iron - nickel. Some are believed to have formed from the metallic cores of differentiated progenitor bodies that were disrupted through collision. However, there are also some silicate compounds that can produce a similar appearance. For example, the large M - type asteroid 22 Kalliope does not appear to be primarily composed of metal. Within the asteroid belt, the number distribution of M - type asteroids peaks at a semi-major axis of about 2.7 AU. It is not yet clear whether all M - types are compositionally similar, or whether it is a label for several varieties which do not fit neatly into the main C and S classes.
One mystery of the asteroid belt is the relative rarity of V - type or basaltic asteroids. Theories of asteroid formation predict that objects the size of Vesta or larger should form crusts and mantles, which would be composed mainly of basaltic rock, resulting in more than half of all asteroids being composed either of basalt or olivine. Observations, however, suggest that 99 percent of the predicted basaltic material is missing. Until 2001, most basaltic bodies discovered in the asteroid belt were believed to originate from the asteroid Vesta (hence their name V - type). However, the discovery of the asteroid 1459 Magnya revealed a slightly different chemical composition from the other basaltic asteroids discovered until then, suggesting a different origin. This hypothesis was reinforced by the further discovery in 2007 of two asteroids in the outer belt, 7472 Kumakiri and (10537) 1991 RY 16, with a differing basaltic composition that could not have originated from Vesta. These latter two are the only V - type asteroids discovered in the outer belt to date.
The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the belt, typical temperatures range from 200 K (− 73 ° C) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K (− 108 ° C) at 3.2 AU However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and then to the stellar background.
Several otherwise unremarkable bodies in the outer belt show cometary activity. Because their orbits can not be explained through the capture of classical comets, it is thought that many of the outer asteroids may be icy, with the ice occasionally exposed to sublimation through small impacts. Main - belt comets may have been a major source of the Earth 's oceans because the deuterium - hydrogen ratio is too low for classical comets to have been the principal source.
Most asteroids within the asteroid belt have orbital eccentricities of less than 0.4, and an inclination of less than 30 °. The orbital distribution of the asteroids reaches a maximum at an eccentricity of around 0.07 and an inclination below 4 °. Thus although a typical asteroid has a relatively circular orbit and lies near the plane of the ecliptic, some asteroid orbits can be highly eccentric or travel well outside the ecliptic plane.
Sometimes, the term main belt is used to refer only to the more compact "core '' region where the greatest concentration of bodies is found. This lies between the strong 4: 1 and 2: 1 Kirkwood gaps at 2.06 and 3.27 AU, and at orbital eccentricities less than roughly 0.33, along with orbital inclinations below about 20 °. As of 2006, this "core '' region contained 93 % of all discovered and numbered minor planets within the Solar System.
The semi-major axis of an asteroid is used to describe the dimensions of its orbit around the Sun, and its value determines the minor planet 's orbital period. In 1866, Daniel Kirkwood announced the discovery of gaps in the distances of these bodies ' orbits from the Sun. They were located in positions where their period of revolution about the Sun was an integer fraction of Jupiter 's orbital period. Kirkwood proposed that the gravitational perturbations of the planet led to the removal of asteroids from these orbits.
When the mean orbital period of an asteroid is an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, a mean - motion resonance with the gas giant is created that is sufficient to perturb an asteroid to new orbital elements. Asteroids that become located in the gap orbits (either primordially because of the migration of Jupiter 's orbit, or due to prior perturbations or collisions) are gradually nudged into different, random orbits with a larger or smaller semi-major axis.
The gaps are not seen in a simple snapshot of the locations of the asteroids at any one time because asteroid orbits are elliptical, and many asteroids still cross through the radii corresponding to the gaps. The actual spatial density of asteroids in these gaps does not differ significantly from the neighboring regions.
The main gaps occur at the 3: 1, 5: 2, 7: 3, and 2: 1 mean - motion resonances with Jupiter. An asteroid in the 3: 1 Kirkwood gap would orbit the Sun three times for each Jovian orbit, for instance. Weaker resonances occur at other semi-major axis values, with fewer asteroids found than nearby. (For example, an 8: 3 resonance for asteroids with a semi-major axis of 2.71 AU.)
The main or core population of the asteroid belt is sometimes divided into three zones, based on the most prominent Kirkwood gaps:
The asteroid belt may also be divided into the inner and outer belts, with the inner belt formed by asteroids orbiting nearer to Mars than the 3: 1 Kirkwood gap (2.5 AU), and the outer belt formed by those asteroids closer to Jupiter 's orbit. (Some authors subdivide the inner and outer belts at the 2: 1 resonance gap (3.3 AU), whereas others suggest inner, middle, and outer belts; also see diagram).
The high population of the asteroid belt makes for a very active environment, where collisions between asteroids occur frequently (on astronomical time scales). Collisions between main - belt bodies with a mean radius of 10 km are expected to occur about once every 10 million years. A collision may fragment an asteroid into numerous smaller pieces (leading to the formation of a new asteroid family). Conversely, collisions that occur at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids. After more than 4 billion years of such processes, the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population.
Along with the asteroid bodies, the asteroid belt also contains bands of dust with particle radii of up to a few hundred micrometres. This fine material is produced, at least in part, from collisions between asteroids, and by the impact of micrometeorites upon the asteroids. Due to the Poynting -- Robertson effect, the pressure of solar radiation causes this dust to slowly spiral inward toward the Sun.
The combination of this fine asteroid dust, as well as ejected cometary material, produces the zodiacal light. This faint auroral glow can be viewed at night extending from the direction of the Sun along the plane of the ecliptic. Asteroid particles that produce the visible zodiacal light average about 40 μm in radius. The typical lifetimes of main - belt zodiacal cloud particles are about 700,000 years. Thus, to maintain the bands of dust, new particles must be steadily produced within the asteroid belt. It was once thought that collisions of asteroids form a major component of the zodiacal light. However, computer simulations by Nesvorný and colleagues attributed 85 percent of the zodiacal - light dust to fragmentations of Jupiter - family comets, rather than to comets and collisions between asteroids in the asteroid belt. At most 10 percent of the dust is attributed to the asteroid belt.
Some of the debris from collisions can form meteoroids that enter the Earth 's atmosphere. Of the 50,000 meteorites found on Earth to date, 99.8 percent are believed to have originated in the asteroid belt.
In 1918, the Japanese astronomer Kiyotsugu Hirayama noticed that the orbits of some of the asteroids had similar parameters, forming families or groups.
Approximately one - third of the asteroids in the asteroid belt are members of an asteroid family. These share similar orbital elements, such as semi-major axis, eccentricity, and orbital inclination as well as similar spectral features, all of which indicate a common origin in the breakup of a larger body. Graphical displays of these elements, for members of the asteroid belt, show concentrations indicating the presence of an asteroid family. There are about 20 -- 30 associations that are almost certainly asteroid families. Additional groupings have been found that are less certain. Asteroid families can be confirmed when the members display common spectral features. Smaller associations of asteroids are called groups or clusters.
Some of the most prominent families in the asteroid belt (in order of increasing semi-major axes) are the Flora, Eunoma, Koronis, Eos, and Themis families. The Flora family, one of the largest with more than 800 known members, may have formed from a collision less than a billion years ago. The largest asteroid to be a true member of a family (as opposed to an interloper in the case of Ceres with the Gefion family) is 4 Vesta. The Vesta family is believed to have formed as the result of a crater - forming impact on Vesta. Likewise, the HED meteorites may also have originated from Vesta as a result of this collision.
Three prominent bands of dust have been found within the asteroid belt. These have similar orbital inclinations as the Eos, Koronis, and Themis asteroid families, and so are possibly associated with those groupings.
Skirting the inner edge of the belt (ranging between 1.78 and 2.0 AU, with a mean semi-major axis of 1.9 AU) is the Hungaria family of minor planets. They are named after the main member, 434 Hungaria; the group contains at least 52 named asteroids. The Hungaria group is separated from the main body by the 4: 1 Kirkwood gap and their orbits have a high inclination. Some members belong to the Mars - crossing category of asteroids, and gravitational perturbations by Mars are likely a factor in reducing the total population of this group.
Another high - inclination group in the inner part of the asteroid belt is the Phocaea family. These are composed primarily of S - type asteroids, whereas the neighboring Hungaria family includes some E-types. The Phocaea family orbit between 2.25 and 2.5 AU from the Sun.
Skirting the outer edge of the asteroid belt is the Cybele group, orbiting between 3.3 and 3.5 AU. These have a 7: 4 orbital resonance with Jupiter. The Hilda family orbit between 3.5 and 4.2 AU, and have relatively circular orbits and a stable 3: 2 orbital resonance with Jupiter. There are few asteroids beyond 4.2 AU, until Jupiter 's orbit. Here the two families of Trojan asteroids can be found, which, at least for objects larger than 1 km, are approximately as numerous as the asteroids of the asteroid belt.
Some asteroid families have formed recently, in astronomical terms. The Karin Cluster apparently formed about 5.7 million years ago from a collision with a progenitor asteroid 33 km in radius. The Veritas family formed about 8.3 million years ago; evidence includes interplanetary dust recovered from ocean sediment.
More recently, the Datura cluster appears to have formed about 530 thousand years ago from a collision with a main - belt asteroid. The age estimate is based on the probability of the members having their current orbits, rather than from any physical evidence. However, this cluster may have been a source for some zodiacal dust material. Other recent cluster formations, such as the Iannini cluster (circa 1 -- 5 million years ago), may have provided additional sources of this asteroid dust.
The first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt was Pioneer 10, which entered the region on 16 July 1972. At the time there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft, but it has since been safely traversed by 12 spacecraft without incident. Pioneer 11, Voyagers 1 and 2 and Ulysses passed through the belt without imaging any asteroids. Galileo imaged 951 Gaspra in 1991 and 243 Ida in 1993, NEAR imaged 253 Mathilde in 1997, Cassini imaged 2685 Masursky in 2000, Stardust imaged 5535 Annefrank in 2002, New Horizons imaged 132524 APL in 2006, Rosetta imaged 2867 Šteins in September 2008 and 21 Lutetia in July 2010, and Dawn orbited Vesta between July 2011 and September 2012 and has orbited Ceres since March 2015. On its way to Jupiter, Juno traversed the asteroid belt without collecting science data. Due to the low density of materials within the belt, the odds of a probe running into an asteroid are now estimated at less than one in a billion.
Most belt asteroids imaged to date have come from brief flyby opportunities by probes headed for other targets. Only the Dawn, NEAR and Hayabusa missions have studied asteroids for a protracted period in orbit and at the surface. Dawn explored Vesta from July 2011 to September 2012 and has been orbiting Ceres since March 2015.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds meaning | Self - reliance - wikipedia
"Self - Reliance '' is an 1841 essay written by American transcendentalist philosopher and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson. It contains the most thorough statement of one of Emerson 's recurrent themes, the need for each individual to avoid conformity and false consistency, and follow their own instincts and ideas. It is the source of one of Emerson 's most famous quotations: "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. '' This essay is an analysis into the nature of the "aboriginal self on which a universal reliance may be grounded. ''
The first hint of the philosophy that would become "Self - Reliance '' was presented by Ralph Waldo Emerson as part of a sermon in September 1830 a month after his first marriage. His wife Ellen was sick with tuberculosis and, as Emerson 's biographer Robert D. Richardson wrote, "Immortality had never been stronger or more desperately needed! ''
From 1836 into 1837, Emerson presented a series of lectures on the philosophy of history at Boston 's Masonic Temple. These lectures were never published separately, but many of his thoughts in these were later used in "Self - Reliance '' and several other essays. Later lectures by Emerson led to public censure of his radical views, the staunch defense of individualism in "Self - Reliance '' being a possible reaction to that censure.
"Self - Reliance '' was first published in his 1841 collection, Essays: First Series. Emerson helped start the beginning of the Transcendentalist movement in America. "Self - Reliance '' is one of Emerson 's most famous essays. Emerson wrote on "individualism, personal responsibility, and nonconformity. ''
The Transcendentalist movement flourished in New England, and proposed a revolutionarily new philosophy of life. This new philosophy drew upon old ideas of Romanticism, Unitarianism, and German Idealism. Some of these ideas pertained closely to the values of America at the time. These values included nature, individualism, and reform, and can be noted in Emerson 's essay.
Herman Melville 's Moby - Dick has been read as a critique of Emerson 's philosophy of self - reliance, embodied particularly in the life and death of Ahab. Melville 's critique of self - reliance as a way of life is seen to lie in its destructive potential, especially when taken to extremes. Richard Chase writes that for Melville, ' Death -- spiritual, emotional, physical -- is the price of self - reliance when it is pushed to the point of solipsism, where the world has no existence apart from the all - sufficient self. ' In that regard, Chase sees Melville 's art as antithetical to that of Emerson 's thought, in that Melville ' (points) up the dangers of an exaggerated self - regard, rather than, as (...) Emerson loved to do, (suggested) the vital possibilities of the self. ' Newton Arvin further suggests that self - reliance was, for Melville, really the ' (masquerade in kingly weeds of) a wild egoism, anarchic, irresponsible, and destructive. '
Emerson 's quote, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, '' is a running joke in the 1998 film Next Stop Wonderland. A single woman (portrayed by Hope Davis), who is familiar with the Emerson quote, goes on dates with several men, each of whom tries to impress her by referencing the line, but misquotes it and misattributes it to W.C. Fields, Karl Marx, or Cicero. The woman finally meets a man (portrayed by Alan Gelfant) who correctly attributes the quote to Emerson.
Early in his career the writer Isaac Asimov co-authored the textbook Biochemistry and Human Metabolism. While reviewing the galley proofs of each author 's contribution, he and his two colleagues would frequently encounter differences in matters such as the spelling, capitalization and hyphenation of technical words and terms. Rather than undergo the laborious task of harmonizing all these trivial variations, hearkening to the "foolish consistency '' statement they would all call out "Emerson '' when one of these was encountered and pass directly on to the next item.
It is also quoted in the Python Style guide for the Python programming language.
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side to side ariana grande featuring nicki minaj | Side to Side - wikipedia
"Side to Side '' is a song recorded by American singer Ariana Grande, released on August 30, 2016, as the third single from her studio album, Dangerous Woman (2016). A reggae - pop song, with dancehall influences, and features guest vocals from American rapper Nicki Minaj.
The song peaked at number 4 on both the US Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart, becoming her first top - five single from Dangerous Woman in the former and first top - ten single from the album in the latter. It also reached number 4 on the Canadian Hot 100, number 3 on the Australian chart and number 2 in the New Zealand chart. It is her second single to top the US Mainstream Top 40 airplay chart. Its music video, directed by Hannah Lux Davis, made its premiere on American clothing brand Guess 's website on August 28, 2016, and features Grande in a gym and frolicking with shirtless men in a sauna together with Minaj. The music video has since received a nomination at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Choreography. Grande and Minaj performed "Side to Side '' at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards and the American Music Awards. Grande has also promoted the song with televised performances on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The single has been certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in March 2018 for accumulating 4 million equivalent - units.
On May 13, 2016, Grande announced on her Instagram account that a new song from her album Dangerous Woman would be premiered exclusively on Apple Music every day until the release of the album. The following day, Grande posted a short preview of "Side to Side '' via Instagram, then premiered the song on Apple Music the same day. On August 30, 2016, the track was sent to US urban contemporary radio and became Dangerous Woman 's third single.
The song was written by Max Martin, Savan Kotecha, Ilya Salmanzadeh, Alexander Kronlund, Grande and Minaj. Martin was also responsible for production, along with Salmanzadeh, as well as programming, drums, percussion, guitars, bass and keyboard. The background vocal was provided by Kotecha, Chonita Gilbert, Joi Gilliam and Taura Stinson. It was recorded at MXM Studios in Los Angeles, California and Wolf Cousins Studios in Stockholm, Sweden while Minaj 's verses were recorded at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, California and MilkBoy the Studio in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. "Side to Side '' is written in the key of F ♯ minor with a common time tempo of 159 beats per minute. Grande 's vocals span two octaves, from the low note of F ♯ to the mixed note of F ♯.
The song is a reggae - pop song complemented with R&B and dancehall influences with a duration of three minutes and forty - six seconds (3: 46). Lyrically, "Side to Side '' describes a feeling of soreness after sex. In an interview to MTV News reporter Gaby Wilson, Grande explained "that whole song is about riding leading to soreness ''. Deepa Lakshmin from MTV noted that when Minaj says "bicycle '' and "tricycle, '' "she 's rapping about something a bit more risqué than your standard gym workout. ''
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted that its sound is comparable to works from Barbadian singer Rihanna. Maeva McDermott from USA Today noted the same, the editor wrote that "Grande borrows the tropical flavors and ska upstrumming that Rihanna ushered into pop music 's consciousness. '' And completed praising Minaj participation saying: "who better to invite on an album about female fierceness than Nicki Minaj, whose understated verse steals the show and lends Grande some real danger. '' Rolling Stone 's writer Rob Sheffield ranked "Side to Side '' at number 22 on his list of "50 Best Songs of 2016 '', describing it as "an ode to having so much sex you ca n't walk straight the next day. ''
Following the performance at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards on August 28, 2016, "Side to Side '' made its official debut in the United States at number 31 on the US Billboard Hot 100 dated September 17, 2016. The song leaped to number 18 the next week. After six weeks on the chart, the song hiked up 12 -- 10 on the Hot 100 for the issue dated October 29, 2016 making it Grande 's eighth top - ten on the chart and Minaj 's thirteenth; it also doubles as the second top - 10 hit from Dangerous Woman. The song later reached a peak of number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 for two non-consecutive weeks, becoming the highest charting single from the album. The song stayed in the Hot 100 top 10 for 15 weeks of its chart run, dropping out of the top 10 on January 28, 2017. The song also spent five weeks atop the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 airplay chart, becoming Grande 's second number - one on that chart, and Minaj 's first.
In Australia, "Side to Side '' debuted at number 36 on the ARIA Charts and has since peaked at number 3, becoming her fourth top - ten single there. In New Zealand, the song debuted at number 10, becoming her fifth top - ten single there. It rose to number 5 the following week and peaked at 2.
In the United Kingdom, "Side to Side '' initially debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 66 in the week dated June 2, 2016 after its album 's release, but fell off the chart in its second week. The song re-entered at number 24 in the week dated September 9, 2016 following its official release as a single, and has since peaked at number 4, making it Grande 's fourth top - ten single there, and Minaj 's tenth.
Directed by Hannah Lux Davis, the music video made its official premiere on American clothing brand Guess 's website on the night of August 28, 2016. The music video opens with Grande leading a spin class on stationary bicycles, performing a synchronized choreography with backup dancers. The video then transitions to a gym and locker room scene, where Grande and the backup dancers are seen with boxing equipment. Grande and Minaj are then seen in a sauna, surrounded by male models. The video featured product placement from Guess.
It surpassed 100 million views on September 19, 2016, making it Grande 's twelfth Vevo - certified music video (reaching 100 million views) and Minaj 's eighteenth Vevo - certified music video. On June 29, 2017 the video surpassed 1 billion views on YouTube, and as of December 2017 has received over 1.2 billion views, taking it into the top 60 most viewed YouTube videos. It later became Grande 's most viewed video, surpassing "Problem ''.
The music video has since received a nomination at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Choreography.
Grande performed "Side to Side '' for the first time in "Vevo Presents '' show in May 2016. Later, she performed at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards with Minaj. Stationary bicycles and a pommel horse were featured as props in the performance. Grande also performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on September 8, 2016. Additionally, she performed the single in an acoustic medley with "Into You '' on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on September 14, 2016. On September 24, 2016, she performed the song at the 2016 iHeartRadio Music Festival on The CW. On November 20, 2016, Grande and Minaj performed "Side to Side '' at the 2016 American Music Awards. It was named the best performance of the night by editor Andrew Unterberger from Billboard. On June 4, 2017, the song was part of Grande 's set list for One Love Manchester, a benefit concert for the victims of the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing.
The song is featured in a T - Mobile commercial which also features Grande.
It was also played in the television show Crashing.
The song is featured in the 2017 dance rhythm game, Just Dance 2018.
Credits adapted from Dangerous Woman 's liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what does dot dot dot mean in an email | Ellipsis - wikipedia
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An ellipsis (plural ellipses; from the Ancient Greek: ἔλλειψις, élleipsis, ' omission ' or ' falling short ') is a series of dots (typically three, such as "... '') that usually indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning.
Depending on their context and placement in a sentence, ellipses can indicate an unfinished thought, a leading statement, a slight pause, an echoing voice, or a nervous or awkward silence. Aposiopesis is the use of an ellipsis to trail off into silence -- for example: "But I thought he was... '' When placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, the ellipsis can also inspire a feeling of melancholy or longing.
The most common form of an ellipsis is a row of three periods or full stops (...) or a precomposed triple - dot glyph (...). The usage of the em dash (--) can overlap the usage of the ellipsis, especially in dialogue. Style guides often have their own rules governing the use of ellipses. For example, The Chicago Manual of Style recommends that an ellipsis be formed by typing three periods, each with a space on both sides (...). Whether or not an ellipsis at the end of a sentence needs a fourth dot to finish the sentence is a matter of debate; for example, Chicago advises it, but the OxfordWords blog has suggested that a full stop is considered to be paradoxical to an ellipsis used to indicate an incomplete thought, so it is omitted.
The triple - dot punctuation mark is also called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, periods of ellipsis, or colloquially, "dot - dot - dot ''.
In her book on the ellipsis, Ellipsis in English Literature: Signs of Omission (Cambridge University Press, 2015), Anne Toner suggests that the first use of the punctuation in the English language dates to a 1588 translation of Terence 's Andria, by Maurice Kyffin. In this case, however, the ellipsis consists not of dots but of short dashes. "Subpuncting '' of medieval manuscripts also denotes omitted meaning and may be related.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, an ellipsis was often used when a writer intentionally omitted a specific proper noun, such as a location: "Jan was born on... Street in Warsaw. ''
As commonly used, this juxtaposition of characters is referred to as "dots of ellipsis '' in the English language.
Occasionally, it would be used in pulp fiction and other works of early 20th - century fiction to denote expletives that would otherwise have been censored.
An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context. For example, when Sue says "I never drink wine... ", the implication is that she does drink something else -- such as vodka.
In reported speech, the ellipsis can be used to represent an intentional silence.
In poetry, an ellipsis is used as a thought - pause or line break at the caesura or this is used to highlight sarcasm or make the reader think about the last points in the poem.
In news reporting, often associated with brackets, it is used to indicate that a quotation has been condensed for space, brevity or relevance.
Herb Caen, Pulitzer - prize - winning columnist for the San Francisco Chronicle, became famous for his "three - dot journalism ''.
The Chicago Manual of Style suggests the use of an ellipsis for any omitted word, phrase, line, or paragraph from within but not at the end of a quoted passage. There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, while the second one makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots:...) and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three dots:...).
The Modern Language Association (MLA) used to indicate that an ellipsis must include spaces before and after each dot in all uses. If an ellipsis is meant to represent an omission, square brackets must surround the ellipsis to make it clear that there was no pause in the original quote: (...). Currently, the MLA has removed the requirement of brackets in its style handbooks. However, some maintain that the use of brackets is still correct because it clears confusion.
The MLA now indicates that a three - dot, spaced ellipsis (...) should be used for removing material from within one sentence within a quote. When crossing sentences (when the omitted text contains a period, so that omitting the end of a sentence counts), a four - dot, spaced (except for before the first dot) ellipsis (...) should be used. When ellipsis points are used in the original text, ellipsis points that are not in the original text should be distinguished by enclosing them in square brackets (e.g. "text (...) text '').
According to the Associated Press, the ellipsis should be used to condense quotations. It is less commonly used to indicate a pause in speech or an unfinished thought or to separate items in material such as show business gossip. The stylebook indicates that if the shortened sentence before the mark can stand as a sentence, it should do so, with an ellipsis placed after the period or other ending punctuation. When material is omitted at the end of a paragraph and also immediately following it, an ellipsis goes both at the end of that paragraph and at the beginning of the next, according to this style.
According to Robert Bringhurst 's Elements of Typographic Style, the details of typesetting ellipses depend on the character and size of the font being set and the typographer 's preference. Bringhurst writes that a full space between each dot is "another Victorian eccentricity. In most contexts, the Chicago ellipsis is much too wide '' -- he recommends using flush dots, or thin - spaced dots (up to one - fifth of an em), or the prefabricated ellipsis character (U + 2026... HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS (HTML & # 8230; …). Bringhurst suggests that normally an ellipsis should be spaced fore - and - aft to separate it from the text, but when it combines with other punctuation, the leading space disappears and the other punctuation follows. This is the usual practice in typesetting. He provides the following examples:
In legal writing in the United States, Rule 5.3 in the Bluebook citation guide governs the use of ellipses and requires a space before the first dot and between the two subsequent dots. If an ellipsis ends the sentence, then there are three dots, each separated by a space, followed by the final punctuation (e.g. Hah...?). In some legal writing, an ellipsis is written as three asterisks (* * * or * * *) to make it obvious that text has been omitted. (...) is also used for awkward silence.
The Oxford Style Guide recommends setting the ellipsis as a single character (...) or as a series of three (narrow) spaced dots (...), and surrounding it by spaces. If there is an ellipsis at the end of an incomplete sentence, the final full stop is omitted. However, it is retained if the following ellipsis represents an omission between two complete sentences.
Contrary to The Oxford Style Guide, the University of Oxford Style Guide demands an ellipsis not to be surrounded by spaces, except when it stands for a pause; then, a space has to be set after the ellipsis (but not before). An ellipsis is never preceded or followed by a full stop.
When applied in Polish language syntax, the ellipsis is called wielokropek, which means "multidot ''. The word wielokropek distinguishes the ellipsis of Polish syntax from that of mathematical notation, in which it is known as an elipsa.
When an ellipsis replaces a fragment omitted from a quotation, the ellipsis is enclosed in parentheses or square brackets. An unbracketed ellipsis indicates an interruption or pause in speech.
The syntactical rules for ellipses are standardized by the 1983 Polska Norma document PN - 83 / P - 55366, Zasady składania tekstów w języku polskim ("Rules for setting texts in the Polish Language '').
The combination "ellipsis + period '' is replaced by the ellipsis. The combinations "ellipsis + exclamation mark '' and "ellipsis + question mark '' are written in this way:!...?...
The most common character corresponding to an ellipsis is called 3 - ten rīdā ("3 - dot leaders '',...). 2 - ten rīdā exists as a character, but it is used less commonly. In writing, the ellipsis consists usually of six dots (two 3 - ten rīdā characters,......). Three dots (one 3 - ten rīdā character) may be used where space is limited, such as in a header. However, variations in the number of dots exist. In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered within the text height (between the baseline and the ascent line), as in the standard Japanese Windows fonts; in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally. As the Japanese word for dot is pronounced "ten '', the dots are colloquially called "ten - ten - ten '' (てん てんてん, akin to the English "dot dot dot '').
In manga, the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, or a "pregnant pause ''. Depending on the context, this could be anything from an admission of guilt to an expression of being dumbfounded at another person 's words or actions. As a device, the ten - ten - ten is intended to focus the reader on a character while allowing the character to not speak any dialogue. This conveys to the reader a focus of the narrative "camera '' on the silent subject, implying an expectation of some motion or action. It is not unheard of to see inanimate objects "speaking '' the ellipsis.
In Chinese, the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying the same horizontal or vertical space as two characters) (i.e.......).
In Spanish, ellipsis is commonly used as a substitute of et cetera at the end of unfinished lists. So it means "and so forth '' or "and other things ''.
Other use is the suspension of a part of a text, or a paragraph, or a phrase or a part of a word because it is obvious, or unnecessary, or implied. For instance, sometimes the ellipsis is used to avoid the complete use of expletives.
When the ellipsis is placed alone into a parenthesis (...) or -- less often -- between brackets (...), which is what happens usually within a text transcription, it means the original text had more contents on the same position but are not useful to our target in the transcription. When the suppressed text is at the beginning or at the end of a text, the ellipsis does not need to be placed in a parenthesis.
In French, the ellipsis is commonly used at the end of lists to represent et cetera. In French typography, the ellipsis is written close up to the preceding word but has a space after it, for example: comme ça... pas comme ceci. If, exceptionally, it begins a sentence, there is a space before and after, for example: Lui?... vaut rien, je crois....
However, any omitted word, phrase or line at the end of a quoted passage would be indicated like this: (...) (space before and after the square brackets but not inside), for example:... à Paris, Nice, Nantes, Toulouse (...).
In German, the ellipsis in general is surrounded by spaces, if it stands for one or more omitted words. On the other side there is no space between a letter or (part of) a word and an ellipsis, if it stands for one or more omitted letters, that should stick to the written letter or letters.
Example for both cases, using German style: The first el... is stands for omitted letters, the second... for an omitted word.
If the ellipsis is at the end of a sentence, the final full stop is omitted.
Example: I think that...
In computer menu functions or buttons, an appended ellipsis means that on selection another dialog will follow, where the user can or must make a choice. If the ellipsis is missing, the function is already executed on selection.
An ellipsis is also often used in mathematics to mean "and so forth ''. In a list, between commas, or following a comma, a normal ellipsis is used, as in:
or to mean an infinite list, as:
To indicate the omission of values in a repeated operation, an ellipsis raised to the center of the line is used between two operation symbols or following the last operation symbol, as in:
Sometimes, e.g. in Russian mathematical texts, normal, non-raised, ellipses are used even in repeated summations.
The latter formula means the sum of all natural numbers from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined mathematical symbol. Repeated summations or products may similarly be denoted using capital sigma and capital pi notation, respectively:
Normally dots should be used only where the pattern to be followed is clear, the exception being to show the indefinite continuation of an irrational number such as:
Sometimes, it is useful to display a formula compactly, for example:
Another example is the set of zeros of the cosine function:
There are many related uses of the ellipsis in set notation.
The diagonal and vertical forms of the ellipsis are particularly useful for showing missing terms in matrices, such as the size - n identity matrix:
The use of ellipses in mathematical proofs is often discouraged because of the potential for ambiguity. For this reason, and because the ellipsis supports no systematic rules for symbolic calculation, in recent years some authors have recommended avoiding its use in mathematics altogether.
A two - or three - dot ellipsis is used as an operator in some programming languages. The precise meaning varies by language, but it generally involves something dealing with multiple items. One of its most common uses is in defining ranges or sequences. This is used in many languages, including Pascal, Modula, Oberon, Ada, Haskell, Perl, Python, Ruby, Bash shell and F#. It is also used to indicate so called variadic functions in the C, C++ and Java languages. See Ellipsis (programming operator).
The CSS text - overflow property can be set to ellipsis, which cuts off text with an ellipsis when it overflows the content area.
The ellipsis is a non-verbal cue that is often used in computer - mediated interactions, in particular in synchronous genres, such as chat. The reason behind its popularity is the fact that it allows people to indicate in writing several functions:
Although an ellipsis is technically complete with three periods (...), its rise in popularity as a "trailing - off '' or "silence '' indicator, particularly in mid-20th - century comic strip and comic book prose writing, has led to expanded uses online. Today, extended ellipsis anywhere from two to dozens of periods have become common constructions in Internet chat rooms and text messages. The extent of repetition in itself might serve as an additional contextualization or paralinguistic cue, to "extend the lexical meaning of the words, add character to the sentences, and allow fine - tuning and personalisation of the message ''.
In computing, several ellipsis characters have been codified, depending on the system used.
In the Unicode standard, there are the following characters:
In Windows, it can be inserted with Alt + 0 1 3 3.
In OS X, it can be inserted with ⌥ Opt +; (on an English language keyboard).
In some Linux distributions, it can be inserted with AltGr +., or alternatively Compose... sequence can be used.
In Chinese and sometimes in Japanese, ellipsis characters are made by entering two consecutive horizontal ellipsis (U + 2026). In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly.
Unicode recognizes a series of three period characters (U + 002E) as compatibility equivalent (though not canonical) to the horizontal ellipsis character.
In HTML, the horizontal ellipsis character may be represented by the entity reference … (since HTML 4.0), and the vertical ellipsis character by the entity reference ⋮ (since HTML 5.0). Alternatively, in HTML, XML, and SGML, a numeric character reference such as & # x2026; or & # 8230; can be used.
In the TeX typesetting system, the following types of ellipsis are available:
In LaTeX, note that the reverse orientation of \ ddots can be achieved with \ reflectbox provided by the graphicx package: \ reflectbox (\ ddots) yields.
With the amsmath package from AMS - LaTeX, more specific ellipses are provided for math mode.
The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps:
Note that ISO / IEC 8859 encoding series provides no code point for ellipsis.
As with all characters, especially those outside the ASCII range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naive text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mojibake.
The Chicago Style Q&A recommends to avoid the use of... (U + 2026) character in manuscripts and to place three periods plus two nonbreaking spaces (...) instead, so that an editor, publisher, or designer can replace them later.
In Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN. 1), the ellipsis is used as an extension marker to indicate the possibility of type extensions in future revisions of a protocol specification. In a type constraint expression like A:: = INTEGER (0... 127,..., 256... 511) an ellipsis is used to separate the extension root from extension additions. The definition of type A in version 1 system of the form A:: = INTEGER (0... 127,...) and the definition of type A in version 2 system of the form A:: = INTEGER (0... 127,..., 256... 511) constitute an extension series of the same type A in different versions of the same specification. The ellipsis can also be used in compound type definitions to separate the set of fields belonging to the extension root from the set of fields constituting extension additions. Here is an example: B:: = SEQUENCE (a INTEGER, b INTEGER,..., c INTEGER)
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who dies in one tree hill season 9 | One Tree Hill (season 9) - wikipedia
The ninth and final season of One Tree Hill, an American television series created by Mark Schwahn for The WB Television Network. The series was officially renewed by The CW for a ninth season on May 17, 2011; two days later, the network announced that the ninth season would serve as the series ' final season. Premiering on January 11, 2012, the series aired its 13 episodes uninterrupted.
Series leads Bethany Joy Lenz and Sophia Bush continue as full - time regulars, while James Lafferty returned as a part - time regular. Paul Johansson and Tyler Hilton both return to the show for the final season as regulars, whilst former series regulars Chad Michael Murray, Antwon Tanner, Barbara Alyn Woods, and Craig Sheffer guest star.
The season opened to 1.75 million viewers and a 0.9 Adults 18 -- 49 rating, up 26 % in viewers compared to its season eight finale. The final episode aired on April 4, 2012, concluding the series with 1.43 million viewers.
The ninth and final seasons deals with the disappearance and ransom of Nathan Scott. Clay battles a drug addiction and later learns of a secret that turns his life upside down. Brooke faces a demon from her past while struggling to reconnect with her father. Dan 's search for Nathan brings back old faces to Tree Hill. Haley battles with the prospect of being a single mother of two.
As Brooke and Julian begin to adjust to life with their new children, Haley and Nathan find themselves dealing with similar issues. Although they do n't know it yet, faces from the past threaten to interrupt plans for all their futures. Meanwhile, a mysterious problem arises for Clay and Quinn. Nathan finds out Dan Scott came back into town. Chris Keller returns to run Redbedroom Records.
Brooke discusses a new business venture with her father, despite her mothers wishes, as Julian stresses about his own investment in a sound studio. Quinn convinces Clay to get help, and Millie struggles to be honest with Mouth about his weight gain. Meanwhile, Chase asks Alex to move in with him as Chris Keller makes Alex an offer she may not be able to refuse to tour. Nathan volunteers to scout in Europe, leaving Dan with Haley, Jamie, and Lydia.
After Alex leaves for her tour, Chris looks to hire an intern and tries to cheer up Chase. Haley runs into trouble at Karen 's Cafe when her chef quits to work for a rival cafe. Clay arouses suspicion in Quinn that he is cheating on her. Meanwhile, Millie accidentally humiliates Mouth on the air. Brooke tries to help her father secure funding for her new clothing line, and Julian gets distracted by the prospect of a potential renter for his sound stage, resulting in Julian forgetting his son, Davis, in the family car, to which the police and an ambulance have been alerted.
Clay gets into trouble and Quinn gets involved; Julian deals with his guilt over leaving the baby in the car; Mouth agrees to take care of his health but continues eating when Millie is asleep. Meanwhile, a new cafe opens and the owner immediately angers Brooke and Haley.
Nathan seems to have vanished on his way home, Haley goes searching for him and ultimately suspects Dan of having something to do with it. Tara gives Brooke a cockroach - infested flower as a "Face to face friends request '', ultimately causing Brooke to destroy Tara 's cafe after Tara gets personal in her attacks. Chase continues to feel guilty for sleeping with Tara behind Chris Keller 's back. Chase also feels unwanted after Chuck spends all his attention on Keller and later his father, who finally comes back home. Clay checks into rehab, and Quinn spends the day babysitting Jamie & Lydia.
Dan enlists Julian to help in his search for Nathan. Mouth fills Clay in about Nathan, as Haley explains Nathan 's disappearance to Jamie. Brooke gets an idea of how to bring patrons to an empty Karen 's Cafe, and Chris Keller confronts Chase about Tara.
Haley seeks help from Lucas (guest star Chad Michael Murray) as Nathan makes an escape attempt. Lucas takes Jamie and Lydia out of town to stay with him and Peyton until Haley can find Nathan and bring him home. Brooke comes face - to - face with Xavier who is up for parole. Julian uncovers evidence that assists Dan in his search for Nathan. Clay makes a connection with another patient in rehab.
Haley gets a phone call that may change her life forever. Clay receives life changing news while revisiting his past. While Dan revisits his past during his search for Nathan, Deb returns. Haley goes to identify a body that is thought to be Nathan. Chase goes to extreme measures to protect Chuck.
Haley partners up with Dan to help search for Nathan. Brooke and Julian take new measures to protect their family. Chase faces consequences for defending Chuck. Skills helps Mouth get to a turning point. Clay reveals his past to Logan.
Dan, Julian and Chris Keller attempt to rescue Nathan. During the rescue, Nathan is saved and Dan kills most of the attackers. When they are about to escape, Dan is shot by Demetri before he himself is shot by Nathan. Brooke 's conflict with Xavier escalates when he attacks her in a parking garage, she is saved by the rival cafe owner Tara, who tasers him. Clay and Quinn revisit the past.
After successfully rescuing Nathan, Dan 's life hangs in the balance. Nathan looks back on his father 's life and forgives him for all he has done. Brooke 's father surprises her when he comes back into town. Clay and Quinn reconnect with Logan.
As Haley prepares to present the annual Tree Hill Burning Boat Festival, Brooke uses the opportunity to process her father 's betrayal, while Julian tries to breathe new life into a past idea. Mouth and Millie make a change to their morning show, and Clay and Quinn get ready for Logan 's first night at the beach house. Clay proposes to Quinn and Chase is offered to buy the bar.
In the final chapter of One Tree Hill, the tenth anniversary of Tric brings old faces and new possibilities for the Tree Hill family; Quinn adopts Logan and marries Clay, Haley introduces Jamie to her predictions with Lucas and Julian buys Brooke her childhood home. In the time - jump, the Tree Hill gang are seen at Jamie 's high - school basketball game, where his jersey is seen on the wall as the "all time top scorer ''. Bevin makes a guest appearance who is also seen back with Skills and Millie is pregnant.
The CW officially renewed One Tree Hill for a ninth season on May 17, 2011. On May 19, 2011, Dawn Ostroff confirmed that the 13 episodes for season nine will be the last for the series. In the official announcement of The CW 's schedule, they confirmed the series stars and the executive producers for the final season. Mark Schwahn, Joe Davola, Greg Prange, Mike Tollin, and Brian Robbins will all continue in their roles on the show. Deadline reported that the final season will begin mid-season and air its 13 episodes uninterrupted, leading into the series finale.
Production for the season began on July 7, 2011 at the Screen Gems Studios, Wilmington, North Carolina. While further scenes are shot in downtown Wilmington, including Wallace Park and Pure Gold Gentlemen 's Club. The Corning manufacturing site on North College Road is also being used as the location for some scenes based in Tree Hill 's hospital, police station and TV studio. A two - day shoot for some scenes in the season was also held at Kinston Regional Jetport. Paul Johansson will direct at least one episode in the season. At the Television Critics Association summer press tour, president of entertainment at The CW, Mark Pedowitz said "At this point it 's the final 13, '' about the possibility of extending the season. He added, "You never want to say never, '' revealing that he did speak to executive producer Mark Schwahn and that they agreed that 13 episodes is the best number to close the series with. One Tree Hill filmed its final scenes on November 16, 2011.
The season aired Wednesdays at 8: 00 pm Eastern / 7: 00 pm Central as a lead - in to new reality series, "Remodeled ''. It premiered on January 11, 2012, with an encore following immediately after. There was no opening credit sequence during the final season as producers did n't want to waste time that could potentially be used for story. Gavin Degraw will perform in the series finale. The series 's final epilogue was sports - themed.
In an interview with Carina Mackenzie of Zap2it, Sophia Bush revealed she was the first person to be approached for season nine, and the first to sign on. "The idea that we would do this as 13 final episode (s) and almost shoot like it a miniseries really appealed to me, '' she says. "On a professional level, if we had shot 22 episodes, it would be one more year we 'd be shooting through pilot season and unavailable for other things. '' When discussing the shows series finale and she being upset about the end, she said, "On the same side of the coin, most shows do n't last this long. Most shows do n't make it 6 years let alone 9, so I really feel like it 's all just been a gift. '' In another interview, Bethany Joy Galeotti revealed her own reasons for returning, "It was a really tough decision, but I have a few friendships here that I was n't ready to walk away from yet. Season 8 ended with like a booze - on - stage - 8 kind of party. I was kind of like ' This ca n't be how we say goodbye. At least let 's come back for 13 more episodes. ' ''
Sophia Bush directed the penultimate episode of the series. The CW has given more promotion for the launch of the final season than it has since the fifth season. Mark Pedowitz said, "I 'm a big believer in giving shows a proper sendoff. "It deserves a proper sendoff. Not many shows last nine years. Mark, his team and the cast deserve a really good sendoff. I think we did a good job for them this year. ''
After backlash from fans about whether Sophia Bush had asked not to work with Murray during his episode, she cleared up the matter in an interview with Zap2it:
"When I got the script and saw that Lucas was back, I called Mark, and I told him that if he wanted to write scenes where the whole gang gets together at Haley 's house and talks about how they 're going to find Nathan, then he should write that. I 've never asked not to work with any former cast mates, and I 'm certainly not going to start now, in the final season. This show is too important to me, and these characters are too important to me, and the fans are too important to me. ''
The series finale aired on Wednesday, April 4, 2012, 8: 00 -- 10: 00 p.m., as a special two - hour event. It featured interviews with the series ' stars as they look back at the shows most memorable moments.
Before season eight had finished filming, original cast members Bethany Joy Lenz and Sophia Bush signed on for a final season, while James Lafferty was expected to return part - time. Austin Nichols, Robert Buckley, Lisa Goldstein, Jana Kramer, Shantel Vansanten and Stephen Colletti are also contracted through season nine. The regulars for season nine -- as listed on a press release from The CW -- are Sophia Bush, Bethany Joy Lenz, James Lafferty, Austin Nichols, Robert Buckley, Shantel VanSanten and Jackson Brundage. Though, others later signed on. At The CW upfront presentation, the network expressed confidence that Chad Michael Murray and Hilarie Burton would return. Mark Pedowitz said, that with everyone knowing season nine will be the last, it makes it more possible for old cast members to return. On July 11, 2011, it was announced that Tyler Hilton would reprise his role as Chris Keller. Ten years have passed since he was last seen. He is rumored to return to help Haley run Red Bedroom Records as Peyton is still away. It was later reported that Hilton would return in the season premiere as a series regular. Kristin Dos Santos revealed that Paul Johansson will be returning to the series full - time as a regular.
TV Line revealed that James Lafferty will appear in half of the season. Zap2it later reported that he will remain a series regular, and revealed he will appear in exactly seven episodes. Chelsea Kane has been cast in a recurring role as Tara, a rival café owner to Haley and Brooke. Lisa Goldstein will continue on the series as a regular. Jana Kramer will only appear in the first two episodes, due to the actress ' musical commitments. Barbara Alyn Woods will be reprising her role as Deb Lee after taking a break from season six to spend time with her kids. Zap2it later reported that she will return for two episodes. Describing the circumstances around her return, they said she has n't always been the most maternal person, but will prove she can still be "mom '' when the situation demands it.
The CW announced on their official website that Chad Michael Murray will return as Lucas Scott for a guest appearance. Lucas returns to Tree Hill when Haley reaches out to him for help. Murray later revealed he will return for one episode. He will appear in the seventh episode of the season. Murray revealed in an interview his reasons for returning, "The fans have loved this show and rooted for every character throughout its run. I know how important Luke 's return is for our fans and wanted to give them one last ' Lucas Scott ' moment. Luke 's return is for them. '' Former Desperate Housewives actor Richard Burgi, has been cast as Brooke 's father, in a recurring role. Allison Munn and Scott Holroyd will return during season nine as Miss Lauren and David Fletcher, respectively. They will return as a couple, and she will be carrying his child. Devin McGee -- who portrayed Brooke 's attacker and Quentin 's murderer, Xavier Daniels during season six -- will also return during the season. James Lafferty has signed on for one extra episode, which will be the series finale. Bevin Prince will return as Bevin Mirskey in the series finale. Antwon Tanner will also be a part of the final episode.
Mark Schwahn revealed in an interview with Zap2it that they did reach out to Hilarie Burton to return with Murray, "We would have liked to include Hilarie as well but she has a (son) now, and she has a job, and she 's doing well and she just felt like her free time away from work she wanted to spend with her (son), which is a completely plausible, nice answer, '' he said.
Before the series was renewed, Mark Schwahn said that if they decide to air the ending for season eight that will satisfy as a series finale, he could introduce the unaired cliffhangers in the season nine premiere. In regard to her contract renewal, Sophia Bush tweeted, "The writers have GREAT plans! ''. The season will have Brooke and Haley balancing family life with running a busy Karen 's Cafe, while Nathan travels more as an agent. A possible wedding may occur with Mouth and Millie, or Clay and Quinn. Lucas will take Lydia to stay with him after he comes to visit. The series finale will have another time jump and will see the characters lives five years in the future. Zap2it said that fans of Nathan and Haley 's relationship can look forward to "plenty of shared scenes between Lafferty and Bethany Joy Lenz '', despite his reduced role in the season. Nathan will be kidnapped during the season, and Haley and Dan will be searching for him.
According to a promotional video shown at the end of an evening of events -- "An Evening with One Tree Hill ''; the opening moments of the seasons first episode is narrated by Nathan. He speaks over scenes of a burning building whilst viewers also see Dan and Chris Keller seemingly plot a murder -- in addition to this, opening shots include Chase in the back of a police car. Both Clay and Quinn are seen arguing alongside Brooke vandalising a rival cafe. Other scenes shown during the sequence include Julian being beaten up and Haley identifying a body in the morgue. Towards the end of the season, the Burning Boat Festival will return to Tree Hill. It was last seen in the third episode of season one.
Discussing the possibility of the death of one of the characters, Robert Buckley said: "The One Tree Hill family, as we know it, is going to change by season 's end. The people we start the season with (are) not the same group we end it with. '' During the season, Mouth will gain around 60 pounds. Lee Norris has said of the storyline, "He 's undergone a physical transformation... but what is really going to interest the audience is why this transformation happened. '' He also revealed he was "adamant '' about handling the topic with respect, "I did n't want it to be one of the broader comedic things on the show; I wanted it to be an issue that people identify with, '' he said. Regarding Haley 's direction for season nine, Bethany Joy Galeotti said, "Haley 's trying to deal with having Dan around and deciding whether she 's going to let this person back in her life and into her family 's life. And Nathan is away, and that 's taking a huge toll on their relationship. It 's a lot about Haley finding out what her limits are. '' Mark Schwahn has said we 'll see a lot of the strength of Nathan and Haley 's relationship and why they 're destined to be together. Regarding the friendship between Dan and Chris Keller he said, "villains understand villains. '' Chris Kellar will develop a "bromance '' with Chase this season as they begin to spend a lot of time together as he will be working next door to TRIC. James Lafferty believes this is the worst year for Nathan, but revealed that he is happy with where he left the character and the pay - off at the end is worth it.
Sophia Bush revealed Tree Hill High would be seen again before the series ended. The sets for the school were re-built for the final episodes, with Bush describing walking in them as "incredibly emotional ''. Regarding the series finale, Bush said "it 's perfect ''.
The season premiered to 1.7 million viewers, a 0.9 Adults 18 -- 49 rating, 1.2 in Adults 18 -- 34 and a 1.8 rating in The CW 's target of Women 18 -- 34. It gave the network its best numbers in the time - slot since Spring, 2011 and was higher than the average for season eight of the series.
Compared to the early episodes of season eight, the season declined 18 % in the 18 -- 49 demographic. However, it tied as the second - highest rated show on the network (with The Secret Circle).
The "An Evening with One Tree Hill '' event in Wilmington was filmed and will be included on the DVD release. Series stars Sophia Bush, Bethany Joy Lenz, Antwon Tanner and Lee Norris have done a DVD commentary for the series finale. The DVD box - set is currently scheduled for release on April 10, 2012. However, several people who pre-ordered the set received it in late March, before the finale aired, causing the finale to be leaked online including temporarily onto YouTube.
The box - set features over two hours of extra content, including five featurettes, audio commentary, unaired scenes and a gag reel. "Knowing this was to be our last year, we made sure to document it, which made for some excellent behind - the - scenes footage that we 've included here, along with our last, explosive, emotional season of One Tree Hill, '' said Mark Schwahn.
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electron configuration of all elements in the periodic table | Electron configurations of the elements (data page) - wikipedia
This page shows the electron configurations of the neutral gaseous atoms in their ground states. For each atom the subshells are given first in concise form, then with all subshells written out, followed by the number of electrons per shell. Electron configurations of elements beyond hassium (element 108) are predicted.
As an approximate rule, electron configurations are given by the Aufbau principle and the Madelung rule. However there are numerous exceptions; for example the lightest exception is chromium, which would be predicted to have the configuration 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s, written as (Ar) 3d 4s, but whose actual configuration given in the table below is (Ar) 3d 4s.
All sources concur with the data above except in the separately listed instances:
This website is also cited in the CRC Handbook as source of Section 1, subsection Electron Configuration of Neutral Atoms in the Ground State.
Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements ''. In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media. p. 1722. ISBN 1 - 4020 - 3555 - 1.
This book contains predicted electron configurations for the elements 119 -- 172 and 184, based on relativistic Dirac -- Fock calculations by B. Fricke in Fricke, B. (1975). Dunitz, J.D., ed. "Superheavy elements a prediction of their chemical and physical properties ''. Structure and Bonding. Berlin: Springer - Verlag. 21: 89 -- 144. doi: 10.1007 / BFb0116496.
Predicted electron configurations for element 173 based on relativistic Dirac -- Fock calculations by B. Fricke Fricke, Burkhard (1977). "Dirac - Fock - Slater calculations for the elements Z = 100, fermium, to Z = 173 '' (PDF). Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. 19: 83 -- 192. Bibcode: 1977ADNDT... 19... 83F. doi: 10.1016 / 0092 - 640X (77) 90010 - 9. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
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im not a robot aji 3 real name | I 'm not a robot - wikipedia
I 'm Not a Robot (Hangul: 로봇 이 아니야; RR: Robosi Aniya) is a South Korean television series starring Yoo Seung - ho, Chae Soo - bin and Um Ki - joon. It is written by Kim Sun - mi and directed by Jung Dae - yoon. Producing the series for MBC is May Queen Pictures. It aired on MBC from December 6, 2017 to January 25, 2018 on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21: 55 (KST) for 32 episodes.
The series was a commercial failure only averaging 3.22 % in audience share, and received the lowest viewership ratings in its time - slot throughout its run.
Kim Min - kyu (Yoo Seung - ho) lives an isolated life due to a severe allergy to other people. He develops extreme rashes that rapidly spread throughout his body once he makes any form of skin contact. Jo Ji - ah (Chae Soo - bin) is a woman who is trying to make it in life by creating her own businesses. However, after an encounter with Min - kyu, she ends up pretending to be a robot in place of the supposed Aji 3 robot. The Aji 3 robot was developed by Ji - ah 's ex-boyfriend, professor Hong Baek - kyun (Um Ki - joon) and his team. The robot was meant to be tested by genius Min - kyu, however an accident caused the robot 's battery to malfunction. As Baek - kyun modeled the robot after Ji - ah, the team ends up recruiting her to take the place of Aji 3.
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who owns eddie v's in la jolla | Eddie V 's Prime seafood - wikipedia
Eddie V 's Prime Seafood is an American seafood and steak restaurant chain.
The first Eddie V 's was opened in Austin, Texas in 2000 by Guy Villavaso and Larry Foles. In 2011, the brand was sold for $59 million cash to Darden Restaurants, Inc. and became a part of Darden 's Specialty Restaurant Group.
As of October 2017, there are a total of 21 Eddie V 's restaurants:
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who is running for us senator in texas | United States Senate Election in Texas, 2018 - wikipedia
Ted Cruz Republican
The 2018 United States Senate election in Texas will be held on November 6, 2018, along with other elections to the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives in additional states. Democratic candidate Beto O'Rourke is running against Incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Ted Cruz, who is running for re-election to a second term. The primary for both parties were held on March 6, 2018, making it the first primary of the 2018 season. As Cruz and O'Rourke both won majorities in their primaries, they did not participate in the May 22 runoff primary that was held for some nominations in Texas.
Hypothetical polling
Shortly after the primaries concluded, Cruz 's campaign released an ad mocking O'Rourke's use of the nickname "Beto '' (his legal name is Robert Francis O'Rourke). Cruz was criticized as a hypocrite, as his legal name is Rafael Edward Cruz.
Hypothetical polling
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where does winston moved to in still game | List of Still Game episodes - wikipedia
The following is an episode list for Still Game. The first series began on September 6, 2002 and its eighth series started on BBC One on March 8, 2018.
In the first three series, the episode titles were all Scots words that were related to the episode. This was changed to standard English titles for Series 4, so that the national audiences could understand the titles.
Jack 's life is increasingly miserable due to anti-social neighbours. He is keen to move but ca n't find a house until the man across the landing from his best friend Victor dies. Meanwhile Jack and Victor 's friend Winston is teaching his grandson how to fight for a boxing match coming up.
Victor is awaiting a visit from his son John who now lives in Johannesburg. But when John leaves a message on Victor 's answering machine, a crucial part of the message is inaudible due to background noise. Jack and Victor set out to discover what it says with help from their friend Shug who has an acute sense of hearing. Meanwhile, Winston gets injured in a fight with Peggy at the butchers over who gets the gigot chops.
The residents of Craiglang are experiencing one of the coldest winters in years when Winston offers a solution - free electricity by tampering with the meter. Gradually a number of locals accept Winston 's help but Victor takes the moral high ground and refuses to participate.
In the original, incorrect BBC broadcast, this episode ran second.
Jack asks Barbara, the woman from the charity shop, to go out with him leaving Victor feeling lonely and resentful of his friend 's new romance. Meanwhile, Winston gets barred from The Clansman and goes in search of other ways to spend his time.
This episode was broadcast third in the original run of the show.
It 's the wedding of the year and both Jack and Victor still have n't received an invite - they decide to do something about it. Meanwhile, it is thought that Wullie MacIntosh has died and Winston plans to rummage through his house to find something that will assure him an invite.
This episode ran last in the original broadcast.
Jack and Victor are irritated by Tam 's success at entering and winning competitions and embark on an attempt of their own, involving composing a slogan for scones. Their attempts are futile, and of course, hilarious. Meanwhile, Winston is having problems with the Social Security office who have stopped his benefits. Isa 's estranged husband, Harry, also returns after a six year absence.
Notes: This episode ran fifth in the original broadcast.
Early series of the show featured short sound clips whenever an establishing shot of Osprey Heights (the building Jack, Victor, Winston, Tam, and Isa live in) occurred. These included Jack and Victor sighing contentedly and one of the two saying "Is that you? '' with the other replying "Oh, aye, that 's me. '' Arguably the most common was one where Jack and Victor hummed a song ("Hurdy gurdy gurdy, in the windae boxes ''). These decreased in frequency after the first couple of series, and were discontinued altogether by the fourth series.
The residents of Craiglang are being terrorised by the local neds, but the pensioners have had enough and decide to make their own haven they can escape to. Meanwhile, Jack and Victor check on old Ronnie, who has been recently committed to a sanatorium after being found dancing in George Square in his underwear.
Jack and Victor are concerned for old friend Bert Findley, who is deeply depressed following the death of his wife. Winston is having his own troubles with a less than sympathetic home help.
Notes: Winston 's faked leg injury is juxtaposed in the Series 3 episode "Aff, '' where his former smoking habit leads him to need a leg amputation. After the operation, Winston has a wooden leg, and always walks with a real limp.
Jack and Victor are amazed at the dynamic vitality of their friend Stuart, who has a newfound zest for life after being prescribed a new "yankee '' wonder drug and they plan a strategy to obtain a supply for themselves. Meanwhile, both Tam and Winston try to impress the new librarian, Frances.
Notes: This episode establishes that Tam has a grandson, named Ryan, but is unmarried. In a later episode, it is stated that Tam had a wife who left him because he cheated on her.
Victor buys a new car hoping it will give him the freedom he always wanted, but it ends up that he is the one being taken for a ride. Meanwhile, Winston tries his hardest to encourage Tam not to be tight - fisted.
Notes: This episode implies that for unknown reasons, Jack is unable to drive. In all scenes, Victor is shown driving, and in fact Victor is the only one of the two who has any interest in the car. Jack does, however, drive in "All the Best, '' from the fifth series of the show. Jack is also seen driving in Chewin the fat.
A money lender appears in Craiglang and soon finds customers. Isa thinks Jack and Victor have borrowed money when she notices they have more than usual, when in fact they are spending some extra money they had saved. Tam and Winston are enjoying a round of golf at Craiglang golf course until they are interrupted by the neds. Their attempts to solve the problem only end in disaster.
Jack and Victor are left in charge of Navid 's shop as Navid is in India attending a funeral. Winston sees an opportunity to make some extra cash and decides to set up a take - away hot food sideline from the back of the shop while at the same time getting on the wrong side of a snack van vendor whom Winston has history with.
Jack and Victor celebrate their momentous sixtieth anniversary as best pals and decide to have a day out when they encounter a face from the past.
Craiglang is suspicious when Pete, the local alcoholic tramp, tells everyone he has secured a very important job at the council 's new "facility '', Jack and Victor decide to follow him to find the truth of the rumours. Meanwhile Navid, Winston and Shug are on a hunt for a bin - raiding fox.
Jack is invited to visit his daughter, Fiona who lives in Canada. Asked to come along, Victor initially refuses, but in the end goes with his friend on the holiday. Meanwhile, Winston ends up having to pretend to be Isa 's "Pumpkin '' to see off her estranged husband Harry.
Jack and Victor arrive in Canada to visit Fiona. Just like in Scotland, the two get up to more mischief than the usual pensioners. Back home, Winston tries to ignore Isa 's gossip while still enjoying her home cooking as he continues seeing her even though Harry has left.
Jack and Victor are back in Craiglang and on the hunt for more adventures - in this case enrolling in a night class for a first - aid course at the University. When they realise how cheap the alcohol is in the University, they decide to skip classes and engage in antics with students young enough to be their grandchildren, unaware of the implications of their actions. They make a team with Winston and enter into a quiz Boabby is throwing at the Clansman in order to make the pub more popular, but when a pregnant woman goes into labour, Jack & Victor are put forward to help.
Jack and Victor enlist the help of their friends and set about winning back disabled Joe 's electric scooter from Tam who won it in a poker game. Shug is arrested on suspicion of being a peeping - tom and Lady Luck shines on Winston as his long - shot accumulator bet at the bookie 's returns a big win - or does it?
Jack and Victor need a favour from an old friend, Big Innes, who has moved away from Craiglang to a remote area. The neds are out of control and Big Innes is just the man to sort them out! However, it is emphasised to everybody that Innes must not be given Midori liqueur under any circumstances. Winston joins the staff of "Food - Fare '' and deals with workplace bullying in his own unique way.
Long time recluse, Archie, has no option but to leave his home which is earmarked for demolition. Oblivious to world events and bewildered by all the changes over the decades, he re-enters society under the care of Jack and Victor. Winston inquires about a new, large screen, wall - mounted television in the High Street, but when he sees the price makes plans to build his own.
Isa is frantic with worry after a psychic in The Clansman tells her she is going to be run over by a silver car. Will she meet her date with destiny? Winston is told by doctors his leg will need to be amputated, a consequence of years of heavy smoking. He takes solace in the news that he will qualify for extra money in invalidity benefits. On seeing Winston 's leg, Jack throws his pipe in a bin pledging never to smoke again, while Victor fakes illness in a bid to get more attention from his absent son John.
Jack and Victor 's friend, Wullie, is dating a younger woman. Rumours abound in Craiglang that his mistress is trying to bump him off. Meanwhile Winston struggles with his new leg and a young hooligan is conning pensioners out of money.
Jack and Victor take up the job of the local hospital 's radio DJs as stand - ins for Tam who is away on holiday and build up quite a fanbase in the process. Navid also ends up in hospital with a very personal problem.
Jack and Victor find themselves on a terrifying bus journey when the driver, Davie, suffers a funny turn. Meanwhile Tam decides to tag along while Navid goes to get stock, and Boaby decides to take time off work to go cycling, leaving The Clansman under control of a temporary barman. Winston takes advantage of Boaby 's absence by pretending to be the real owner of The Clansman.
Tam decides to marry Frances, his sweetheart from the second series. As always in Craiglang, things never go to plan. Meanwhile Navid 's shop is part of a big business take - over.
Jack has got Sky Digital TV, Victor has n't, they solve this problem by arranging for Shug to put a "hatch '' put in between their rooms so that they can both watch. But things go wrong when Isa suspects they are gay. Meanwhile, Winston has to look after his obnoxious seventeen - year old grandson Thomas while his parents go away on holiday.
Jack, Victor and Winston fear they may have fathered a child in their twenties, but they are unsure who it may be. The child in question is also part of the plan to demolish The Clansman.
Jack and Victor fear for their usual Christmas dinner arrangement after they upset Isa and Winston gets to grips with his turkey. Meanwhile Frances gives Tam a ton of Christmas cards for him to deliver.
Jack and Victor learn about free whisky tasting sessions and win a visit to a distillery. Winston is in no mood to welcome the new bookie to Craiglang, being certain that it 's his old nemesis, Stevie.
The pensioners put on their decorator 's overalls to redesign Isa 's flat. In their usual style, the two have trouble adjusting to the job at hand. Meanwhile Tam discovers a video featuring Bobby and some scantily clad women.
Jack and Victor sail in celebration of Victor 's 75th birthday. The two decide, along with Winston, to take a sail down the local river. Unfortunately, a run - in with the local neds means things wo n't go smoothly.
Boaby the Barman has a chance to be on television. Unbeknownst to him at first, the programme is Blighty 's Hardest Boozers. Meanwhile, Navid goes through some changes when he dyes his hair.
A sad farewell to Winston as he leaves Craiglang for a new life in the seaside resort of Finport. Meanwhile Jack and Victor are chauffeurs for the day.
Frances 's sister, Molly, comes to visit and makes a huge impression on Tam who is in awe of his sister - in - law 's tight - fistedness. Meanwhile, Jack and Victor arrange to visit Winston in Finport but when they arrive, they find that all is not well.
Similar to the previous stage play (see History) Jack, Victor and Winston (also Isa in this version) are stuck in the Osprey Heights lift on their way to a Hogmanay party, they reminisce about Hogmanay 1975 (featuring flashbacks).
Craiglang is in the grip of a heatwave. Jack and Victor have found the perfect place to relax in the park on the ultimate bench. Unfortunately, Tam and Winston have the same idea. Isa receives bad news about her estranged husband Harry.
Jack and Victor get a taste of how the other half live when they pose as two wealthy socialites to impress a couple of widows. But the gang from Craiglang are not happy at missing out.
After an accident at the local sub station involving a runaway lorry, Craiglang is plunged into darkness. After a crime wave occurs, the vulnerable pensioners start taking radical measures to protect themselves from the night crawlers.
When a new pizza shop opens in Craiglang, Boaby the barman and Stevie the Bookie battle it out for the affection of the new pizza girl. Jack and Victor are hell bent on getting a free pizza now that their old pal Winston works there.
Navid 's business is suffering at the hands of the new corporate giant Hyperdales and his regular customers ' loyalty is being put to the test. Meanwhile, an electric shock causes Tam to go through some bizarre changes in behaviour. Eventually, Navid cracks and tries to burn down Hyperdales causing him, Jack, Victor, Winston and Tam 's to be locked in for the night.
Jack and Victor discover Pete the Jakey was the inventor of the famous Beefy Bake and seek recompense on his behalf. Tam and Frances are having marital problems. Who can offer counsel, Navid? Trivia: In Pete 's trial it is argued that Pete invented the Beefy Bake on Sunday, September 15th 1979. However, this was actually a Saturday.
Tam and Frances enjoy fame and fortune with their new addition, but it means babysitting stints for Jack and Victor which is proving a bit of a strain. As both wind up in hospital and Jack is diagnosed with a life - threatening condition, could this be the end for the duo?
Jack and Victor join the choir. Winston offers to cover for the lollipop man while he 's away after learning that the job can be very rewarding during Christmas. Boaby gets a new puggy for The Clansman that boasts a jackpot of £ 1000. Tam enlists the help of Shug and Eric to intercept the slot machine 's pay - out ratio but soon, they are joined by Jack and Victor who want their slice of the action.
Jack, Victor, Winston and Tam decide to spend their Hogmanay in a cottage on the remote island of Tighnahulish. Their celebrations are short - lived though when Jack and Victor manage to antagonise the island 's few residents. Meanwhile, in Craiglang, Navid 's wife Meena has gone on holiday to India, leaving Navid to enjoy a brief taste of single life.
When Jack is faced with the dilemma of attending his daughter 's vow renewal in Canada, he decides to embrace new technology - Boaby the barman 's tablet - in an attempt to be there from the comfort of The Clansman. However, Victor 's promise to be a supportive wing man backfires while Isa tries her best to hold her tongue. Meanwhile Winston needs a new leg thanks to an incident at the canal, Isa 's mushroom soup needs a new recipe, Navid has money in mind at the live shows, while Tam and Boaby face a battle of wills against each other.
Jack and Victor win tickets to see River City being filmed and Isa Turns a new Career in becoming an Extra.
On 12 May 2016, Ford and Greg announced a new series of Still Game was in the works. Filming of the long - awaited seventh series commenced on 4 July 2016, with the series airing in late 2016 on BBC One nationwide. All of the original main cast reprised their roles. Recurring character Pete "The Jakey '' McCormack, played by Jake D'Arcy, who died in May 2015, did not return; and the character 's death was announced in the second episode, "The Undrinkables. ''
Craiglang 's residents ca n't resist the temptation of the Futuroo catalogue and its innovations to "make life that wee bit easier ''. However, it quickly becomes apparent these gadgets do anything but make life easier. Winston receives a registered letter which sees him prepare for the arrival of his brother, Walter. As Jack and Victor spar over whose gadget is best, there 's a spot of sibling rivalry between Winston and Walter.
Jack and Victor receive the sad news that dear old friend, Pete the Jakey, has died. Pete may have been homeless, but he held a special place in the heart of Craiglang 's community. However, as everyone gathers at the Clansman after Pete 's funeral, tight - fisted Tam still ca n't find it in himself to contribute to the kitty. Beyond the grave, Pete leaves his legacy with Boaby and Winston through his pal, Methadone Mick.
Charity begins at home, as Jack and Victor offer a helping hand to Methadone Mick; a £ 4,000 parking fine from the past comes back to haunt Winston, and Boaby 's award glory goes awry when he has to decide who to take to the City Chambers when he receives his Citizen Civic Medal.
Affairs of the heart stir up emotions as when Jack and Victor offer unconventional marriage guidance to Fergie and his wife Sinead, their advice proves to be less than helpful. Meanwhile, Navid and Boaby swap jobs to prove who really has it the hardest, after Boaby struggles to see bargains in Navid 's shop when him and Meena have a special rollback day to celebrate forty years of being in business.
Jack and Victor decide to become dog sitters and enlist the help of computer - savvy Isa to register them on the "Pets Home From Home '' website. Meanwhile Isa limbers up for the Craiglang Bake Off and locks whisks with local cake rival, Peggy. Utterly determined to beat the reigning baking champion, Isa strong - arms her pals into becoming reluctant cake - tasting guinea pigs.
Emotions run high as Jack, Victor and the Osprey Heights residents gather to watch the demolition of a Craiglang tower block, Tam drags Winston into a new moneymaking scheme, and Jack and Victor are enticed by Mrs. Fletcher, the beguiling manager of the local care home.
The eighth series of Still Game aired from March 8 to April 12, 2018, in Wales it aired on BBC2 only
Winston appeals to his friends for help as asbestos forces him out of his flat. Isa 's birthday is on the horizon and she 's on a mission to find out who 's throwing her a surprise party. Boabby turfs the regulars out of the Clansman, so they hide in the flat upstairs, stealing booze through a hole cut in the floor, and fishing the alcohol with wires and tack.
Death comes calling to Craiglang when a new undertaker arrives and - for at least one resident - it 's time to meet their maker. As new undertaker I.D Sheathing arrives in Craiglang, it 's not long before Isa begins to tell everybody all about him, involving a story about attending the funeral of a young girl, and Sheathing patting a man on the shoulder, and the man dying a week later; Methadone Mick backs her up, with similar stories of his fellow homeless dying due to this funeral director. But is Sheathing really who they believe him to be? Eric falsely claims to have pumped Gina Lollobrigida in Rome in 1958. He dies at the puggy after being touched by Sheathing, although it is later established that Eric died of heart failure, having been ill for some time.
Guest Starring: Bruce Morton and Fiona Knowles
It 's a must - win match which sees Jack, Victor and the rest of the Craiglang gang in sporting spirit as they take part in a walking football tournament, where the prize is a new community centre astroturf, after Boabby suffers a heart attack and has to have eighteen stents put in. Methadone Mick gets a job as the football mascot but ca n't help show that the Craiglang team are who he likes best, even going so far as to injure the opposition.
Jack and Victor pack their bags for a night away that they 'll never forget - even if they want to, as they discover Navid and Meena own a caravan. They go away for the night, with Winston in tow, but almost from the beginning, everything appears to go wrong, including Victor eating an entire jam roly - poly, Winston leaving something unholy in the caravan 's toilet, and Jack forgetting the alcohol, forcing Winston to go into town to get alcohol and pizza for them - but he promptly spends all the money in the pub on himself! In amongst laughing about old times, including romantic encounters, can they keep the caravan tidy for Navid and Meena?
The residents become suspicious of Tam 's motives, when he befriends an elderly woman who has a lot of money. Meanwhile, at the Butchers, Jack & Victor, and half of Craiglang are trying to get their hands on the last steak pie in the shop.
Isa 's pulse is set racing when her long - lost friend, retired Hollywood stuntman Callum Coburn, returns to Craiglang. Elsewhere, Boabby has decided to give driving lessons a go, but it turns out driving a car is harder than he thinks. Methadone Mick starts a course over the Internet.
The ninth series will be broadcast on BBC One in late 2018. This will be the final series, as Still Game will be retired thereafter. Filming on the 9th Series will begin in August and six episodes will be produced.
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who sings don't get around much anymore | Do n't Get Around Much Anymore - wikipedia
"Do n't Get Around Much Anymore '' is a jazz standard with music by Duke Ellington and lyrics by Bob Russell. The tune was originally called "Never No Lament '' and was first recorded by Ellington in 1940 as a big - band instrumental. Russell 's lyrics and the new title were added in 1942.
Two different recordings of "Do n't Get Around Much Anymore '', one by The Ink Spots and the other by Ellington 's own band, reached # 1 on the R&B chart in the US in 1943. Both were top - ten pop records, along with a version by Glen Gray. The Duke Ellington version reached # 8 on the pop chart.
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which of the following best describes the byzantine economy | Byzantine economy - wikipedia
The Byzantine economy was among the most robust economies in the Mediterranean for many centuries. Constantinople was a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa. Some scholars argue that, up until the arrival of the Arabs in the 7th century, the Eastern Roman Empire had the most powerful economy in the world. The Arab conquests, however, would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of decline and stagnation. Constantine V 's reforms (c. 765) marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204. From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury, and the travelers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital. All this changed with the arrival of the Fourth Crusade, which was an economic catastrophe. The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces.
One of the economic foundations of the empire was trade. The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage. Constantinople remained the single most important commercial centre of Europe for much of the Medieval era, which it held until the Republic of Venice slowly began to overtake Byzantine merchants in trade; first through tax exemption under the Komnenoi, then under the Latin Empire.
The Eastern Roman economy suffered less from the Barbarian raids that plagued the Western Roman Empire. Under Diocletian 's reign, the Eastern Roman Empire 's annual revenue was at 9,400,000 solidi, out of a total of 18,000,000 solidi for the entire Roman Empire. These estimates can be compared to the AD 150 annual revenue of 14,500,000 solidi and the AD 215 of 22,000,000 solidi. By the end of Marcian 's reign, the annual revenue for the Eastern empire was 7,800,000 solidi, thus allowing him to amass about 100,000 pounds of gold or 7,200,000 solidi for the imperial treasury. Warren Treadgold estimates that during the period from Diocletian to Marcian, the Eastern Empire 's population and agriculture declined a bit, but not much. Actually, the few preserved figures show that the largest eastern cities grew somewhat between the 3rd and 5th centuries. By Marcian 's reign the Eastern Empire 's difficulties seem to have been easing, and the population had probably begun growing for the first time in centuries.
The wealth of Constantinople can be seen by how Justin I used 3,700 pounds of gold just for celebrating his own consulship. By the end of his reign, Anastasius I had managed to collect for the treasury an amount of 23,000,000 solidi or 320,000 pounds of gold. At the start of Justinian I 's reign, the Emperor had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 from Anastasius I and Justin I. Before Justinian I 's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 solidi, which further increased after his reconquests in 550. Nevertheless, Justinian I had little money left towards the end of his reign partly because of the Justinian Plague, and the Roman -- Persian Wars (Justinian spent large amounts of money in annual subsidies to the Sassanian Empire), which both harmed the economy. In addition to these expenses, the rebuilding of Hagia Sophia cost 20,000 pounds of gold. Subsidies to enemy states were also paid by Justinian 's successors: Justin II was forced to pay 80,000 silver coins to the Avars for peace; his wife Sophia paid 45,000 solidi to Khosrau I in return for a year 's truce, and then Tiberius II Constantine gave away 7,200 pounds of gold each year for four years. Since Emperor Heraclius changed the empire 's official language from Latin to Greek in around 620, the solidus (plural: solidi) would thereafter be known by its Greek name, the nomisma (plural: nomismata).
The Byzantine - Arab Wars reduced the territory of the Empire to a third in the 7th century and the economy slumped; in 780 the Byzantine Empire 's revenues were reduced to only 1,800,000 nomismata. From the 8th century onward the Empire 's economy improved dramatically. This was a blessing for Byzantium in more than one way; the economy, the administration of gold coinage and the farming of the Anatolian peninsula served to meet the military 's constant demands. Since Byzantium was in a constant state of warfare with her neighbours (even if only by raiding) the military required weapons to be manufactured by the bigger cities (such as Thessaloniki) whilst the smaller towns were subject to grain, wine and even biscuit requisitions by Imperial officers. Even though the soldiers ' pay was minimal, large armies were a considerable strain on Byzantium. As gold coins were spent on soldiers to serve in the army, these would in time spend their money acquiring their own goods and much revenue would return to the state in the form of taxation. As a result, the Byzantine economy was self - sufficient, allowing it to thrive in the Dark Ages. The success of the Byzantine army was in no small part due to the success of her economy.
Around 775, the land and head taxes yielded an estimated 1,600,000 nomismata annually for the empire. Commerce during this period slumped, therefore only contributing 200,000 nomismata annually. The expenditures of the period were quite large when compared to the annual revenues. Approximately 600,000 nomismata went to the payroll of the army annually while other military costs took another 600,000 nomismata annually. Supporting the Byzantine bureaucracy needed 400,000 nomismata. Also, imperial largess cost the treasury 100,000 nomismata every year. All of these expenses meant that the Byzantine government had only about 100,000 nomismata in surplus revenue each year for treaties, bribes, or gifts.
Expenses again soared, when a massive Muslim army invaded the empire in 806, forcing Nikephoros I to pay a ransom of 50,000 gold coins and a yearly tribute of 30,000 gold coins. In order to impress the Caliph of Baghdad, Theophilos distributed 36,000 gold coins to the citizens of Baghdad, and in 838, he was forced to pay 100,000 gold dinars to the Caliph. The Byzantine economic recovery in the early 9th century can be seen by the fact that Emperor Theophilos was able to leave 7,000,000 nomismata in the imperial treasury for his successor in 842. After Theophilos ' death his wife Theodora II continued his successful policies and even increased the imperial reserves to 7,848,000 nomismata.
Around 850, the land and head taxes yielded an estimated 2,900,000 nomismata annually for the empire. Commerce during this period increased dramatically, therefore contributing 400,000 nomismata annually. The expenditures of the period were large, but manageable by the treasury. Approximately 1,400,000 nomismata went to the payroll of the army annually while other military costs took another 800,000 nomismata annually. Supporting the Byzantine bureaucracy needed 500,000 nomismata. Also, imperial largess cost the treasury 100,000 nomismata every year. All of these expenses meant that the Byzantine government had about 500,000 nomismata in surplus revenue each year, much more than in the 8th century.
Unfortunately under their son Michael III the reserves dwindled to about 100,000 nomismata. However, under Basil I 's prudent economic policies, the state quickly raised 4,300,000 nomismata, far more even than the empire 's annual revenue of 3,300,000 nomismata.
From the 10th century, however, until the end of the twelfth, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of wealth and luxury. Constantine V 's reforms (c. 765) marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204. The travelers who visited its capital were impressed by the wealth accumulated in Constantinople; riches that also served the state 's diplomatic purposes as a means of propaganda, and a way to impress foreigners as well its own citizens. When Liutprand of Cremona was sent as an ambassador to the Byzantine capital in the 940s, he was overwhelmed by the imperial residence, the luxurious meals, and acrobatic entertainment.
Sviatoslav I was paid 15,000 pounds of gold by Nikephoros II to invade Bulgaria in 968. By the time of Basil II 's death in 1025, the annual income had increased to 5,900,000 nomismata, which allowed him to amass a large surplus of 14,400,000 nomismata (200,000 pounds of gold) in the treasury for his successor.
Nevertheless, the Byzantine economy went into a long decline until the Comnenian Dynasty was able to revive the economy. In the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert, Alp Arslan at first suggested to Emperor Romanos IV a ransom of 10,000,000 gold coins, but later reduced it to 1,500,000 gold coins with a further 360,000 gold coins annually.
In exchange for an alliance, Alexios I sent 360,000 gold coins to Emperor Henry IV. The wealth of the empire under the Comnenians can be seen by how Emperor Manuel I was able to ransom some Latin prisoners from the Muslims for 100,000 dinars, then 150,000 dinars for Bohemond III in 1165, 120,000 dinars for Raynald of Châtillon, and 150,000 dinars for Baldwin of Ibelin in 1180. When Manuel became emperor he ordered 2 gold coins to be given to every householder in Constantinople and 200 pounds of gold (including 200 silver coins annually) to be given to the Eastern Orthodox Church. When his niece Theodora married King Baldwin III of Jerusalem in 1157, Manuel gave her a dowry of 100,000 gold coins, 10,000 gold coins for marriage expenses, and presents (jewels and silk garments) which were worth 14,000 gold coins total. The expense of Manuel 's involvement in Italy must have cost the treasury a great deal (probably more than 2,160,000 hyperpyra or 30,000 pounds of gold). Then he also promised to pay 5,000 pounds of gold to the Pope and the Curia. During his reign, Manuel bought a very rich jewel (for 62,000 silver marks) which was used during the coronation of the Latin Emperor Baldwin I. The main source of the state 's wealth in the 12th century was the kommerkion, a customs duty levied at Constantinople on all imports and exports, which was stated to have collected 20,000 hyperpyra each day. This, combined with other sources of income, meant the empire 's annual revenue was at 5,600,000 hyperpyra in 1150. Under the Komnenian emperors, many exemptions of trade duties were given to the Italian traders, which meant the loss of about 50,000 hyperpyra annually. A Venetian embassy visited Constantinople in 1184 and an agreement was reached that compensation of 1,500 pounds of gold (or 108,000 hyperpyra) would be paid for the losses incurred in 1171. By the end of Manuel I 's reign the amount of money used to maintain the Komnenian imperial family is said to be able to maintain an army of 100,000 men.
After the demise of the Komnenoi, the Byzantine economy declined under the impact of several factors: the dismemberment of the Empire after 1204, the successive territorial losses to the Turks (although the strong economic interaction of Byzantine territories with those lost by the Empire continued), and the Italian expansion in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. When Isaac II Angelos became Emperor in 1185, a mob broke into the palace and carried off 1,200 pounds of gold, 3,000 pounds of silver, and 20,000 pounds of bronze coins. In 1195, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI forced Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos to pay him a tribute of 1,000 pounds of gold (originally 5,000 pounds of gold) and in 1204 Alexios III took 1,000 pounds of gold (or 72,000 hyperpyra) when he fled Constantinople. The presence of the crusading army not only culminated in a violent sack that dispersed and destroyed the accumulated wealth, and culture of centuries, but was accompanied by a series of fires that ravaged the northern and central sections of the city resulting in a steady exodus of the city 's residents to the Greek centers of government in exile. The sack of Constantinople by Latin crusaders in 1204 was an economic catastrophe. Due to the financial crisis, the state could only pay 100,000 silver marks (65,000 pounds of pure silver) out of 200,000 silver marks (equivalent to 800,000 hyperpyra) to the Crusaders in 1204. The official tally of plunder from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks, the equivalent of about 3,600,000 hyperpyra or 50,000 pounds of gold. The impoverished Latin emperors melted down statues for coin, while the Venetians exported their declining profits, along with choice relics and architecture spolia for their churches. In 1237, Latin Emperor Baldwin II pawned the Crown of Thorns to a Venetian merchant for 13,134 gold coins.
By the time the Palaiologoi took power, Italian merchants had come to dominate the trade by sea whilst Turkic incursions prevented any success from trade across roads. Michael VIII Palaiologos strove to restore the capital 's greatness, but the resources of the empire were inadequate. In 1282, Michael VIII was forced to drain the treasury to pay the enormous bribe of 60,000 hyperpyra to King Peter III of Aragon to invade the Kingdom of Sicily. Constantinople became once more, as in the seventh and eighth centuries, a ruralized network of scattered nuclei; in the final decades before the fall, the population numbered 70,000 people. Gradually, the state also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins. By 1303, the empire 's annual revenue dropped to less than 1,800,000 hyperpyra, under Andronikos II Palaiologos. In 1321, only with extreme effort was Andonikos II able to raise revenues to 1,000,000 hyperpyra.
The Byzantine economy had declined so much that by 1343, Empress Anna of Savoy had to pawn the Byzantine crown jewels for 30,000 Venetian ducats, which was the equivalent of 60,000 hyperpyra. In 1348, Constantinople had an annual revenue of 30,000 hyperpyra while across the Golden Horn in the Genoese colony of Galata, the annual revenue was 200,000 hyperpyra. When Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos attempted to rebuild the Byzantine navy, he was only able to raise an inadequate 50,000 hyperpyra. The only success during this period was when the Republic of Genoa agreed to pay a war indemnity of 100,000 hyperpyra in 1349. When Emperor John V Palaiologos was captured by Ivan Alexander in 1366, he was forced to pay a ransom of 180,000 florins. In 1370, the empire owed Venice, 25,663 hyperpyra (of which only 4,500 hyperpyra had so far been paid) for damage done to Venetian property. In February 1424, Manuel II Palaiologos signed an unfavorable peace treaty with the Ottoman Turks, whereby the Byzantine Empire was forced to pay 300,000 silver coins to the Sultan on annual basis. In 1453, the economy of the Genoan quarter in Constantinople had a revenue 7 times greater than that of the whole Empire -- not even a shadow of its former self. Emperor Constantine XI owed Venice 17,163 hyperpyra when he died in 1453.
The exact amount of annual income the Byzantine government received, is a matter of considerable debate, due to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. The following table contains approximate estimates.
The state retained the monopoly of issuing coinage, and had the power to intervene in other important sectors of the economy. It exercised formal control over interest rates, and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations in Constantinople, in which the state has a special interest (e.g. the sale of silk) or whose members exercised a profession that was of importance for trade. The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital and to keep down the price of cereals. For this reason, the empire strictly controlled both the internal circulation of commodities, and the international trade (certainly in intent; to a considerable degree also in practice). Additionally, the state often collected part of the surplus in the form of tax, and put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials of the army, or in the form of investment in public works, buildings, or works of art.
Coinage was the basic form of money in Byzantium, although credit existed: archival documents indicate that both banking and bankers were not as primitive as has sometimes been implied. The Byzantine Empire was capable of making a durable monetary system function for more than a thousand years, from Constantine I to 1453, because of its relative flexibility. Money was both product and instrument of a complex and developed financial and fiscal organization that contributed to the economic integration of its territory.
The first features of the administrative organization of monetary production were first established by Diocletian and Constantine, and were still in existence at the beginning of the 7th century. During Byzantine history, supervision of the mints belonged to the Emperor; thus the government controlled, to a certain degree, the money supply. Nevertheless, the Emperor and his government were not always capable of conducting a monetary policy in the modern meaning of the term.
Ever since the creation of the Byzantine monetary system by Constantine in 312, its pivot had been golden solidus, a coinage whose nominal value was equal to its intrinsic value, as is proven by the Theodosian Code. Solidus became a highly priced and stable means of storing and transferring values Novel 16 of Valentinian III punished with death anyone who dared "refuse or reduce a gold solidus of good weight. '' Weight and fineness of the coinage were joined by another element: the authenticity of the stamp, which served to guarantee the other two. Alongside this "real '' - value gold coinage, and a slightly overvalued silver coinage, there was also a bronze coinage of a fiduciary nature that made up the second specific feature of the monetary system. At the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries, money underwent a profound transformation, followed by a crisis; the denomination affected all metals at different dates, and according to different modalities. The reform of Alexios I Komnenos put an end to this crisis by restoring a gold coinage of high fineness, the hyperpyron, and by creating a new system destined to endure for about two centuries.
In 1304 the introduction of the basilikon, a pure silver coinage modeled on the Venetian ducat marked the abandonment of Komnenian structures under the influence of western models. The system that began in 1367 was constructed around the stavraton, a heavy silver, equivalent to twice the weight of fine metal of the last hyperpyra. By the end of the 12th century, especially from 1204 on, the political fragmentation of the empire resulted in the creation of coinages that were either "national '' (e.g. in Trebizond in 1222, in Bulgaria in 1218, and in Serbia in 1228), colonial or feudal. Venetian coins soon penetrated the monetary circulation in Byzantium. This situation stands in contrast with the monopoly that Byzantine currency had enjoyed until the 12th century, within its own frontiers, and through its diffusion in the lands beyond -- a measure of its political and economic influence.
One of the economic foundations of the empire was trade. Constantinople was located on important east - west and north - south trade routes. Trebizond was an important port in the eastern trade. The exact routes varied over the years with wars and the political situation. Imports and exports were uniformly taxed at ten percent.
Grain and silk were two of the most important commodities for the empire. The Arab invasion of Egypt and Syria harmed the Byzantium 's trade, and affected the provisioning of the capital with grain. As the population increased in the 9th and 10th centuries, the demand for grain also increased. There was a functioning market for grain in Constantinople, but it was not entirely self - regulating: the state could play a role in the availability of grain, and the formation of prices.
Silk was used by the state both as a means of payment, and of diplomacy. Raw silk was bought from China and made up into fine brocades and cloth - of - gold that commanded high prices through the world. Later, silk worms were smuggled into the empire and the overland silk trade became less important. After Justinian I the manufacturing and sale of silk had become an imperial monopoly, only processed in imperial factories, and sold to authorized buyers. The raw silk merchants could buy the raw silk from outside Constantinople but did not themselves have the authority to travel outside the city to get it -- possibly in order not to jeopardize the activities of the provincial merchants selling the silk.
The other commodities that were traded, in Constantinople and elsewhere, were numerous: oil, wine, salt, fish, meat, vegetables, other alimentary products, timber and wax. Ceramics, linen, and woven cloth were also items of trade. Luxury items, such as silks, perfumes and spices were also important. Trade in slaves is attested, both on behalf of the state, and, possibly, by private individuals. International trade was practiced not only in Constantinople, which was until the late 12th century an important center of the eastern luxury trade, but also in other cities that functioned as centers of inter-regional and international trade, such as Thessaloniki and Trebizond. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; silks were certainly imported into Egypt, and they also appear also in Bulgaria and the West. The empire had also trading activity through Venice (as long as the latter was part of the empire): salt, wood, iron, and slaves, as well luxury products from the East, were the products exchanged. In 992, Basil II concluded a treaty with Pietro Orseolo II by the terms that Venice 's custom duties in Constantinople would be reduced from 30 nomismata to 17 nomismata in return for the Venetians agreeing to transport Byzantine troops to Southern Italy in times of war. During the 11th and 12th centuries Italian trade in the empire took place under privileged conditions, incorporated in treaties and privileges that were granted to Amalfi, Venice, Genoa, and Pisa.
The Fourth Crusade and the Venetian domination of trade in the area created new conditions. In 1261, the Genoese were given generous customs privileges, and six years later the Venetians regained their original quarter in Constantinople. The two northern Italian trading powers created the conditions that allowed them to reach any point in Byzantium, and to put the entire economic region in the service of their commercial interests.
The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy, and re-establish traditional forms of political supervision, and guidance of the economy. It was, however, apparent that the late Byzantine state was unable to gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces. Gradually, the state lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins. Late Byzantine officials supposed to implement a regulatory policy used the state prerogatives placed into their hands to pursue their private businesses. Private commercial activity was also affected by the crises in foreign policy, and the internal erosion of Byzantium.
Development in the rural economy, though certainly slow, was continuous from the 8th to the beginning of the 14th century. Areas close to the sea featuring cereal crops, vines, and olive groves (the interior of the Balkans, and Asia Minor concentrated on stock raising) were relatively well - favored, and appear to have played an important role in the development of the Byzantine economy. The peasantry 's tools changed little through the ages, and remained rudimentary, which resulted in a low ratio of productivity to labor. Nevertheless, according to certain scholars, the permanence of techniques, and tools are evidence of their successful adaptation to the environment.
From the 7th to the 12th century, the social organization of production was arranged round two poles: estate and village (a collection of free smallholders). The village social structure was the organizational form best adapted to insecure conditions, with the estate fulfilling this role once conditions were safe again. There was in principle a clear distinction between tenants who lived on the estates (and owed dues to the master of the place), and the village inhabitants, many of whom owned land, and consequently paid taxes to the state. Nevertheless, not all the cultivators on the estate lived there, and not all enjoyed a special status. Some of them were slaves and some were wage laborers; references to wage laborers occur continuously from the 7th century to the end of the Byzantine period. In the same way, the inhabitants of a village would not all be landholders, and of these, not all would be farmers; some village proprietors held the lowest rank of aristocrat status, and were wealthier than tenant farmers. The distinction between landholder and tenant farmer (paroikos) was weakened once tenures held by paroikoi were considered hereditary, and once some paroikoi achieved owner status. From the 10th century on, large estates assumed the leading role that had been held until then by villages, albeit in an economy that was henceforth orientated toward demand, with monetary exchanges taking a larger share. By the beginning of the 14th century, the Macedonian countryside was made up of an almost unbroken network of estates that had replaced the former network of communes. Villages that are known to have possessed commune status in the 10th century became estates of the fisc, after which they might be ceded to a monastery or lay person.
The population was dense in the 6th century, but it diminished in the 7th and 8th centuries. Epidemics (such as the plague of 541 / 542 and its recurrences until 747) seem to have had greater effects on population volume than wars. From the 9th century on, the population of the empire increased, but it was unevenly distributed. A growing population would imply an increase in the area under cultivation. The automatic effect of a larger population was also amplified by the demand from a growing number of people who did not produce much or at all. Indeed, it is estimated that areas under cultivation must have almost doubled, and that the extension of crops might have affected a shift in the location of grazing lands, and pushed back the woodlands.
After the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, most of the interior of Anatolia was lost to the Turks, and the remaining territories of the Empire were dominated by the cities the Byzantines were able to hold on to.
The conquest of the empire by the Crusaders in 1204, and the subsequent division of the Byzantine territories affected the agrarian economy as it did other aspects of economic organization, and economic life. These territories split among small Greek and Latin states, lost much of the cohesion they may have had: the Byzantine state could not function as a unifying force, and, in the 13th century, there was very little to replace it. The 13th century is the last period, during which one may speak of significant land clearance, that is, the act of bringing previously uncultivated land into cultivation. But the progressive impoverishment of the peasantry, entailed the decline of a certain aggregate demand, and resulted in a concentration of resources in the hands of large landowners, who must have had considerable surpluses.
The demographic expansion came to an end in the course of the 14th century, during which a deterioration of the status of paroikoi, an erosion of the economic function of village by the role of the large estates, and a precipitous demographic decline in Macedonia is established by modern research. The upper levels of the aristocracy lost their fortunes, and eventually there was a concentration of property on the hands of the larger, and more privileged monasteries, at least in Macedonia. The monasteries did not show great versatility or innovative spirit, and the rural economy had to wait, for its recovery, until the effects of epidemics had been reversed, security had been established, and communications restored: that is, until the firm establishment of the Ottomans in the Balkans.
The Byzantine GDP per capita has been estimated by the World Bank economist Branko Milanovic to range from $680 to $770 in 1990 International Dollars at its peak around 1000 (reign of Basil II). This corresponds to a range of $1274 to $1442 in today 's dollars. The Byzantine population size at the time is estimated to have been between 12 and 18 million. This would yield a total GDP somewhere between $15 and $26 billion in today 's terms.
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are there local income taxes in new jersey | Taxation in New Jersey - wikipedia
The U.S. state of New Jersey levies a state personal income tax and state corporate income tax and a state sales tax. Property taxes are also levied by municipalities, counties, and school districts.
The tax table below will show in detail the New Jersey state income tax rates by income tax bracket (s). There are 6 income tax brackets for New Jersey.
Tax brackets for individuals are provided below:
For earnings between $0 and $20,000, the tax rate on every dollar of income earned is 1.4 %.
For earnings between $20,001 and $35,000, the tax rate on every dollar of income earned is 1.75 %.
For earnings between $35,001 and $40,000, the tax rate on every dollar of income earned is 3.5 %.
For earnings between $40,001 and $75,000, the tax rate on every dollar of income earned is 5.525 %.
For earnings between $75,001 and $500,000, the tax rate on every dollar of income earned is 6.37 %.
For earnings of $500,001 and over, the tax rate on every dollar of income earned is 8.97 %.
To give an example, if you file individually and your earned income is $50,000 your tax will be calculated the following way: ($20,000 (first bracket) x 1.4 %) + ($15,000 (second bracket) x 1.75 %) + ($5,000 (third bracket) x 3.5 %) + ($10,000 (fourth bracket) x 5.525 %) = $280 + $262.50 + $175 + $552.50 = $1,270, for an overall rate of 2.54 %.
Beginning in 2019, the top marginal rate will be raised to 10.75 % for incomes over $5 million, making it the second highest top marginal tax rate in the nation (after California 's top rate of 13.3 %)
New Jersey has a 6.625 % state sales tax, which was cut in steps from the previous rate of 7 %. All revenues are deposited in the State Treasury for general State use; nothing goes to municipalities.
In Urban Enterprise Zones, the State sales tax is cut in half to encourage economic development, resulting in an effective tax rate of 3.3125 %. A full list of Urban Enterprise Zones is available on the State of New Jersey Web site. (1)
New Jersey does not charge sales tax on unprepared food, household paper products, medicine, and clothing. However fur clothing is subject to sales tax.
New Jersey does not charge sales tax on gasoline, but gasoline is subject to a $0.375 / gallon excise tax.
Cigarettes are subject to a $2.70 / per pack excise tax in addition to sales tax.
New Jersey has the highest median property tax in the United States, at $5,773. (2) Former Governor Jon Corzine and Bergen County executive Dennis McNerney have suggested that smaller municipalities merge into larger municipalities to share services and reduce overhead.
New Jersey 's current corporate income is 9 % for corporation with income greater than $100,000. Companies with income up to $100,000, but greater than $50,000 pay a rate of 7.5 % and companies with incomes of $50,000 or less pay a rate of 6.5 %. Under a budget deal reached on June 30, 2018, New Jersey 's the rate will rise to 11.5 % for companies with income over $1 million for the next two years. In the third year it would be decreased to 10.5 % before being returned to 9 % in the fifth year. New Jersey 's top rate of 11.5 % will be the second highest in the nation (after Iowa 's top rate of 12 %).
http://www.state.nj.us/treasury/taxation/su_over.shtml
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who wrote the united nations convention on the rights of the child | Convention on the Rights of the Child - Wikipedia
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (commonly abbreviated as the CRC or UNCRC) is a human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children. The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, unless the age of majority is attained earlier under national legislation.
Nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law. Compliance is monitored by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, which is composed of members from countries around the world. Once a year, the Committee submits a report to the Third Committee of the United Nations General Assembly, which also hears a statement from the CRC Chair, and the Assembly adopts a Resolution on the Rights of the Child.
Governments of countries that have ratified the Convention are required to report to, and appear before, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child periodically to be examined on their progress with regards to the advancement of the implementation of the Convention and the status of child rights in their country. Their reports and the committee 's written views and concerns are available on the committee 's website.
The UN General Assembly adopted the Convention and opened it for signature on 20 November 1989 (the 30th anniversary of its Declaration of the Rights of the Child). It came into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations. Currently, 196 countries are party to it, including every member of the United Nations except the United States.
Two optional protocols were adopted on 25 May 2000. The First Optional Protocol restricts the involvement of children in military conflicts, and the Second Optional Protocol prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. Both protocols have been ratified by more than 160 states.
A third optional protocol relating to communication of complaints was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012. It came into effect on 14 April 2014.
The Convention deals with the child - specific needs and rights. It requires that the "nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law ''. Ratifying states must act in the best interests of the child. In all jurisdictions implementing the Convention requires compliance with child custody and guardianship laws as that every child has basic rights, including the right to life, to their own name and identity, to be raised by their parents within a family or cultural grouping, and to have a relationship with both parents, even if they are separated.
The Convention obliges states to allow parents to exercise their parental responsibilities. The Convention also acknowledges that children have the right to express their opinions and to have those opinions heard and acted upon when appropriate, to be protected from abuse or exploitation, and to have their privacy protected, and it requires that their lives not be subject to excessive interference.
The Convention also obliges signatory states to provide separate legal representation for a child in any judicial dispute concerning their care and asks that the child 's viewpoint be heard in such cases.
The Convention forbids capital punishment for children. In its General Comment 8 (2006) the Committee on the Rights of the Child stated that there was an "obligation of all state parties to move quickly to prohibit and eliminate all corporal punishment and all other cruel or degrading forms of punishment of children ''. Article 19 of the Convention states that state parties must "take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence '', but it makes no reference to corporal punishment. The Committee 's interpretation of this section to encompass a prohibition on corporal punishment has been rejected by several state parties to the Convention, including Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom.
The European Court of Human Rights has referred to the Convention when interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights.
Global human rights standards were challenged at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna (1993) when a number of governments (prominently China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Iran) raised serious objections to the idea of universal human rights. There are unresolved tensions between "universalistic '' and "relativistic '' approaches in the establishment of standards and strategies designed to prevent or overcome the abuse of children 's capacity to work.
Some scholars link slavery and slavery - like practices for many child marriages. Child marriage as slavery is not directly addressed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Currently 196 countries are parties to the treaty (some with stated reservations or interpretations). This includes every member of the United Nations (except the United States), plus the Cook Islands, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the Holy See. The United States has not ratified it. South Sudan did not sign the convention, however ratification was complete in January 2015. Somalia 's domestic ratification finished in January 2015 and the instrument was deposited with the United Nations in October 2015.
All successor states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, and Slovakia) made declarations of succession to the treaty and currently apply it.
The convention does not apply in the territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Gibraltar, Guernsey and Tokelau.
Canada became a signatory to the Convention on 28 May 1990 and ratified in 1991. Youth criminal laws in Canada underwent major changes resulting in the Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA) which went into effect on 1 April 2003. The Act specifically refers to Canada 's different commitments under the Convention. The convention was influential in the administrative Law decision of Baker v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration).
India ratified UNCRC on 11 December 1992, agreeing in principles all articles except with certain reservations on issues relating to child labor. In India there is law that children under the age of 18 should not work, but there is no outright ban on child labor, and the practice is generally permitted in most industries except those deemed "hazardous ''. Although a law in October 2006 banned child labor in hotels, restaurants, and as domestic servants, there continues to be high demand for children as hired help in the home. Current estimates as to the number of child laborers in the country range from the government 's conservative estimate of 4 million children under 14 years of age to the much higher estimates of children 's rights activists, which hover around 60 million. Little is being done to address the problem since the economy is booming and the nuclear family is spreading, thereby increasing demand for child laborers. In India many people are still suffering from non-nutritious food, many parents are still leaving their children on riverside, in trains etc. Under the auspices of the Unicef financed Odisha initiative the Government of India is specifying the outline of a means of change and improvement in child care, and many trusts such as childLine, Plan India and savethechildren too are taking efforts to outdate child labor from India. A few of the organisations who work with children 's rights in India are Plan India, CRY (Child Rights and You), Save the Children, Bal Vikas Dhara - New Delhi, Bachpan Bachao Andolan, CHORD - Hyderabad.
Iran has adhered to the convention (except for alleged child slavery) since 1991 and ratified it in the Parliament in 1994. Upon ratification, Iran made the following reservation: "If the text of the Convention is or becomes incompatible with the domestic laws and Islamic standards at any time or in any case, the Government of the Islamic Republic shall not abide by it. '' Iran has also signed the both optional protocols which relate to the special protection of children against involvement in armed conflict and the sale of children and sexual exploitation.
Although Iran is a state party to the Convention, international human rights organisations and foreign governments routinely denounced executions of Iranian child offenders as a violation of the treaty. But on 10 February 2012, Iran 's parliament changed the controversial law of executing juveniles. In the new law, the age of 18 (solar year) would be for both genders considered the cut - off for adulthood and offenders under this age will be sentenced under a separate law. Based on the previous Islamic law, which was revised, girls at the age of 9 and boys at 15 (lunar year, 11 days shorter than a solar year) were fully responsible for their crimes.
"According to Islamic sources, the criterion for criminal responsibility is reaching the age of maturity which, according to the Shi'ite School of the IRI, is 9 lunar years (8 years and 9 months) for girls and 15 lunar years (14 years and 7 months) for boys. ''
Ireland signed the Convention on the Rights of the Child on 30 September 1990 and ratified it, without reservation, on 28 September 1992. In response to criticisms expressed in the 1998 review by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child in Geneva, the Irish government established the office of Ombudsman for Children and drew up a national children 's strategy. In 2006, following concerns expressed by the committee that the wording of the Irish Constitution does not allow the State to intervene in cases of abuse other than in very exceptional cases, the Irish government undertook to amend the constitution to make a more explicit commitment to children 's rights.
Israel ratified the Convention in 1991. In 2010, UNICEF criticized Israel for its failure to create a government - appointed commission on children 's rights or to adopt a national children 's rights strategy or program in order to implement various Israeli laws addressing children 's rights. The report criticizes Israel for holding that the Convention does not apply in the West Bank and for defining as Palestinians under the age of 16 in the occupied territories as children, even though Israeli law defines a child as being under 18, in line with the Convention. A contemporaneous report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development found that Israel 's investment in children is below the international average and the actual investment had fallen between 1995 and 2006. In 2012, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child criticized Israel for its bombing attacks on Palestinians in the Gaza Strip, stating, "Destruction of homes and damage to schools, streets and other public facilities gravely affect children '' and called them "gross violations of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, its Optional Protocol on the involvement of children in armed conflict and international humanitarian law ''. It also criticized Palestinian rocket attacks from Gaza on southern Israel which traumatized Israeli children, calling on all parties to protect children.
New Zealand ratified the Convention on 6 April 1993 with reservations concerning the right to distinguish between persons according to the nature of their authority to be in New Zealand, the need for legislative action on economic exploitation -- which it argued was adequately protected by existing law, and the provisions for the separation of juvenile offenders from adult offenders.
In 1994, the Court of Appeal of New Zealand dismissed the suggestion that the Minister for Immigration and his department were at liberty to ignore the convention, arguing that this would imply that the country 's adherence was "at least partly window - dressing ''.
The Children 's Commissioner Act 2003 enhanced the office of Children 's Commissioner, giving it significantly stronger investigative powers.
In May 2007, New Zealand passed the Crimes (Substituted Section 59) Amendment Act 2007, which removed the defence of "reasonable force '' for the purpose of correction. In its third and final vote, Parliament voted 113 to eight in favour of the legislation.
Saudi Arabia ratified the Convention in 1996, with a reservation "with respect to all such articles as are in conflict with the provisions of Islamic law '' which is the national law. The Committee on the Rights of the Child, which reviewed Saudi Arabia 's treatment of children under the Convention in January 2005, strongly condemned the government for its practice of imposing the death penalty on juveniles, calling it "a serious violation of the fundamental rights ''. The committee said it was "deeply alarmed '' over the discretionary power judges hold to treat juveniles as adults: In its 2004 report the Saudi Arabian government had stated that it "never imposes capital punishment on persons... below the age of 18 ''. The government delegation later acknowledged that a judge could impose the death penalty whenever he decided that the convicted person had reached his or her majority, regardless of the person 's actual age at the time of the crime or at the time of the scheduled execution.
The United Kingdom ratified the Convention on 16 December 1991, with several declarations and reservations, and made its first report to the Committee on the Rights of the Child in January 1995. Concerns raised by the Committee included the growth in child poverty and inequality, the extent of violence towards children, the use of custody for young offenders, the low age of criminal responsibility, and the lack of opportunities for children and young people to express views. The 2002 report of the Committee expressed similar concerns, including the welfare of children in custody, unequal treatment of asylum seekers, and the negative impact of poverty on children 's rights. In September 2008, the UK government decided to withdraw its reservations and agree to the Convention in these respects.
The 2002 report 's criticism of the legal defence of "reasonable chastisement '' of children by parents, which the Committee described as "a serious violation of the dignity of the child '', was rejected by the UK Government. The Minister for Children, Young People and Families commented that while fewer parents are using smacking as a form of discipline, the majority said they would not support a ban.
In evidence to the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights, the Committee was criticised by the Family Education Trust for "adopting radical interpretations of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in its pursuit of an agenda ''. The Joint Committee 's report recommended that "the time has come for the Government to act upon the recommendations of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child concerning the corporal punishment of children and the incompatibility of the defence of reasonable chastisement with its obligations under the Convention. '' The UK Government responded that "the use of physical punishment is a matter for individual parents to decide ''.
Although child slavery is difficult to gauge within the UK, child slaves are imported into the UK and sold.
The United States government played an active role in the drafting of the Convention and signed it on 16 February 1995, but has not ratified it. It has been claimed that American opposition to the Convention stems primarily from political and religious conservatives. For example, The Heritage Foundation sees "a civil society in which moral authority is exercised by religious congregations, family, and other private associations is fundamental to the American order ''. and the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) argues that the CRC threatens homeschooling.
The United States had permitted the execution and life imprisonment of juvenile offenders, in contravention of the Article 37 of the Convention. In 2005, a Supreme Court decision declared juvenile executions to be unconstitutional as "cruel and unusual punishment ''; in 2012, the Court held that mandatory sentences of life without the possibility of parole are unconstitutional for juvenile offenders.
State laws regarding the practice of closed adoption may also require overhaul in light of the Convention 's position that children have a right to identity from birth.
During his 2008 campaign for President, Senator Barack Obama described the failure to ratify the Convention as "embarrassing '' and promised to review the issue but he never did. No President of the United States has submitted the treaty to the United States Senate requesting its advice and consent to ratification since the US signed it in 1995.
The United States has ratified two of the optional protocols to the Convention, the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, and the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography.
Azerbaijan ratified Convention on the Rights of the Child on 21 July 1992. In terms of the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, a significant number of laws, decrees and resolutions were approved in Azerbaijan by the President and the Cabinet of Ministers focusing on the development of the child welfare system. In this regard, the Convention No 182 on "Elimination of the worst forms of child labour '' and Recommendation No 190 of the International Labour Organization and the Hague Convention on International adoption of children were ratified by Milli Majlis in 2004.
There is a concern over the administration of juvenile justice in Azerbaijan, mostly regarding compliance with articles 37, 39 and 40 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, as well as other relevant standards such as the Beijing Rules, the Riyadh Guidelines and the United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty. Therefore, international organizations assisted Azerbaijan to improve the situation in the field of juvenile justice. Juvenile offenders have been added to the Presidential pardons on a regular basis.
Azerbaijan has built cooperation with many international organizations, in particular with UNICEF in the field of child protection. In 1993, UNICEF began its activity in Azerbaijan. In 2005, Azerbaijan and UNICEF signed a 5 - year country program. The country program for 2005 - 2009 was implemented in the field of child protection, children 's health and nutrition, children 's education and youth health, their development and participation. In addition, UNICEF supports Azerbaijan in developing juvenile justice system, establishing alternative care system and raising awareness among youth about HIV / AIDS.
Two optional protocols were adopted by the UN General Assembly. The first, the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict requires parties to ensure that children under the age of 18 are not recruited compulsorily into their armed forces, and calls on governments to do everything feasible to ensure that members of their armed forces who are under 18 years do not take part in hostilities. This protocol entered into force on 12 July 2002. As of 28 February 2018, 167 states are party to the protocol and another 14 states have signed but not ratified it.
The second, the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, requires parties to prohibit the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. It entered into force on 18 January 2002. As of 28 February 2018, 173 states are party to the protocol and another 9 states have signed but not ratified it.
A third, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a Communications Procedure, which would allow children or their representatives to file individual complaints for violation of the rights of children, was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012. The protocol currently has 51 signatures and 45 ratifications: it entered into force on 14 April 2014 following the tenth ratification three months beforehand.
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who is involved in the japanese tea ceremony | Japanese tea Ceremony - wikipedia
The Japanese tea ceremony, also called the Way of Tea, is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of matcha (抹茶), powdered green tea.
In Japanese, it is called chanoyu (茶の湯) or sadō, chadō (茶道), while the manner in which it is performed, or the art of its performance, is called (o) temae ((お) 手前; (お) 点 前). Zen Buddhism was a primary influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony. Much less commonly, Japanese tea practice uses leaf tea, primarily sencha, in which case it is known in Japanese as senchadō (煎茶 道, the way of sencha) as opposed to chanoyu or chadō.
Tea gatherings are classified as an informal tea gathering chakai (茶会, tea gathering) and a formal tea gathering chaji (茶事, tea event). A chakai is a relatively simple course of hospitality that includes confections, thin tea, and perhaps a light meal. A chaji is a much more formal gathering, usually including a full - course kaiseki meal followed by confections, thick tea, and thin tea. A chaji can last up to four hours.
Chadō is counted as one of the three classical Japanese arts of refinement, along with kōdō for incense appreciation, and kadō for flower arrangement.
The first documented evidence of tea in Japan dates to the 9th century, when it was taken by the Buddhist monk Eichū (永忠) on his return from China. The entry in the Nihon Kōki states that Eichū personally prepared and served sencha (unground Japanese green tea) to Emperor Saga who was on an excursion in Karasaki (in present Shiga Prefecture) in the year 815. It was practiced by Japanese nobles. By imperial order in the year 816, tea plantations began to be cultivated in the Kinki region of Japan. However, the interest in tea in Japan faded after this.
In China, tea had already been known, according to legend, for more than a thousand years. The form of tea popular in China in Eichū 's time was "cake tea '' or "brick tea '' (団 茶, dancha) -- tea compressed into a nugget in the same manner as pu - erh. This then would be ground in a mortar, and the resulting ground tea mixed together with various other herbs and flavourings.
The custom of drinking tea, first for medicinal, and then largely also for pleasurable reasons, was already widespread throughout China. In the early 9th century, Chinese author Lu Yu wrote The Classic of Tea, a treatise on tea focusing on its cultivation and preparation. Lu Yu 's life had been heavily influenced by Buddhism, particularly the Zen -- Chán school. His ideas would have a strong influence in the development of the Japanese tea.
Around the end of the 12th century, the style of tea preparation called "tencha '' (点 茶), in which powdered matcha was placed into a bowl, hot water added, and the tea and hot water whipped together, was introduced to Japan by Eisai, another monk, on his return from China. He also took tea seeds back with him, which eventually produced tea that was considered to be the most superb quality in all of Japan.
This powdered green tea was first used in religious rituals in Buddhist monasteries. By the 13th century, when the Kamakura Shogunate ruled the nation and tea and the luxuries associated with it became a kind of status symbol among the warrior class, there arose tea - tasting (ja: 闘茶, tōcha) parties wherein contestants could win extravagant prizes for guessing the best quality tea -- that grown in Kyoto, deriving from the seeds that Eisai brought from China.
The next major period in Japanese history was the Muromachi Period, pointing to the rise of Kitayama Culture (ja: 北山 文化, Kitayama bunka), centered around the gorgeous cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his villa in the northern hills of Kyoto (Kinkaku - ji), and later during this period, the rise of Higashiyama Culture, centered around the elegant cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimasa and his retirement villa in the eastern hills of Kyoto (Ginkaku - ji). This period, approximately 1336 to 1573, saw the budding of what is generally regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today.
The use of Japanese tea developed as a "transformative practice '', and began to evolve its own aesthetic, in particular that of "sabi '' and "wabi '' principles (see Wabi - sabi). "Wabi '' represents the inner, or spiritual, experiences of human lives. Its original meaning indicated quiet or sober refinement, or subdued taste "characterized by humility, restraint, simplicity, naturalism, profundity, imperfection, and asymmetry '' and "emphasizes simple, unadorned objects and architectural space, and celebrates the mellow beauty that time and care impart to materials. '' "Sabi '', on the other hand, represents the outer, or material side of life. Originally, it meant "worn '', "weathered '', or "decayed ''. Particularly among the nobility, understanding emptiness was considered the most effective means to spiritual awakening, while embracing imperfection was honoured as a healthy reminder to cherish our unpolished selves, here and now, just as we are -- the first step to "satori '' or enlightenment.
Murata Jukō is known in chanoyu history as an early developer of tea as a spiritual practice. He studied Zen under the monk Ikkyū, who revitalized Zen in the 15th century, and this is considered to have influenced his concept of chanoyu. By the 16th century, tea drinking had spread to all levels of society in Japan. Sen no Rikyū and his work Southern Record, perhaps the best - known -- and still revered -- historical figure in tea, followed his master Takeno Jōō 's concept of ichi - go ichi - e, a philosophy that each meeting should be treasured, for it can never be reproduced. His teachings perfected many newly developed forms in architecture and gardens, art, and the full development of the "way of tea ''. The principles he set forward -- harmony (和, wa), respect (敬, kei), purity (清, sei), and tranquility (寂, jaku) -- are still central to tea.
Sen no Rikyū was the leading teamaster of the regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who greatly supported him in codifying and spreading the way of tea, also as a means of solidifying his own political power. Hideyoshi 's tastes were influenced by his teamaster, but nevertheless he also had his own ideas to cement his power such as constructing the Golden Tea Room and hosting the Grand Kitano Tea Ceremony in 1587. The symbiotic relationship between politics and tea was at its height. However it was increasingly at odds with the rustic and simple aesthetics continuously advertised by his tea master, which the regent increasingly saw as a threat to cementing his own power and position, and their once close relationship began to suffer. Finally in 1590, one of the leading disciples of Rikyu, Yamanoue Sōji, was brutally executed on orders of the regent. One year later the regent ordered his teamaster to commit ritual suicide. The way of tea was never so closely intertwined with politics before or after.
After the death of Rikyū, essentially three schools descended from him to continue the tradition. The way of tea continued to spread throughout the country and later developed not only from the court and samurai class, but also towards the townspeople.
Many schools of Japanese tea ceremony have evolved through the long history of chadō and are active today.
The scholar Okakura Kakuzō (1862 -- 1913) published in 1906 The Book of Tea, which was written in English. He states:
It (Teaism) insulates purity and harmony, the mystery of mutual charity, the romanticism of the social order. It is essentially a worship of the Imperfect, as it is a tender attempt to accomplish something possible in this impossible thing we know as life.
While a purpose - built tatami - floored room is considered the ideal venue, any place where the necessary implements for the making and serving of the tea can be set out and where the host can make the tea in the presence of the seated guest (s) can be used as a venue for tea. For instance, a tea gathering can be held picnic - style in the outdoors (this is known as nodate (野点)).
A purpose - built room designed for the wabi style of tea is called a chashitsu, and is ideally 4.5 tatami in floor area. It has a low ceiling; a hearth built into the floor; an alcove for hanging scrolls and placing other decorative objects; and separate entrances for host and guests. It also has an attached preparation area known as a mizuya. A 4.5 - mat room is considered standard, but smaller and larger rooms are also used. Building materials and decorations are deliberately simple and rustic in wabi style tea rooms. Chashitsu can also refer to free - standing buildings for tea. Known in English as tea houses, such structures may contain several tea rooms of different sizes and styles, dressing and waiting rooms, and other amenities, and be surrounded by a tea garden called a roji.
Seasonality and the changing of the seasons are important to the enjoyment of tea. Traditionally the year is divided by tea practitioners into two main seasons: the sunken hearth (炉, ro) season, constituting the colder months (traditionally November to April), and the brazier (風炉, furo) season, constituting the warmer months (traditionally May to October). For each season, there are variations in the temae performed and utensils and other equipment used. Ideally, the configuration of the tatami in a 4.5 mat room changes with the season as well.
There are two main ways of preparing matcha for tea consumption: thick (濃 茶, koicha) and thin (薄茶, usucha), with the best quality tea leaves used in preparing thick tea. Historically, the tea leaves used as packing material for the koicha leaves in the tea urn (茶壺, chatsubo) would be served as thin tea. Japanese historical documents about tea that differentiate between usucha and koicha first appear in the Tenmon era (1532 -- 55). The first documented appearance of the term koicha is in 1575.
As the terms imply, koicha is a thick blend of matcha and hot water that requires about three times as much tea to the equivalent amount of water than usucha. To prepare usucha, matcha and hot water are whipped using the tea whisk (茶筅, chasen), while koicha is kneaded with the whisk to smoothly blend the large amount of powdered tea with the water.
Thin tea is served to each guest in an individual bowl, while one bowl of thick tea is shared among several guests. This style of sharing a bowl of koicha first appeared in historical documents in 1586, and is a method considered to have been invented by Sen no Rikyū.
The most important part of a chaji is the preparation and drinking of koicha, which is followed by usucha. A chakai may involve only the preparation and serving of thin tea (and accompanying confections), representing the more relaxed, finishing portion of a chaji.
Tea equipment is called chadōgu (茶道具). A wide range of chadōgu are available and different styles and motifs are used for different events and in different seasons. All the tools for tea are handled with exquisite care. They are scrupulously cleaned before and after each use and before storing, and some are handled only with gloved hands. Some items, such as the tea storage jar "Chigusa, '' were so revered that they were given proper names like people, and were admired and documented by multiple diarists.
The following are a few of the essential components:
Procedures vary from school to school, and with the time of year, time of day, venue, and other considerations. The noon tea gathering of one host and a maximum of five guests is considered the most formal chaji. The following is a general description of a noon chaji held in the cool weather season at a purpose - built tea house.
The guests arrive a little before the appointed time and enter an interior waiting room, where they store unneeded items such as coats, and put on fresh tabi. Ideally, the waiting room has a tatami floor and an alcove (tokonoma), in which is displayed a hanging scroll which may allude to the season, the theme of the chaji, or some other appropriate theme. The guests are served a cup of the hot water, kombu tea, roasted barley tea, or sakurayu. When all the guests have arrived and finished their preparations, they proceed to the outdoor waiting bench in the roji, where they remain until summoned by the host.
Following a silent bow between host and guests, the guests proceed in order to a tsukubai (stone basin) where they ritually purify themselves by washing their hands and rinsing their mouths with water, and then continue along the roji to the tea house. They remove their footwear and enter the tea room through a small "crawling - in '' door (nijiri - guchi), and proceed to view the items placed in the tokonoma and any tea equipment placed ready in the room, and are then seated seiza - style on the tatami in order of prestige. When the last guest has taken their place, they close the door with an audible sound to alert the host, who enters the tea room and welcomes each guest, and then answers questions posed by the first guest about the scroll and other items.
The chaji begins in the cool months with the laying of the charcoal fire which is used to heat the water. Following this, guests are served a meal in several courses accompanied by sake and followed by a small sweet (wagashi) eaten from special paper called kaishi (懐紙), which each guest carries, often in a decorative wallet or tucked into the breast of the kimono. After the meal, there is a break called a nakadachi (中 立ち) during which the guests return to the waiting shelter until summoned again by the host, who uses the break to sweep the tea room, take down the scroll and replace it with a flower arrangement, open the tea room 's shutters, and make preparations for serving the tea.
Having been summoned back to the tea room by the sound of a bell or gong rung in prescribed ways, the guests again purify themselves and examine the items placed in the tea room. The host then enters, ritually cleanses each utensil -- including the tea bowl, whisk, and tea scoop -- in the presence of the guests in a precise order and using prescribed motions, and places them in an exact arrangement according to the particular temae procedure being performed. When the preparation of the utensils is complete, the host prepares thick tea.
Bows are exchanged between the host and the guest receiving the tea. The guest then bows to the second guest, and raises the bowl in a gesture of respect to the host. The guest rotates the bowl to avoid drinking from its front, takes a sip, and compliments the host on the tea. After taking a few sips, the guest wipes clean the rim of the bowl and passes it to the second guest. The procedure is repeated until all guests have taken tea from the same bowl; each guest then has an opportunity to admire the bowl before it is returned to the host, who then cleanses the equipment and leaves the tea room.
The host then rekindles the fire and adds more charcoal. This signifies a change from the more formal portion of the gathering to the more casual portion, and the host will return to the tea room to bring in a smoking set (タバコ 盆, tabako - bon) and more confections, usually higashi, to accompany the thin tea, and possibly cushions for the guests ' comfort.
The host will then proceed with the preparation of an individual bowl of thin tea to be served to each guest. While in earlier portions of the gathering conversation is limited to a few formal comments exchanged between the first guest and the host, in the usucha portion, after a similar ritual exchange, the guests may engage in casual conversation.
After all the guests have taken tea, the host cleans the utensils in preparation for putting them away. The guest of honour will request that the host allow the guests to examine some of the utensils, and each guest in turn examines each item, including the tea caddy and the tea scoop. The items are treated with extreme care and reverence as they may be priceless, irreplaceable, handmade antiques, and guests often use a special brocaded cloth to handle them.
The host then collects the utensils, and the guests leave the tea house. The host bows from the door, and the gathering is over. A tea gathering can last up to four hours, depending on the type of occasion performed, the number of guests, and the types of meal and tea served.
Each action in sadō -- how a kettle is used, how a teacup is examined, how tea is scooped into a cup -- is performed in a very specific way, and may be thought of as a procedure or technique. The procedures performed in sadō are called, collectively, temae. The act of performing these procedures during a chaji is called "doing temae ''.
There are many styles of temae, depending upon the school, occasion, season, setting, equipment, and countless other possible factors. The following is a short, general list of common types of temae.
Chabako temae (茶 箱 手前) is so called because the equipment is removed from and then replaced into a special box known as a "chabako '' (茶 箱, lit. "tea box ''). Chabako developed as a convenient way to prepare the necessary equipment for making tea outdoors. The basic equipment contained in the chabako are the tea bowl, tea whisk (kept in a special container), tea scoop and tea caddy, and linen wiping cloth in a special container, as well as a container for little candy - like sweets. Many of the items are smaller than usual, to fit in the box. This gathering takes approximately 35 -- 40 minutes.
Hakobi temae (運び 手前) is so called because, except for the hot water kettle (and brazier if a sunken hearth is not being used), the essential items for the tea - making, including even the fresh water container, are carried into the tea room by the host as a part of the temae. In other temae, the water jar and perhaps other items, depending upon the style of temae, are placed in the tea room before the guests enter.
Obon temae (お盆 手前), bon temae (盆 手前), or bonryaku temae (盆 略 手前) is a simple procedure for making usucha (thin tea). The tea bowl, tea whisk, tea scoop, chakin and tea caddy are placed on a tray, and the hot water is prepared in a kettle called a tetsubin, which is heated on a brazier. This is usually the first temae learned, and is the easiest to perform, requiring neither much specialized equipment nor a lot of time to complete. It may easily be done sitting at a table, or outdoors, using a thermos pot in place of the tetsubin and portable hearth.
In the ryūrei (立礼) style, the tea is prepared with the host seated at a special table, and the guests are also seated at tables. It is possible, therefore, for ryūrei - style temae to be conducted nearly anywhere, even outdoors. The name refers to the host 's practice of performing the first and last bows while standing. In ryūrei there is usually an assistant who sits near the host and moves the host 's seat out of the way as needed for standing or sitting. The assistant also serves the tea and sweets to the guests. This procedure originated in the Urasenke school, initially for serving non-Japanese guests who, it was thought, would be more comfortable sitting on chairs.
The Japanese traditional floor mats tatami are used in various ways in tea offerings. Their placement, for example, determines how a person walks through the tea room chashitsu, and the different seating positions.
The use of tatami flooring has influenced the development of tea. For instance, when walking on tatami it is customary to shuffle, to avoid causing disturbance. Shuffling forces one to slow down, to maintain erect posture, and to walk quietly, and helps one to maintain balance as the combination of tabi and tatami makes for a slippery surface; it is also a function of wearing kimono, which restricts stride length. One must avoid walking on the joins between mats, one practical reason being that that would tend to damage the tatami. Therefore, tea students are taught to step over such joins when walking in the tea room.
The placement of tatami in tea rooms differs slightly from the normal placement in regular Japanese - style rooms, and may also vary by season (where it is possible to rearrange the mats). In a 4.5 mat room, the mats are placed in a circular pattern around a centre mat. Purpose - built tea rooms have a sunken hearth in the floor which is used in winter. A special tatami is used which has a cut - out section providing access to the hearth. In summer, the hearth is covered either with a small square of extra tatami, or, more commonly, the hearth tatami is replaced with a full mat, totally hiding the hearth.
It is customary to avoid stepping on this centre mat whenever possible, as well as to avoid placing the hands palm - down on it, as it functions as a kind of table: tea utensils are placed on it for viewing, and prepared bowls of tea are placed on it for serving to the guests. To avoid stepping on it people may walk around it on the other mats, or shuffle on the hands and knees.
Except when walking, when moving about on the tatami one places one 's closed fists on the mats and uses them to pull oneself forward or push backwards while maintaining a seiza position.
There are dozens of real and imaginary lines that crisscross any tearoom. These are used to determine the exact placement of utensils and myriad other details; when performed by skilled practitioners, the placement of utensils will vary minutely from gathering to gathering. The lines in tatami mats (畳 目, tatami - me) are used as one guide for placement, and the joins serve as a demarcation indicating where people should sit.
Tatami provide a more comfortable surface for sitting seiza - style. At certain times of year (primarily during the new year 's festivities) the portions of the tatami where guests sit may be covered with a red felt cloth.
Calligraphy, mainly in the form of hanging scrolls, plays a central role in tea. Scrolls, often written by famous calligraphers or Buddhist monks, are hung in the tokonoma (scroll alcove) of the tea room. They are selected for their appropriateness for the occasion, including the season and the theme of the particular get - together. Calligraphic scrolls may feature well - known sayings, particularly those associated with Buddhism, poems, descriptions of famous places, or words or phrases associated with tea. Historian and author Haga Kōshirō points out that it is clear from the teachings of Sen no Rikyū recorded in the Nanpō roku that the suitability of any particular scroll for a tea gathering depends not only on the subject of the writing itself but also on the virtue of the writer. Further, Haga points out that Rikyū preferred to hang bokuseki (lit., "ink traces ''), the calligraphy of Zen Buddhist priests, in the tea room. A typical example of a hanging scroll in a tea room might have the kanji 和敬 清寂 (wa - kei - sei - jaku, lit. "harmony '', "respect '', "purity '', and "tranquility ''), expressing the four key principles of the Way of Tea. Some contain only a single character; in summer, 風 (kaze, lit. "wind '') would be appropriate. Hanging scrolls that feature a painting instead of calligraphy, or a combination of both, are also used. Scrolls are sometimes placed in the waiting room as well.
Chabana (literally "tea flower '') is the simple style of flower arrangement used in tea rooms. Chabana has its roots in ikebana, an older style of Japanese flower arranging, which itself has roots in Shinto and Buddhism.
It evolved from the "free - form '' style of ikebana called nageirebana (投げ入れ, "throw - in flowers ''), which was used by early tea masters. Chabana is said, depending upon the source, to have been either developed or championed by Sen no Rikyū. He is said to have taught that chabana should give the viewer the same impression that those flowers naturally would give if they were (still) growing outdoors, in nature.
Unnatural or out - of - season materials are never used. Also, props and other devices are not used. The containers in which chabana are arranged are referred to generically as hanaire (花 入れ). Chabana arrangements typically comprise few items, and little or no filler material. In the summer, when many flowering grasses are in season in Japan, however, it is seasonally appropriate to arrange a number of such flowering grasses in an airy basket - type container. Unlike ikebana (which often uses shallow, wide dishes), tall, narrow hanaire are frequently used in chabana. The containers for the flowers used in tea rooms are typically made from natural materials such as bamboo, as well as metal or ceramic, but rarely glass as Ikebana (another flower arrangement) uses short, glass vases.
Chabana arrangements are so simple that frequently no more than a single blossom is used; this blossom will invariably lean towards or face the guests.
Kaiseki (懐石) or cha - kaiseki (茶 懐石) is a meal served in the context of a formal tea function. In cha - kaiseki, only fresh seasonal ingredients are used, prepared in ways that aim to enhance their flavour. Great care is taken in selecting ingredients and types of food, and the finished dishes are carefully presented on serving ware that is chosen to enhance the appearance and seasonal theme of the meal. Dishes are intricately arranged and garnished, often with real edible leaves and flowers that are to help enhance the flavour of the food. Serving ware and garnishes are as much a part of the kaiseki experience as the food; some might argue that the aesthetic experience of seeing the food is even more important than the physical experience of eating it.
Courses are served in small servings in individual dishes. Each diner has a small lacquered tray to him - or herself; very important people may be provided their own low, lacquered table or several small tables.
Because cha - kaiseki generally follows traditional eating habits in Japan, meat dishes are rare.
Many of the movements and components of tea offerings evolved from the wearing of kimono; and, although it is not uncommon for students nowadays to wear western clothes for practice, most will practice in kimono at least some of the time, as this is essential to learn the prescribed motions properly.
For example, certain movements are designed with long kimono sleeves in mind; certain motions are intended to move sleeves out of the way or to prevent them from becoming dirtied in the process of making, serving or partaking of tea. Other motions are designed to allow for the straightening of the kimono and hakama. The silk fukusa cloths are designed to be folded and tucked into the obi (sash); when no obi is worn, a regular belt must be substituted or the motions can not be performed properly. Kaishi and smaller silk cloths known as kobukusa (小 袱紗) are tucked into the breast of the kimono; fans are tucked into the obi. When Western clothes are worn, the wearer must find other places to keep these objects. The sleeves of the kimono also function as pockets, and used kaishi are folded and placed into them.
On formal occasions the host -- male or female -- always wears a kimono. Proper attire for guests is kimono or western formal wear. Most practitioners own at least one kimono suitable for wearing when hosting or participating in tea ceremonies. For both men and women, the attire worn at a tea gathering -- whether traditional kimono or other clothing -- is usually subdued and conservative, so as not to be distracting.
Men may wear kimono only, or (for more formal occasions) a combination of kimono and hakama (a long divided or undivided skirt worn over the kimono). Those who have earned the right may wear a kimono with a jittoku or juttoku (十徳) jacket instead of hakama.
Women wear various styles of kimono depending on the season and the event; women generally do not wear hakama for tea occasions, and do not gain the right to wear a jittoku.
Lined kimono are worn by both men and women in the winter months, and unlined ones in the summer. For formal occasions, montsuki kimono (紋付 着物) (kimono with three to five family crests on the sleeves and back) are worn. Both men and women wear white tabi (divided - toe socks).
In Japan, those who wish to study the way of tea typically join what is known in Japanese as a "circle '', which is a generic term for a group that meets regularly to participate in a given activity. There are also tea clubs at many junior and high schools, colleges and universities.
Classes may be held at community centres, dedicated tea schools, or at private homes. Tea schools often have widely varied groups that all study in the same school but at different times. For example, there may be a women 's group, a group for older or younger students, and so on.
Students normally pay a monthly fee which covers tuition and the use of the school 's (or teacher 's) bowls and other equipment, the tea itself, and the sweets that students serve and eat at every class. Students must be equipped with their own fukusa, fan, kaishi paper, and kobukusa, as well as their own wallet in which to place these items. Though western clothing is very common today, if the teacher is in the higher rank of tradition, especially an iemoto, wearing kimono is still considered essential, especially for women. In some cases, advanced students may be given permission to wear the school 's mark in place of the usual family crests on formal montsuki kimono. This permission usually accompanies the granting of a chamei, or "tea name '', to the student.
New students typically begin by observing more advanced students as they practice. New students may be taught mostly by more advanced students; the most advanced students are taught exclusively by the teacher. The first things new students learn are how to correctly open and close sliding doors, how to walk on tatami, how to enter and exit the tea room, how to bow and to whom and when to do so, how to wash, store and care for the various equipment, how to fold the fukusa, how to ritually clean tea equipment, and how to wash and fold chakin. As they master these essential steps, students are also taught how to behave as a guest at tea ceremonies: the correct words to say, how to handle bowls, how to drink tea and eat sweets, how to use paper and sweet - picks, and myriad other details.
As they master the basics, students will be instructed on how to prepare the powdered tea for use, how to fill the tea caddy, and finally, how to measure the tea and water and whisk it to the proper consistency. Once these basic steps have been mastered, students begin to practice the simplest temae, typically beginning with O - bon temae (see above). Only when the first offering has been mastered will students move on. Study is through observation and hands on practice; students do not often take notes, and many teachers discourage the practice of note - taking.
As they master each offering, some schools and teachers present students with certificates at a formal ceremony. According to the school, this certificate may warrant that the student has mastered a given temae, or may give the student permission to begin studying a given temae. Acquiring such certificates is often very costly; the student typically must not only pay for the preparation of the certificate itself and for participating in the gathering during which it is bestowed, but is also expected to thank the teacher by presenting him or her with a gift of money. The cost of acquiring certificates increases as the student 's level increases.
Typically, each class ends with the whole group being given brief instruction by the main teacher, usually concerning the contents of the tokonoma (the scroll alcove, which typically features a hanging scroll (usually with calligraphy), a flower arrangement, and occasionally other objects as well) and the sweets that have been served that day. Related topics include incense and kimono, or comments on seasonal variations in equipment or offerings.
Like the formal art surrounding matcha, there is a formal art surrounding sencha, which is distinguished as senchadō (煎茶 道, the way of sencha). Generally it involves the high - grade gyokuro class of sencha. This offering, more Chinese in style, was introduced to Japan in the 17th century by Ingen, the founder of the Ōbaku school of Zen Buddhism, which is in general more Chinese in style than earlier schools. In the 18th century, it was popularized by the Ōbaku monk Baisao, who sold tea in Kyoto, and later came to be regarded as the first sencha master. It remains associated with the Ōbaku school, and the head temple of Manpuku - ji hosts regular sencha tea conventions.
In season 5, episode 7 of Samurai Jack, Jack is depicted performing a tea offering for an old monk.
The 1986 film Karate Kid Part II, both Daniel and Mr. Miyagi performs a tea offering with their significant others.
The 1989 film Rikyu, directed by Hiroshi Teshigahara, depicts the later years of tea master Sen no Rikyū 's life.
In the 1979 epic Shogun by James Clavell the character Buntaro performs the ceremony to make amends with his wife Mariko.
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where was the mountain scene in the deer hunter filmed | The Deer Hunter - wikipedia
The Deer Hunter is a 1978 American epic war drama film co-written and directed by Michael Cimino about a trio of Russian American steelworkers whose lives are changed forever after they fight in the Vietnam War. The three soldiers are played by Robert De Niro, Christopher Walken, and John Savage, with John Cazale (in his final role), Meryl Streep, and George Dzundza playing supporting roles. The story takes place in Clairton, Pennsylvania, a small working class town on the Monongahela River south of Pittsburgh, and in Vietnam.
The film was based in part on an unproduced screenplay called The Man Who Came to Play by Louis Garfinkle and Quinn K. Redeker, about Las Vegas and Russian roulette. Producer Michael Deeley, who bought the script, hired writer / director Michael Cimino who, with Deric Washburn, rewrote the script, taking the Russian roulette element and placing it in the Vietnam War. The film went over-budget and over-schedule, and ended up costing $15 million. The scenes depicting Russian roulette were highly controversial after the film 's release.
The film won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director for Michael Cimino, and Best Supporting Actor for Christopher Walken, and marked Meryl Streep 's very first Academy Award nomination (for Best Supporting Actress); she would go on to become the most nominated actor in history. In 1996 it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '', and was named the 53rd greatest American film of all time by the American Film Institute in 2007 in their 10th Anniversary Edition of the AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.
In the small working class town of Clairton, Pennsylvania, in late 1967, steel workers Mike Vronsky, Steven Pushkov, and Nick Chevotarevich, with the support of their friends and co-workers Stan and Peter "Axel '' Axelrod and local bar owner and friend John Welsh, prepare for two rites of passage: marriage and military service. Mike is a serious but unassuming leader; Steven the groom - to - be, pecked - at by his mother; and Nick the introspective man who loves deer hunting.
Before the trio ships out, Steven and his girlfriend Angela marry in a Russian Orthodox wedding. Mike works to control his feelings for Nick 's girlfriend Linda. At the wedding reception held at the local VFW hall, the guys drink, dance, sing, and enjoy the festivities, but then notice a soldier in a U.S. Army Special Forces uniform. Mike attempts to ask what Vietnam is like, but the soldier ignores him. After Mike explains that he, Steven, and Nick are going to Vietnam, the Green Beret raises his glass and says "fuck it ''. After being restrained from starting a fight, Mike goes back to the bar and raises his glass and toasts him with "fuck it ''. The soldier glances over at Mike and grins.
Later, Steven and Angela drink from conjoined goblets, a traditional part of the Orthodox wedding ceremony. It is believed that if they drink without spilling any wine, they will have good luck for life. Two drops of blood - red wine unknowingly spill on her wedding gown. After Linda catches the bride 's bouquet, Nick asks her to marry him, and she agrees. Later that night, a drunken Mike runs through the town, stripping himself naked along the way. After Nick chases him down, he begs Mike not to leave him "over there '' if anything happens in combat. The next day, Mike, Nick, Stan, John, and Axel go deer hunting one last time. Mike is exasperated by his friends, especially Stan, who drinks and clowns, showing little respect for the ritual of hunting, which to Mike is a nearly sacred experience. Only Nick understands Mike 's attitude, but he is more indulgent toward his friends. Mike goes hunting afterwards and kills a deer with one clean shot.
The friends return to Welsh 's bar, with Michael 's deer strapped to the hood of the car. They enter rambunctiously, spraying beers over each other and singing loudly. Welsh then makes his way to the piano and begins playing Chopin 's Nocturne No. 6 Op. 15 - 3.
In Vietnam, U.S. helicopters attack a village. An unconscious Mike (now a Staff Sergeant in the Special Forces) wakes up to see an NVA soldier shoot a woman carrying a baby. Mike kills him with a flamethrower. Meanwhile, a unit of UH - 1 "Huey '' helicopters drops off several U.S. infantrymen, Nick and Steven among them. Mike, Steven, and Nick unexpectedly find each other just before they are captured and held in a prisoner of war camp. For entertainment, the guards force the prisoners to play Russian roulette and gamble on the outcome. All three friends are forced to play. Steven plays against Mike, who offers moral support, but Steven breaks down and points the gun upwards whilst pulling the trigger, grazing himself with the bullet when it discharges. As punishment, the guards put him into an underwater cage full of rats and dead bodies. Mike and Nick hatch a plan to escape by playing against each other, with Mike convincing the guards to let them play Russian roulette with three bullets in the gun. After a tense match, they kill their captors and escape.
After killing the guards, Mike rescues Steven. The three float downriver on a tree limb. An American helicopter finds them, but only Nick is able to climb aboard. The weakened Steven falls back into the water, and Mike plunges in the water to rescue him. Mike helps Steven to reach the river bank, but Steven 's legs are broken, so Mike carries him through the jungle to friendly lines. Approaching a caravan of locals escaping the war zone, Mike stops a South Vietnamese military truck and places the wounded Steven on it, asking the soldiers to take care of him.
Nick recuperates in a military hospital in Saigon with no knowledge of his friends. After being released, he goes AWOL and aimlessly stumbles through the red - light district at night. He encounters Julien Grinda, a Frenchman, outside a gambling den where men play Russian roulette for money. Grinda entices the reluctant Nick to participate and leads him into the den. Mike is present in the den, watching the game, but the two friends do not notice each other at first. When Mike does see Nick, he is unable to get his attention. When Nick is introduced into the game, he grabs the gun, fires it at the current contestant, and then again at his own temple, causing the audience to riot in protest. Grinda hustles Nick outside to his car to escape the angry mob. Mike can not catch up with them as they speed away.
Back in the U.S., Mike maintains a low profile. He tells a cab driver to drive past the house where all his friends are waiting, as he is embarrassed by the fuss Linda and the others have made. He visits Linda the following day and grows close to her, but only because of the friend they both think they have lost. Mike goes to visit Angela at Steven 's mother 's home. Angela is barely responsive. When asked by Mike about Steven 's whereabouts, she writes a phone number on a scrap of paper, which leads Mike to the local VA hospital where Steven has been for several months. Mike goes hunting with Axel, John, and Stan one more time, and after tracking a deer across the woods, fires into the air. He then sits on a rock escarpment and yells out, "OK? '', which echoes back at him. He also berates Stan for carrying around a small revolver and waving it around, not realizing it is loaded. Mike visits Steven, who has lost both of his legs and is partially paralyzed. Steven reveals that someone in Saigon has been mailing large amounts of money to him, and Mike is convinced that it is Nick. Mike brings a reluctant Steven home to Angela and then travels to Saigon just before its fall in 1975.
He tracks down Grinda, who has made a lot of money from the Russian roulette - playing Nick. He finds Nick in a crowded gambling club, but Nick appears to have no recollection of his friends or his home. Mike enters the game of Russian roulette against Nick, hoping to jog his memory and persuade him to come home, but Nick 's mind is gone. To keep him from taking another turn, Mike grabs Nick 's arms, which are covered in scars. At the last moment, after Mike reminds Nick of their hunting trips together, Nick recognizes Mike and smiles. Nick raises the gun to his temple, and pulls the trigger, killing himself. Mike tries reviving him, but to no avail.
Back home in 1975, the friends have gathered for Nick 's funeral, whom Mike has brought home, staying good to his promise. Mike toasts in Nick 's honor.
While producer Deeley was pleased with the revised script, he was still concerned about being able to sell the film. "We still had to get millions out of a major studio, '' wrote Deeley, "as well as convince our markets around the world that they should buy it before it was finished. I needed someone with the caliber of Robert De Niro. '' De Niro was one of the biggest stars at that time, coming off Mean Streets (1973), The Godfather Part II (1974), and Taxi Driver (1976). In addition to attracting buyers, Deeley felt De Niro was "the right age, apparently tough as hell, and immensely talented. ''
Hiring De Niro turned out to be a casting coup because he knew so many actors in New York. De Niro brought Meryl Streep to the attention of Cimino and Deeley. With Streep came John Cazale. De Niro also accompanied Cimino to scout locations for the steel mill sequence as well as rehearsed with the actors to use the workshops as a bonding process.
Each of the six principal male characters carried a photo in their back pocket depicting them all together as children, to enhance the sense of camaraderie amongst them. Additionally, director Cimino instructed the props department to fashion complete Pennsylvania IDs for each of them, including driver 's licenses, medical cards, and various other pieces of paraphernalia, in order to enhance each actor 's sense of his character.
There has been considerable debate, controversy, and conflicting stories about how The Deer Hunter was initially developed and written. Director and co-writer Michael Cimino, writer Deric Washburn, and producers Barry Spikings and Michael Deeley all have different versions of how the film came to be.
In 1968, the record company EMI formed a new company called EMI Films, headed by producers Barry Spikings and Michael Deeley. Deeley purchased the first draft of a spec script called The Man Who Came to Play, written by Louis Garfinkle and Quinn K. Redeker, for $19,000. The spec script was about people who go to Las Vegas to play Russian roulette. "The screenplay had struck me as brilliant, '' wrote Deeley, "but it was n't complete. The trick would be to find a way to turn a very clever piece of writing into a practical, realizable film. '' When the movie was being planned during the mid-1970s, Vietnam was still a taboo subject with all major Hollywood studios. According to producer Michael Deeley, the standard response was "no American would want to see a picture about Vietnam ''.
After consulting various Hollywood agents, Deeley found writer - director Michael Cimino, represented by Stan Kamen at the William Morris Agency. Deeley was impressed by Cimino 's TV commercial work and crime film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot (1974). Cimino himself was confident that he could further develop the principal characters of The Man Who Came to Play without losing the essence of the original. After Cimino was hired, he was called into a meeting with Garfinkle and Redeker at the EMI office. According to Deeley, Cimino questioned the need for the Russian roulette element of the script, and Redeker made such a passionate case for it that he ended up literally on his knees. Over the course of further meetings, Cimino and Deeley discussed the work needed at the front of the script, and Cimino believed he could develop the stories of the main characters in the first 20 minutes of film.
Cimino worked for six weeks with Deric Washburn on the script. Cimino and Washburn had previously collaborated with Stephen Bochco on the screenplay for Silent Running (1972). According to producer Spikings, Cimino said he wanted to work again with Washburn. According to producer Deeley, he only heard from office rumor that Washburn was contracted by Cimino to work on the script. "Whether Cimino hired Washburn as his sub-contractor or as a co-writer was constantly being obfuscated, '' wrote Deeley, "and there were some harsh words between them later on, or so I was told. ''
According to Cimino, he would call Washburn while on the road scouting for locations and feed him notes on dialogue and story. Upon reviewing Washburn 's draft, Cimino said, "I came back, and read it and I just could not believe what I read. It was like it was written by somebody who was... mentally deranged. '' Cimino confronted Washburn at the Sunset Marquis in LA about the draft, and Washburn supposedly replied that he could n't take the pressure and had to go home. Cimino then fired Washburn. Cimino later claimed to have written the entire screenplay himself. Washburn 's response to Cimino 's comments were, "It 's all nonsense. It 's lies. I did n't have a single drink the entire time I was working on the script. ''
According to Washburn, he and Cimino spent three days together in Los Angeles at the Sunset Marquis, hammering out the plot. The script eventually went through several drafts, evolving into a story with three distinct acts. Washburn did not interview any veterans to write The Deer Hunter nor do any research. "I had a month, that was it, '' he explains. "The clock was ticking. Write the fucking script! But all I had to do was watch TV. Those combat cameramen in Vietnam were out there in the field with the guys. I mean, they had stuff that you would n't dream of seeing about Iraq. '' When Washburn was finished, he says, Cimino and Joann Carelli, an associate producer on The Deer Hunter who went on to produce two more of Cimino 's later films, took him to dinner at a cheap restaurant off the Sunset Strip. He recalls, "We finished, and Joann looks at me across the table, and she says, ' Well, Deric, it 's fuck - off time. ' I was fired. It was a classic case: you get a dummy, get him to write the goddamn thing, tell him to go fuck himself, put your name on the thing, and he 'll go away. I was so tired, I did n't care. I 'd been working 20 hours a day for a month. I got on the plane the next day, and I went back to Manhattan and my carpenter job. ''
Deeley felt the revised script, now called The Deer Hunter, broke fresh ground for the project. The protagonist in the Redeker / Garfinkle script, Merle, was an individual who sustained a bad injury in active service and was damaged psychologically by his violent experiences, but was nevertheless a tough character with strong nerves and guts. Cimino and Washburn 's revised script distilled the three aspects of Merle 's personality and separated them out into three distinct characters. They became three old friends who grew up in the same small industrial town and worked in the same steel mill, and in due course were drafted together to Vietnam. In the original script, the roles of Merle (later renamed Mike) and Nick were reversed in the last half of the film. Nick returns home to Linda, while Mike remains in Vietnam, sends money home to help Steven, and meets his tragic fate at the Russian roulette table.
A Writers ' Guild arbitration process awarded Washburn sole "Screenplay by '' credit. Garfinkle and Redeker were given a shared "Story by '' credit with Cimino and Washburn. Deeley felt the story credits for Garfinkle and Redeker "did them less than justice. '' Cimino contested the results of the arbitration. "In their Nazi wisdom, '' added Cimino, "(they) did n't give me the credit because I would be producer, director and writer. '' All four writers -- Cimino, Washburn, Garfinkle, and Redeker -- received an Oscar nomination for Best Original Screenplay for the film.
The Deer Hunter began principal photography on June 20, 1977. This was the first feature film depicting the Vietnam War to be filmed on location in Thailand. All scenes were shot on location (no sound stages). "There was discussion about shooting the film on a back lot, but the material demanded more realism, '' says Spikings. The cast and crew viewed large amounts of news footage from the war to ensure authenticity. The film was shot over a period of six months. The Clairton scenes comprise footage shot in eight different towns in four states: West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Washington, and Ohio. The initial budget of the film was $8.5 million.
Meryl Streep accepted the role of the "vague, stock girlfriend '', in order to remain for the duration of filming with John Cazale, who had been diagnosed with lung cancer. De Niro had spotted Streep in her stage production of The Cherry Orchard and had suggested that she play his girlfriend Linda. Before the beginning of principal photography, Deeley had a meeting with the film 's appointed line producer Robert Relyea. Deeley hired Relyea after meeting him on the set of Bullitt (1968) and was impressed with his experience. However, Relyea declined the job, refusing to disclose his reason why. Deeley suspected that Relyea sensed in director Cimino something that would have made production difficult. As a result, Cimino was acting without the day - to - day supervision of a producer.
Because Deeley was busy overseeing in the production of Sam Peckinpah 's Convoy (1978), he hired John Peverall to oversee Cimino 's shoot. Peverall 's expertise with budgeting and scheduling made him a natural successor to Relyea, and Peverall knew enough about the picture to be elevated to producer status. "John is a straightforward Cornishman who had worked his way up to become a production supervisor, '' wrote Deeley, "and we employed him as EMI 's watchman on certain pictures. ''
The wedding scenes were filmed at the historic St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral in the Tremont neighborhood of Cleveland, Ohio. The wedding took five days to film. St. Theodosius ' Father Stephen Kopestonsky was cast as the priest at the wedding. The reception scene was filmed at nearby Lemko Hall. The amateur extras lined up for the crowded wedding - dance sequences drank real liquor and beer. The scenes were filmed in the summer, but were set in the fall. To accomplish a look of fall, individual leaves were removed from deciduous trees. Zsigmond also had to desaturate the colors of the exterior shots, partly in camera and in the laboratory processing.
The production manager asked each of the Russian immigrant extras to bring to the location a gift - wrapped box to double for wedding presents. The manager figured if the extras did this, not only would the production save time and money, but the gifts would also look more authentic. Once the unit wrapped and the extras disappeared, the crew discovered to their amusement that the boxes were n't empty but filled with real presents, from china to silverware. "Who got to keep all these wonderful offerings, '' wrote Deeley "is a mystery I never quite fathomed. ''
Cimino originally claimed that the wedding scene would take up 21 minutes of screen time. In the end, it took 51 minutes. Deeley believes that Cimino always planned to make this prologue last for an hour, and "the plan was to be advanced by stealth rather than straight dealing. ''
At this point in the production, nearly halfway through principal photography, Cimino was already over budget, and producer Spikings could tell from the script that shooting the extended scene could sink the project.
The bar was specially constructed in an empty storefront in Mingo Junction, Ohio for $25,000; it later became an actual saloon for local steel mill workers. U.S. Steel allowed filming inside its Cleveland mill, including placing the actors around the furnace floor, only after securing a $5 million insurance policy. Other filming took place in Pittsburgh.
The first deer to be shot was depicted in a "gruesome close - up '', although he was hit with a tranquilizer dart. The stag that Michael allows to get away later was the same one used on TV commercials for the Connecticut Life Insurance Company.
The Viet Cong Russian roulette scenes were shot in real circumstances, with real rats and mosquitoes, as the three principals (De Niro, Walken, and Savage) were tied up in bamboo cages erected along the River Kwai. The woman who was given the task of casting the extras in Thailand had much difficulty finding a local to play the vicious - looking individual who runs the game. The first actor hired turned out to be incapable of slapping De Niro in the face. The caster then found a local Thai man with a particular dislike of Americans, and cast him accordingly. De Niro suggested that Walken be slapped for real by one of the guards without any warning. The reaction on Walken 's face was genuine. Producer Deeley has said that Cimino shot the brutal Vietcong Russian roulette scenes brilliantly and more efficiently than any other part of the film.
De Niro and Savage performed their own stunts in the fall into the river, filming the 30 foot drop 15 times in two days. During the helicopter stunt, the runners caught on the rope bridge as the helicopter rose, which threatened to seriously injure De Niro and Savage. The actors gestured and yelled furiously to the crew in the helicopter to warn them. Footage of this is included in the film.
According to Cimino, De Niro requested a live cartridge in the revolver for the scene in which he subjects John Cazale 's character to an impromptu game of Russian roulette, to heighten the intensity of the situation. Cazale agreed without protest, but obsessively rechecked the gun before each take to make sure that the live round was n't next in the chamber.
While appearing later in the film, the first scenes shot upon arrival in Thailand were the hospital sequences between Walken and the military doctor. Deeley believed that this scene was "the spur that would earn him an Academy Award. ''
In the final scene in the gambling den between Mike and Nick, Cimino had Walken and De Niro improvise in one take. His direction to his actors: "You put the gun to your head, Chris, you shoot, you fall over and Bobby cradles your head. ''
By this point, The Deer Hunter had cost $13 million and the film still had to go through an arduous post-production. Film editor Peter Zinner was given 600,000 feet of printed film to edit, a monumental task at the time. Producers Spikings and Deeley were pleased with the first cut, which ran for three and a half hours. "We were thrilled by what we saw, '' wrote Deeley, "and knew that within the three and a half hours we watched there was a riveting film. ''
Executives from Universal, including Lew Wasserman and Sid Sheinberg, were not very enthusiastic. "I think they were shocked, '' recalled Spikings. "What really upset them was ' God Bless America '. Sheinberg thought it was anti-American. He was vehement. He said something like ' You 're poking a stick in the eye of America. ' They really did n't like the movie. And they certainly did n't like it at three hours and two minutes. '' Deeley was n't surprised by the Universal response: "The Deer Hunter was a United Artists sort of picture, whereas Convoy was more in the style of Universal. I 'd muddled and sold the wrong picture to each studio. '' Deeley did agree with Universal that the film needed to be shorter, not just because of pacing but also to ensure commercial success. "A picture under two and a half hours can scrape three shows a day, '' wrote Deeley, "but at three hours you 've lost one third of your screenings and one third of your income for the cinemas, distributors, and profit participants. ''
Thom Mount, president of Universal at the time, said, "This was just a... continuing nightmare from the day Michael finished the picture to the day we released it. That was simply because he was wedded to everything he shot. The movie was endless. It was The Deer Hunter and the Hunter and the Hunter. The wedding sequence was a cinematic event all unto its own. '' Mount says he turned to Verna Fields, Universal 's then - head of post-production. "I sicked Verna on Cimino, '' Mount says. "Verna was no slouch. She started to turn the heat up on Michael, and he started screeching and yelling. ''
Zinner eventually cut the film down to 18,000 feet. Cimino later fired Zinner when he discovered that Zinner was editing down the wedding scenes. Zinner eventually won Best Editing Oscar for The Deer Hunter. Regarding the clashes between him and Cimino, Zinner stated: "Michael Cimino and I had our differences at the end, but he kissed me when we both got Academy Awards. '' Cimino later commented in The New York Observer, "(Zinner) was a moron... I cut Deer Hunter myself. ''
The Deer Hunter was Cimino 's first film to use Dolby noise - reduction system. "What Dolby does, '' replied Cimino, "is to give you the ability to create a density of detail of sound -- a richness so you can demolish the wall separating the viewer from the film. You can come close to demolishing the screen. '' It took five months to mix the soundtrack. One short battle sequence -- 200 feet of film in the final cut -- took five days to dub. Another sequence recreated the 1975 American evacuation of Saigon; Cimino brought the film 's composer, Stanley Myers, out to the location to listen to the auto, tank, and jeep horns as the sequence was being photographed. The result, according to Cimino: Myers composed the music for that scene in the same key as the horn sounds, so the music and the sound effects would blend with the images to create one jarring, desolate experience.
Both the long and short versions were previewed to Midwestern audiences, although there are different accounts among Cimino, Deeley, and Spikings as to how the previews panned out. Director Cimino claims he bribed the projectionist to interrupt the shorter version, in order to obtain better reviews of the longer one. According to producer Spikings, Wasserman let EMI 's CEO Bernard Delfont decide between the two and chose Cimino 's longer cut. Deeley claims that the two - and - a-half hour version tested had a better response.
The soundtrack to The Deer Hunter was released on audio CD on October 25, 1990.
The Deer Hunter debuted at one theater each in New York and Los Angeles for a week on December 8, 1978. The release strategy was to qualify the film for Oscar consideration and close after a week to build interest. After the Oscar nominations, Universal widened the distribution to include major cities, building up to a full - scale release on February 23, 1979, just following the Oscars. This film was important for helping release patterns for so - called prestige pictures that screen only at the end of the year to qualify for Academy Award recognition. The film eventually grossed $48.9 million at the US box office.
CBS paid $3.5 million for three runs of the film. The network later cancelled the acquisition on the contractually permitted grounds of the film containing too much violence for US network transmission.
One of the most talked - about sequences in the film, the Vietcong 's use of Russian roulette with POWs, was criticized as being contrived and unrealistic since there were no documented cases of Russian roulette in the Vietnam War. Associated Press reporter Peter Arnett, who won a Pulitzer Prize for his coverage of the war, wrote in the Los Angeles Times, "In its 20 years of war, there was not a single recorded case of Russian roulette... The central metaphor of the movie is simply a bloody lie. '' Director Cimino was also criticized for one - sidedly portraying all the North Vietnamese as sadistic racists and killers. Cimino countered that his film was not political, polemical, literally accurate, or posturing for any particular point of view. He further defended his position by saying that he had news clippings from Singapore that confirm Russian roulette was used during the war (without specifying which article).
During the 29th Berlin International Film Festival in 1979, the Soviet delegation expressed its indignation with the film which, in their opinion, insulted the Vietnamese people in numerous scenes. Other socialist states also voiced their solidarity with the "heroic people of Vietnam ''. They protested against the screening of the film and insisted that it violated the statutes of the festival, since it in no way contributed to the "improvement of mutual understanding between the peoples of the world ''. The ensuing domino effect led to the walk - outs of the Cubans, East Germans, Bulgarians, Poles and Czechoslovakians, and two members of the jury resigned in sympathy.
In his review, Roger Ebert defended the artistic license of Russian roulette, arguing "it is the organizing symbol of the film: Anything you can believe about the game, about its deliberately random violence, about how it touches the sanity of men forced to play it, will apply to the war as a whole. It is a brilliant symbol because, in the context of this story, it makes any ideological statement about the war superfluous. ''
Film critic and biographer David Thomson also agrees that the film works despite the controversy: "There were complaints that the North Vietnamese had not employed Russian roulette. It was said that the scenes in Saigon were fanciful or imagined. It was also suggested that De Niro, Christopher Walken, and John Savage were too old to have enlisted for Vietnam (Savage, the youngest of the three, was 28). Three decades later, ' imagination ' seems to have stilled those worries... and The Deer Hunter is one of the great American films. ''
In her review, Pauline Kael wrote, "The Vietcong are treated in the standard inscrutable - evil Oriental style of the Japanese in the Second World War movies... The impression a viewer gets is that if we did some bad things there we did them ruthlessly but impersonally; the Vietcong were cruel and sadistic. ''
In his Vanity Fair article "The Vietnam Oscars '', Peter Biskind wrote that the political agenda of The Deer Hunter was something of a mystery: "It may have been more a by - product of Hollywood myopia, the demands of the war - film genre, garden - variety American parochialism, and simple ignorance than it was the pre-meditated right - wing road map it seemed to many. ''
According to Christopher Walken, the historical context was not paramount: "In the making of it, I do n't remember anyone ever mentioning Vietnam! '' De Niro added to this sentiment: "Whether (the film 's vision of the war) actually happened or not, it 's something you could imagine very easily happening. Maybe it did. I do n't know. All 's fair in love and war. '' Producer Spikings, while proud of the film, regrets the way the Vietnamese were portrayed. "I do n't think any of us meant it to be exploitive, '' Spikings said. "But I think we were... ignorant. I ca n't think of a better word for it. I did n't realize how badly we 'd behaved to the Vietnamese people... ''
Producer Deeley, on the other hand, was quick to defend Cimino 's comments on the nature and motives of the film: "The Deer Hunter was n't really ' about ' Vietnam. It was something very different. It was n't about drugs or the collapse of the morale of the soldiers. It was about how individuals respond to pressure: different men reacting quite differently. The film was about three steel workers in extraordinary circumstances. Apocalypse Now is surreal. The Deer Hunter is a parable... Men who fight and lose an unworthy war face some obvious and unpalatable choices. They can blame their leaders... or they can blame themselves. Self - blame has been a great burden for many war veterans. So how does a soldier come to terms with his defeat and yet still retain his self - respect? One way is to present the conquering enemy as so inhuman, and the battle between the good guys (us) and the bad guys (them) so uneven, as to render defeat irrelevant. Inhumanity was the theme of The Deer Hunter 's portrayal of the North Vietnamese prison guards forcing American POWs to play Russian roulette. The audience 's sympathy with prisoners who (quite understandably) cracked thus completes the chain. Accordingly, some veterans who suffered in that war found the Russian roulette a valid allegory. ''
Cimino frequently referred to The Deer Hunter as a "personal '' and "autobiographical '' film, although later investigation by journalists like Tom Buckley of Harper 's revealed inaccuracies in Cimino 's accounts and reported background.
In 1986, critic Robin Wood examined what he viewed as the film 's homosexual subtext. In the film 's central "male love affair '' Mike supposedly represents the powers of control and repression, whereas Nick stands for release and liberation. According to Wood, "Nick both is and knows himself to be in love with Mike and Mike reciprocates that love but ca n't admit it, even to himself ''. In the end, Wood argues that Nick shoots himself because "he has recognized that Mike offers nothing but a return to repression ''.
The final scene in which all the main characters gather and sing "God Bless America '' became a subject of heated debate among critics when the film was released. It raised the question of whether this conclusion was meant ironically or not -- "as a critique of patriotism or a paean to it ''.
The film 's initial reviews were largely positive. It was hailed by many critics as the best American epic since Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather. The film was praised for its depiction of realistic working class settings and environment; Cimino 's direction; the performances of De Niro, Walken, Streep, Savage, Dzundza and Cazale; the symphonic shifts of tone and pacing in moving from America to Vietnam; the tension during the Russian roulette scenes; and the themes of American disillusionment.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four stars and called it "one of the most emotionally shattering films ever made. '' Gene Siskel from the Chicago Tribune praised the film, saying, "This is a big film, dealing with big issues, made on a grand scale. Much of it, including some casting decisions, suggest inspiration by The Godfather. '' Leonard Maltin also gave the film four stars, calling it a "sensitive, painful, evocative work ''. Vincent Canby of the New York Times called The Deer Hunter "a big, awkward, crazily ambitious motion picture that comes as close to being a popular epic as any movie about this country since The Godfather. Its vision is that of an original, major new filmmaker. '' David Denby of New York called it "an epic '' with "qualities that we almost never see any more -- range and power and breadth of experience. '' Jack Kroll of Time asserted it put director Cimino "right at the center of film culture. '' Stephen Farber pronounced the film in New West magazine as "the greatest anti-war movie since La Grande Illusion. ''
However, The Deer Hunter was not without critical backlash. Pauline Kael of The New Yorker wrote a positive review with some reservations: "(It is) a small minded film with greatness in it... with an enraptured view of common life... (but) enraging, because, despite its ambitiousness and scale, it has no more moral intelligence than the Eastwood action pictures. '' Andrew Sarris wrote that the film was "massively vague, tediously elliptical, and mysteriously hysterical... It is perhaps significant that the actors remain more interesting than the characters they play. '' Jonathan Rosenbaum disparaged The Deer Hunter as an "Oscar - laden weepie about macho buddies '' and "a disgusting account of what the evil Vietnamese did to poor, innocent Americans ''. John Simon of New York wrote: "For all its pretensions to something newer and better, this film is only an extension of the old Hollywood war - movie lie. The enemy is still bestial and stupid, and no match for our purity and heroism; only we no longer wipe up the floor with him -- rather, we litter it with his guts. ''
Author Karina Longworth notes that Streep "made a case for female empowerment by playing a woman to whom empowerment was a foreign concept -- a normal lady from an average American small town, for whom subservience was the only thing she knew ''. She states that The Deer Hunter "evokes a version of dominant masculinity in which male friendship is a powerful force ''. It has a "credibly humanist message '', and that the "slow study of the men in blissfully ignorant homeland machismo is crucial to it ''.
The film holds a metascore of 73 on Metacritic, based on seven reviews, and 93 % fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 48 reviews. The RT summary reads:
Its greatness is blunted by its length and one - sided point of view, but the film 's weaknesses are overpowered by Michael Cimino 's sympathetic direction and a series of heartbreaking performances from Robert De Niro, Meryl Streep, and Christopher Walken.
Academy Award - winning film director Miloš Forman and Academy Award - nominated actor Mickey Rourke consider The Deer Hunter to be one of the greatest films of all time.
Cimino 's next film, Heaven 's Gate (1980), debuted to lacerating reviews and took in only $3 million in ticket sales, effectively leaving United Artists bankrupt. The failure of Heaven 's Gate led several critics to revise their positions on The Deer Hunter. Canby said in his famous review of Heaven 's Gate, "(The film) fails so completely that you might suspect Mr. Cimino sold his soul to the Devil to obtain the success of The Deer Hunter, and the Devil has just come around to collect. '' Andrew Sarris wrote in his review of Heaven 's Gate, "I 'm a little surprised that many of the same critics who lionized Cimino for The Deer Hunter have now thrown him to the wolves with equal enthusiasm. '' Sarris added, "I was never taken in... Hence, the stupidity and incoherence in Heaven 's Gate came as no surprise since very much the same stupidity and incoherence had been amply evident in The Deer Hunter. '' In his book Final Cut: Dreams and Disaster in the Making of Heaven 's Gate, Steven Bach wrote, "critics seemed to feel obliged to go on the record about The Deer Hunter, to demonstrate that their critical credentials were un-besmirched by having been, as Sarris put it, ' taken in. ' ''
More recently, British film critic Mark Kermode challenged the film 's status: "At the risk of being thrown out of the ' respectable film critics ' circle, may I take this opportunity to declare officially that in my opinion The Deer Hunter is one of the worst films ever made, a rambling self indulgent, self aggrandizing barf-fest steeped in manipulatively racist emotion, and notable primarily for its farcically melodramatic tone which is pitched somewhere between shrieking hysteria and somnambulist sombreness. ''
However, many critics, including David Thomson and A.O. Scott., maintain that The Deer Hunter is still a great film, the power of which has n't since diminished.
Film producer and "old - fashioned mogul '' Allan Carr used his networking abilities to promote The Deer Hunter. "Exactly how Allan Carr came into The Deer Hunter 's orbit I can no longer remember, '' recalled producer Deeley, "but the picture became a crusade to him. He nagged, charmed, threw parties, he created word - of - mouth -- everything that could be done in Hollywood to promote a project. Because he had no apparent motive for this promotion, it had an added power and legitimacy and it finally did start to penetrate the minds of the Universal 's sales people that they actually had in their hands something a bit more significant than the usual. '' Deeley added that Carr 's promotion of the film was influential in positioning The Deer Hunter for Oscar nominations.
On the Sneak Previews special "Oscar Preview for 1978 '', Roger Ebert correctly predicted that The Deer Hunter would win for Best Picture while Gene Siskel predicted that Coming Home would win. However, Ebert incorrectly guessed that Robert De Niro would win for Best Actor for Deer Hunter and Jill Clayburgh would win for Best Actress for An Unmarried Woman while Siskel called the wins for Jon Voight as Best Actor and Jane Fonda as Best Actress, both for Coming Home. Both Ebert and Siskel called the win for Christopher Walken receiving the Oscar for Best Supporting Actor.
According to producer Deeley, orchestrated lobbying against The Deer Hunter was led by Warren Beatty, whose own picture Heaven Can Wait had multiple nominations. Beatty also used ex-girlfriends in his campaign: Julie Christie, serving on the jury at the Berlin Film Festival where Deer Hunter was screened, joined the walkout of the film by the Russian jury members. Jane Fonda also criticized The Deer Hunter in public. Deeley suggested that her criticisms partly stemmed from the competition between her film Coming Home vying with The Deer Hunter for Best Picture. According to Deeley, he planted a friend of his in the Oscar press area behind the stage to ask Fonda if she had seen The Deer Hunter. Fonda replied she had not seen the film, and to this day she still has not.
As the Oscars drew near, the backlash against The Deer Hunter gathered strength. When the limos pulled up to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion on April 9, 1979, they were met by demonstrators, mostly from the Los Angeles chapter of Vietnam Veterans Against the War. The demonstrators waved placards covered with slogans that read "No Oscars for racism '' and "The Deer Hunter a bloody lie '' and thrust pamphlets berating Deer Hunter into long lines of limousine windows. Washburn, nominated for Best Original Screenplay, claims his limousine was pelted with stones. According to Variety, "Police and The Deer Hunter protesters clashed in a brief but bloody battle that resulted in 13 arrests. ''
De Niro was so anxious that he did not attend the Oscars ceremony. He asked the Academy to sit out the show backstage, but when the Academy refused, De Niro stayed home in New York. Producer Deeley made a deal with fellow producer David Puttnam, whose film Midnight Express was nominated, that each would take $500 to the ceremony so if one of them won, the winner would give the loser the $500 to "drown his sorrows in style. ''
The Deer Hunter won five Oscars at the 51st Academy Awards in 1979:
In addition, the film was nominated in four other categories:
Cimino won the film 's only Golden Globe Award for Best Director. Other nominations the film included Best Motion Picture -- Drama, De Niro for Best Motion Picture Actor -- Drama, Walken for Best Motion Picture Actor in a Supporting Role, Streep for Best Motion Picture Actress in a Supporting Role, and Washburn for Best Screenplay -- Motion Picture.
The Deer Hunter was one of the first, and most controversial, major theatrical films to be critical of the American involvement in Vietnam following 1975 when the war officially ended. While the film opened the same year as Hal Ashby 's Coming Home, Sidney Furie 's The Boys in Company C, and Ted Post 's Go Tell the Spartans, it was the first film about Vietnam to reach a wide audience and critical acclaim, culminating in the winning of the Oscar for Best Picture. Other films released in the late 1970s and 1980s that illustrated the ' hellish ', futile conditions of bloody Vietnam War combat included:
David Thomson wrote in an article titled "The Deer Hunter: Story of a scene '' that the film changed the way war - time battles were portrayed on film: "The terror and the blast of firepower changed the war film, even if it only used a revolver. More or less before the late 1970s, the movies had lived by a Second World War code in which battle scenes might be fierce but always rigorously controlled. The Deer Hunter unleashed a new, raw dynamic in combat and action, paving the way for Platoon, Saving Private Ryan and Clint Eastwood 's Iwo Jima films. ''
In a 2011 interview with Rotten Tomatoes, actor William Fichtner retrospectively stated that he and his partner were silenced after seeing the film, stating that "the human experience was just so pointed; their journeys were so difficult, as life is sometimes. I remember after seeing it, walking down the street -- I actually went with a girl on a date and saw The Deer Hunter, and we left the theater and walked for like an hour and nobody said anything; we were just kind of stunned about that. ''
The deaths of approximately twenty - five people who died playing Russian roulette were reported as having been influenced by scenes in the movie.
In 1996, The Deer Hunter was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
American Film Institute included the film as # 79 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies, # 30 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, and # 53 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition).
The film ranks 467th in the Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time, noting:
Cimino 's bold, powerful ' Nam epic goes from blue - collar macho rituals to a fiery, South East Asian hell and back to a ragged singalong of America the Beautiful (sic). De Niro holds it together, but Christopher Walken, Meryl Streep and John Savage are unforgettable.
Jan Scruggs, a Vietnam veteran who became a counselor with the U.S. Department of Labor, thought of the idea of building a National Memorial for Vietnam Veterans after seeing a screening of the film in March 1979, and he established and operated the memorial fund which paid for it. Director Cimino was invited to the memorial 's opening.
The Deer Hunter has twice been released on DVD in America. The first 1998 issue was by Universal, with no extra features and a non-anamorphic transfer, and has since been discontinued. A second version, part of the "Legacy Series '', was released as a two - disc set on September 6, 2005, with an anamorphic transfer of the film. The set features a cinematographer 's commentary by Vilmos Zsigmond, deleted and extended scenes, and production notes.
The Region 2 version of The Deer Hunter, released in the UK and Japan, features a commentary track from director Michael Cimino.
The film was released on HD DVD on December 26, 2006.
StudioCanal released the film on the Blu - ray format in countries other than the United States on March 11, 2009. It was released on Blu - ray in the U.S. on March 6, 2012.
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cost action european cooperation in science and technology | European cooperation in science and technology - wikipedia
European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) is Europe 's longest - running intergovernmental framework for cooperation in science and technology. Founded in 1971, COST holds a successful history of funding science and technology networks for over 40 years, offering scientists the opportunity to embark upon bottom - up, multidisciplinary cooperation across all science and technology domains.
Also known as COST Actions, these science and technology networks allow scientists to grow their ideas by sharing them with their peers. This gives impetus to their research, career and innovation. Researchers, engineers and scholars from both public and private sectors can set up their own network in any field of science and technology. They can also choose to join running Actions or evaluate proposals for COST Actions.
COST Actions grow throughout a funding period of 4 years. The funding covers networking activities such as meetings (e.g. travel, subsistence, local organiser support), conferences, workshops, short - term scientific exchanges, training schools, publications and dissemination activities. COST does not fund research itself.
COST is one of the European financial instruments contributing to the build - up of the European Research Area (ERA). COST offers a platform for dialogue and interdisciplinary knowledge exchange among researchers from different fields as well as industry and their research labs. Through its inclusiveness and excellence policy, it offers opportunities for excellent researchers from less research - intensive knowledge centres. This way, COST contributes to European competitiveness and socio - economic development.
Its 36 member states include all 28 European Union countries as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Iceland, Montenegro, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland and Turkey. Israel is a cooperating state. In its efforts to open the European Research Area to international cooperation, COST also welcomes and supports the active involvement in COST Actions of researchers from COST Near Neighbour Countries and International Partner Countries, on the basis of ascertained mutual benefit.
The Horizon 2020 funds COST over the 2014 - 2020 period.
COST has around 300 running COST Actions covering all fields of science and technology.
The Scientific Committee is at the heart of the new scientific organisation of the COST Association and plays a leading role in the new Action Submission, Evaluation, Selection and Approval (SESA) procedure.
The Scientific Committee consists of renowned, independent European researchers. It is key to the overall supervision and quality control of procedures related to the submission, evaluation and selection of proposals and the monitoring and final assessment of COST Actions.
COST is governed by the COST Member Countries.
Its highest decision - making body is the Committee of Senior Officials (CSO), consisting of two representatives per Member Country, one of them being the COST National Coordinator (CNC). The CSO is responsible for COST 's strategic development and decides, amongst other things, on the proposed new Actions following the Open Call.
The COST Association was established in September 2013 by the COST Member Countries as an international not - for - profit association under Belgian law. The COST Association integrates governance, management and implementation functions into a single structure, thus ensuring the intergovernmental nature of COST and its pan-European dimension. The 36 COST Member Countries are full members of the COST Association; Israel is a Cooperating State.
The COST Association 's current President is Sierd Cloetingh. The Director of the COST Association is currently Ronald de Bruin. The COST Scientific Committee is currently chaired by Jari Hämäläinen.
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who composed when you wish upon a star | When You Wish Upon a Star - wikipedia
"When You Wish Upon a Star '' is a song written by Leigh Harline and Ned Washington for Walt Disney 's 1940 adaptation of Pinocchio. The original version was sung by Cliff Edwards in the character of Jiminy Cricket, and is heard over the opening credits and in the final scene of the film. The song has since become the representative song of The Walt Disney Company. The recording by Cliff Edwards and Chorus was released by Victor Records as catalogue number 261546 and 26477A (in the US) and by EMI on the His Master 's Voice Label as catalogue number BD 821.
Edwards recorded another version in 1940 for an American Decca Records "cover version '' of the score of Pinocchio, conducted by Victor Young and featuring soprano Julietta Novis and The King 's Men. It was first released on a 4 - record 78 - RPM album set, and years later as one side of an LP, backed by selections in grayscale and black and white and technicolor from The Wizard of Oz. A recording with Christian Rub (with Mister Geppetto 's voice), Cliff Edwards and Chorus was released by Victor Records as catalogue number 26479B (in the US) and by EMI on the His Master 's Voice label as catalogue number BD 823. It won the 1940 Academy Award for Best Original Song. It was also the first Disney song to win an Oscar.
The American Film Institute ranked "When You Wish Upon a Star '' seventh in their 100 Greatest Songs in Film History, the highest ranked Disney animated film song, and also one of only four Disney animated film songs to appear on the list, the others being "Someday My Prince Will Come '' from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ranked at No. 19, "Beauty and the Beast '' from Beauty and the Beast ranked at No. 62, and "Hakuna Matata '' from The Lion King, ranked at No. 99.
The song reached the top one in Billboard 's Record Buying Guide, a predecessor of the retail sales chart. Popular versions in 1940 were by Glenn Miller (vocal by Ray Eberle), Guy Lombardo (vocal by Carmen Lombardo), Horace Heidt and Cliff Edwards. It has been recorded by many other artists since then.
In Japan, Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark, the song has become a Christmas song, often referring to the Star of Bethlehem. The Swedish language version is called "Ser du stjärnan i det blå '', roughly translated: "Do you see the star in the blue '', and the Danish title is "Når du ser et stjerneskud '', which translates as "When you see a shooting star ''. In Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Norway the song is played on television every Christmas Eve in the traditional Disney one - hour Christmas cabaret From All of Us to All of You, and the gathering of the entire family to watch this is considered a Scandinavian tradition.
The Library Of Congress deemed the song "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' and preserved it into the National Recording Registry in 2009. Brian Wilson admits that the melody of the Beach Boys hit song, "Surfer Girl '', which has the same AABA form, is loosely based on the Dion and the Belmonts version of "When You Wish Upon a Star ''.
"When You Wish Upon a Star '', along with Mickey Mouse, has become an icon of The Walt Disney Company. In the 1950s and 1960s, Walt Disney used the song in the opening sequences of all the editions of the Walt Disney anthology television series. It has also been used to accompany the Walt Disney Pictures opening logos -- including the present - day logo -- since the 1980s. The ships of the Disney Cruise Line use the first seven notes of the song 's melody as their horn signals. Additionally, many productions at Disney theme parks -- particularly fireworks shows and parades -- employ the song.
The piece has become a jazz standard. It has been performed by artists including Louis Armstrong, June Christy, Dave Brubeck Quartet, Glenn Miller, Shakatak, Harry James, Joe Pass, the Keith Jarrett Trio, the Manhattan Transfer, Sun Ra, Jason Becker, Leon Redbone, Gregory Porter, Bill Evans and Shirley Bassey.
The owner of the rights to the song, Bourne Co. Music Publishers, sued Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp., Fox Broadcasting Company, Fuzzy Door Productions, Cartoon Network, Walter Murphy and Seth MacFarlane to try to stop distribution of a 2003 Family Guy episode entitled "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein '' that parodies the song in a version called "I Need a Jew ''. A federal judge ruled against Bourne Co, stating that a parody of the song did not infringe on the company 's copyright.
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when was the last time serena williams lost a match | Serena Williams - wikipedia
US $ 84,463,131 (As of February 27, 2017)
Serena Jameka Williams (born September 26, 1981) is an American professional tennis player. The Women 's Tennis Association (WTA) has ranked her world No. 1 in singles on eight occasions, from 2002 to 2017. She became the world No. 1 for the first time on July 8, 2002. On the sixth occasion, she held the ranking for 186 consecutive weeks, tying the record set by Steffi Graf for the most consecutive weeks as world No. 1 by a female tennis player. In total, she has been world No. 1 for 319 weeks, which ranks her third in the Open Era among female tennis players. Some commentators, players and sports writers regard her as the greatest female tennis player of all time. On April 19, 2017, she announced a hiatus from tennis until 2018 because of her pregnancy.
Williams holds the most Grand Slam titles in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles combined amongst active players. Her record of 39 Grand Slam titles puts her third on the all - time list and second in the open era: 23 in singles, 14 in women 's doubles, and 2 in mixed doubles. She is the most recent female player to have held all four Grand Slam singles titles simultaneously (2002 -- 03 and 2014 -- 15) and the third player to achieve this record twice after Rod Laver and Steffi Graf. She is also, together with her sister Venus, the most recent player to have held all four Grand Slam women 's doubles titles simultaneously (2009 -- 10).
Her total of 23 Grand Slam singles titles marks the record for the most Grand Slam wins by a tennis player in the Open Era, and is second on the all - time list behind Margaret Court (24). She is the only tennis player in history (man or woman) to have won singles titles at least six times in three of the four Grand Slam tournaments, and the only player ever to have won two of the four Grand Slams seven times each (seven Wimbledon titles and seven Australian Open titles). She is also the only tennis player to have won 10 Grand Slam singles titles in two separate decades. She has won an all - time record of 13 Grand Slam singles titles on hard court. Williams holds the Open Era record for most titles won at the Australian Open (7) and shares the Open Era record for most titles won at the US Open with Chris Evert (6). She also holds the all - time record for the most women 's singles matches won at the Grand Slams with 316 matches.
She has won 14 Grand Slam doubles titles, all with her sister Venus, and the pair are unbeaten in Grand Slam doubles finals. As a team, she and Venus have the third most women 's doubles grand slam titles, behind the 18 titles of Natasha Zvereva (14 with Gigi Fernández) and the record 20 titles won by Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver. Williams is also a five - time winner of the WTA Tour Championships in the singles division. Serena has also won four Olympic gold medals, one in women 's singles and three in women 's doubles -- an all - time record shared with her sister, Venus. The arrival of the Williams sisters has been credited with ushering in a new era of power and athleticism on the women 's professional tennis tour. Williams was the highest paid female athlete in 2016, earning $28.9 million in prize money and endorsements. She repeated this feat in 2017 when she was the only woman on Forbes ' list of the 100 highest paid athletes. She has won the Laureus Sportswoman of the Year award three times (2003, 2010, 2016), and in December 2015, she was named Sportsperson of the Year by Sports Illustrated magazine.
Williams was born in Saginaw, Michigan to Richard Williams and Oracene Price, and is the youngest of Price 's five daughters: half - sisters Yetunde, Lyndrea, and Isha Price, and full sister Venus. When the children were young, the family moved to Compton, California, where Williams started playing tennis at the age of three. Her father, Richard, home - schooled Serena and her sister Venus. While he and subsequently her mother, Oracene, have been the official coaches, other mentors who helped her learn the game included Richard Williams, a Compton man who shared her father 's name and would go on to found The Venus and Serena Williams Tennis / Tutorial Academy.
When Williams was nine, her family and she moved from Compton to West Palm Beach, Florida, so that she could attend the tennis academy of Rick Macci; Macci began to provide additional coaching. Macci did not always agree with Williams ' father, but respected that "he treated his daughters like kids, allowed them to be little girls ''. Richard stopped sending his daughters to national junior tennis tournaments when Williams was 10, since he wanted them to take it slow and focus on school work. Experiences of racism also drove this experience, as Richard Williams had heard white parents talk about the Williams sisters in a derogatory manner during tournaments. At that time, Williams had a 46 -- 3 record on the United States Tennis Association junior tour and was ranked number one among under - 10 players in Florida. In 1995, when Williams was in the ninth grade, her father pulled his daughters out of Macci 's academy and, from then on, took over all coaching at their home. When asked in 2000 whether having followed the normal path of playing regularly on the junior circuit would have been beneficial, Williams responded: "Everyone does different things. I think for Venus and I, we just attempted a different road, and it worked for us. ''
Williams is primarily a baseline player, and her game is built around taking immediate control of rallies with her powerful and consistent serve, return of serve, and forceful groundstrokes from both her forehand and backhand swings. Williams ' forehand is considered to be among the most powerful shots in the women 's game, as is her double - handed backhand. Williams strikes her backhand groundstroke using an open stance, and uses the same open stance for her forehand. Williams ' aggressive play, a "high risk '' style, is balanced in part by her serve, which most say is the greatest in women 's tennis history. She consistently projects great pace and placement with her serves; in the 2013 Australian Open, she had a peak serve speed of 128.6 mph (207.0 km / h) which is the third fastest all - time among female players (only Venus 's 129 mph and Sabine Lisicki 's 131 mph recorded speeds are faster). What makes her serve even more deadly is her ball placement and her ability to consistently place powerful shots with great accuracy. At the 2012 Championships at Wimbledon, she hit a women 's tournament record of 102 aces, which was more than any of the men hit during the two weeks, a rarity given that aces are more common in the men 's game. Williams also possesses a very solid and powerful overhead. Although many think of Williams as only an offensive player, she also plays a strong defensive game. She has stated that her favorite surface is clay because it gives her extra time to set up her shots.
Williams is known for producing exceptional comebacks, particularly on the Grand Slam level. She has won three Grand Slam singles titles after saving match points, (the 2003 Australian Open final versus Kim Clijsters, the 2005 Australian Open final versus Maria Sharapova, and the 2009 Wimbledon final versus Elena Dementieva), a feat achieved more often than any other player in history. She also came back from a 3 -- 5 deficit in the third set against Kim Clijsters in the 1999 US Open en route to her first Grand Slam singles title. In the 2012 US Open final against Victoria Azarenka, she was down 3 -- 5 in the third set and found herself two points away from losing the match. Williams then proceeded to win the next 4 games and defeated Azarenka. In the semi-finals of the 2015 French Open, Williams was ill and barely able to walk during changeovers, yet beat her opponent, Timea Bacsinszky, 6 -- 0 in the third set. Another improbable win occurred in the third round of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, when she recovered from two breaks of service in the third set to defeat Great Britain 's number - one female player, Heather Watson. Williams has bounced back from a set down to win in 37 Grand Slam matches.
In recent years, Williams has shown an ability to serve aces at critical moments. One of these instances was the 2013 French Open final, where in the last game of the match, she fired three aces, including one which clocked at 123 mph (198 km / h) on match point. She repeated the feat similarly against Angelique Kerber in the finals of the 2016 Wimbledon Championships to tie the Open Era record for Grand Slam singles titles. Williams fired three un-returnable serves in her final service game before winning the match and the title with a casual forehand volley on the next point.
Williams ' parents wanted their daughter to wait until she was 16 to participate in professional tournaments. However, in 1995 just after turning 14, Williams planned to make her professional debut as a wild - card entry in the Bank of the West Classic in Oakland, California, but was denied by the WTA due to age - eligibility restrictions of the organization. She subsequently filed an antitrust lawsuit against the women 's tour, but withdrew it at the behest of her parents. Her first professional event was in October 1995 at the Bell Challenge in Quebec, where she used a wild - card entry to circumvent age - eligibility rules. She lost in the first round of qualifying to then 18 - year - old American Annie Miller, winning just two games.
Williams did not play a tournament in 1996. The following year, she lost in the qualifying rounds of three tournaments, before winning her first main - draw match in November at the Ameritech Cup Chicago. Ranked world number 304, she upset world number 7 Mary Pierce and world number 4 Monica Seles, recording her first career wins over top 10 players and becoming the lowest - ranked player in the open era to defeat two top 10 opponents in one tournament. She ultimately lost in the semifinals to world number 5 Lindsay Davenport. She finished 1997 ranked world number 99.
Williams began 1998 at the Medibank International Sydney. As a qualifier ranked world number 96, she defeated world number three Davenport in the quarterfinals, before losing to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the semifinals. Williams made her debut in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament at the Australian Open, where she defeated sixth - seeded Irina Spîrlea in the first round, before losing to sister Venus in the second round in the sisters ' first professional match. Williams reached six other quarterfinals during the year, but lost all of them, including her first match against world number one - ranked Martina Hingis at the Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, and her second match against Venus at the Italian Open in Rome. She failed to reach the quarterfinals of any Grand Slam tournament the remainder of the year, losing in the fourth round of the French Open to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, and the third round of the US Open to Spîrlea. She withdrew from Wimbledon two games into a match with Virginia Ruano Pascual, after straining her calf muscle during the first set. She did, however, win the mixed doubles titles at Wimbledon and the US Open with Max Mirnyi, completing the Williams family 's sweep of the 1998 mixed doubles Grand Slam tournaments. Williams won her first professional title in doubles in Oklahoma City with Venus, becoming the third pair of sisters to win a WTA title. Williams and her sister won two more doubles titles together during the year. Williams finished the year ranked world No. 20 in singles. To date, 1998 is the only year in which Williams failed to win a Grand Slam when she competed at all four of the Major events.
A 16 - year - old Serena competed in a tennis "Battle of the Sexes '', along with her sister Venus Williams, against Karsten Braasch at the 1998 Australian Open. At the time Braasch was ranked 203rd. The Williams sisters had claimed they could beat any man outside the top 200, and he accepted the challenge. Not known for having an ideal training regimen, Braasch nonetheless beat both Williams sisters, playing a single set against each. The score vs Serena was 6 -- 1 and vs Venus 6 -- 2. Braasch said afterwards, "500 and above, no chance. '' The girls later tweaked the number to beating men outside the top 350.
Williams lost in the third round of the 1999 Australian Open to Sandrine Testud. A month later, Williams won her first professional singles title when she defeated Amélie Mauresmo in the final of the Open Gaz de France in Paris. With Venus also winning the IGA Superthrift Classic in Memphis, Tennessee that day, the pair became the first sisters to win professional tournaments in the same week. In March of that year, at the Evert Cup in California, Williams won her first Tier I title, defeating Steffi Graf in the final. Soon afterwards at the Lipton International Players Championships, Williams had her 16 - match winning streak ended by her sister in the first all - sister singles final in WTA history, and she then made her top - 10 debut, at world number nine. She then lost in the quarterfinals of the Italian Open and the German Open, and the third round of the French Open, where she and Venus won the women 's doubles title. Williams then missed Wimbledon because of injury. When she returned to the tour, Williams won a Fed Cup singles match and then won the JPMorgan Chase Open in Los Angeles, beating Julie Halard - Decugis in the final. She then defeated in succession Grand Slam champions Kim Clijsters, Conchita Martínez, Monica Seles, and defending champion Lindsay Davenport to reach the US Open final, where she defeated world number one Hingis to become the second African - American woman, after Althea Gibson in 1958, to win a Grand Slam singles tournament. The Williams sisters also won the doubles title at this tournament. To complete her 1999 season, Williams won a doubles match in the Fed Cup final against Russia. Williams ended the year ranked world No. 4 in just her second full year on the main tour.
Williams started 2000 by losing in the fourth round of the Australian Open to Elena Likhovtseva. She failed to defend her titles in Paris and Indian Wells, although she did win the Faber Grand Prix in Germany. Soon afterwards, Williams missed the French Open because of injury. She returned from injury at Wimbledon, where she lost to Venus in the semifinals, but the pair won the doubles title at the event. Williams successfully defended her title in Los Angeles, defeating Davenport in the final. She reached the final of the Du Maurier Open where an injury forced her to retire from her match with Hingis. Her defense of the US Open title ended when she lost in the quarterfinals to Davenport. Williams teamed with Venus to win the gold medal in doubles at the Sydney Olympics that September. She ended the year winning the Toyota Princess Cup in Japan and she finished the year ranked world number six.
Williams began 2001 losing to Martina Hingis in the quarterfinals of the Medibank International in Sydney and the Australian Open in Melbourne. Williams and her sister won the doubles title at the latter tournament, becoming only the fifth doubles team in history to win all four Grand Slam women 's doubles titles during their career, completing a "Career Grand Slam ''. Her next event was the Pacific Life Open in California, where she defeated Kim Clijsters in the final. However, the final was marred by the behavior of the crowd towards Williams and her family. The crowd were incensed at the perceived match fixing of games involving the family after Venus withdrew before their semifinal. Neither Williams nor her sister entered the tournament for fourteen years until Williams entered in 2015 as a wild - card (and the top seed). The following week at the Ericsson Open in Miami, Williams lost to Jennifer Capriati in the quarterfinals. She then lost in the quarterfinals to Capriati at both the French Open and Wimbledon. This was the fourth consecutive Grand Slam tournament at which Williams had exited in the quarterfinals. During the North American hard - court season, she lost in the quarterfinals of Los Angeles against Monica Seles, then captured her second title of the year at the Rogers Cup, defeating Capriati in the final. Williams reached the final of the 2001 US Open, losing to sister Venus. That was the first Grand Slam tournament final contested by two sisters during the open era. At the 2001 season - ending Sanex Championships, Williams won the championship by walkover when Davenport withdrew before the start of the final due to a knee injury. Williams finished 2001 at world number six for the second straight year.
Injury forced Williams to retire from the semifinal at the 2002 Medibank International Sydney and later withdraw from the 2002 Australian Open.
Returning from injury, Williams won her first title of the year in Scottsdale, Arizona, defeating world No. 2 Jennifer Capriati in the final. She then won the Miami Masters for the first time, becoming one of three players in the open era to defeat the world 's top 3 at one tournament, after beating world No. 3 Martina Hingis in the quarterfinals, world No. 2 Venus in the semifinals, and world No. 1 Capriati in the final. Serena 's straight set win over Venus was her second career win over her sister. Williams played three clay - court tournaments before the 2002 French Open. Her first tournament was at Charleston, where she was the third seed. Williams reached the quarterfinals before losing to Patty Schnyder. She reached her first clay - court final in May, at the Eurocard German Open losing to Justine Henin in a third set tiebreak. Williams went on to win her first clay court title at the Italian Open, defeating Capriati in the semifinals and Henin in the final. This raised her ranking to a new high of No. 3. Williams was the third seed at the French Open at Roland Garros, where she claimed her first title there by defeating defending champion Capriati in the semifinals and sister Venus in the final to win her second Grand Slam tournament title (and her first in two - and - a-half years). As a result of raising the trophy at Court Philippe Chatrier, Williams rose to a career high of No. 2, second only to Venus.
At the 2002 Wimbledon Championships, Williams won tennis ' oldest championship for the first time in her life, defeating Venus to win a Grand Slam singles title without dropping a set for the first time in her career. This victory earned Williams the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in her life, dethroning her sister and becoming only the third African - American woman to hold that ranking. The Williams sisters also won the doubles title at the tournament, the fifth Grand Slam doubles title for the pair. Williams played just one tournament between Wimbledon and the US Open, losing in the quarterfinals of the JPMorgan Chase Open in Los Angeles to American Chanda Rubin and ending a 21 - match winning streak. The top - seeded player at the US Open, Williams reached the final where, for the third Grand Slam in a row, she defeated her sister to win the title, the second Wimbledon crown of her career. Williams won two consecutive singles titles in the fall, defeating Kim Clijsters to win the Toyota Princess Cup in Tokyo, and Anastasia Myskina to win the Sparkassen Cup in Leipzig, Germany. She reached the final at the year - end Home Depot Championships at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, where she lost to fifth - seeded Clijsters in straight sets, ending an 18 - match winning streak. Williams finished 2002 with a 56 -- 5 W / L record, eight singles titles, and the world No. 1 ranking. She was the first African - American to end a year with that ranking since Althea Gibson in 1958 and was the first woman to win three Grand Slam tournament titles in one year since Hingis in 1997. Her three consecutive Grand Slam titles to close 2002 also made Williams only the third player in tennis history to win the "Surface Slam '', three Slam titles on three surfaces in the same calendar year, after Navratilova (1984) and Graf (1993, 1995, 1996).
At the 2003 Australian Open, Williams reached the tournament 's semifinals for the first time, where she recovered from 5 -- 1 down in the third set and saved two match points before defeating Clijsters. In the finals of the tournament, Serena faced Venus for the fourth consecutive Grand Slam tournament final, defeating her older sister to become the sixth woman in the open era to complete a career Grand Slam, alongside Margaret Court, Billie Jean King, Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, and Steffi Graf. She also became the fifth woman to hold all Grand Slam singles titles simultaneously, joining Maureen Connolly Brinker, Court, Graf, and Navratilova. This feat was dubbed the "Serena Slam '' by the press. The Williams sisters won their sixth Grand Slam doubles title together at this event.
During the spring of 2003, Williams captured the singles titles at the Open Gaz de France and the Sony Ericsson Open. Williams ' winning streak came to an end when she lost the final of the Family Circle Cup to Henin, her first loss of the year after 21 wins. She also lost to Mauresmo in the semifinals of the Internazionali BNL d'Italia in Rome. Despite these losses, Williams was the top seed at the French Open, where she lost in the semifinals to eventual champion Henin, marking Williams ' first loss in a Grand Slam tournament since 2001. The match was controversial, as Williams questioned Henin 's sportsmanship, and spectators applauded Williams ' errors. Williams rebounded from the French Open loss a couple weeks later at the 2003 Wimbledon Championships, defeating Henin in the semifinals and Venus in the final. This was Williams ' second consecutive Wimbledon title and her sixth Grand Slam singles title overall. Wimbledon was Williams ' last tournament of 2003; she pulled out of three events in the USA and then underwent surgery on the quadriceps tendon in her knee in early August. Williams was initially expected to be out for six to eight weeks.
After eight months away from the tour, during which time her desire was questioned, Williams began her comeback at the 2004 Nasdaq - 100 Open in Miami in March, where she made a triumphant return as she won the title.
This was the third consecutive year that Williams had won the tournament.
Although ranked world No. 7, Williams was seeded second at the French Open, where, after winning four matches, she lost to Capriati in the quarterfinals. This was the first time that Williams had lost before the semifinals at a Grand Slam singles tournament since Wimbledon in 2001. A few weeks later, even though her ranking had dropped to world No. 10, Serena was seeded first at Wimbledon. She won six matches in route to the final, where she was defeated by 13th - seeded Sharapova in straight sets. This loss caused her ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the first time since 1999. Later that summer, Williams reached her third final of the year at the JPMorgan Chase Open in Los Angeles where she lost to Lindsay Davenport which was her first loss to the American since the 2000 US Open. After missing her national championship in 2003, Williams returned for the 2004 US Open, where she was seeded third despite her world ranking of eleven. She lost in the U.S. Open quarterfinals to Capriati in three sets in controversial fashion. That fall, Williams won her second title of the year, at the China Open, defeating US Open champion Svetlana Kuznetsova in the final. Williamses successful season allowed her to qualify for the WTA Tour Championships, held again in Los Angeles. In the round - robin phase of the tournament, Williams defeated Dementieva and Anastasia Myskina and lost to Davenport, but still advanced to the elimination stage. After winning her semifinal, she lost to Sharapova in the final, where she suffered an abdominal injury. Williams finished 2004 ranked world No. 7, but did not win a Grand Slam singles tournament for the first season since 2001.
At the 2005 Australian Open, Williams rejected suggestions that she and sister Venus were a declining force in tennis, following Venus 's early exit at the tournament. Williams saved three match points in defeating Sharapova 8 -- 6 in the third set of their semifinal. In the final, Williams defeated top seed Davenport to win her second Australian Open singles title and seventh Grand Slam singles title, winning 12 of the last 15 games. The win moved Williams back to world No. 2. Williams stated that she was targeting the number one spot. Williams completed just two tournaments between the Australian Open and Wimbledon, losing to Venus in Miami and at Internazionali BNL d'Italia to Francesca Schiavone as Williams suffered a series of retirements and withdraws. A reoccurring ankle injury causing her to miss the French Open. She returned for Wimbledon as the fourth - seeded player, but was defeated in the third round by world No. 85 Jill Craybas. At the US Open, Williams lost to her sister Venus in the fourth round. This was the earliest the sisters had met in a Grand Slam tournament since their first meeting, at the 1998 Australian Open. Williams played just one more match that fall, a loss to world No. 127 Sun Tiantian at the tournament in Beijing. She failed to qualify for the year - end championship for the first time since 1998 and she finished the year 2005 ranked world No. 11, her first time finishing the season outside the top 10 since 1998.
Williams made her 2006 debut at the Australian Open. Defending the title, Williams lost to Daniela Hantuchová in the third round. After the tournament, Williams told the press that she was injured, blaming a lack of fitness and a knee injury for keeping her off the court. However, in her biography, Serena claims that she was actually suffering from depression. Serena stayed away from pro tennis for six months during the 2006 season. After she had shut herself off from the world for a period, Williams saw a therapist daily. After a chance meeting with a young girl who idolized Serena and believed that she could still win, Williams signed up to play in Cincinnati, her first tournament since Melbourne. Williams had slipped to 139 in the world, the lowest ranking she had held since 1997. On her return, Williams defeated Myskina and Bethanie Mattek, before losing in the semifinals to Vera Zvonareva. She also reached the semifinals in Los Angeles, losing to Janković in straight sets. At the US Open, Williams needed a wildcard to enter the tournament, as her ranking at the cut - off time was 139th in the world, outside the automatic 102. However her ranking had improved to 79th by the time the tournament came around. She lost to top - seeded Mauresmo in the fourth round. Following the U.S. Open, she did not play again in 2006, ending the year ranked world No. 95, her lowest year - end ranking since 1997.
Williams began 2007 with renewed confidence, stating her intention to return to the top of the rankings, a comment 1987 Wimbledon men 's singles champion and commentator Pat Cash branded "deluded. '' Williams lost in the quarterfinals of the tournament in Hobart, Australia, a warm - up for the Australian Open. Williams was unseeded at the Australian Open because of her world No. 81 ranking and was widely regarded as "out of shape. '' Williams experienced a huge amount of pressure on herself prior to the tournament, coming from her fans and the press as well as Serena herself about her weight, focus and needing a good showing. Shortly before her first match, a representative from Nike paid Williams a visit in the players ' lounge, informing her that if she did n't perform to her accustomed level, the company might drop her. Williams claimed that Nike 's ultimatum meant that she would have to reach the quarterfinals at least. The distraction from Nike did not distract Williams, as she lost just three games to Mara Santangelo and defeated Anne Kremer in straight sets. By this point, a blister had developed on Williamses ' foot and she had contracted a cold. In the third round, Williams found herself two points away from going home against Nadia Petrova, but fought back to win in three sets, which was her first win over a top - 10 player since defeating Lindsay Davenport in the 2005 Australian Open final. Williams then made it all the way to the final, defeating Janković, Pe'er and Vaidišová. Williams described them as "good players. Strong players. Players who certainly did n't expect an overweight, out - of - shape, has been champion like me to give them a game. ''. Williams also found herself two points from going out against Peer before turning it around. By the time Williams had reached the final, the cold and blister had both left. Previewing the finals, Tracy Austin stated that, although Serena had a great tournament, she believed that the ride was over and that Sharapova would have no trouble with Williams. Serena thought it was mean and unnecessary and used it as motivation along with other criticism. In the final, Williams lost just three games against Maria Sharapova winning her first title at any tournament since winning the 2005 Australian Open 24 months prior. Williams became the first player since Chris O'Neil to win the title whilst not being seeded, and claimed her third Australian Open and eighth Grand Slam singles title overall. The win elevated Williams to 14th in the rankings. Williams dedicated the title to her deceased half - sister Yetunde. Her performance in the final was described in the press as "one of the best performances of her career '' and "arguably the most powerful display ever seen in women 's tennis. '' In her post match interview, Williams took a swipe at her critics, stating that she had proved them wrong.
Williams won the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami for the fourth time after defeating Justine Henin. Williams had to record a come - from - behind win after being whitewashed in the first set and saving two match points in the second. Williams played for her country in the Fed Cup for the first time since 2003 in a tie against Belgium. Williams won her opening match, but withdrew from her second, because of a knee injury. At the French Open, Williams lost in the quarterfinals to Henin. During her fourth round match against Hantuchová at Wimbledon, Williams collapsed from an acute muscle spasm at 5 -- 5 in the second set. After a medical timeout and holding serve to force a tiebreak, rain forced play to be suspended for nearly two hours. When the players returned, Williams won the match in three sets. Williams then lost her quarterfinal match with Henin, whilst suffering from the injuries sustained in the previous round. At the US Open, Williams lost her third consecutive Grand Slam singles quarterfinal to Henin. Williams reached the final of Kremlin Cup, losing to Elena Dementieva. Williams qualified for the WTA Championships, but retired from her first match with Anna Chakvetadze with a knee injury and subsequently withdrew from the tournament. Williams finished 2007 as world No. 7 and the top - ranked American for the first time since 2003.
Williams started 2008 by participating on the U.S. team that won the Hopman Cup with Mardy Fish. At the Australian Open she lost in the quarterfinals to Jelena Janković, her fourth straight loss in the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam singles tournament. In the women 's doubles event, she and Venus were defeated in the quarterfinals. Williams withdrew from her next three scheduled tournaments because of an urgent need for dental surgery. Williams then won three consecutive singles titles at Bangalore and her fifth Miami title, tying Steffi Graf for the most singles titles at this tournament.
Williams won at the Family Circle Cup, her first clay - court title since the 2002 French Open. Her 17 - match winning streak was ended by Dinara Safina in the quarterfinals of Berlin. Williams withdrew in Rome in the quarterfinals against Alizé Cornet due to a back injury. Williams was the only former winner of the French Open in the draw, but lost in the third round to Katarina Srebotnik.
At Wimbledon, Williams reached the finals for the first time in four years but lost to her older sister Venus in straight sets, in their first Slam final since 2003. Serena and Venus teamed to win the women 's doubles title in their first Grand Slam women 's doubles title since 2003. Williams played at Stanford, but retired 6 -- 2, 3 -- 1 down with a left knee injury from her semifinal match against qualifier Aleksandra Wozniak. The injury forced her to withdraw from Los Angeles. At the Olympics in Beijing, Williams lost to Dementieva in the quarterfinals. Serena and Venus won the gold medal in doubles, beating Anabel Medina Garrigues and Virginia Ruano Pascual in the final. At the US Open, Williams defeated sister Venus, Safina and Jelena Janković in the final. This was her third US Open and ninth Grand Slam singles title. The victory returned her to the world No. 1 ranking for the first time since 2003. At the Year - End Championships she defeated Safina and lost to Venus in her round - robin matches, but withdrew from her match against Dementieva, citing a stomach muscle injury. She ended 2008 ranked world No. 2 and with four singles titles, her strongest performance in both respects since 2003.
Williams began 2009 at the Medibank International losing in the semifinals to Elena Dementieva. At the Australian Open, she claimed her tenth Grand Slam singles title by defeating Dinara Safina in the final in 59 minutes. This win returned her to the world No. 1 ranking and resulted in her becoming the all - time career prize money leader in women 's sports, overtaking golfer Annika Sörenstam. In women 's doubles, with Venus, they captured the title for the third time. At the Open GDF Suez, Williams withdrew before her semifinal with Dementieva because of a knee injury. Williams then played at Dubai, losing to Venus in the semifinals.
At the Sony Ericsson Open Williams, hampered with ankle and quad injuries, was upset in the final by Victoria Azarenka. This was the first of four consecutive losses for Williams, the longest losing streak of her career. She was defeated in her opening matches at Barcelona, Rome, and Madrid. Despite not having won a match on clay in 2009 before the French Open, she lost in the quarterfinals to the eventual champion Svetlana Kuznetsova. This ended her 18 - match Grand Slam tournament winning streak. She rebounded at Wimbledon, saving a match point in defeating fourth seeded Dementieva in the semifinals. In the final, Serena defeated her sister Venus to win her third Wimbledon title and her 11th Grand Slam singles title. Williams and Venus teamed to win the women 's doubles title at Wimbledon for the second consecutive year, their ninth Grand Slam tournament title in women 's doubles.
As a US Open preparation, Williams played at Cincinnati losing in the third round, followed by a semifinal defeat at the Rogers Cup. At the US Open, she lost in the semifinals to eventual champion Kim Clijsters amid controversy involving shouting at a line judge when defending match point, an offense which cost Williams the point and consequently the match. She continued in the doubles competition, teaming up with Venus to win their third Grand Slam doubles title of the year and tenth of their career. Williams won all three of her round - robin matches at the year - end WTA Tour Championships, defeating Venus, Dementieva, and Kuznetsova, saving a match point against Venus. She then advanced to the final, when Wozniacki retired from their semifinal match. In the final, Williams defeated Venus for her second singles title at this event.
Williams finished the year ranked world No. 1 for the second time in her career, having played in 16 tournaments, more than any other year. She also broke the record previously set by Justine Henin for the most prize money earned by a female tennis player in one year, with Williams earning $6,545,586. In doubles, the Williams sisters finished the year ranked world No. 2, despite playing only six tournaments as a pair. She won five Grand Slam tournament titles, putting her total Grand Slam titles at 23. Williams was named Female Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press. She also was the ITF World Champion in singles and doubles.
In 2010, Williams ' first scheduled tournament was in Sydney, losing in the final to Elena Dementieva. At the Australian Open, Williams was the defending champion in both singles and doubles. She reached the final, where she defeated Justine Henin for her twelfth Grand Slam singles title. In doubles, Serena and Venus successfully defended their title by defeating Cara Black and Liezel Huber in the final. Williams withdrew with a leg injury from her next events. She returned at the Rome Masters losing to Jelena Janković in the semifinals. At Madrid, she fell to Nadia Petrova in the third round and partnered Venus to win the doubles title. At the French Open, she lost to Samantha Stosur in the quarterfinals. She and Venus were the top seeds in the doubles event and won the title, defeating Květa Peschke and Katarina Srebotnik in the final to win their fourth consecutive Grand Slam doubles title and improved their doubles ranking to world No. 1.
Her next tournament was Wimbledon, where she defeated Russian Vera Zvonareva in the final without facing a break point and breaking the serve of Zvonareva three times. She did not lose a set in the tournament. After the match, Martina Navratilova said that Williams is in the top five of all the women 's tennis players in all of history, which she said that "it 's not just about how many Slams you win or how many tournaments you win -- it 's just your game overall. And she 's definitely got all the goods. '' Serena was the defending champion in doubles with her sister Venus, winning the last two years. They lost in the quarterfinals to Elena Vesnina and Zvonareva. In Munich on July 7, Williams stepped on broken glass while in a restaurant, and the injury caused her to miss the rest of the year. She ended the year ranked No. 4 in singles, despite having played only six tournaments, and No. 11 in doubles after four tournaments. On March 2, 2011, she confirmed that she had suffered a hematoma and a pulmonary embolism.
Williams finally made a return to the practice court in March 2011. She made her first appearance on the WTA tour in almost a year in Eastbourne. Williams lost in round two to Vera Zvonareva, in a match that lasted over three hours. Her next tournament was Wimbledon, where she was the defending champion. She reached the round of 16, where she lost to Marion Bartoli. After the loss her ranking dropped to 169. Williams won her first titles since her return to tennis triumphing in Stanford and Toronto. At the Western & Southern Open, Serena defeated Lucie Hradecká, only to withdraw the next day, citing a right toe injury. She then played at the US Open going all the way to the final losing to Samantha Stosur, during a match which featured her verbally abusing the chair umpire. The US Open final turned out to be Williams ' last match in 2011, and she ended the year ranked world No. 12 with 2 titles and with a 22 -- 3 record for the season. She only participated in six tournaments throughout the season.
Williams started the 2012 season at the Brisbane International, however, during her match against Bojana Jovanovski, she injured her left ankle when serving for the match. As a result, Williams was forced to withdraw from the tournament. Next she participated at the Australian Open where she was upset by Ekaterina Makarova in the fourth round. After a month layoff, Williams returned to competition in Miami losing in the quarterfinals to Caroline Wozniacki. Williams then won consecutive titles at Charleston and Madrid beating Lucie Šafářová and Victoria Azarenka, but withdrew from her semifinal match against Li Na in Rome citing a lower back injury. Williams suffered her first ever loss in the opening round of a Grand Slam tournament at the French Open against Virginie Razzano. Williams notched up a 33 -- 1 record for the second half of the season winning five titles in the process. Williams won her fifth Wimbledon singles title, her fourteenth Grand Slam title; setting a serving record of 24 aces by a female in a match as well as having the most aces, male or female, during the tournament (102). Williams returned to America to successfully defend her title in Stanford beating Coco Vandeweghe in the final. Serena then returned to Wimbledon to represent her country at the Olympic Games where she won gold, defeating rival Maria Sharapova in a dominating performance. Williams failed to drop more than three games per set en route to winning the medal. Williams undefeated streak ended with a loss in Cincinnati to Angelique Kerber. In New York City, Williams went on to win her fourth US Open singles title and her 15th career Grand Slam title overall beating Azarenka in the final. Williams ended the season by competing at the WTA Championships and went undefeated throughout the tournament to win the event for her third title. Serena Williams was voted WTA Player of the Year for the fourth time. Based on her brilliant show in 2012, Serena was also named International Tennis Federation World Champion. Williams also returned to doubles competitions with Venus; in the pair 's first tournament since 2010 Wimbledon, they claimed their fifth Wimbledon doubles title and the 13th grand slam doubles title. The pair successfully defended their Olympic doubles title which meant that they became the only tennis players to win four gold medals.
Williams ' first tournament of the 2013 season was in Brisbane, where she won the title without dropping a set. Williams was upset in the quarterfinals of the 2013 Australian Open by fellow American player Sloane Stephens. By virtue of defeating Petra Kvitová in Doha, Williams returned to the world No. 1 position for the sixth time in her career and became the oldest woman in the Open Era to hold the ranking. Williams went on to lose to Victoria Azarenka in the final. In the Miami final, Williams lost a set to Maria Sharapova for the first time since 2008. However, this setback did not stop Williams who recorded her seventieth come - from - behind win. The win made Williams a six - time champion in Miami breaking the record she held with Steffi Graf and became only the fourth woman in the open era to have won a tournament at least six times. Williams successfully defended her Charleston title, winning it for the third time overall. Williams won her fiftieth career singles title in Madrid, defeating Sharapova in the final. Williams then played Rome, where she won the title without dropping a set, defeating Victoria Azarenka in the final to take her second title. Williams only dropped ten games in reaching the quarterfinals at Roland Garros. There, she played Svetlana Kuznetsova and lost her first set of the tournament. In the semi final Williams only lost one game when she defeated Sara Errani, something seven - time French Open champion Chris Evert described as the finest female performance on clay she had ever seen. Williams defeated Sharapova to claim her second Roland Garros title, her sixteenth grand slam tournament title overall. She became the fourth woman in the Open era after Martina Navratilova, Chris Evert and Steffi Graf to win each Grand Slam tournament title on at least two occasions. At the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, she advanced easily to the fourth round before being upset by eventual finalist Sabine Lisicki in three sets. After Wimbledon, Williams won the Swedish Open by defeating Johanna Larsson in the final, the tournament win marked the first occasion that she had won an International level title. By winning the tournament this meant that Williams had managed to be undefeated on clay during the season.
Williams won her third Rogers Cup title in Toronto beating Sorana Cîrstea in the final. Williams reached the final of the Western & Southern Open for the first time but lost to Azarenka. At the 2013 US Open, Williams began as the top seed and defending champion. She reached the final -- a rematch of the 2012 final against Azarenka -- and won in three sets, capturing her 17th Grand Slam singles title. Williams became the oldest US Open champion in the Open Era and pushed her career prize money past $50 million. After the US Open, Williams headed to Beijing where she beat Jelena Janković to win the China Open for her 10th title of 2013. Williams went through the WTA championships undefeated winning the final against Li Na, to become the first person to defend the title since Justine Henin in 2007. Williams won her eleventh title of the year becoming the eighth player to win eleven tournaments or more in a year and the first since Martina Hingis in 1997. Additionally, Williams became the oldest person to win the WTA Championships and the fourth player to win the event four times or more. By winning the championship, Williams became the first woman to win more than ten million dollars in a season and with her total of $12,385,572, only Rafael Nadal, in 2013 and Novak Djokovic, in 2011, 2012 and 2013, have earned more money in a single season. Williams finished as the year end world No. 1 for the third time, becoming the oldest No. 1 player in WTA history. She was also named the 2013 ITF World Champion, the fourth time that she has been given the World Champion 's crown. Williams received two prizes at the 2013 ESPY Awards. Williams won Best Female Athlete and Best Female Tennis Player. Williams is just the fourth person to win Best Female Athlete on two occasions and she won Best Female Tennis player for a record sixth time. In late December 2013, Williams capped off her year by receiving the Associated Press 2013 Female Athlete of the Year award, her third AP award after 2002 and 2009. Only two women, Chris Evert and Babe Didrikson, have been chosen more often as AP Athlete of the Year since the annual awards were first handed out in 1931.
Williams defended her title at the Brisbane International by defeating world No. 2 Victoria Azarenka in the final. At the Australian Open she ended up losing to former world No. 1 Ana Ivanovic in the fourth round. At the 2014 Dubai Tennis Championships, Williams lost her semi-final match to Alizé Cornet in straight sets. Williams next headed to the Miami Open where she won her record seventh title with a straight - sets victory over world No. 2 Li Na. Serena lost to Jana Čepelová in the second round of the Family Circle Cup. She made it to the quarterfinals at the Mutua Madrid Open before withdrawing with a left thigh injury. Williams won her third title of the season at the 2014 Internazionali BNL d'Italia. She was then handed the worst loss of her Grand Slam tournament career by Garbiñe Muguruza at the second round of the 2014 French Open, who defeated Serena losing just 4 games in two sets. Alizé Cornet defeated Williams for the second time in the year in the third round of Wimbledon, thus handing Serena her earliest Wimbledon exit since 2005. Serena was then forced to withdraw from the doubles event alongside sister Venus Williams while trailing 0 -- 3 in the second round. A disoriented Serena hit 4 consecutive doubles faults and was having trouble with both her ball toss and movement before being removed from what has been described as one of the most unusual scenes ever seen in tennis.
Williams rebounded by winning 19 out of her next 20 matches (losing only to sister Venus in the semifinals of the Rogers Cup). This streak include titles at the Bank of the West Classic as well as her first Western & Southern Open title and her third consecutive and sixth overall US Open singles title which she won without having dropped a set. With this victory Serena tied Chris Evert for most singles titles won by a woman at the US Open in the Open Era. Williams also tied Evert and Martina Navratilova 's 18 Grand Slam singles titles won in the Open Era. By virtue of having won both the US Open and the US Open Series, Williams collected $4,000,000 -- the biggest payday in tennis history. At the Wuhan Open a viral illness forced her to retire while up a break in the first set against Alizé Cornet. Cornet thus became the first woman since Justine Henin in 2007 to record three victories over Williams in one year. At the China Open Williams retired prior to her quarterfinal match versus Samantha Stosur. At the 2014 WTA Finals in Singapore Serena advanced to the final for the third consecutive year despite having equaled her career worst loss in her second round robin match versus Simona Halep. Williams won her fifth WTA Finals title by avenging her loss to Halep in the championship match for her seventh title of the year. Serena finished the year ranked world No. 1 for the fourth time in her career. She held the No. 1 ranking for the entire calendar year, a feat not accomplished since Steffi Graf in 1996. She was also voted WTA Player of the Year and ITF World Champion for a third consecutive year (sixth overall).
Williams began the 2015 season by representing the United States alongside John Isner at the Hopman Cup. The American pair lost the final to the Poland. At the Australian Open Williams defeated Maria Sharapova of Russia for the sixteenth consecutive time to claim her 6th Australian Open singles title and 19th career Grand Slam singles title, winning the title on her third match point in the second set. With this victory Williams surpassed both Chris Evert and Martina Navratilova for second most Grand Slam singles titles won in the Open Era. The title was also her sixth Grand Slam singles title since turning 30 years of age, three more than the next closest to do so (Margaret Court, Martina Navratilova with three each). She is the only player in history to win all four Grand Slams at least once after having turned 30. The following weekend, Serena and sister Venus traveled to Buenos Aires, Argentina to face Argentina in a World Group II tie for Fed Cup. She played and won her only match against María Irigoyen to help Team USA to a 4 -- 1 win over Argentina. Williams announced that she would be competing at the Indian Wells Masters ending her 14 - year boycott of the event. Upon her return Williams received a standing ovation from the crowd and won her first match in straight sets. She reached the semifinals, where she was due to face world No. 3 Simona Halep for a place in the final, but was forced to withdraw because of a knee injury. By virtue of having defeated Sabine Lisicki in the quarterfinals of the Miami Open, Serena became only the eighth woman in the Open Era to record 700 match wins in her career. This also made her one of only three active players to have won 700 or more matches in singles, others being Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal. In the semifinals she won against Halep to advance to her tenth final at the event where she won a record eighth title and extended her winning streak to 21 by beating Carla Suárez Navarro.
As preparation for the clay court season (and to ensure her eligibility for the 2016 Summer Olympics), Williams travelled to Brindisi, Italy, to face Italy 's team for a place in the Fed Cup 's World Group. Williams lost the decisive doubles match alongside Alison Riske to Sara Errani and Flavia Pennetta, and as a result the United States team were relegated to World Group II. It was Williams ' first loss in the Fed Cup. However, she maintained her perfect record in singles by defeating Camila Giorgi and Errani. The week of April 20 marked Serena 's 114th consecutive week ranked world No. 1, the third - longest run in WTA history, behind Steffi Graf 's 186 weeks and Martina Navratilova 's 156. Williams suffered her first defeat of the season in the semifinals of the Mutua Madrid Open to world No. 4 Petra Kvitová. This loss ended a 27 - match winning streak for Williams as well as a 50 - match winning streak at Premier Mandatory events, and also a 19 - match winning streak at the particular event. Williams played one match at the 2015 Internazionali BNL d'Italia before withdrawing from the tournament with an elbow injury. By virtue of having defeated Victoria Azarenka in the third round of the French Open, Williams became the first woman in the Open Era to win 50 matches at all four of the Grand Slams. Williams then defeated Sloane Stephens to reach her 40th Grand Slam singles quarterfinal. Serena won her next match easily, but had to come back from a set down in the semifinals versus Timea Bacsinszky for the fourth time in five matches to reach the final. She would go on to defeat Lucie Šafářová from the Czech Republic in three sets to win her 3rd French Open and 20th Grand Slam singles title. The win made her only the third person in history to win each Grand Slam at least three times, joining Margaret Court and Steffi Graf. She 's the first player to win three straight Grand Slams since she did it herself during the Serena Slam. She also became the first player to win the Australian - French Open double since Jennifer Capriati in 2001.
Williams completed her second "Serena Slam '' (winning all four Grand Slams in a row) by winning the 2015 Wimbledon Championships -- her 6th Wimbledon and 21st Grand Slam singles title overall. Her path to victory at Wimbledon was particularly challenging. She was down a double break in the third round versus Heather Watson and two points from defeat twice before rallying for the win and becoming the first player to qualify for the WTA Finals (the earliest that a player had qualified since the event switched to the round - robin format in 2003). Williams then defeated three former number 1 players -- Venus Williams, Victoria Azarenka and Maria Sharapova -- in succession to advance to the final. Awaiting her there was 21 - year - old Garbiñe Muguruza, who had previously handed Williams the worst Grand Slam tournament defeat of her career at the 2014 French Open. Williams defeated Muguruza in a tight two - setter. The victory made her the oldest woman in the Open Era to win a grand slam singles title, in addition to having the distinction of being the oldest ladies ' singles champion of all of the grand slam tournaments. It also was her eighth consecutive victory in Grand Slam singles finals appearances, breaking Steffi Graf 's Open Era record of seven from 1995 through 1999 and, on the men 's side, tying Pete Sampras ' Open Era record of eight from 1995 through 2000. Her 21st Grand Slam singles titles equaled the tally of the rest of the women 's tour, combined. The week of July 13 marked the first time in WTA history that the No. 1 player had more than twice as many points as No. 2. Following her win at Wimbledon, Williams was awarded with her 7th ESPY for Best Female Tennis Player.
Williams played one match at the Swedish Open in Båstad before withdrawing with an elbow injury. She was the defending champion at the Bank of the West Classic but withdrew from the tournament in order for her elbow to get better. Williams had her 19 match winning streak ended by 18 - year - old Swiss Belinda Bencic, the world No. 20, in three tight sets in the semifinals of the Canadian Open. It was her second defeat of the year and first on hard courts since the 2014 WTA Finals. The next week Williams defended her title at the Western & Southern Open with a straight sets victory over world No. 3 Simona Halep for her 69th WTA title, breaking a tie with Evonne Goolagong for standalone fifth-most WTA titles won. Williams ' attempt at capturing the "Grand Slam '' (winning all four Grand Slams in a calendar year) came to an end in the semifinals of the US Open, where she lost to Roberta Vinci in three sets. The loss has been described by some as one of the biggest upsets in tennis history. Nonetheless, Williams secured the year - end No. 1 ranking with her results at the tournament. On October 1, Williams called an end to her season, stating that she had been injured for most of the year and wanted to address her fitness issues. Prior to the announcement, coach Patrick Mouratoglou hinted that Williams might not play again in 2015 due to a lack of motivation and disappointment following her loss at the Open. On October 5, Williams surpassed Chris Evert for third-most weeks ranked world No. 1. Williams held the No. 1 ranking the entire season for the second consecutive year, finishing there for the fifth time in her career. She was voted WTA Player of the Year for the seventh time in her career. On December 14, Sports Illustrated announced Williams as their Sportsperson of the Year. She thus became the third solo woman, and first since 1983, to receive the award. Williams was also named ITF World Champion for the sixth time in her career. Soon after, it was announced that she was voted Female Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press for the fourth time.
Williams withdrew from the Hopman Cup after retiring from her singles match against Australia Gold with inflammation of her left knee. Her next tournament was the Australian Open, where she was the No. 1 seed and defending champion. She reached the final without dropping a set, including wins over No. 5 Maria Sharapova and No. 4 Agnieszka Radwańska, and faced first time Grand Slam finalist Angelique Kerber. She was considered the heavy favorite to win the title, as she had never lost an Australian Open final or semi-final. She also dominated the head - to - head against Kerber, having lost only once in six meetings and having not lost a set to her in four years. However, Serena lost the final in three sets and Kerber won her first Grand Slam title. This marked Williams ' first ever loss in the final of the Australian Open, as well as her first three - set loss in the final of a Grand Slam. She had previously been 6 -- 0 and 8 -- 0 respectively.
The week of February 15 marked Serena 's 157th consecutive week ranked world No. 1, passing Martina Navratilova 's mark of 156 to have the second - longest run in WTA history behind Steffi Graf 's 186.
She competed in Indian Wells as the No. 1 seed. She reached her first final here since winning in 2001 and before boycotting the event, by defeating Simona Halep in the quarter - finals and Agnieszka Radwańska in the semi-finals. She did not drop a set en route to the final. However, Serena was upset by No. 13 seed Victoria Azarenka, whom she had defeated the last five times the pair had met, in straight sets. This marked the first time since 2004 where Williams lost two consecutive finals.
She next played the Miami Open as the defending champion. She lost in the fourth round to Svetlana Kuznetsova. This marked her first loss here since 2012 and ended her 20 match winning streak in Miami. This was also her earliest exit here since 2000, where she lost in the same round.
During the clay court swing, Serena withdrew from Madrid but entered Rome. She beat Anna - Lena Friedsam and Christina McHale to progress to the quarter - finals where she defeated Svetlana Kuznetsova to avenge her loss in Miami. She then went on to beat Irina - Camelia Begu and Madison Keys to win her 70th career WTA title and to win her first title of the year. This was her third Rome title in four years and fourth overall.
At the French Open, Williams dropped only one set en route to the final. She defeated Yulia Putintseva in the quarter - finals despite being five points away from losing. She then beat surprise semi-finalist Kiki Bertens to reach her fourth French Open final where she faced Garbiñe Muguruza in a repeat of last year 's Wimbledon final where Williams was victorious. However, the result was not the same as that Wimbledon final as Williams lost to Muguruza in straight sets. With this loss, Serena had lost two consecutive Grand Slam finals for the first time in her career. On top of failing to equal Steffi Graf 's Open Era record of 22 Grand Slam singles titles, Williams also completed the Career Grand Slam runner - up set with this loss.
At 2016 Wimbledon, Williams only lost one set en route to the final where she faced Angelique Kerber in a rematch of their Australian Open final earlier in the year. This time, Serena defeated Kerber in straight sets to finally equal Steffi Graf 's record of 22 Grand Slams in the Open Era. This was Serena 's first Grand Slam title of the year, as well as her 71st career WTA title overall. In what was a brilliant serving performance, Serena only faced one break point in the whole match against Kerber which she saved with an ace. Later that day, Serena partnered with sister Venus Williams, to win their 6th Wimbledon doubles title and 14th doubles Grand Slam overall, keeping their perfect record at Grand Slam doubles finals intact.
On July 24, 2016, Williams withdrew from Rogers Cup citing a shoulder inflammation injury. She next participated in the Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where she was the defending gold medalist in both singles and doubles and was the heavy favourite to retain those titles. Partnering with her sister Venus in the doubles, they faced a shocking exit in the first round itself, losing to the Czech duo of Lucie Šafářová and Barbora Strýcová, which ended their career record of 15 -- 0 dating back to the 2000 Olympics. In singles, after defeating Daria Gavrilova and Alizé Cornet in the first two rounds, Williams faced Ukraine 's Elina Svitolina in the third round in what was a rematch of this year 's French Open 4th round, but lost to the Ukrainian, bringing an end to her Olympics campaign. Days after the Olympics, Williams took a late wildcard for the Western & Southern Open, where she was the defending champion, but then decided to withdraw due to concerns from the same shoulder injury / inflammation from earlier in the summer.
The week of September 5, 2016, marked Serena 's 186th consecutive week ranked world No. 1, equalling Steffi Graf 's record for longest run in WTA history. However, in the semifinals of the U.S. Open, Serena lost to Karolína Plíšková. Having won the US Open, Angelique Kerber became the world No. 1, ending Williams ' No. 1 streak. Williams also pulled out of the WTA Finals due to a shoulder injury.
Serena started her 2017 season by participating in the WTA Auckland Open for the first time in her career. She defeated Pauline Parmentier to win her first match played since the US Open. In the second round however, Williams surprisingly lost to Madison Brengle. Williams displayed her top form from the outset of the Australian Open. Serena beat former and present top 10 players Belinda Bencic, Lucie Šafářová, Johanna Konta among others to reach her 8th Australian Open Final. On January 28, 2017, Williams won the Australian Open for an Open Era record seventh time, defeating her sister, Venus. This was her 23rd Grand Slam singles title, surpassing Steffi Graf 's Open Era record of 22. It was the first time in the Open Era that two players aged 35 or older competed in the final of a Grand Slam tournament. The win ensured her return to the No. 1 ranking. Williams subsequently withdrew from the Indian Wells and Miami Opens, citing a knee injury. However, on April 19, 2017, she revealed that she was 20 weeks pregnant and would miss the remainder of the season. The timing means that she would have been roughly eight - weeks pregnant when she won the Australian Open. In interviews, she has maintained that she intends to return to tennis after her pregnancy, including setting the (in her own words) "outrageous plan '' of competing in the 2018 Australian Open. On September 1, 2017, Williams gave birth to a baby daughter named Alexis Olympia Ohanian, Jr.
Williams has played older sister Venus in 28 professional matches since 1998. Overall, Serena is 17 -- 11 against her sister. Serena has played Venus 15 times in Grand Slam singles and 13 times in other tournaments (including 11 finals). They have met in nine Grand Slam tournament finals, with Serena winning seven times. Beginning with the 2002 French Open, they played each other in four consecutive Grand Slam finals, which was the first time in the open era that the same two players had contested consecutive finals in Grand Slam singles.
Williams leads series 7 -- 6. One of Williams ' first rivalries was with Martina Hingis, who turned pro less than one year before her (Hingis in October 1994, Williams in 1995) They first played each other at the 1998 Miami Open where Hingis won in three sets. All but one of their matches was played on a hard court with the exception being a contest on clay in Rome 1999, which Hingis won in straight sets. Their last match took place at the 2002 Miami Open with Williams winning for the loss of just four games. Hingis was forced to briefly leave the sport citing ankle injuries.
Williams leads series 10 -- 7. Once considered one of the best rivalries in women 's tennis, the competition between Williams and Capriati was stiff with 12 out of their 17 meetings going to three sets. The rivalry, starting in 1999, started off one sided with Capriati winning four of their first five matches. Serena would then go on to win the next eight. Williams and Capriati played with similar styles, both known for using their power and athleticism to gain quick advantages in points.
Williams leads series 8 -- 6. Henin and Williams met 14 times, five of which were in tournament finals. In grand slams they have faced each other seven times with Justine leading 4 -- 3. Opposite personalities and styles of play are often cited as what made their rivalry entertaining. In the semifinals of the 2003 French Open, when at 4 -- 2, 30 -- 0 on Williams ' serve in the third set, Henin raised her hand to indicate she was not ready to receive; Williams then put her serve into the net. The umpire did not see Henin raise her hand, and thus did not allow Williams a first serve. Williams lost the game and would go on to lose the match. Their last match took place in the final of the 2010 Australian Open where Williams won in three sets, earning her 12th Grand Slam title.
When both the Williams sisters entered the top ten and started meeting in tournaments, unsubstantiated rumors of match fixing started to circulate. John McEnroe, while commenting on the 2000 Wimbledon semifinal between the two sisters, said that "Serena may not be allowed to win. Richard may have something to say about this. '' Elena Dementieva, a fellow professional player, said during a post match interview after losing to Venus at the Indian Wells quarterfinals in 2001, that Richard Williams decided the results between the two sisters. Venus pulling out at the last minute garnered much speculation in the press, with fans demanding their money back.
After injuring herself in the quarterfinal match against Dementieva, Venus Williams defaulted to Serena in the semifinals. Although Venus told the tournament official hours beforehand that she would have to default, the official word was not given until 10 minutes before the scheduled start (in the hopes that Venus would change her mind), angering fans who had come to see the match. Consequently, during the final against Kim Clijsters two days later, the spectators jeered Serena from when she first took the court for warm - up through the final trophy presentation including cheering double faults and errors with no intervention from the tournament officials. Despite these attacks, Serena went on to win the tournament.
At the Ericsson Open the following week, Richard Williams said racist comments were made to him in the stands, and the tournament director refused to offer Serena an apology for how she was treated. As a result, neither sister played the tournament even though it had become a mandatory stop on the WTA tour since 2009. In 2015, Serena decided to end her 14 - year boycott and played.
In her 2004 U.S. Open quarterfinal match against Jennifer Capriati, an overrule was made by chair umpire Mariana Alves in Capriati 's favor, even though later video review showed this to be an error (as Williams ' shot was inside the court). There were calls that incorrectly went against Williams during the match, including late in the third set which prevented her from rallying from a break down. Williams attempted to argue a couple of calls, but was not successful. Capriati won the match, but tournament officials dismissed Alves from the tournament, and she was suspended. The controversy renewed calls for the adoption of technology like the MacCam and Hawk - Eye systems.
In a 2009 U.S. Open semifinal round against Kim Clijsters, Williams slammed her racquet on the court after losing the first set. She was given a warning, with a potential second violation carrying a one - point penalty. While trailing 4 -- 6, 5 -- 6, 15 -- 30, Williams ' second serve was called a foot fault, resulting in two match points for Clijsters. Williams gestured with her racquet to the lineswoman who had made the call and yelled at her, with profanities and a threat to shove a tennis ball down the lineswoman 's throat. During the subsequent on - court conference between the chair umpire, the lineswoman, US Open officials, and Williams, a television microphone picked up Williams saying to the lineswoman, "I did n't say I would kill you! Are you serious? '' The incident resulted in Williams being penalized a point for unsportsmanlike conduct -- necessitated by the earlier warning for racquet abuse -- meaning Clijsters won the match 6 -- 4, 7 -- 5. The following day, Williams was issued the maximum permissible on - site fine of $10,000 (plus $500 for racquet abuse). After further investigation, the Grand Slam Committee in November 2009 fined her $175,000 in lieu of suspending her from the 2010 US Open or other Grand Slam events. They also placed her on a two - year probation, so if Williams committed another offense in the following two years at a Grand Slam tournament, she would be suspended from participating in the following US Open. If she committed no offenses in the next two years, her fine would be reduced to $82,500. Williams initially refused to apologize for her outburst, both in her post-match press conference and in an official statement released the following day. She eventually apologized stating "I just really wanted to apologize sincerely, because I 'm a very prideful person and I 'm a very intense person and a very emotional person '', and "I wanted to offer my sincere apologies to anyone that I may have offended. '' She said she had been humbled by the experience.
In the final of the 2011 U.S. Open against Samantha Stosur, Williams shouted "Come on! '' as the Australian attempted to return a forehand Williams believed to be a winner. The chair umpire Eva Asderaki awarded the point to Stosur based on the USTA 's deliberate hindrance rule, which states, "If a player commits any act which hinders his opponent in making a stroke, then, if this is deliberate, he shall lose the point or if involuntary, the point shall be replayed. '' As the point was 30 -- 40 on Williams ' serve, the penalty gave the break of serve to Stosur. Williams became angry with the chair umpire and made several gestures and unflattering comments toward her during the next changeover, including telling Asderaki that if she ever saw the umpire coming toward her, she should "look the other way ''. Williams initially gained momentum in the set following the penalty, breaking back in the next game, but eventually flagged and lost the match, 2 -- 6, 3 -- 6. At the end of the match, she declined to offer the customary handshake to Asderaki. Williams mentioned the incident in her post-match speech as the tournament runner - up, claiming, "I hit a winner, but I guess it did n't count, '' but added, "It would n't have mattered in the end. Sam played really well. '' A writer for ESPN suggested that Williams could avoid being found to have violated the terms of the "probation '' on which she was placed following her 2009 outburst, as she did not appear to have used profanity in addressing Asderaki during the match. In the end, Williams was fined $2,000 and was not barred from competing in the 2012 US Open because "... Williams ' conduct, while verbally abusive, (did) not rise to the level of a major offence under the Grand Slam code of conduct. ''
Williams announced her engagement to Reddit co-founder Alexis Ohanian on December 29, 2016. On April 19, 2017, Williams posted a sideways picture of herself on Snapchat focused on her belly. It had the caption "20 weeks '', sparking speculation that Williams was pregnant. Later that evening, her spokesperson confirmed that the couple was expecting. The fact that she was 20 weeks pregnant when announcing her pregnancy meant that she was 8 weeks pregnant when she won the Australian Open in January. On September 1, 2017, Williams gave birth to a baby girl named Alexis Olympia Ohanian, Jr. She plans to move to San Francisco with Ohanian after the wedding.
Williams was raised a Jehovah 's Witness, but says she has "never really practiced it. '' She often gives thanks to Jehovah after winning matches.
In the early 2000s, Williams wore Puma apparel and footwear on court. She used the Wilson Hammer 6.4 Stretch Power Holes racquet. Today, she is endorsed by Nike and uses the Wilson Blade 104.
Williams also has endorsement deals with Gatorade, Delta Air Lines, Audemars Piguet, Aston Martin, Pepsi, Beats by Dre headphones, Mission Athletecare, Berlei bras, OPI Products, OnePiece, IBM, Mini and Chase Bank.
Williams is the current CSO (Chief Sporting Officer) for British luxury automobile manufacturer Aston Martin. She accepted the contract in June 2015. Williams then posted her first experience on social media service Twitter, and said: "I 'm loving my first day on the job as Chief Sporting Officer and Director of Fun! '', stating her optimism on the job as the CSO.
Williams has been noted for her unusual and colorful outfits on court. In 2002, there was much talk when she wore a black lycra catsuit at the US Open. At the 2004 US Open, Williams wore denim skirts and knee - high boots -- tournament officials, however, did not allow her to wear the boots during matches. At Wimbledon in 2008, the white trench coat she wore during warm - up for her opening match was the subject of much discussion since it was worn despite the sunny weather.
Williams formerly had a special line with Puma. In April 2004, she signed a deal worth US $40 million for a line with Nike. Since 2004, she has also run her own line of designer apparel, "Aneres '' -- her first name spelled backward. In 2009, she launched a signature collection of handbags and jewelry. The collection, Signature Statement, is sold mainly on the Home Shopping Network (HSN).
In early 2010, Williams became a certified nail technician in preparation for her upcoming nail collection with a company called HairTech. In 2015, she became the first black female athlete to have a picture by herself on the cover of Vogue, which she did for the April 2015 issue. In 2015, she also presented her HSN Signature Statement collection for the second time at the New York Fashion Week Show -- a clothing line exclusively made for the retailer HSN.
Williams has appeared on television and also provided voice work on animated shows: in a 2001 episode of The Simpsons Serena joined the animation along with sister Venus, Pete Sampras and Andre Agassi. She has also provided guest voice work in a 2005 episode of Playhouse Disney 's animated kids show Higglytown Heroes and a 2007 episode of the Nickelodeon cartoon Avatar: The Last Airbender, which she has described as her "favorite show ''.
Williams has posed for the 2003 and 2004 editions of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. In April 2005, MTV announced plans to broadcast a reality show around the lives of Serena and Venus, which was eventually aired on ABC Family. Williams has appeared twice on MTV 's Punk 'd and in 2007, appeared in the ABC reality television series Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race. In 2002, she played Miss Wiggins in the season 3 episode "Crouching Mother, Hidden Father '' of My Wife and Kids; she has also guest - starred in episodes of The Bernie Mac Show, ER and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. In 2007, Williams appeared in the music video of "I Want You '' by the American rapper Common, alongside performers Alicia Keys and Kanye West.
In late 2009, Williams became the first active female professional athlete to appear in a feminine hygiene product advertising campaign. A series of online videos and print advertisements for Tampax Pearl tampons showed her hitting balls at Mother Nature, played by Catherine Lloyd Burns, to prevent Mother Nature giving her a red - wrapped gift, representing her menstrual period. In the online videos, the two have dueling press conferences over the "bad blood '' between them. "A lot of celebrities are not open to working with our brand, and we 're thrilled that Serena is '', said a brand manager for Tampax at Procter & Gamble.
In July 2012, she appeared in the ABC comedic improv television series Trust Us With Your Life and as a lawyer on the Lifetime television series Drop Dead Diva.
To celebrate the 35th anniversary of Pac - Man, Williams made a cameo appearance in the movie Pixels, which starred Adam Sandler and Kevin James, and premiered on July 24, 2015.
Williams is well known to be close with Beyoncé. She made a cameo appearance dancing in Beyoncé 's music video for the song Sorry, from the hit album Lemonade. Williams said she was told by the director, "We would love for you to be in this particular song. It 's about strength and it 's about courage and that 's what we see you as. ''
In addition to English as her native language, Williams also speaks conversational French, and knows some Spanish and Italian. At the 2013, 2015, and 2016 French Open she gave her on - court interviews in French, much to the crowd 's delight.
In August 2009, Williams and her sister Venus became minority owners of the Miami Dolphins after purchasing a small stake in the team. They live near each other in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, which is about an hour 's drive from the Dolphins ' stadium. They are the first African - American women to hold any amount of ownership in an NFL franchise.
In 2008, as part of the Serena Williams Foundation 's work, Williams helped to fund the construction of the Serena Williams Secondary School in Matooni, Kenya. The Serena Williams Foundation also provides university scholarships for underprivileged students in the United States. In 2016, the Serena Williams Fund partnered with Helping Hands Jamaica to build the Salt Marsh Primary School for Jamaican youth in Trelawny Parish. She received a Celebrity Role Model Award from Avon Foundation in 2003 for work in breast cancer. Williams has also been involved in a number of clinics at schools and community centers, particularly those which have programs focusing on at - risk youth. She has also won the "Young Heroes Award '' from Big Brothers Big Sisters of Greater L.A. and Inland (2003) and the "Family Circle and Prudential Financial Player Who Makes a Difference Award '' (2004). In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Williams, along with other ATP and WTA stars, decided to forgo their final day of preparation for the 2010 Australian Open to form a charity event in which all proceeds will go to the Haiti earthquake victims. Serena, along with her sister Venus, is a supporter and contributor of First Serve Miami, a foundation for youth who want to learn tennis but are socially and economically challenged. She has been an International Goodwill Ambassador with UNICEF since 2011 and has helped launch UNICEF 's Schools for Asia campaign.
In addition to the Serena Williams Fund in 2016, Serena and Venus collaborated on the Williams Sisters Fund to work on philanthropic projects together. Also in 2016, in their childhood home of Compton, California Serena and Venus teamed up to found the Yetunde Price Resource Center, in honor of their late sister. The Resource Center provides services to families affected by community violence.
Williams ' return to Indian Wells in 2015 was done in partnership with the Equal Justice Initiative, a non-profit organization that provides legal representation to those who might have been denied a fair trial. EJI executive director Bryan Stevenson lauded her courage in supporting his organization. "It 's so rare when athletes at the top of their game are willing to embrace a set of issues that, for a lot of people, are edgier '', he said. "This is not aid to orphans... She was standing when a lot of her contemporaries remain seated, speaking up when others are being quiet. ''
In 2014, Williams began hosting an annual charity run named "The Serena Williams Ultimate Fun Run ''. The event is in support of the Serena Williams Fund, which helps underprivileged individuals and communities that are affected by senseless violence and to ensure equal access to education of youth.
In 2017, Williams became Ambassador for the Allstate Foundation 's Purple Purse project, an initiative to provide financial empowerment to domestic abuse victims. In a press release, Vicky Dinges, Allstate 's senior vice president of corporate responsibility, said, "we are thrilled to welcome Serena, a longtime advocate and role model for so many, to the Purple Purse family. Her voice will bring new audiences into this critical conversation. ''
Other charitable organizations Williams supports include the Elton John AIDS Foundation, Great Ormond Street Hospital, Hearts of Gold, the Common Ground Foundation, the Small Steps Project, the HollyRod Foundation, Beyond the Boroughs National Scholarship Fund, World Education, the Eva Longoria Foundation, the Caliber Foundation and the Cure for MND Foundation.
The Williams sisters, with author Hilary Beard, wrote a book titled Venus & Serena: Serving From The Hip: 10 Rules For Living, Loving and Winning, which was published in 2005. During the 2009 Wimbledon Championships, Williams said that she is in the process of writing a TV show storyline, which will be converted into script form by her agency. She stated that the show will represent subject matter from a mix of popular American television shows such as Desperate Housewives, and Family Guy. Williams released her first solo autobiography entitled On the Line, following the 2009 US Open.
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the good wife season 1 episode 13 cast | The Good Wife (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of The Good Wife first began airing on September 22, 2009 and finished on May 25, 2010. It consisted of 23 episodes.
The series focuses on Alicia Florrick (Margulies), whose husband Peter (Noth), the former Cook County, Illinois State 's Attorney, has been jailed following a notorious political corruption and sex scandal. After having spent the previous thirteen years as a stay - at - home mother, Alicia returns to the workforce as a litigator to provide for her two children.
The first season of The Good Wife received critical acclaim. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an 85 % certified fresh rating based on 27 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Along with Julianna Margulies and a fine cast, the gripping drama The Good Wife, boasts hook - heavy plotlines torn from the headlines. '' On Metacritic, the first season of the show currently sits at a 75 out of 100, based on 26 reviews, indicating generally favorable reviews.
Primetime Emmy Awards
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what night do you put your shoes out for st nick | Saint Nicholas Day - wikipedia
Saint Nicholas ' Day, observed on December 6 in Western Christian countries and Romania, December 5 in the Netherlands and December 19 in Eastern Christian countries, is the feast day of Saint Nicholas. It is celebrated as a Christian festival with particular regard to his reputation as a bringer of gifts, as well as through the attendance of Mass, liturgy, or worship services. In Europe, especially in "Germany and Poland, boys would dress as bishops begging alms for the poor. '' In Ukraine, children wait for St. Nicholas to come and to put a present under their pillows provided that the children were good during the year. Children who behaved badly may expect to find a twig or a piece of coal under their pillows. In the Netherlands, "Dutch children put out a clog filled with hay and a carrot for Saint Nicholas ' horse. On Saint Nicholas ' Day, gifts are tagged with personal humorous rhymes written by the sender. '' In the United States, one custom associated with Saint Nicholas Day is children leaving their shoes in the foyer on Saint Nicholas Eve in hope that Saint Nicholas will place some coins on the soles, for them to awake to.
The American Santa Claus, as well as the British Father Christmas, derive in part from Saint Nicholas and in part from the Dutch Sinterklaas, the saint 's name in that language. However the gift giving associated with these descendant figures is associated with Christmas Day rather than Saint Nicholas Day itself.
Among Albanians, Saint Nicholas is known as Shen'Kollë and is venerated by most Catholic families, even those from villages that are devoted to other saints. The Feast of Saint Nicholas is celebrated on the evening before 6 December, known as Shen'Kolli i Dimnit (Saint Nicholas of Winter), as well as on the commemoration of the interring of his bones in Bari, the evening before 9 May, known as Shen'Kolli i Majit (Saint Nicholas of May). Albanian Catholics often swear by Saint Nicholas, saying "Pasha Shejnti Shen'Kollin! '' ("May I see Holy Saint Nicholas! ''), indicating the importance of this saint in Albanian culture, especially among the Albanians of Malësia. On the eve of his feast day, Albanians will light a candle and abstain from meat, preparing a feast of roasted lamb and pork, to be served to guests after midnight. Guests will greet each other, saying, "Nata e Shen'Kollit ju nihmoftë! '' ("May the Night of Saint Nicholas help you! '') and other such blessings. The bones of Albania 's greatest hero, George Kastrioti, were also interred in the Church of Saint Nicholas in Lezha, Albania, upon his death.
In Greece, Saint Nicholas does not carry an especial association with gift - giving, as this tradition is carried over to St. Basil of Caesarea, celebrated on New Year 's Day. St. Nicholas being the protector of sailors, he is considered the patron saint of the Greek navy, military and merchant alike, and his day is marked by festivities aboard all ships and boats, at sea and in port. It is also associated with the preceding feasts of St. Barbara (4 December), St. Savvas (5 December), and the following feast of St. Anne (9 December); all these are often collectively called the "Nikolobárbara '', and are considered a succession of days that heralds the onset of truly wintry cold weather in the country. Therefore, by tradition, homes should have already been laid with carpets, removed for the warm season, by St. Andrew 's Day (30 November), a week ahead of the Nikolobárbara.
In Serbia, and among the Serb people living across the world, Saint Nicholas is the most widely celebrated family patron saint, celebrated as the feast day (Slava) of Nikoljdan. Since Nikoljdan always falls in the fasting period preceding Christmas, it is celebrated according to the Eastern Orthodox fasting rules ("Post ''). Fasting refers in this context to the eating of a restricted diet for reasons of religion. This entails the complete avoidance of animal - sourced food products (meat, milk, dairy products and eggs). Fish may be eaten on certain days
In Bulgaria, Saint Nicholas ' day is celebrated on the 6 December as Nikulden. Families invite relatives, sponsors and neighbors for a meal of fish (usually ribnik, a carp wrapped in dough) and two loaves of ceremonial bread, all of which are blessed at church or at home. The host wafts incense over the table, then lifts and breaks the bread. Bulgarians also observe 6 December as the name day for those with the names Nikola, Nikolay, Kolyo, Nikolina, Neno, Nenka, Nikoleta and Nina.
In the Netherlands the primary occasion for gift - giving is 5 December, when his feast day is celebrated. In Belgium they celebrate Sinterklaas on the morning of the 6 December.
In the days leading up to 5 or 6 December (starting when Saint Nicholas has arrived by steamboat around mid-November), young children put their shoes in front of the chimneys and sing Sinterklaas songs. Often they put a carrot or some hay in their shoes, as a gift to St. Nicholas ' horse. In recent years the horse has been named Schimmel or Amerigo in the Netherlands and Slecht Weer Vandaag in Flanders. The next morning they find a small present in their shoes, ranging from sweets to marbles or some other small toy. On the evening of 5 December, Sinterklaas brings presents to every child who has behaved well in the past year. In practice, just as with Santa Claus, all children receive gifts without distinction. This is often done by placing a bag filled with presents outside the house or living room, after which a neighbor or parent bangs on the door or window, pretending to be Sinterklaas ' assistant. Another option is to hire or ask someone to dress up as Sinterklaas and deliver the presents personally. Sinterklaas wears a bishop 's robes including a red cape and mitre and is assisted by many mischievous helpers, called ' Zwarte Pieten ' ("Black Petes '') or "Père Fouettard '' in the French - speaking part of Belgium, with black faces and colourful Moorish dress, dating back two centuries. In the past, it was said that the Zwarte Pieten took all the naughty children, put them into sacks, and Sinterklaas took them with him to Spain (it is believed that Sinterklaas comes from Spain, where he returns after 5 December), in order to scare the children. Therefore, many Sinterklaas songs still allude to a watching Zwarte Piet and a judging Sinterklaas.
Recently, there has been a recurrent discussion about the perceived politically incorrect nature of Zwarte Piet. In particular Dutch citizens with backgrounds from Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles might feel offended by the Dutch slavery history connected to this emblem and regard the representation of Zwarte Piet as racist. Others state that the black skin color of Zwarte Piet originates in his profession as a chimney sweep, hence the delivery of packages through the chimney.
In recent years, Christmas, along with Santa Claus, has been pushed by shopkeepers as another gift - giving festival, with some success; although, especially for young children, Saint Nicholas ' Eve is still much more important than Christmas. The rise of Father Christmas (known in Dutch as de Kerstman) is often cited as an example of globalization and Americanisation.
On the Frisian islands (Waddeneilanden), the Sinterklaas feast has developed independently into traditions very different from the one on the mainland.
In Luxembourg, Kleeschen is accompanied by the Houseker a frightening helper wearing a brown monk 's habit.
In highly Catholic regions, the local priest was informed by the parents about their children 's behaviour and would then personally visit the homes in the traditional Christian garment and threaten to beat them with a rod.
In Slovenia Miklavž (Sveti Miklavž) and in Croatia, Nikolaus (Sveti Nikola) who visits on Saint Nicholas day (Nikolinje in Croatia and "Miklavževanje '' in Slovenia) brings gifts to children commending them for their good behavior over the past year and exhorting them to continue in the same manner in the year to come. If they fail to do so they will receive a visit from "Parkelj '' who traditionally leaves a rod, an instrument their parents will use to discipline them.
In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Mikuláš, in Poland Mikołaj and in Ukraine Svyatyi Mykolay is often also accompanied by an angel (anděl / anjel / anioł / anhel) who acts as a counterweight to the ominous devil or Knecht Ruprecht (čert / czart). Additionally, in Czech Republic, Poland and in Slovakia children find the candy and small gifts under the pillow, in their shoes or behind the window the evening of 5 December or the morning of 6 December.
In Hungary, Croatia and Romania, children typically leave their boots on the windowsill on the evening of 5 December. By next morning Nikolaus (Szent Miklós traditionally but more commonly known as Mikulás in Hungary or Moş Nicolae (Sfântul Nicolae) in Romania) leaves candy and gifts if they have been good, or a rod (Hungarian: virgács, Romanian: nuieluşǎ) if they have been bad (most children end up getting small gifts, but also a small rod). In Hungary he is often accompanied by the Krampusz, the frightening helper who is out to take away the bad ones.
In Slovenia, Saint Nikolaus (Miklavž) is accompanied by an angel and a devil (parkelj) corresponding to the Austrian Krampus.
In Ukraine, St Nicholas (Mykolaj) visits good children during the night (18 -- 19 December (O.S. 5 -- 6 December)) and puts presents under the pillow. For the naughty children Mykolaj brings a rod (Rizka) so parents can use it to discipline them. Usually Mykolaj is accompanied by an Angel (Janhol) and a Devil (Chort).
Saint Nicholas originates primarily in Alsace, Nord - Pas - de-Calais (French Flanders), and in Lorraine, where he is patron. A little donkey carries baskets filled with children 's gifts, biscuits and sweets. The whole family gets ready for the saint 's arrival on 6 December, with grandparents telling stories of the saint. The most popular one (also the subject of a popular French children 's song) is of three children who wandered away and got lost. Cold and hungry, a wicked butcher lured them into his shop where he killed them and salted them away in a large tub. Through St. Nicolas ' help the boys were revived and returned to their families, earning him a reputation as protector of children. The evil butcher followed St. Nicolas in penance ever since as Père Fouettard. In France, statues and paintings often portray this event, showing the saint with children in a barrel.
Bakeries and home kitchens are hives of activity as spiced gingerbread biscuits and mannala (a brioche shaped like the saint) are baked. In schools, children learn songs and poems and create arts and crafts about St. Nicolas, while in nursery schools, a man portraying St. Nicolas gives away chocolates and sometimes little presents. He is sometimes accompanied by an actor playing Père Fouettard, who, like his German counterpart Krampus, carries switches to threaten the children who fear he will advise St. Nicolas to pass them by on his gift - giving rounds.
In Northern Germany, Sankt Nikolaus is usually celebrated on a small scale. Many children put a boot called Nikolaus - Stiefel (Nikolaus boot) outside the front door on the night of 5 December. St. Nicholas fills the boot with gifts and sweets overnight, and at the same time checks up on the children to see if they were good, polite and helpful the last year. If they were not, they will have a stick (eine Rute) in their boots instead. Nicholas is often portrayed in Bavarian folklore as being accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht who inquires of the children if they have been saying their prayers, and if not, he shakes his bag of ashes at them, or beats them with a stick. Sometimes a Nikolaus impersonator also visits the children at school or in their homes and asks them if they have been good (sometimes ostensibly checking his golden book for their record), handing out presents on the basis of their behavior. This has become more lenient in recent decades, and this task is often taken over by the Weihnachtsmann (Father Christmas). In more Catholic regions, St. Nikolaus is dressed very much like a bishop, rides on a horse, and is welcomed at public places by large crowds. He has a long beard, and loves children, except when they have been naughty. This tradition has been kept alive annually.
In Austria, Bavaria and Tyrol (Austro - Bavarian regions), St. Nicholas is accompanied by Krampus, represented as a beast - like creature, generally demonic in appearance. Krampus is thought to punish children during the Yule season who had misbehaved, and to capture particularly naughty children in his sack and carry them away to his lair. The creature has roots in Germanic folklore; however, its influence has spread far beyond German borders, in Austria, southern Bavaria, South Tyrol, northern Friuli, Hungary, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic and Croatia. 5 December is Krampus Night or Krampusnacht, in which the hairy devil appears on the streets. Traditionally young men dress up as the Krampus during the first week of December, particularly on the evening of 5 December (the eve of Saint Nicholas day on many church calendars), and roam the streets frightening children with rusty chains and bells. Sometimes accompanying St. Nicholas and sometimes on his own, Krampus visits homes and businesses. The Saint usually appears in the Eastern Rite vestments of a bishop, and he carries a ceremonial staff. Nicholas dispenses gifts, while Krampus supplies coal and the ruten bundles. (Video Krampuslauf Lienz 2010) Krampus is featured on holiday greeting cards called Krampuskarten. There are many names for Krampus, as well as many regional variations in portrayal and celebration.
In Swiss folklore, St. Nicholas is known as Samichlaus (like Dutch Sinterklaas a corruption of the name of St. Nicholas). He is accompanied by the Schmutzli a frightening helper wearing a brown monk 's habit. The Christmas gift - bringer is not Samichlaus, but the Christchindli.
St. Nicholas (San Nicola) is the patron of the city of Bari, where it is believed he is buried. Its deeply felt celebration is called the Festa di San Nicola, held on the 7 -- 9 of May. In particular on 8 May the relics of the saint are carried on a boat on the sea in front of the city with many boats following (Festa a mare). As Saint Nicholas is said to protect children and virgins, on 6 December there is a ritual called the Rito delle nubili: unmarried women wishing to find a husband can attend to an early - morning Mass, in which they have to turn around a column 7 times. A similar tradition is currently observed in Sassari, where during the day of Saint Nicholas, patron of the city, gifts are given to young women who need help to get married.
In the provinces of Trieste, Udine, Belluno, Bari (Terlizzi and Molfetta), South Tyrol, Trentino and in part of the Province of Treviso, St. Nicholas (San Nicolò) is celebrated with gifts given to children on the morning of 6 December and with a fair called Fiera di San Nicolò during the first weeks of December. Depending on the cultural background, in some families this celebration is more important than Christmas.
Like in Austria, in South Tyrol Saint Nicholas comes with krampuses. Instead, in Val Canale (Udine) Saint Nicholas comes to chase the krampuses: after a parade of krampuses running after people, Saint Nicholas comes on a chariot and give gifts to children (Video "San Nicolò caccia i Krampus a Tarvisio '' 6.12. 2010)
In Suhuan, St. Nicholas (mt: San Nikola, less commonly San Niklaw) is the patron saint of the town of Siġġiewi where his feast is celebrated on the last Sunday in June. The parish church, dedicated to the saint, was built between 1676 and 1693. It was designed by the Maltese architect, Lorenzo Gafà, with the portico and naves being added by Nicola Zammit in the latter half of the 19th century. The ruins of a former parish church are still visible and have recently undergone restoration.
In one city (Guimarães) in Portugal, St. Nicholas (São Nicolau) has been celebrated since the Middle Ages as the patron saint of high - school students, in the so - called Nicolinas, a group of festivities that occur from 29 November to 7 December each year. In the rest of Portugal this is not celebrated.
Nikoljdan (Serbian Cyrillic: Никољдан, Bulgarian: Никулден, Russian: Никола зимний, Ukrainian: Зимовий Миколай) is the patron saint day (Krsna Slava, or Krsno ime, a Serb tradition) of Saint Nicholas, celebrated on December 19 (Gregorian calendar, December 6 on Julian). Since the feast of Saint Nicholas always falls in the fasting period preceding the Christmas, the feast is celebrated according to the Eastern Orthodox Church fasting rules ("Post ''). Fasting refers in this context to the eating of a restricted diet (no animal products or dairy products etc.), such as fish (see Eastern Orthodox fasting). It is the most common of all Slavas.
St. Nicholas ("San Nicolás '') is the patron of the University of Valladolid, one of the medieval universities of Spain, and Alicante city.
Saint Nicholas is celebrated by all the Christian communities in Lebanon: Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Armenian. Many places, churches, convents, and schools are named in honor of Saint Nicholas, such as Escalier Saint - Nicolas des Arts, Saint Nicolas Garden, and Saint Nicolas Greek Orthodox Cathedral.
Saint Nicholas is the patron saint of Beit Jala, a town 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) west of Bethlehem where the saint spent four years of his life on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Every 19 December (6 December in the Julian Calendar), a solemn Divine Liturgy is held in the Orthodox Church of St. Nicholas, and is usually followed by parades, exhibitions, and other activities. Palestinians of all denominations come to Beit Jala and participate in the prayers and celebrations.
While feasts of Saint Nicholas are not observed nationally, cities with strong German influences like Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Evansville, Indiana; Cincinnati, Ohio; Fredericksburg, Texas; Newport News, Virginia; St. Louis; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania celebrate St. Nick 's Day on a scale similar to the German custom. Although not as widespread as in other countries, some people in the United States celebrate a separate St Nicholas Day by putting their shoes outside their bedroom doors or hanging an empty stocking by the fireplace on the evening of 5 December. St Nicholas then comes during the night. On the morning of 6 December, those people will find their shoes / stockings filled with gifts and sugary treats. Widespread adoption of the tradition has spread among the German, Polish, Belgian and Dutch communities throughout the United States. Americans who celebrate Saint Nicholas Day generally also celebrate Christmas Day (December 25) as a separate holiday. Some of the traditions and rituals of Christmas, such as leaving out a shoe or stocking to be filled, are similar to the traditions of Saint Nicholas Day.
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who was the deaf person who traveled to america in 1817 to help set up a school for the deaf 1.1 | History of deaf education in the United States - wikipedia
The history of deaf education in the United States began in the early 1800s when the Cobbs School of Virginia, an oral school, was established by William Bolling and John Braidwood, and the Connecticut Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, a manual school, was established by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc. When the Cobbs School closed in 1816, the manual method, which used American Sign Language, became commonplace in deaf schools for most of the remainder of the century. In the late 1800s, schools began to use the oral method, which only allowed the use of speech, as opposed to the manual method previously in place. Students caught using sign language in oral programs were often punished. The oral method was used for many years until sign language instruction gradually began to come back into deaf education.
Before the 1800s, few, if any, educational opportunities existed for deaf children in America. Some wealthy families sent their children to Europe 's schools, but many non-high class children had no access to education.
In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, many wealthy colonists sent their deaf children to Europe to receive schooling. The best known deaf educational institution was the Braidwood Academy in Edinburgh, Scotland, established in 1760 by Thomas Braidwood as the "Academy for the Deaf and Dumb. '' The Braidwood Academy was an expensive private oral school that was very secretive about its methods, only sharing their methodology with a few select people.
The Bolling family, who lived in Virginia, were the most prominent colonists to send their deaf children to the Braidwood Academy. Thomas Bolling and his wife Elizabeth Gay (who was also his first cousin) had three deaf children, John, Mary, and Thomas Jr., as well as at least two hearing children. John was the first of the three children to go to the Braidwood Academy in 1771, with Mary and Thomas Jr. arriving later. The three Bolling children arrived back in the United States in 1783; however, they became ill shortly after arriving home, and John died on October 11, 1783. Because of this, it can not be determined how effective the ten years of oral instruction he received were. Mary and Thomas Jr. lived for at least another four decades, and comments about Thomas Jr. noted that he was a "miracle of accomplishments. ''
The next generation of hearing Bollings had deaf children, and they wanted their children to be educated in the United States. William, the last child of Thomas and Elizabeth, married his first cousin Mary, who bore five children, two of whom were deaf. The couple 's first deaf child, William Albert, drove his father 's desire to create a school for the deaf in America. William Bolling met John Braidwood, a descendant of Thomas Braidwood, after he arrived in America in 1812. Bolling invited Braidwood to stay in his home as Braidwood sorted out a more permanent living arrangement. Braidwood discussed with Bolling his desire to open a school similar to the Braidwood Academy in America. After many setbacks, the Cobbs School was established in 1815. It closed about a year and a half later, in the fall of 1816, when Braidwood 's personal problems caused him to leave the school and Bolling could no longer financially maintain it.
In 1812 in New England, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet met a little girl named Alice Cogswell, who inspired him to create a school for the deaf in the United States. In 1815, he traveled to Europe to gain insight on their methods of teaching deaf students. He attempted to learn from the Braidwood system, but the administrators wanted him to sign a contract, remain at the school for several years to be trained in oralism, and agree to keep the teaching methods of the school a secret; Gallaudet refused this. He attended a lecture in France by Abbé Sicard showcasing two successful pupils of Paris ' National Institution for Deaf - Mutes, Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet spent several months at the school, and he convinced Clerc, a thirty - year - old assistant teacher, to return with him to Hartford, Connecticut. Back in America, they established the Connecticut Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, which was later named the American School for the Deaf, in 1817. Gallaudet was the director, and Clerc was the first deaf teacher in America. Alice Cogswell was one of the first seven students.
For most of the remainder of the century, education of deaf children using sign language, a practice known as manualism, continued to grow. Approximately forty percent of all teachers were deaf. More than thirty schools for the deaf were opened, the majority of which were manual. William Willard was the first deaf superintendent in America and founded Indiana School for the Deaf in 1843. Gallaudet College (now Gallaudet University) was founded in Washington, D.C in 1864 with Thomas Gallaudet 's son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, as the school 's superintendent. Edward Miner Gallaudet strongly believed in the use of sign language and had a number of arguments with Alexander Graham Bell, an oralist.
Before the 1860s and before the American Civil War, manual language was very popular among the Deaf community and also supported by the hearing community. The hearing community viewed deafness as "(isolating) the individual from the Christian community ''. At the time, the people of the United States were fairly religious (notably Christian), and the hearing - advantaged believed that sign language opened deaf individuals ' minds and souls to God. Through this, the hearing community believed that manualism brought deaf people closer to God and opened deaf people to the gospel, which brought manualism general acceptance.
Prior to the 1860s, the American hearing community viewed manualism, sign language, as an art, and naturally beautiful. They also thought of deaf people who signed as being like the Romans because of the pantomimes that are a part of the language.
By the end of the American Civil War in the late 1860s, the argument for "Survival of the Fittest '' was applied to the issue of education for the deaf as a result of a Darwinist perspective of Evolution. This movement brought manualists arguing their view that signs were closer to nature because the first thing babies learn to do is gesture, which is akin to sign language. To the Deaf community, manualism was at the time considered a gift from God. During this particular time in the United States, oralism was coming about which gave some a negative view of manualism because, it was argued, it was not a natural language.
Support for oralism gained momentum in the late 1860s and the use of manualism started to decrease. Many in the hearing community were now in favor of the evolutionary perspective, which depicted deaf people who used manual language akin to "lower animals ''. Some hearing people viewed speech as what separated humans from animals, which in turn caused manual language to be viewed as unhumanlike. The first schools for oralism opened in the 1860s were called The New York Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf Mutes and The Clarke Institution for Deaf - Mutes (now the Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech).
At that time the teaching of manual language was restricted because the American Hearing Society saw deaf people who used it as different, as foreigners, or as a group with a separate language that was a threat to the hearing society. Members of the hearing community who were in favor of oralism took offense to deaf people having their own group identity and refusing to integrate within the greater community.
Oralists believed that the manual language made deaf people different, which in turn led them to believe that deaf people were abnormal. Oralists believed that the teaching of oralism allowed deaf children to be more normal. Oralists strongly believed that deaf children should put as much effort as possible into learning how to live in spite of their disabilities, thus promoting the teaching of lip reading, mouth movements, and use of hearing technology. Oralists also argued that if deaf people continued the use of manual language as their form of communication, they would never integrate within the rest of society.
A model figure for oralism and against the usage of sign language was Alexander Graham Bell, who created the Volta Bureau in Washington, D.C. to pursue the studies of deafness. Two other Americans who encouraged the founding of oralist schools in the United States were Horace Mann and Samuel Gridley Howe, who travelled to Germany to see their oral schools and who wished to model them.
In 1880, an event called the Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf (which, despite the name, was actually the first) took place. The Second International Congress was an international meeting of deaf educators from at least seven countries. There were five delegates from America and around 164 delegates total in attendance. The Congress was planned and organized by a committee created by the Pereire Society, a group that was against sign language. More than half of the people invited were known oralists; therefore, the Congress was biased and most, if not all, of the resolutions that were voted on by the delegates gave results in favor of the oral method. Many of the resolutions were worded in ways that supported the oral method, such as "Considering the incontestable superiority of speech over signs in restoring the deaf - mute to society, and in giving him a more perfect knowledge of language, / Declares -- / That the Oral method ought to be preferred that of signs for the education and instruction of the deaf and dumb ''. Until the 1890s, deaf education in the United States was limited to children, but Lillie Eginton Warren and her assistant, Edward B. Nichie, expanded the teaching to adults.
After the Congress, deaf education in America changed. Manualists, those who advocated for sign language usage, were effectively "kicked out '' and replaced with teachers who used the pure oral method. Deaf teachers were removed from the profession and replaced with hearing ones. Most schools switched to the oral method or were created as oral schools in the first place, and few manual schools remained in existence. The work of deaf educators in the oralist schools, who were mostly women, was to prepare the deaf children for life in the hearing world, which required them to learn English, speech, and lipreading. All students that were sent to the oral schools were forced to use the oral method, and oralist schools restricted the deaf students ' use of American Sign Language (ASL) in class and in public. Students in pure oral programs were not allowed to sign in class and were also forbidden to sign in dormitories. Students caught signing were punished, but students continued to learn sign from each other anyway. One type of punishment used on deaf students was to force them to wear white gloves that were tied together to prevent them from using signs. Those who were not successful under the oral method after several years were transferred to manual classes and considered "oral failures '' who would never know anything or be able to make it in the world. Some consider this the "Dark Age of Oralism ''.
Edith Mansford Fitzgerald opposed these views, as a deaf woman who felt that the oralist methods had stunted her learning. In 1926, she published a book, entitled Straight Language for the Deaf: A System of Instruction for Deaf Children was published in 1926 and was widely influential in the field of deaf education. Her Fitzgerald Key at one point was used in around 75 % of the institutes teaching the deaf.
In the early 20th century there was an increase of instructors who were deaf in many schools for the deaf. In America one of the biggest debates the deaf community had with the institutions was whether to hire more instructors who were deaf instead of hearing. Part of the reason why parents of students who are deaf wanted instructors who were deaf was to allow their children to have a role model, by allowing more instructors who were deaf allowing their children to see a possible future for themselves through their instructors.
The almost exclusive use of the pure oral method in deaf education continued well into the twentieth century. Then, during the late 1960s, Roy Kay Holcomb coined the term "Total Communication ''. This term described an educational philosophy he popularized where the child could use the communication method that worked best for them given their needs. If a child learned better with American Sign Language or an English sign system, they were taught using that method. If a different method worked better with another child, they received their instruction that way. Some schools using the oral method changed to Total Communication; others just added sign into their existing program or simply allowed children to sign amongst themselves without punishment. Often, the "sign languages '' used in oral programs were constructed Manually Coded English (MCE) systems such as Seeing Essential English or Signing Exact English or were ASL signs in English word order. The programs used these systems in order to use them with speech in a practice known as Sign Supported Speech or Simultaneous Communication.
In 1988, Gallaudet University students decided that they would take matters of their education into their own hands. The sixth president of Gallaudet had announced in late 1987 that he would be resigning his position as president. By early 1988, the committee that selected the candidates had narrowed it down to three finalists, two of which, Dr. Harvey Corson and Dr. I. King Jordan, were deaf, and one of which, Dr. Elisabeth Zinser, was hearing. On March 6, it was announced hastily through press release (even though the selection committee was supposed to come on campus) that Zinser, the only hearing candidate, had become the seventh president of the university. There had been rallies beforehand for a deaf president (most notably on March 1), but on the 6th, the rallying changed into protest. Students and faculty went on marches, made signs, and gave demonstrations. The students locked the gates to the university and refused let the school open until Zinser resigned. Under intense pressure from the students protesting, Zinser resigned on the fifth day of the protest, March 10. Many students decided to stay on campus instead of going on Spring Break, which was scheduled to begin on March 11. Two days later, on March 13 Jane Spilman resigned and was replaced by Phil Bravin as chair of the Board of Trustees, a taskforce was created to figure out how to achieve a 51 % majority of deaf people on the Board of Trustees, and no one received any punishment for being in the protest. I. King Jordan was named eighth president -- and first deaf president -- of Gallaudet University.
Deaf President Now changed deaf education. Before the protest, a select few deaf people held doctorates; however, since the protest, the number of deaf people pursuing and earning advanced degrees has steadily increased. Also, schools for the deaf across America have had "mini DPNs '' where students demanded deaf superintendents and senior administrators. In addition, collegiate programs were created in other countries that did not previously have them (such as Japan, Sweden, and South Africa). Deaf President Now not only affected deaf education in America, but it also affected deaf education worldwide.
In 1990, cochlear implants were approved for children two years of age and up. This drastically changed education for deaf children. More children than ever were migrated out of bilingual - bicultural residential schools and into oral schools and mainstream programs with no extra supports. Parents were not encouraged to sign with their children because it was feared that it would slow down their speech, even though research has shown that the opposite is true. This move from residential schools to day schools and mainstreaming has caused many residential programs to downsize.
In the most recent years the deaf community has been fighting hard for more instructors who are deaf in the public school system. In 1991 Carlsbad Unified School District parents went to the school board to complain about the lack of any instructors who are deaf. Many parents stated that their children are not getting the best education they could be getting because of the lack of representation of instructors who are deaf. However, the department head of the deaf education program says his instructors are trained for deaf and hard of hearing students. Many parents felt that having the background of understanding of deaf education is vastly different from being a person who is deaf.
Today, there are a few different methods used in the education of deaf children in the United States.
All deaf students, regardless of placement, receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that outlines how the school will meet the student 's individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that students with special needs be provided with a Free Appropriate Public Education in the Least Restrictive Environment that is appropriate to the student 's needs. Government - run schools provide deaf education in varying degrees of settings ranging from full inclusion to schools for the deaf.
In this educational method, deafness is not seen as a medical issue; it is instead seen as a cultural issue. In the bilingual - bicultural program, it is advocated that children who are deaf be taught ASL as a first language, then be taught written and / or spoken English as a second language. Bilingual - bicultural programs emphasize that English and ASL are equal languages, and they work to help children develop age - appropriate levels of fluency in both languages. The bilingual - bicultural approach holds the belief that deaf children are visual learners as opposed to auditory learners, and therefore, academic content should be fully accessible to all deaf students (i.e. not contingent on spoken receptive / expressive skills, which may vary across students), so academic content is delivered in ASL and / or written English. Since it is not possible to simultaneously produce grammatically correct, fluent American Sign Language and spoken English, only one language is used at a time. Because there is no risk in learning sign language, the bilingual - bicultural approach mitigates the risk of language deprivation (a condition that arises when children have limited access to both spoken and sign language). Many bilingual - bicultural schools have dormitories, and deaf children can either commute to the school daily or stay in a dormitory as part of the residential program and visit their families on weekends and / or holidays and school vacations.
A residential program is an educational program in which a student lives at a school for the deaf during the week and goes home on weekends or holidays instead of commuting to the school daily. In residential programs, deaf children are fully immersed in Deaf culture. At a residential school, all students are deaf or hard of hearing, so deaf students are not looked at as different. They have "a common heritage,... a common language,... and a set of customs and values ''. People at deaf schools help pass on "Deaf folklore and folklife (jokes, legends, games, riddles, etc.) '' from one generation to the next. Deaf parents of deaf children often send their children to residential schools so that they may participate in the Deaf community and culture. Hearing parents are often a bit more reluctant because they do not want to be separated from their children. The first deaf woman to hold the position of superintendent of a residential school for the deaf in the U.S. was Gertrude Galloway.
The auditory - oral and auditory - verbal methods, sometimes referred to collectively as listening and spoken language, are forms of oral education. These methods are based on the belief that a deaf child can learn to listen and speak and that families do not need to learn sign language or cued speech. These methods are presented as communication options, and they rely on a large amount of parental involvement. Children who use this option may be placed in a continuum of educational placements including oral schools, such as Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech, self - contained classrooms for deaf students in public schools, or mainstream classrooms with hearing students. Though some deaf children can learn to use hearing devices to speak and understand language, that is not the case for all deaf children. Therefore auditory - oral only education puts children at risk of language deprivation: a condition that arises when children have limited access to both spoken and sign language. Unlike children who receive auditory - oral - only education, deaf children who use both signed and spoken language speak as well as their hearing counterparts.
This educational method is what occurs when a deaf child attends public school in regular classes for at least part of the school day. Students may receive accommodations such as itinerant teachers, interpreters, assistive technology, notetakers, and aides. Inclusion can have benefits including daily interaction with hearing students and the opportunity to live at home, but it can also have drawbacks such as isolation and limited availability of support.
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what does it mean to be a walnut | Walnut - wikipedia
A walnut is the nut of any tree of the genus Juglans (Family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, Juglans regia. Technically a walnut is the seed of a drupe or drupaceous nut, and thus not a true botanical nut. It is used for food after being processed while green for pickled walnuts or after full ripening for its nutmeat. Nutmeat of the eastern black walnut from the Juglans nigra is less commercially available, as are butternut nutmeats from Juglans cinerea. The walnut is nutrient - dense with protein and essential fatty acids.
Walnuts are rounded, single - seeded stone fruits of the walnut tree commonly used for the meat after fully ripening. Following full ripening, the removal of the husk reveals the wrinkly walnut shell, which is usually commercially found in two segments (three - segment shells can also form). During the ripening process, the husk will become brittle and the shell hard. The shell encloses the kernel or meat, which is usually made up of two halves separated by a partition. The seed kernels -- commonly available as shelled walnuts -- are enclosed in a brown seed coat which contains antioxidants. The antioxidants protect the oil - rich seed from atmospheric oxygen, thereby preventing rancidity.
Walnuts are late to grow leaves, typically not until more than halfway through the spring. They secrete chemicals into the soil to prevent competing vegetation from growing. Because of this, flowers or vegetable gardens should not be planted close to them.
The two most common major species of walnuts are grown for their seeds -- the Persian or English walnut and the black walnut. The English walnut (J. regia) originated in Persia, and the black walnut (J. nigra) is native to eastern North America. The black walnut is of high flavor, but due to its hard shell and poor hulling characteristics it is not grown commercially for nut production. Numerous walnut cultivars have been developed commercially, which are nearly all hybrids of the English walnut.
Other species include J. californica, the California black walnut (often used as a root stock for commercial breeding of J. regia), J. cinerea (butternuts), and J. major, the Arizona walnut. Other sources list J. californica californica as native to southern California, and Juglans californica hindsii, or just J. hindsii, as native to northern California; in at least one case these are given as "geographic variants '' instead of subspecies (Botanica).
In 2014, worldwide production of walnuts (in shell) was 3.46 million tonnes, with China contributing 46 % of the world total (table). Other major producers were (in the order of decreasing harvest): United States, Iran, Turkey and Mexico.
The average worldwide walnut yield was about 3.5 tonnes per hectare in 2014. Eastern European countries had the highest yield, with Slovenia and Romania each harvesting about 19 tonnes per hectare.
In 2014, the United States was the world 's largest exporter of walnuts, followed by Turkey. The Central Valley of California produces 99 percent of total United States commerce in English walnuts.
Walnuts, like other tree nuts, must be processed and stored properly. Poor storage makes walnuts susceptible to insect and fungal mold infestations; the latter produces aflatoxin -- a potent carcinogen. A mold - infested walnut batch should be entirely discarded.
The ideal temperature for longest possible storage of walnuts is in the − 3 to 0 ° C (27 to 32 ° F) and low humidity -- for industrial and home storage. However, such refrigeration technologies are unavailable in developing countries where walnuts are produced in large quantities; there, walnuts are best stored below 25 ° C (77 ° F) and low humidity. Temperatures above 30 ° C (86 ° F), and humidities above 70 percent can lead to rapid and high spoilage losses. Above 75 percent humidity threshold, fungal molds that release dangerous aflatoxin can form.
Walnut meats are available in two forms; in their shells or shelled. The meats may be whole, halved, or in smaller portions due to processing. Walnuts are often candied, and may be used as an ingredient in other foodstuffs. Pickled walnuts that are the whole fruit can be savory or sweet depending on the preserving solution. Walnut butters can be homemade or purchased in both raw and roasted forms. All walnuts can be eaten on their own (raw, toasted or pickled) or as part of a mix such as muesli, or as an ingredient of a dish. For example, walnut soup and walnut pie are prepared using walnuts as a main ingredient. Walnut Whip, coffee and walnut cake, and pickled walnuts are more examples.
Walnut is the main ingredient of Fesenjan, a khoresh (stew) in Iranian cuisine. Walnuts are also popular in brownie recipes, as ice cream toppings, and walnut pieces are used as a garnish on some foods. Nocino is a liqueur made from unripe green walnuts steeped in alcohol with syrup added.
Walnut oil is available commercially and is chiefly used as a food ingredient particularly in salad dressings. It has a low smoke point, which limits its use for frying.
Walnuts without shells are 4 % water, 15 % protein, 65 % fat, and 14 % carbohydrates, including 7 % dietary fiber (table).
In a 100 - gram serving, walnuts provide 2,740 kilojoules (654 kcal) and rich content (more than 19 % of the Daily Value or DV) of several dietary minerals, particularly manganese at 163 % DV, and B vitamins (table).
While English walnuts are the most commonly consumed, their nutrient density and profile are generally similar to those of black walnuts.
Unlike most nuts that are high in monounsaturated fatty acids, walnut oil is composed largely of polyunsaturated fatty acids (72 % of total fats), particularly alpha - linolenic acid (14 %) and linoleic acid (58 %), although it does contain oleic acid as 13 % of total fats.
In 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provided a Qualified Health Claim allowing products containing walnuts to state: "Supportive but not conclusive research shows that eating 1.5 ounces per day of walnuts, as part of a low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet and not resulting in increased caloric intake, may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. '' The FDA had, in 2004, refused to authorise the claim that "Diets including walnuts can reduce the risk of heart disease '' and had sent an FDA Warning Letter to Diamond Foods in 2010 stating "not sufficient evidence to identify a biologically active substance in walnuts that reduces the risk of coronary heart disease. ''
Walnuts have been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a pseudomedicine promoted in folk medicine practices for its supposed effect on health. According to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer ''.
Walnut husks can be used to make a durable ink for writing and drawing. It is thought to have been used by artists including Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt.
Walnut husk pigments are used as a brown dye for fabric as once applied in classical Rome and medieval Europe for dyeing hair.
The United States Army once used ground walnut shells for the cleaning of aviation parts because of low cost and non-abrasive qualities. However, an investigation of a fatal Boeing CH - 47 Chinook helicopter crash (September 11, 1982, in Mannheim, Germany) revealed that walnut grit clogged an oil port, leading to the accident and the discontinuation of walnut shells as a cleaning agent.
Walnut hulls contain polyphenols that stain hands and can cause skin irritation. Seven phenolic compounds, including ferulic acid, vanillic acid, coumaric acid, syringic acid, myricetin, and juglone were identified in walnut husks. Juglone, the predominant phenolic, was found in concentrations of 2 - 4 % fresh weight.
Walnuts also contain the ellagitannin pedunculagin. Regiolone has been isolated with juglone, betulinic acid and sitosterol from the stem bark of J. regia.
Large, archaic, symmetrically shaped, and sometimes intricately carved walnuts are valued highly in China where they are rotated in the hand as a plaything, and used as an investment and status symbol, with some fetching tens of thousands of dollars. Pairs of walnuts are sometimes sold in their green husks for a form of gambling known as du qing pi.
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where are alligators and crocodiles found in the united states | American crocodile - wikipedia
The American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is a species of crocodilian found in the Neotropics. It is the most widespread of the four extant species of crocodiles from the Americas. Populations occur from the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of southern Mexico to South America as far as Peru and Venezuela. It also lives on many of the Caribbean islands such as Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Grand Cayman.
Within the United States, the American crocodile 's distribution is limited to the southern tip of Florida, though at least two have been found as far north as the Tampa Bay area. The current US population, estimated at 2,000, represents a significant recovery from a few hundred in the 1970s.
The habitat of the American crocodile consists largely of coastal areas. It is also found in river systems, but has a tendency to prefer, not merely to tolerate, some level of salinity, resulting in the species congregating in brackish lakes, mangrove swamps, lagoons, cays, and small islands. Other crocodiles also have tolerance to salt water due to salt glands underneath the tongue, but the American crocodile is the only species other than the saltwater crocodile (C. porosus) to commonly live and thrive in salt water. They can be found on beaches and small island formations without any freshwater source, such as some of the many cays and islets across the Bahamas and the Caribbean. They are also found in hypersaline lakes; one of the largest known populations inhabits the Lago Enriquillo.
The American is one of the larger crocodile species. Males can reach lengths of 6.1 m (20 ft), weighing up to 907 kg (2,000 lb). On average, mature males are more in the range of 4.1 m (13 ft) to 4.8 m (16 ft) in length weighing about 400 kg (880 lb). As with other crocodile species, females are smaller; rarely exceeding 3.8 m (12 ft) in length.
This species has a more V - shaped snout, compared to other large crocodiles, which usually have a slightly wider snout. Adults have a uniform grayish - green coloration with white or yellow undersides, while juveniles have dark cross-banding on the tail and back. Despite their large size, American crocodiles do not regularly attack large animals, as most large crocodilians do. Fish, reptiles, birds and small mammals make up the majority of their diet. On occasion, large mammals such as deer and cattle are taken. Their dietary habits in coastal regions are not well studied. Like any other large crocodilian, the American crocodile is potentially dangerous to humans, though it tends not to be as aggressive as some other species.
Cuvier originally described the species as Crocodylus acutus in 1807. Over time, it commonly became known as the "sharp - snout alligator ''. In 1822, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque postulated that the species was in fact a crocodile.
The species was redescribed as Crocodylus floridanus by William T. Hornaday in 1875, when Hornaday and C.E. Jackson were sent from Washington, DC to Florida to collect alligator hides. Upon hearing of a "big old gator '' in Arch Creek at the head of Biscayne Bay, Hornaday and his companions searched for it and reported:
In a few hours we got sight of him, out on the bank in a saw - grass wallow. He was a monster for size -- a perfect whale of a saurian, gray in color -- and by all the powers, he was a genuine crocodile!
Crocodylus floridanus is now considered an invalid junior synonym of C. acutus.
Like all crocodilians, the American crocodile is a quadruped, with four short, stocky legs, a long, powerful tail and a scaly hide with rows of ossified scutes running down its back and tail. Its snout is elongated and includes a strong pair of jaws. Its eyes have nictitating membranes for protection along with lacrimal glands, which produce tears.
The nostrils, eyes, and ears are situated on the top of its head, so the rest of the body can be concealed underwater for surprise attacks. Camouflage also helps it prey on food. The snout is relatively longer and narrower than that of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), although broader on average than that of the Orinoco crocodile (C. intermedius). American crocodiles are also paler and more grayish than the relatively dark - hued American alligator. This crocodile species normally crawls on its belly, but it can also "high walk ''. Larger specimens can charge up to nearly 10 mph (16 km / h). They can swim at as much as 20 mph (32 km / h) by moving their bodies and tails in a sinuous fashion, but they can not sustain this speed.
The American crocodile is sometimes confused with the smaller, Central American Morelet 's crocodile, a smaller species that is native to Mexico.
New hatchlings are about 27 cm (10.6 in) in length and about 60 g (2.1 oz) in mass. The average adult in the continental rivers can range from 2.9 to 4 m (9 ft 6 in to 13 ft 1 in) long and weigh up to 382 kg (842 lb) in males, while females can range from 2.5 to 3 m (8 ft 2 in to 9 ft 10 in) and weigh up to 173 kg (381 lb), the lower total length representing their average size at sexual maturity, the upper representing the expected upper size limit for the respective sex in most known populations.
In the Tárcoles River in Costa Rica, dozens of 4 m (13 ft 1 in) and a few 5 m (16 ft 5 in) individuals frequent bridge crossings (where they are fed daily, which may have helped them reach such consistently large sizes) and are a popular tourist attraction. This species is said to grow largest in the South American river basins, but rarely exceed 5 m (16 ft 5 in) or reach 6 m (19 ft 8 in) even there. American crocodiles on the islands or coasts are usually much smaller in size. Adult weight in coastal Belize averaged 77.8 kg (172 lb) per one study. In their Florida range, adult length has been recorded as high as 5.2 m (17 ft 1 in), but adult males on average measure 3.35 m (11 ft 0 in) long, perhaps slightly smaller than mature males from other continental populations. A skull of this species was found to measure 72.6 cm (28.6 in) and is estimated to have belonged to an American crocodile of 6.6 m (22 ft) in length. Large, mature males regularly weigh about 400 -- 500 kg (880 -- 1100 lb), with the individuals of six or more meters surpassing 1000 kg (2,200 lb). Two biologists working with the History Channel series MonsterQuest spotted and filmed an American crocodile they estimated to be 5 to 5.5 m (16 ft 5 in to 18 ft 1 in), deep within Everglades National Park in Florida.
C. acutus is the most widespread of the four extant species of crocodiles from the Americas. It inhabits waters such as mangrove swamps, river mouths, fresh waters, and salt lakes, and can even be found at sea, hence its wide distribution throughout the Caribbean islands, southern Florida, the Greater Antilles, southern Mexico, Central America, and the South American countries of Colombia and Ecuador. The American crocodile is especially plentiful in Costa Rica. One of its largest documented populations is in Lago Enriquillo, a hypersaline lake in the Dominican Republic. The species has also been recorded from Jamaica. American crocodiles have recently been sighted in Grand Cayman, leading experts to believe the species may be swimming from Cuba (which is home to a massive American crocodile population) and slowly repopulating Grand Cayman. In addition, an American crocodile / Cuban crocodile hybrid was recently discovered in the Cancun area. The crocodile likely originated in the Zapata Swamp of Cuba (the only place where these wild hybrids exist) and swam to the Yucatán Peninsula. Their saline tolerance also allowed the American crocodile to colonize limited portions of the United States (extreme southern Florida). Contrary to popular misinformation, the presence of the American alligator is not the reason the American crocodile was unable to populate brackish waters north of Florida, but rather the climate.
American crocodiles, unlike American alligators, are extremely susceptible to cold temperatures and live exclusively within tropical waters. During 2009, unusually cold weather in southern Florida resulted in the deaths of about 150 wild American crocodiles, including a well - known crocodile which inhabited Sanibel Island far north of their natural range.
American crocodiles in the United States coexist with the American alligator, and are primarily found south of the latitude of Miami, in Everglades National Park, Florida Bay, Biscayne Bay, and the Florida Keys. A sizable population occurs near Homestead, Florida, at the Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station. Some individuals wander northward to warm summer waters and have been sighted in Sarasota County and Palm Beach County. In the summer of 2008, a crocodile was captured in the surf on Isle of Palms, South Carolina. In 2013, a 700 - pound crocodile was captured in Tarpon Springs, Florida. Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission program staff note that the crocodile was not weighed to be 700 lbs. The weight was estimated by the nuisance alligator trapper who inadvertently caught the animal using a baited hook. American crocodiles of similar lengths have been accurately weighed at 450 -- 500 lbs.
The American crocodile is saltwater - tolerant and have thus been capable of colonizing a multitude of islands within the Caribbean islands and on some coastal Pacific islands as well. They coexist with the rather smaller spectacled caiman within Central America. The only other crocodiles present within the American crocodile 's range are two species smaller than this species on average: the critically endangered Cuban crocodile, along with the Morelet 's crocodile in southern Mexico and Guatemala.
American crocodiles are more susceptible to cold than American alligators. While an American alligator can survive in water of 7.2 ° C (45.0 ° F) for some time, an American crocodile in that environment would become helpless and drown. American crocodiles, however, have a faster growth rate than alligators, and are much more tolerant of salt water.
Cleaning symbiosis involving the American crocodile as client has been described. Unlike the Old World crocodiles, which are sometimes cleared of parasites by birds, the American crocodile relies more on fish for parasite removal.
American crocodiles are apex predators, and any aquatic or terrestrial animal they encounter in freshwater, riparian and coastal saltwater habitats is potential prey. Their only threat is the American alligator, which are seen killing and eating American crocodiles. For a long time, primary prey throughout their lifetime was thought to be fish; due to the relatively narrow snout as indicative of this piscivorous preference. However new studies shed light into the dietary preference of this species. The snout of the American crocodile is broader than some specialized fish - eating crocodilians (i.e. gharials (Gavialis gangeticus), freshwater crocodile (C. johnsoni), etc.), allowing it to supplement its diet with a wider variety of prey. In addition the snout gets even broader and bulkier as the animal matures, a sign for a shift in prey items. Prey species have ranged in size from the insects taken by young American crocodiles to full - grown cattle taken by large adults, and can include various birds, mammals, turtles, crabs, snails, frogs, and occasionally carrion. In Haiti, hatchling and juvenile American crocodiles lived primarily off of fiddler crabs (Uca ssp.), making up 33.8 % and 62.3 % of the diet by weight, respectively. Elsewhere, aquatic insects and their larvae and snails are near the top of the food list for American crocodiles at this very early age. Immature and subadult American crocodiles, per a study in Mexico, have a more diverse diet that can include insects, fish, frogs, small turtles, birds and small mammals. One specimen of 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) had a catfish, a mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) and a bare - tailed woolly opossum (Caluromys philander) in its stomach. In Florida, bass, tarpon (Megalops atlanticus) and especially mullet, large crabs, snakes, mammals that habit the riparian and coastal regions of the Everglades, such as opossums and raccoons appeared to be the primary prey of subadult and adult American crocodiles. In Haiti, adults appeared to live largely off of various birds (many of which are breeding large waders and other water birds such as heron, storks, flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber), pelicans (Pelecanus ssp.), grebes, coots (Fulica americana) and moorhens (Gallinula chloropus)), followed by concentrations of marine fish including Tilapia and Cichlasoma, at times being seen to capture turtles, dogs and goats. One 3 m (9 ft 10 in) adult from Honduras had stomach contents consisting of a 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) crocodile of its own species, a turtle shell and peccary hooves. It was noted that historically in Mexico that, among several local farmers, the capturing of livestock by American crocodiles has been a source of some conflict between humans and American crocodiles and large adults occasionally can become habitual predators of goats, dogs, pigs and cattle. In Quintana Roo, Mexico, most prey that could be determined was fish for sub-adults and adults with sub-adults having a broader prey base than either younger or adult crocodiles. In Costa Rica, American crocodiles have been recorded hunting and killing adult female olive ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) when they come to nest around beaches. Reportedly, these American crocodiles hunt primarily in the first few hours after nightfall, especially on moonless nights, although they will feed at any time. It hunts in the typical way for most crocodilian, ambushing terrestrial prey when it comes to edge of the water or is sitting in shallows and dragging it down to be drowned or attempting to ambush aquatic prey from near the surface of the water.
Adult American crocodiles have no natural predators and almost any terrestrial or riparian animal they encounter is potential prey. American crocodiles are known predators of lemon sharks, and sharks avoid areas with American crocodiles. Usually American crocodiles are dominant over American alligators. However, on one occasion, an American crocodile in a Florida zoo escaped its cage and started a fight with a large male American alligator in a bordering pen and was killed by the American alligator. Conversely, there is one confirmed case of an American crocodile preying on a sub-adult American alligator in the wild in Florida. American alligators and American crocodiles do not often come into conflict in the wild normally, due largely to habitat partitioning and largely separate distributions. There are several records of American crocodiles killing and eating spectacled caimans (Caiman crocodilus) in South America as well as additional records of cannibalism there. Areas with healthy American crocodile populations often hold only limited numbers of spectacled caimans, while conversely areas that formerly held American crocodiles but where they are now heavily depleted or are locally extinct show a growth of caiman numbers, due to less competition as well as predation. In areas where the two species coexist, the smaller but more aggressive Cuban crocodile is behaviorally dominant over the larger American crocodile. In Mexico some Morelet 's crocodile individuals have escaped from captivity, establishing feral populations and creating a problem for the populations of American crocodile, which must compete with this invasive species.
American crocodiles breed in late fall or early winter, engaging in drawn - out mating ceremonies in which males emit very low frequency bellows to attract females. Body size is more important than age in determining reproductive capabilities, and females reach sexual maturity at a length of about 2.8 m (9.2 ft). In February or March, gravid females will begin to create nests of sand, mud, and dead vegetation along the water 's edge. Nest location is crucial, and with the correct amount of vegetation, the eggs will develop within a small temperature range. Because sex determination is temperature - dependent in crocodilians, slight aberrations in temperature may result in all - male or all - female clutches, which would possibly harm the health of the population. About one month later, when it is time to lay, the female will dig a wide hole diagonally into the side of the nest and lay 30 to 70 eggs in it, depending on her size. After laying, the female may cover the eggs with debris or leave them uncovered. The white, elongated eggs are 8 cm (3.1 in) long and 5 cm (2.0 in) wide and have a number of pores in the brittle shell. During the 75 - to 80 - day incubation period, the parents will guard the nest, often inhabiting a hole in the bank nearby. Females especially have been known to guard their nests with ferocity. But in spite of these precautions, American crocodile eggs sometimes fall prey to raccoons (Procyon sp.) (arguably the most virulent natural predator of crocodilian nests in the Americas), coatis, foxes, skunks or other scavenging mammals (even coyotes (Canis latrans) in Mexico and American black bears (Ursus americanus)) in south Florida), as well as large predatory ants, crabs and vultures. In Panama, green iguana (Iguana iguana) were seen to dig up and prey on American crocodile eggs occasionally, although in several cases were caught by the mother American crocodile and subsequently consumed. Crocodilian eggs are somewhat brittle, but softer than bird eggs. Young of this species hatch after 75 -- 80 days.
This species exists mostly in tropical areas with distinct rainy seasons, and the young hatch near the time of the first rains of the summer (July -- August), after the preceding dry season and before the bodies of water where they live flood. In this stage of development of their young, mother American crocodiles exhibit a unique mode of parental care. During the hatching process, when the young American crocodiles are most vulnerable to predation, they will instinctively call out in soft, grunt - like croaks. These sounds trigger the female to attend to the nest, uncovering the eggs if they have been covered. Then she will aid the hatchlings in escaping their eggs and scoop them up with her mouth, carrying them to the closest water source.
The hatchlings, which are 24 to 27 cm (9.4 to 10.6 in) in length, have been reported to actively hunt prey within a few days of hatching. It is not uncommon for the mother to care for her young even weeks after they have hatched, remaining attentive to their calls and continuing to provide transportation. About five weeks after hatching, the young American crocodiles disband in search of their own independent lives. Most of them, of course, will not survive, being preyed upon by several types of raptorial birds and larger fishes (e.g. barred catfish (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum), Atlantic tarpons (Megalops atlanticus), common snook (Centropomis undecimalis) and lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris)), boa constrictors (Boa constrictor), black spiny - tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis), spectacled caimans, as well as raccoons. Those that do survive the early stages of life will grow rapidly, feeding on insects, fish and frogs. Additionally, some young American crocodiles reportedly will feed on each other.
Due to hide hunting, pollution, loss of habitat, and removal of adults for commercial farming, the American crocodile is endangered in parts of its range. In 1972, Venezuela banned commercial crocodile skin harvesting for a decade, as a result of 1950s and 1960s overhunting.
One thousand to 2,000 American crocodiles live in Mexico and Central and South America, but populations are data deficient. The American crocodile is considered a vulnerable species, but has not been assessed since 1996. It has an estimated wild population of 500 to 1,200 in southern Florida. On March 20, 2007, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declassified the American crocodile as an endangered species, downgrading its status to "threatened ''; the reptile remains protected from illegal harassing, poaching, or killing under the federal Endangered Species Act. In southern Florida, 67.8 % of American crocodile mortality was attributed most likely to road collisions (found dead by the road), 10.5 % were due to intentional killing and only 4.9 % could be contributed to natural causes (the remaining balance were causes unknown).
American crocodiles are dangerous to humans; attacks in Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama are not unprecedented. These attacks rarely make international news, so this species is not as well - documented as a man - eater, as are its relatives. The species is often reportedly timid, and seemingly lacks the propensity to attack people as regularly as Old World crocodiles do. Crocodiles are, as a general rule, more aggressive than alligators, at least towards humans. The American crocodile rates, temperamentally somewhere in the middle of all crocodilians. A study by the IUCN found that the American crocodile has the highest incidence of reported attacks on humans of any of the crocodilians from the Americas, but fatalities were rare. The estimated number of attacks is considerably smaller than those by the saltwater and Nile crocodiles (C. niloticus). The saltwater and Nile crocodiles are considered to be the most aggressive and dangerous species towards humans, with their large sizes and aggressive behavior combined with low - income socio - economic situations of local people in Africa and Asia resulting in frequent unsafe encounters and high numbers of fatal attacks that may annually range into the hundreds. Reportedly, the Cuban crocodile (C. rhombifer) is rather more aggressive in interspecies interactions than the American crocodile and apparently attacks and displaces American crocodiles when they are kept in mixed species enclosures at zoos or at crocodile farms together, even though it is smaller than the American species. However, attacks on humans are rarely reportedly in Cuban crocodiles, undoubtedly due its much more limited habitat and range. In May 2007, two instances occurred within one week of children being attacked and killed by this species -- one in Mexico just south of Puerto Vallarta and one in Costa Rica. On August 24, 2014, a man and a woman were swimming in a canal in Gables by the Sea, a community in Coral Gables, Florida, at 2: 00 AM, in a canal where crocodiles were known to occur, when they were bitten in the shoulder and the hand by an American crocodile. Although the crocodile was 12 ' 1 '' in length, and weighed an estimated 550 lbs, it did not press the attack, but released and moved away from its victims. (Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission, Crocodile Response Program) This was the first documented wild crocodile attack on humans in Florida since records of human - crocodile conflict have been kept. On May 19, 2015, a seven - year - old boy was attacked and killed by an American Crocodile in the Barra Santa Ana estuary near the city of Lazaro Cardenas, Mexico. This was reportedly the eighth crocodile attack in the Barra Santa Ana estuary in the last two years. There have reportedly been 36 American crocodile attacks on humans from 1995 to 2017 in the Cancun area of southeastern Mexico.
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who is the civil war in syria between | Syrian civil war - wikipedia
Hezbollah Iran Russia (from 2015)
Turkey (from 2016)
Ahrar al - Sham
Jaysh al - Islam
Tahrir al - Sham
Al - Qaeda
CJTF -- OIR (from 2014)
Syrian Armed Forces: 180,000 General Security Directorate: 8,000 National Defense Force: 80,000 Ba'ath Brigades: 7,000 Hezbollah: 6,000 -- 8,000 Liwa Al - Quds: 4,000 - 8,000 Russia: 4,000 troops and 1,000 contractors Iran: 3,000 -- 5,000
FSA: 40,000 -- 50,000 (2013) Islamic Front: 40,000 -- 70,000 (2014) Other groups: 12,500 (2015) Turkish Armed Forces: 4,000 - 8,000
Ahrar al - Sham: 18,000 -- 20,000 + (March 2017)
SDF: 50,000 +
Syrian Government: 63,820 -- 98,820 soldiers killed 48,814 -- 62,814 militiamen killed 4,700 soldiers and militiamen and 2,000 supporters captured Hezbollah: 1,630 -- 1,800 killed Russia: 85 soldiers and 208 + contractors killed
125,399 -- 166,399 fighters killed 979 protesters killed
DFNS: 3,834 killed
106,390 -- 110,218 (3,284 foreign; mostly Palestinian) civilian deaths documented by opposition 100 other foreign soldiers killed (60, 17 (pre - ' 16), 16, 7)
Total killed: 353,593 -- 498,593 (March 2018 SOHR estimate) 470,000 (February 2016 SCPR estimate)
Over 7,600,000 internally displaced (July 2015 UNHCR estimate)
Since early 2013, the FSA has been decentralized with their name being arbitrarily used by various rebels. Turkey has provided arms support to the Syrian opposition since 2011. Aug. 2016 -- March 2017, Turkey fought alongside a rebel contingent in Aleppo governorate against the SDF and ISIL but not against the Syrian government. From Jan. 2018, Turkey has fought against the SDF and the Syrian government in Afrin. From Sep. to Nov. 2016, the U.S. fought alongside a rebel contingent in Aleppo governorate solely against ISIL, but not against the Syrian government or the SDF. In 2017, the U.S. intentionally attacked the Syrian government six times, while it accidentally hit a Syrian base in Sep. 2016, killing over 100 SAA soldiers. The Syrian government maintains that this was an intentional attack. HTS 's predecessor (the Al - Nusra Front) and ISIL 's predecessor (ISI) were allied al - Qaeda branches until April 2013. An ISI - proposed merger of the two into ISIL was rejected by the Al - Nusra Front and al - Qaeda cut all affiliation with ISIL in February 2014. Ahrar al - Sham and Tahrir al - Sham 's predecessor, the Al - Nusra Front, were allied under the Army of Conquest from March 2015 to January 2017.
The Syrian Civil War (Arabic: الحرب الأهلية السورية , Al - ḥarb al - ʼahliyyah as - sūriyyah) is an ongoing multi-sided armed conflict in Syria fought primarily between the government of President Bashar al - Assad, along with its allies, and various forces opposing both the government and each other in varying constellations.
The unrest in Syria, part of a wider wave of 2011 Arab Spring protests, grew out of discontent with the Assad government and escalated to an armed conflict after protests calling for his removal were violently suppressed. The war is being fought by several factions: the Syrian government and its international allies, a loose alliance of Sunni Arab rebel groups (including the Free Syrian Army), the majority - Kurdish Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), Salafi jihadist groups (including al - Nusra Front) and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), with a number of countries in the region and beyond being either directly involved, or rendering support to one or another faction.
Iran, Russia and Hezbollah support the Syrian government militarily, with Russia conducting air operations in support of the government since September 2015. On the other hand, the U.S. - led international coalition established in 2014 with a declared purpose of countering ISIL, have conducted airstrikes against ISIL in Syria as well as against government and pro-government targets.
International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIL and rebel groups of severe human rights violations and of many massacres. The conflict has caused a major refugee crisis. Over the course of the war a number of peace initiatives have been launched, including the March 2017 Geneva peace talks on Syria led by the United Nations, but fighting continues.
Syria became an independent republic in 1946 following years of French rule after World War II, although democratic rule ended with a coup in March 1949, followed by two more coups the same year. A popular uprising against military rule in 1954 saw the army transfer power to civilians. From 1958 to 1961, a brief union with Egypt replaced Syria 's parliamentary system with a centralized presidential government. The secular Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch government came to power through a successful coup d'état in 1963. For the next several years Syria went through additional coups and changes in leadership.
In March 1971, Hafez al - Assad, an Alawite, declared himself President, a position that he held until his death in 2000. Since 1970, the secular Syrian Regional Branch has remained the dominant political authority in what had been a one - party state until the first multi-party election to the People 's Council of Syria was held in 2012. On 31 January 1973, Hafez al - Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the President of Syria be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama. They labelled Assad the "enemy of Allah '' and called for a jihad against his rule. The government survived a series of armed revolts by Islamists, mainly members of the Muslim Brotherhood, from 1976 until 1982.
Upon Hafez al - Assad 's death in 2000, his son Bashar al - Assad was elected as President of Syria. Bashar al - Assad and his wife Asma, a Sunni Muslim born and educated in Britain, initially inspired hopes for democratic reforms. The Damascus Spring, a period of social and political debate, took place between July 2000 and August 2001. The Damascus Spring largely ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience. In the opinion of his critics, Bashar al - Assad had failed to deliver on promised reforms. President Bashar Al - Assad maintains that no ' moderate opposition ' to his rule exists, and that all opposition forces are jihadists intent on destroying his secular leadership. In an April 2017 interview with Croatian newspaper Vecernji List he reasserted his view that terrorist groups operating in Syria are ' linked to the agendas of foreign countries '.
Syrian Arabs, together with some 600,000 Palestinian Arabs, make up roughly 74 percent of the population (if Syriac Christians are excluded). Syria 's Muslims are 74 percent Sunnis (including Sufis), and 13 percent Shias (including 8 -- 12 percent Alawites from which about 2 percent are Mershdis), 3 percent are Druze, while the remaining 10 percent are Christians. Not all of Syria 's Sunnis are Arabs. The Assad family is mixed. Bashar is married to a Sunni, with whom he has several children. He is affiliated with the sect that his parents belong to: the minority Alawite sect. Alawites control Syria 's security apparatus.
The majority of Syria 's Christians belong to the Eastern Christian churches, such as the branches of the Eastern Catholic Churches, Syriac Orthodox Church, Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, Assyrian Church of the East, and Armenian Orthodox Church, which have existed in the region since the first century AD.
Syrian Kurds, an ethnic minority making up approximately 9 percent of the population, have endured ethnic discrimination and the denial of their cultural and linguistic rights, as well as the frequent denial of their citizenship, for the history of the Syrian state. Turkmen are estimated to be 3 - 5 % of the population.
Assyrians, an indigenous Eastern Aramaic - speaking Christian Semitic people, numbering approximately 500,000, are found mainly in northeast Syria. A larger population lives over the border in northern Iraq. Other ethnic groups include Armenians, Circassians, Turkmens, Greeks, Mhallami, Kawliya, Yezidi, Shabaks, and Mandeans.
Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al - Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al - Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the service sector, these policies benefited a minority of the nation 's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo. In 2010, Syria 's nominal GDP per capita was only $2,834, comparable to Sub-Saharan African countries such as Nigeria and far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39 %, below most other developing countries.
The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates. At the start of the war, discontent against the government was strongest in Syria 's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis. These included cities with high poverty rates, such as Daraa and Homs, and the poorer districts of large cities.
This coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in food prices and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers. This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5 million refugees from the Iraq War. The drought has been linked to anthropogenic global warming. Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and it is frequently the target of military action.
The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations. The rights of free expression, association and assembly were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising. The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than five people were banned. Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention.
Authorities have harassed and imprisoned human rights activists and other critics of the government, who were often detained indefinitely and tortured while under prison - like conditions. Women and ethnic minorities faced discrimination in the public sector. Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962 and their descendants were labeled "foreigners ''. A number of riots in 2004 prompted increased tension in Syrian Kurdistan, and there have been occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces ever since.
Despite hopes for democratic change with the 2000 Damascus Spring, Bashar al - Assad was widely regarded as having failed to implement any improvements. A Human Rights Watch report issued just before the beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.
The protests began on 15 March 2011, when protesters marched in the capital of Damascus, demanding democratic reforms and the release of political prisoners. Security forces retaliated by opening fire on the protesters, and according to witnesses who spoke to the BBC, the government forces detained six. The protest was triggered by the arrest of a boy and his friends by the government for writing in graffiti, "The people want the fall of the government '', in the city of Daraa. A 13 - year - old boy, Hamza al - Khateeb, was tortured and killed. The government claims that the boys were n't attacked, and that Qatar incited the majority of the protests. Writer and analyst Louai al - Hussein, referencing the Arab Spring ongoing at that time, wrote that "Syria is now on the map of countries in the region with an uprising ''. On 20 March, the protesters burned down a Ba'ath Party headquarters and "other buildings ''. The ensuing clashes claimed the lives of seven police officers and 15 protesters. Ten days later in a speech, President Bashar al - Assad blamed "foreign conspirators '' pushing Israeli propaganda for the protests.
Until 7 April, the protesters predominantly demanded democratic reforms, release of political prisoners, an increase in freedoms, abolition of the emergency law and an end to corruption. After 8 April, the emphasis in demonstration slogans shifted slowly towards a call to overthrow the Assad government. Protests spread. On Friday 8 April, they occurred simultaneously in ten cities. By Friday 22 April, protests occurred in twenty cities. By the end of May 2011, 1,000 civilians and 150 soldiers and policemen had been killed and thousands detained; among the arrested were many students, liberal activists and human rights advocates.
Significant armed resistance against the state security took place on 4 June 2011 in Jisr al - Shugur. Unverified reports claim that a portion of the security forces in Jisr defected after secret police and intelligence officers executed soldiers who had refused to fire on civilians. Later, more protesters in Syria took up arms, and more soldiers defected to protect protesters.
The Early insurgency phase of the Syrian Civil War lasted from late July 2011 to April 2012, and was associated with the rise of armed oppositional militias across Syria and the beginning of armed rebellion against the authorities of the Syrian Arab Republic. The beginning of the insurgency is typically marked by formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) on 29 July 2011, when a group of defected officers declared the establishment of the first organized oppositional military force. Composed of defected Syrian Armed Forces personnel, the rebel army aimed to remove Bashar al - Assad and his government from power.
This period of the war saw the initial civil uprising take on many of the characteristics of a civil war, according to several outside observers, including the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, as armed elements became better organized and began carrying out successful attacks in retaliation for the crackdown by the Syrian government on demonstrators and defectors.
The Arab League monitoring mission, initiated in December 2011, ended in failure by February 2012, as Syrian troops and oppositional militants continued to do battle across the country and the Syrian government prevented foreign observers from touring active battlefields, including besieged oppositional strongholds.
In early 2012, Kofi Annan acted as the UN -- Arab League Joint Special Representative for Syria. His peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, the rebels and the Syrian army continued fighting even after the peace plan. The United Nations - backed ceasefire was brokered by special envoy Kofi Annan and declared in mid-April 2012.
The 2012 -- 13 escalation of the Syrian Civil War was the third phase of the Syrian Civil War, which gradually evolved from UN-mediated cease fire attempt during April -- May 2012, deteriorating into radical violence in June, escalating the conflict level to a full - fledged civil war.
Following the Houla massacre of 25 May 2012, in which 108 people were summarily executed, and the subsequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the ceasefire practically collapsed, as the FSA began nationwide offensives against government troops. On 1 June 2012, President Assad vowed to crush the anti-government uprising. On 12 June 2012, the UN for the first time officially proclaimed Syria to be in a state of civil war. The conflict began moving into the two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo.
Following October 2012 cease - fire failure, during winter of 2012 -- 13 and early spring of 2013, the rebels continued advances on all fronts. In mid-December 2012, American officials said that the Syrian military began firing Scud ballistic missiles at rebel fighters inside Syria. On 11 January 2013, Islamist groups, including al - Nusra Front, took full control of the Taftanaz air base in the Idlib Governorate, after weeks of fighting. In mid-January 2013, as clashes re-erupted between rebels and Kurdish forces in Ras al - Ayn, YPG forces moved to expel government forces from oil - rich areas in Hassakeh Province. By 6 March 2013, the rebels had captured the city of Raqqa, effectively making it the first provincial capital to be lost by the Assad government.
The advances of rebels were finally arrested in April 2013, as Syrian Arab Army could reorganize and initiate offensives. On 17 April 2013, government forces breached a six - month rebel blockade in Wadi al - Deif, near Idlib. Heavy fighting was reported around the town of Babuleen after government troops attempt to secure control of a main highway leading to Aleppo. The break in the siege also allowed government forces to resupply two major military bases in the region which had been relying on sporadic airdrops. In April 2013, government and Hezbollah forces, who have increasingly become involved in the fighting, launched an offensive to capture areas near al - Qusayr. On 21 April, pro-Assad forces captured the towns of Burhaniya, Saqraja and al - Radwaniya near the Lebanese border.
From July 2013, however the situation became a stalemate, with fighting continuing on all fronts between various factions with numerous casualties, but without major territorial changes. On 28 June 2013, rebel forces captured a major military checkpoint in the city of Daraa. Shortly after, Syrian opposition factions declared war on the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant which turned increasingly dominant throughout the war zone with indiscriminate killing of all -- whether loyalist Assad or rebels. A major advance took place on 6 August 2013, as rebels captured Menagh Military Airbase after a 10 - month siege. On 21 August a chemical attack took place in the Ghouta region of the Damascus countryside, leading to thousands of casualties and several hundred dead in the opposition - held stronghold. The attack was followed by a military offensive by government forces into the area, which had been hotbeds of the opposition. The attack, largely attributed to Assad forces caused the international community to seek disarmanent of the Syrian Arab Army from chemical weapons.
In late 2013, the period was marked by increased initiative of the Syrian Arab Army, which led offensives against opposition fighters on several fronts. The Syrian Arab Army along with its allies, Hezbollah and the al - Abas brigade, launched an offensive on Damascus and Aleppo in November. Fighting between Kurdish forces, rebels and al - Nusra front continued in other locations.
Tension between moderate rebel forces and ISIS had been high since ISIS captured the border town of Azaz from FSA forces on 18 September 2013. Conflict was renewed over Azaz in early October and in late November ISIS captured the border town of Atme from an FSA brigade. On 3 January 2014, the Army of the Mujahideen, the Free Syrian Army and the Islamic Front launched an offensive against ISIS in Aleppo and Idlib governorates. A spokesman for the rebels said that rebels attacked ISIS in up to 80 % of all ISIS held villages in Idlib and 65 % of those in Aleppo.
By 6 January, opposition rebels managed to expel ISIS forces from the city of Raqqa, ISIS 's largest stronghold and capital of the Raqqa Governorate. On 8 January, opposition rebels expelled most ISIS forces from the city of Aleppo, however ISIS reinforcements from the Deir ez - Zor Governorate managed to retake several neighborhoods of the city of Raqqa. By mid January ISIS retook the entire city of Raqqa, while rebels expelled ISIS fighters fully from Aleppo city and the villages west of it.
On 29 January, Turkish aircraft near the border fired on an ISIS convoy inside the Aleppo province of Syria, killing 11 ISIS fighters and 1 ISIS emir. In late January it was confirmed that rebels had assassinated ISIS 's second in command, Haji Bakr, who was al - Qaeda 's military council head and a former military officer in Saddam Hussein 's army. By mid-February, the al - Nusra Front joined the battle in support of rebel forces, and expelled ISIS from the Deir Ezzor Governorate. By March, the ISIS forces fully retreated from the Idlib Governorate. On 4 March, ISIS retreated from the border town of Azaz and other nearby villages, choosing instead to consolidate around Raqqa in an anticipation of an escalation of fighting with al - Nusra.
On 4 March, the Syrian Army took control of Sahel in the Qalamoun region. On 8 March, government forces took over Zara, in Homs Governorate, further blocking rebel supply routes from Lebanon. On 11 March, Government forces and Hezbollah took control of the Rima Farms region, directly facing Yabrud. On 16 March, Hezbollah and government forces captured Yabrud, after Free Syrian Army fighters made an unexpected withdrawal, leaving the al - Nusra Front to fight in the city on its own. On 18 March, Israel used artillery against a Syrian Army base, after four of its soldiers had been wounded by a roadside bomb while patrolling Golan Heights.
On 19 March, the Syrian Army captured Ras al - Ain near Yabrud, after two days of fighting and al - Husn in Homs Governorate, while rebels in the Daraa Governorate captured Daraa prison, and freed hundreds of detainees. On 20 March, the Syrian Army took control of the Krak des Chevaliers in al - Husn. On 29 March, Syrian Army took control of the villages of Flitah and Ras Maara near the border with Lebanon.
On 22 March, rebels took control of the Kesab border post in the Latakia Governorate. By 23 March, rebels had taken most of Khan Sheikhoun in Hama. During clashes near the rebel - controlled Kesab border post in Latakia, Hilal Al Assad, NDF leader in Latakia and one of Bashar Al Assad 's cousins was killed by rebel fighters. On 4 April, rebels captured the town of Babulin, Idlib. On 9 April, the Syrian Army took control of Rankous in the Qalamoun region. On 12 April, rebels in Aleppo stormed the government - held Ramouseh industrial district in an attempt to cut the Army supply route between the airport and a large Army base. The rebels also took the Rashidin neighbourhood and parts of the Jamiat al - Zahra district. On 26 April, the Syrian Army took control of Al - Zabadani. According to SOHR, rebels took control of Tell Ahrmar, Quneitra. Rebels in Daraa also took over Brigade 61 Base and the 74th battalion.
On 26 April, the FSA announced they had begun an offensive against ISIS in the Raqqa Governorate, and had seized five towns west of Raqqa city. On 29 April, activists said that the Syrian Army captured Tal Buraq near the town of Mashara in Quneitra without any clashes. On 7 May, a truce went into effect in the city of Homs, SOHR reported. The terms of the agreement include safe evacuation of Islamist fighters from the city, which would then fall under government control, in exchange for release of prisoners and safe passage of humanitarian aid for Nubul and Zahraa, two Shiite enclaves besieged by the rebels. On 18 May, the head of Syria 's Air Defense, General Hussein Ishaq, died of wounds sustained during a rebel attack on an air defense base near Mleiha the previous day. In Hama Governorate, rebel forces took control of the town of Tel Malah, killing 34 pro-Assad fighters at an army post near the town. Its seizure marked the third time rebels have taken control of the town.
Syria held a presidential election in government - held areas on 3 June 2014. For the first time in the history of Syria more than one person was allowed to stand as a presidential candidate. More than 9,000 polling stations were set up in government - held areas. According to the Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria, 11.63 million Syrians voted (the turnout was 73.42 %). President Bashar al - Assad won the election with 88.7 % of the votes. As for Assad 's challengers, Hassan al - Nouri received 4.3 % of the votes and Maher Hajjar received 3.2 %. Allies of Assad from more than 30 countries were invited by the Syrian government to follow the presidential election, including Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, India, Iran, Iraq, Nicaragua, Russia, South Africa and Venezuela. The Iranian official Alaeddin Boroujerdi read a statement by the group saying the election was "free, fair and transparent ''. The Gulf Cooperation Council, the European Union and the United States all dismissed the election as illegitimate and a farce.
State employees were told to vote or face interrogation. On the ground there were no independent monitors stationed at the polling stations. It is claimed in an opinion piece that as few as 6 million eligible voters remained in Syria. Due to rebel, Kurdish and ISIS control of Syrian territories there was no voting in roughly 60 % of the country.
According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, on 17 July 2014 ISIL took control of the Shaar oil field, killing 90 pro-government forces while losing 21 fighters. In addition, 270 guards and government - aligned fighters were missing. About 30 government persons managed to escape to the nearby Hajjar field. On 20 July, the Syrian Army secured the field, although fighting continued in its outskirts. On 25 July, the Islamic State took control of the Division 17 base near Raqqa.
On 7 August 2014, ISIL took the Brigade 93 base in Raqqa using weapons captured from their offensive in Iraq. Multiple suicide bombs also went off before the base was stormed. On 13 August, ISIL forces took the towns of Akhtarin and Turkmanbareh from rebels in Aleppo. ISIL forces also took a handful of nearby villages. The other towns seized include Masoudiyeh, Dabiq and Ghouz. On 14 August, after being captured by the Al Nusra Front, the Free Syrian Army commander Sharif As - Safouri admitted to working with Israel and receiving anti-tank weapons from Israel and FSA soldiers also received medical treatment. It is possible this confession was obtained under duress. On 14 August, the Syrian Army as well as Hezbollah militias retook the town of Mleiha in Rif Dimashq Governorate. The Supreme Military Council of the FSA denied claims of Mleiha 's seizure, rather the rebels have redeployed from recent advances to other defensive lines. Mleiha has been held by the Islamic Front. Rebels had used the town to fire mortars on government held areas inside Damascus.
Meanwhile, ISIL forces in Raqqa were launching a siege on Tabqa airbase, the Syrian government 's last military base in Raqqa. Kuwaires airbase in Aleppo also came under fierce attack by ISIL. On 16 August 2014, there were reports that 22 people were killed in the village of Daraa by a car bomb outside a mosque. The bomb was thought to be detonated by ISIS. Also on 16 August, the Islamic State seized the village of Beden in Aleppo Governorate from rebels.
On 17 August 2014, SOHR said that in the past two weeks ISIL jihadists had killed over 700 tribal members in oil - rich Deir ez - Zor Governorate. On 19 August, Abu Abdullah al - Iraqi, a senior figure in ISIL who had helped prepare and plan car and suicide bombs across Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq was killed. Some reports said that he was killed by Hezbollah fighters. There were also several reports that he was killed by the Syrian Army in the Qalamoun region, near the border with Lebanon.
In Raqqa, the Syrian Army took control of the town of Al - Ejeil. ISIL reportedly sent reinforcements from Iraq to the governorate of Raqqa. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said at least 400 ISIL fighters had also been wounded in the previous five days in clashes with the Syrian Army and National Defense Force in Raqqa alone. At the same time, several senior UK and US figures urged Turkey to stop allowing ISIL to cross the border to Syria and Iraq. It was around this time that the Americans realized that the Turks had no intention of sealing their side of the border, and so Washington decided to work with the Syrian Kurds to close off the border on the Syrian side. A year later, with the Kurds in control of most of the Turkey -- Syria border, and the Syrian army advancing under Russian air support to seal the remainder, the situation was causing great ructions in Ankara.
On 26 August 2014, the Syrian Air Force carried out airstrikes against ISIL in the Governorate of Deir ez - Zor. This was the first time the Syrian Army attacked them in Deir ez - Zor as the Syrian Army pulled out of Raqqa and shifted to Deir ez - Zor for its oil and natural gas resources as well as strategically splitting ISIL territories. American jets began bombing ISIL in Syria on 23 September 2014, raising U.S. involvement in the country. At least 20 targets in and around Raqqa were hit, the opposition group Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said. Foreign partners participating in the strikes with the United States were Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Jordan. The U.S. and "partner nation forces '' began striking ISIL using fighters, bombers and Tomahawk missiles, Pentagon spokesman Rear Adm. John Kirby said.
U.S. aircraft include B - 1 bombers, F - 16s, F - 18s and Predator drones, with F - 18s flying missions off the USS George H.W. Bush (CVN - 77) in the Persian Gulf. Tomahawk missiles were fired from the destroyer USS Arleigh Burke (DDG - 51) in the Red Sea. Syria 's Foreign Ministry told the Associated Press that the U.S. informed Syria 's envoy to the U.N. that "strikes will be launched against the terrorist group in Raqqa ''. The United States informed the Free Syrian Army beforehand of the impending airstrikes, and the rebels said that weapons transfers to the Free Syrian Army had begun. The United States also attacked a specific faction of al - Nusra called the Khorasan Group, who according to the United States had training camps and plans for attacking the United States in the future. For its part, Turkey launched an official request to the U.N. for a no - fly zone over Syria. The same day, Israel shot down a Syrian warplane after it entered the Golan area from Quneitra.
By 3 October 2014, ISIL forces were heavily shelling the city of Kobanî and were within a kilometer of the town. Within 36 hours from 21 October, the Syrian air force carried out over 200 airstrikes on rebel - held areas across Syria and US and Arab jets attacked IS positions around Kobanî. Syrian Information Minister Omran al - Zoubi said the YPG forces in Kobanî had been provided with military and logistical support. Syria reported its air force had destroyed two fighter jets operated by IS. By 26 January, the Kurdish YPG forced ISIL to retreat from Kobanî, thus fully recapturing the city. The U.S. later confirmed that the city had been cleared of ISIL forces, and ISIL admitted defeat in Kobanî city three days later, although they vowed to return.
In February 2014, the Southern Front of the Free Syrian Army formed in southern Syria. Six months later, they started a string of victories in Daraa and Quneitra during the 2014 Quneitra offensive, the Daraa offensive, the Battle of Al - Shaykh Maskin, the Battle of Bosra (2015) and the Battle of Nasib Border Crossing. A government counter-offensive (the 2015 Southern Syria offensive) during this period, that included the IRGC and Hezbollah, recaptured 15 towns, villages and hills, but the operation slowed soon after and stalled. Since early 2015, opposition military operations rooms based in Jordan and Turkey began increasing cooperation, with Saudi Arabia and Qatar also reportedly agreeing upon the necessity to unite opposition factions against the Syrian government.
In late October 2014, a conflict erupted between the al - Nusra Front on one side and the Western - backed SRF and Hazzm Movement on the other (Al - Nusra Front -- SRF / Hazzm Movement conflict). By the end of February 2015, al - Nusra had defeated both groups, captured the entire Zawiya Mountain region in Idlib province and several towns and military bases in other governorates, and seized weapons supplied by the CIA to the two moderate groups. The significant amount of weapons seized included a small number of BGM - 71 anti-tank missiles similar to weapons systems al - Nusra Front had previously captured from government stockpiles such as French MILANs, Chinese HJ - 8s and Russian 9K111 Fagots. Reuters reported that this represented al - Nusra crushing pro-Western rebels in the north of the country. According to FSA commanders in northern Syria, however, the elimination of Harakat Hazm and the SRF was a welcome development due to the leaders of those factions allegedly involved in corruption. The Western - backed 30th Division of the FSA remained active elsewhere in Idlib.
By 24 March 2015, the al - Nusra Front dominated most of Idlib province, except for the government - held provincial capital, Idlib, which they had encircled on three sides along with their Islamist allies. Therefore, they joined together to form the Army of Conquest on this day. On 28 March, a joint coalition of Islamist forces, the Army of Conquest, captured Idlib. This left the north largely taken over by Ahrar ash - Sham, al - Nusra Front and other Islamist rebels, with the south of the country becoming the last significant foothold for the mainstream, non-jihadist opposition fighters.
On 22 April, a new rebel offensive was launched in the north - west of Syria and by 25 April, the rebel coalition Army of Conquest had captured the city of Jisr al - Shughur. At the end of the following month, the rebels also seized the Al - Mastumah military base, and Ariha, leaving government forces in control of tiny pockets of Idlib, including the Abu Dhuhur military airport. In addition, according to Charles Lister (Brookings Doha Center), the Army of Conquest coalition was a broad opposition effort to ensure that the Al - Qaeda - affiliated al - Nusra Front was contained, with the rearguard involvement of Western - backed factions being regarded as crucial. Still, according to some, the FSA in northern Syria had by this point all but dissipated. Many of the moderate fighters joined more extremist organizations, such as Ahrar ash - Sham, the largest faction in the Army of Conquest, which led to the subsequent rise of the Islamist Army of Conquest coalition.
Rebel advances led to government and Hezbollah morale plunging dramatically. In north - west Syria these losses were countered by a Hezbollah - led offensive in the Qalamoun mountains north of Damascus, on the border with Lebanon, that gave Hezbollah effective control of the entire area.
On 21 May, ISIL took control of Palmyra, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, after eight days of fighting. The jihadists also captured the nearby towns of Al - Sukhnah and Amiriya, as well as several oil fields. Following the capture of Palmyra, ISIL conducted mass executions in the area, killing an estimated 217 -- 329 government civilian supporters and soldiers, according to opposition activists. Government sources put the number of killed at 400 -- 450. By early June, ISIL reached the town of Hassia, which lies on the main road from Damascus to Homs and Latakia, and reportedly took up positions to the west of it, creating a potential disaster for the government and raising the threat of Lebanon being sucked further into the war.
On 25 June, ISIL launched two offensives. One was a surprise diversionary attack on Kobanî, while the second targeted government - held parts of Al - Hasakah city. The ISIL offensive on Al - Hasakah displaced 60,000 people, with the UN estimating a total of 200,000 would be displaced. In July 2015, a raid by U.S. special forces on a compound housing the Islamic State 's "chief financial officer '', Abu Sayyaf, produced evidence that Turkish officials directly dealt with ranking ISIS members.
ISIS captured Qaryatayn city from the government on 5 August 2015. Australia joined the bombing of ISIL in Syria in mid September, an extension of their efforts in Iraq for the last year. On 2 August, U.S. officials informed Reuters that the United States had decided to "allow air strikes to help defend against any attack on the U.S. - trained Syrian rebels, even if the attackers come from forces loyal to Syrian President Bashar al - Assad. '' The following day the Pentagon announced that it would begin flying its first unmanned, armed drone missions in Syria.
Russian Navy Russian Aerospace Forces Group Special forces (ru)
On 30 September 2015, in response to an official request by the Syrian government, the Russian Aerospace Forces began a sustained campaign of air strikes against both ISIL and the anti-Assad FSA. Initially, the raids were conducted solely by Russian aircraft stationed in the Khmeimim base in Syria. Shortly after the start of the Russian operation, U.S. president Barack Obama was reported to have authorized the resupply of Syrian Kurds and the Arab - Syrian opposition, Obama reportedly emphasizing to his team that the U.S. would continue to support the Syrian opposition now that Russia had joined the conflict.
On 7 October 2015, Russian officials said the ships of the Caspian Flotilla had earlier that day fired 26 sea - based cruise missiles at 11 ISIL targets in Syria destroying those and causing no civilian casualties. That day, the Syrian government launched the northwest Syrian offensive that in the following few days succeeded in recapturing some territory in northern Hama Governorate, close to the government 's coastal heartland in the west of the country. On 8 October 2015, the U.S. officially announced the end of the Pentagon 's half - billion dollar program to train and equip Syrian rebels and acknowledged that it had failed However, other covert and significantly larger CIA programs to arm anti-government fighters in Syria continued.
Two weeks after the start of the Russian campaign in Syria, The New York Times opined that with anti-government commanders receiving for the first time bountiful supplies of U.S. - made anti-tank missiles and with Russia raising the number of airstrikes against the government 's opponents that had raised morale in both camps, broadening war objectives and hardening political positions, the conflict was turning into an all - out proxy war between the U.S. and Russia. Despite multiple top - ranking casualties incurred by the Iranian forces advising fighters in Syria, in mid-October the Russian - Syrian - Iranian - Hezbollah offensive targeting rebels in Aleppo went ahead.
At the end of October 2015, the U.S. Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter signalled a shift in the strategy of the U.S. - led campaign saying there will be more air strikes and ruling in the use of direct ground raids, the fight in Syria concentrating mostly on Raqqa. On 30 October and two weeks later, Syria peace talks were held in Vienna, initiated by the United States, Russia, Turkey and Saudi Arabia, in which on 30 October Iran participated for the first time in negotiations on Syrian settlement. The participants disagreed on the future of Bashar Assad.
On 10 November 2015, the Syrian government forces completed the operation to break through the Islamic State insurgents ' blockade of the Kweires air base in Aleppo Province, where government forces had been under siege since April 2013. In mid-November 2015, in the wake of the Russian plane bombing over Sinai and the Paris attacks, both Russia and France significantly intensified their strikes in Syria, France closely coordinating with the U.S. military. On 17 November, Putin said he had issued orders for the cruiser Moskva that had been in eastern Mediterranean since the start of the Russian operations to "work as with an ally '', with the French naval group led by flagship Charles De Gaulle that had been on her way to eastern Mediterranean since early November. Shortly afterwards, a Russian foreign ministry official criticised France 's stridently anti-Assad stance as well as France 's air strikes at oil and gas installations in Syria as apparently designed to prevent those from returning under the Syrian government 's control; the Russian official pointed out that such strikes by France could not be justified as they were carried out without the Syrian government 's consent. In his remarks to a French delegation that included French parliamentarians, on 14 November, President Bashar Assad sharply criticised France 's as well as other Western States ' actions against the Syrian government suggesting that French support for Syrian opposition forces had led to the Islamic State - claimed attacks in Paris.
On 19 November 2015, U.S. President Barack Obama, speaking of the Vienna process, said he was unable to "foresee a situation in which we can end the civil war in Syria while Assad remains in power ''; he urged Russia and Iran to stop supporting the Syrian government. On 20 November 2015, the UN Security Council, while failing to invoke the UN 's Chapter VII, which gives specific legal authorisation for the use of force, unanimously passed Resolution 2249 that urged UN members to "redouble and coordinate their efforts to prevent and suppress terrorist acts committed specifically by ISIL also known as Da'esh as well as ANF, and all other individuals, groups, undertakings, and entities associated with Al - Qaida, and other terrorist groups, as designated by the United Nations Security Council, and as may further be agreed by the International Syria Support Group (ISSG) and endorsed by the UN Security Council ''. The adopted resolution was drafted by France and co-sponsored by the UK the following day after Russia introduced an updated version of its previously submitted draft resolution that was blocked by the Western powers as seeking to legitimise Assad 's authority.
On 24 November 2015, Turkey shot down a Russian warplane that allegedly violated Turkish airspace and crashed in northwestern Syria, leading to the Russian pilot 's death. Following the crash, it was reported that Syrian Turkmen rebels from Syrian Turkmen Brigades attacked and shot down a Russian rescue helicopter, killing a Russian naval infantryman. A few days after, Russian aircraft were reported to have struck targets in the Syrian town of Ariha in Idlib province that was controlled by the Army of Conquest causing multiple casualties on the ground. On 2 December 2015, the Parliament of the United Kingdom voted to expand Operation Shader into Syria with a majority of 397 -- 223. That day, two British Tornado aircraft took off from RAF Akrotiri immediately at 22: 30, each carrying three Paveway bombs. Two further aircraft were deployed at 00: 30 on 3 December, and all aircraft returned by 06: 30 without their bombs. Defense Secretary Michael Fallon said that the strikes hit the Omar oil fields in eastern Syria, and that eight more jets (two Tornados and six Typhoons) were being sent to RAF Akrotiri to join the eight already there.
On 7 December 2015, the government of Syria announced that US - led coalition warplanes had fired nine missiles at its army camp near Ayyash, Deir al - Zour province, on the evening prior, killing three soldiers and wounding 13 others; three armoured vehicles, four military vehicles, heavy machine - guns and an arms and ammunition depot were also destroyed. The government condemned the strikes, the first time the government forces would be struck by the coalition, as an act of "flagrant aggression ''; the coalition spokesman denied it was responsible. Anonymous Pentagon officials alleged later in the day that the Pentagon was "certain '' that a Russian warplane (presumably a TU - 22 bomber) had carried out the attack. The claim was denied by the Russian military spokesman. On 14 December 2015, Russia 's government news media reported that the Syrian government forces retook a Marj al - Sultan military airbase east of Damascus that had been held by Jaysh al - Islam.
The UN resolution 2254 of 18 December 2015 that endorsed the ISSG 's transitional plan but did not clarify who would represent the Syrian opposition, while condemning terrorist groups like ISIL and al - Qaeda; it made no mention of the future role of Syrian President Bashar Assad.
On 12 January 2016, the Syria government announced that its army and allied forces had established "full control '' of the strategically situated town of Salma, whose pre-war population was predominantly Sunni, in the northwestern province of Latakia, and continued to advance north. On 16 January 2016, ISIL militants launched raid on government - held areas in the city of Deir ez - Zor and killed up to 300 people. Counter-strikes by Russian Air Force fighter jets, in support of Syrian army forces, were reported to take back the areas.
On 21 January 2016, Russia 's activity presumably aimed at setting up a new base in the government - controlled Kamishly Airport was first reported; the northeastern town of Qamishli in the Al - Hasakah Governorate had been largely under the Syrian Kurds ' control since the start of the Syrian Kurdish -- Islamist conflict in the governorate of Al - Hasakah in July 2013. Similar activity by the U.S. forces was suspected in the Rmeilan Airbase in the same province, 50 kilometres (31 miles) away from the Kamishly Airport; the area is likewise controlled by the US - backed Kurdish People 's Protection Units (YPG). On 24 January 2016, the Syrian government announced its forces, carrying on with their Latakia offensive, had seized the predominantly Sunni - populated town of Rabia, the last major town held by rebels in western Latakia province; Russian forces were said to have played an important role in the recapture. The capture of Rabia was said to threaten rebel supply lines from Turkey. By 26 January 2016, the Syrian government established "full control '' over the town of Al - Shaykh Maskin in the Daraa Governorate, thus completing the operation that had begun in late December 2015. The town 's capture by the Syrian government was remarked as a "turning of the tide in the Syrian war '' by Al - Jazeera.
On 26 February 2016, the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 2268 that endorsed a previously brokered U.S. - Russian deal on a "cessation of hostilities ''. The cease - fire started on 27 February 2016 at 00: 00 (Damascus time). The ceasefire does not include attacks on UN-designated terrorist organizations. At the close of February 2016, despite individual clashes, the truce was reported to hold. By the end of March, the Syrian government forces with support from Russia and Iran successfully captured Palmyra from the ISIL.
By early July 2016, the truce was said to have mostly unraveled, violence again escalated, and the fighting between all the major parties to the conflict continued. At the end of July 2016, the fighting between the government and Islamist rebels in and around Aleppo intensified.
On 12 August 2016, the Syrian Democratic Forces fully captured Manbij from ISIL. Some days later, the SDF announced a new offensive towards Al - Bab, which could eventually connect the Kurdish regions in Northern Syria.
A few days after, the battle of al - Hasakah began. On 22 August, the Kurdish YPG, having captured Ghwairan, the only major Arab neighborhood in Hasaka that had been in government hands, launched a major assault to seize the last government - controlled areas of the northeastern Syrian city of Hasaka, after a Russian mediation team failed to mend the rift between the two sides; the next day the capture of the city was completed. A few days prior, the Pentagon admonished the Syrian government against "interfering with coalition forces or our partners '' in that region, adding that the U.S. had the right to defend its troops.
On 24 August 2016, Turkey 's armed forces invaded Syria in the Jarabulus area controlled by ISIL starting what the Turkish president called Operation Euphrates Shield, aimed against, according to his statement, both the IS and Kurdish "terror groups that threaten our country in northern Syria ''. The Syrian government denounced the intervention as a "blatant violation of its sovereignty '' and said that "fighting terrorism is n't done by ousting ISIS and replacing it with other terrorist organizations backed directly by Turkey ''. The PYD leader Salih Muslim said that Turkey was now in the "Syrian quagmire '' and would be defeated like IS. Speaking in Ankara the same day, US vice president Joe Biden indirectly endorsed Turkey 's move and said that the U.S. had made it clear to the Syrian Kurdish forces that they should move back east across the Euphrates, or lose US support.
As Turkish troops and the Turkish - aligned Syrian rebels took control of Jarablus and moved further south towards the Syrian town of Manbij, they clashed with the Kurdish YPG, which led the U.S. officials to voice concern and issue a warning to both sides. On 29 August, U.S. Defense Secretary Ash Carter specified that the U.S. did not support Turkey 's advance south of Jarablus. The warning as well as an announcement made by the U.S. of a tentative ceasefire between the Turkish forces and the Kurds in the area of Jarablus were promptly and angrily dismissed by Turkey 's officials. However, combat between the Turkish forces and the SDF died down, and instead Turkish forces moved West to confront IS. In the meantime the SDF, including Western volunteers, continued to reinforce Manbij.
At sunset on 12 September 2016, a U.S. - Russian brokered cease - fire came into effect. Five days later, the U.S. and other coalition members ' jets bombed Syrian Army positions near Deir ez - Zor -- purportedly by accident, but with Russia contending that it was intentional -- killing at least 62 Syrian troops that were fighting ISIL militants. Shortly after, the ceasefire broke down, and on 19 September the Syrian Army declared to no longer observe the truce. Also on 19 September, an aid convoy in Aleppo was attacked with the U.S. coalition blaming the Russian and Syrian governments for the attack and these same governments denying these accusation and instead blaming terrorists for the attack.
On 22 September, the Syrian army declared a new offensive in Aleppo. The offensive succeeded on 14 December, when the final Rebel stronghold in Aleppo was recaptured by the Syrian government followed by a ceasefire agreement.
On 26 October 2016 US Defense Secretary Ash Carter said that an offensive to retake Raqqa from IS will begin within weeks. The SDF proceeded with this effort, in operation Wrath of Euphrates. This operation used up to 30,000 Arab, Christian and Kurdish troops, with support from the Western Coalition. By December 2016 it had captured many villages and land west of Raqqa, previously controlled by IS. By January 2017, much of the land west of Raqqa had been seized, and the second phase of the operation was complete.
In December 2016, Syrian government forces completely recaptured all of rebel - held parts of Aleppo, ending the 4 - year battle in the city. On 15 December, as it was reported government forces were on the brink of retaking all of Aleppo -- a "turning point '' in the civil war, Assad celebrated the "liberation '' of the city, and stated, "History is being written by every Syrian citizen. '' On 29 December 2016 Russian President Vladimir Putin announced a new ceasefire deal had been reached between the Syrian Government and opposition groups, with Russia and Turkey acting as guarantors, and Iran as a signatory to a trilateral agreement. The ceasefire came into effect at 00: 00 Syrian time (02: 00 UTC) on 30 December. It does not include UN-designated terrorist groups, such as ISIL and Jabhat Fateh al - Sham. Syrian High Negotiations Committee representatives in Turkey confirmed that they were involved in the deal. Talks were scheduled to be held between the groups in Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan, on 15 January.
Early reports indicated that despite sporadic fighting incidents, the ceasefire appeared to be holding, with no civilian deaths. Also late on 29 December, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reported that four million people in Damascus and surrounding areas were without reliable access to water after major supply infrastructure was subject to deliberate targeting on 22 December. They said that although the government had initiated a program of rationing, they were concerned that safe water may not be accessible to everyone and called on parties to reach peaceful agreements to guarantee basic services.
On 2 January 2017, rebel groups said that they would disengage from planned talks after alleged ceasefire violations by Government forces in the Wadi Barada valley near Damascus. The government says the region is excluded from the ceasefire because of the presence of Fatah al - Sham, but some local activists deny that they have a presence there. At the end of January, government forces managed to capture Wadi Barada and the water supply of Damascus was restored.
On 14 February 2017, the cease - fire between Assad forces and rebels collapsed throughout the country, leading to fresh clashes in various locations and a fresh rebel offensive in Daraa. A new peace conference in Geneva was held on 23 February.
On 23 February, Turkish forces captured Al - Bab from ISIL north - east of Aleppo. Syrian government forces started an offensive east of Aleppo to conquer Dayr Hafir from ISIL and prevent further Turkish advances.
On 17 March, Syrian military fired S - 200 missiles at Israeli jets over Golan Heights. The Israeli military claimed that the Arrow anti-ballistic system intercepted one missile, while the Syrian military claimed that they had downed an Israeli jet. The Russian Foreign Ministry summoned the Israeli ambassador to clarify the situation.
The Syrian Arab Army entered Dayr Hafir, the last stronghold held by the Islamic State in East Aleppo, on 23 March, and secured it by 23 March. This opened up an opportunity to push south into the Ar - Raqqa governate where the Islamic State 's de facto capital resides; however on 23 March, a Syrian Democratic Forces contingent landed on a peninsula west of Raqqa via boats and helicopters, in an effort to cut off the Syrian Arab Army from entering the Islamic State 's de facto capital, Raqqa. On 28 March, an agreement was reportedly brokered by Qatar and Iran for the evacuation for four besieged towns in Syria, where around 60,000 people live. The deal involved evacuating the residents of al - Fu'ah and Kafriya, two towns in the Idlib Governorate besieged by rebel forces, in exchange for the evacuation of residents and rebels in Zabadani and Madaya, two towns under siege by government forces in the Rif Dimashq Governorate.
On 7 April, in what was the U.S. ' first deliberate direct attack on Syrian forces in the six years of the conflict, U.S. warships launched fifty - nine Tomahawk missiles on the Syrian government 's Shayrat Air Base, which was said to be the source of the chemical attack on Khan Shaykhun that occurred three days prior to the airstrikes. As the U.S. strike was conducted without authorization from either the United States Congress or United Nations Security Council, it raised questions about its legality under the U.S. law as well as international law. An emergency meeting of the UN Security Council was held, having been requested by Bolivia and supported by Russia; the U.S. representative said that '' the moral stain of the Assad regime could no longer go unanswered. '' Russian president ′ s spokesman said Vladimir Putin viewed the U.S. attack as '' an act of aggression against a sovereign country violating the norms of international law, and under a trumped - up pretext at that ''. Deborah Pearlstein has suggested that US military strikes against Syrian government forces violate the UN Charter, a cornerstone of international law which has been ratified by the US and is thus binding on the US.
Meanwhile, intense fighting between government forces and rebel groups that began north of Hama on 21 March, continued.
On 12 April, the agreement to exchange the inhabitants of the rebel - held towns of Zabadani and Madaya with the inhabitants of the pro-government towns of Al - Fu'ah and Kafraya began to be implemented. On 15 April, a convoy of buses carrying evacuees from Al - Fu'ah and Kafriya was attacked by a suicide bomber in Aleppo, killing more than 126 people.
On 24 April, the Turkish Air Force conducted several airstrikes on YPG and YPJ positions near al - Malikiyah, killing at least 20 of their fighters. The attacks were condemned by the US.
On 4 May 2017, Russia, Iran, and Turkey signed an agreement in Astana to create four "de-escalation zones '' in Syria. The four zones include the Idlib Governorate, the northern rebel - controlled parts of the Homs Governorate, the rebel - controlled eastern Ghouta, and the Jordan -- Syria border. The agreement was rejected by some rebel groups, and the Democratic Union Party also denounced the deal, saying that the ceasefire zones are "dividing Syria up on a sectarian basis ''. The ceasefire came into effect on 6 May.
On 18 May 2017, in what was said to have marked the most direct clash between the U.S. - led forces with the government of Syria, U.S. - led coalition fighter jets struck a convoy of pro-Syrian government forces advancing towards the U.S. coalition base at the border town of al - Tanf, where U.S. military operated and trained anti-government rebels. Nevertheless, the Syrian government ′ s desert offensive continued and on 9 June government forces secured a part of Syrian - Iraqi border for the first time since 2015.
On 7 July 2017, the U.S., Russia, and Jordan agreed to a ceasefire in part of southwestern Syria. Russia gave assurances that Assad would abide by the agreement.
On 19 July 2017, it was reported that the Donald Trump administration had decided to halt the CIA program to equip and train anti-government rebel groups, a move sought by Russia.
On 5 September 2017, the government ′ s Central Syria offensive culminated in the breaking of the three - year ISIL siege of Deir ez - Zor, with active participation of Russian aviation and navy. This was followed shortly thereafter by the lifting of the siege of the city ′ s airport.
On 17 October 2017, after over four months of fierce fighting and the U.S. - led coalition ′ s bombardment, the Kurdish - dominated Syrian Democratic Forces announced they had established full control of the city of Raqqa in northern Syria, previously the de facto capital of ISIL. At the end of October, the government of Syria said that it still considered Raqqa to be an occupied city that can '' only be considered liberated when the Syrian Arab Army enter (ed) it. ''
By mid-November 2017, the government forces and allied militia established full control over Deir ez - Zor and captured the town of Abu Kamal in eastern Syria, near the border with Iraq and Iraq ′ s town of al - Qaim, which was concurrently captured from ISIL by the Iraqi government.
On 28 November 2017, it was reported that China will deploy troops to aid Syrian President Bashar al - Assad.
On 6 December 2017, Russian government declared Syria to have been "completely liberated '' from ISIL; on 11 December Russian president Vladimir Putin visited the Russian base in Syria, where he announced that he had ordered the partial withdrawal of the forces deployed to Syria. On 26 December, Russian defence minister Sergey Shoigu said that Russia had set about '' forming a permanent grouping '' at its naval facility at Tartus and Hmeymim airbase. Two days later, Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov said that Russia believed that the U.S. forces must leave Syrian territory completely once remnants of the terrorists were completely eliminated and that would happen very soon.
In January -- February 2018, the Syrian Army and its allies continued to advance against the forces of Tahrir al - Sham (HTS) and other rebels in the Hama Governorate. Meanwhile, on 20 January, the Turkish military began a cross-border operation in the Kurdish - majority Afrin Canton and the Tel Rifaat Area of Shahba Canton in Northern Syria, against the Kurdish - led Democratic Union Party in Syria (PYD), its armed wing People 's Protection Units (YPG), and Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) positions.
On 10 February 2018, the Syrian Air Defense shot down an Israeli F - 16 fighter jet in response to a cross border raid conducted by Israel on Iranian targets near Damascus through Lebanese airspace. The pilots survived the crash, but have been transported for treatment.
On 21 February 2018, the government began an operation to capture rebel - held Ghouta east of Damascus; the operation started with an intensive air campaign.
On 18 March 2018, on the 58th day of the Turkish military operation in Afrin, the Turkish - backed Free Syrian Army (TFSA) and the Turkish Armed Forces captured Afrin from the YPG and the YPJ, with the Kurds putting up little resistance. Shortly after the capture, TFSA militants looted parts of the city and destroyed numerous pro-Kurdish symbols as Turkish Army troops solidified control by raising Turkish flags and banners over the city.
On 7 April 2018, the Syrian government allegedly launched a chemical gas attack on Douma. Both the Syrian government and Russia denied any use of chemical weapons.
On 9 April 2018, two F - 15s attacked a Syrian airbase in Homs. Both Russia and the Syrian government believed Israel was behind this attack.
Sarin, mustard agent and chlorine gas have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the 2013 Ghouta attacks. A UN fact - finding mission was requested to investigate alleged chemical weapons attacks. In four cases the UN inspectors confirmed use of sarin gas. In August 2016, a confidential report by the United Nations and the OPCW explicitly blamed the Syrian military of Bashar al - Assad for dropping chemical weapons (chlorine bombs) on the towns of Talmenes in April 2014 and Sarmin in March 2015 and ISIS for using sulfur mustard on the town of Marea in August 2015.
The United States and the European Union have accused the Syrian government of conducting several chemical attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the destruction of Syria 's chemical weapons began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds in a "military research site ''. After the April 2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, the United States launched its first attack against Syrian government forces.
Many nations including but not limited to Syria, the United States, Russia, China, Israel and India are not parties to the Convention on Cluster Munitions and do not recognize the ban on the use of cluster bombs. The Syrian Army is alleged to have begun using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms Division at Human Rights Watch said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs '', "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward. ''
Russian thermobaric weapons, also known as "fuel - air bombs '', have been used by the government side during the war. One Buratino thermobaric rocket launcher "can obliterate a roughly 200 by 400 metres (660 by 1,310 feet) area with a single salvo ''. Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the Battle of Aleppo and also in Kafr Batna. A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013. In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm - like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria. On 2 December 2015, The National Interest reported that Russia was deploying the TOS - 1 Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas. ''
Several types of anti-tank missiles are in use in Syria. Russia has sent 9M133 Kornet, third - generation anti-tank guided missiles to the Syrian Government whose forces have used them extensively against armour and other ground targets to fight Jihadists and rebels. U.S. - made BGM - 71 TOW missiles are one of the primary weapons of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States and Saudi Arabia. The U.S. has also supplied many Eastern European sourced 9K111 Fagot launchers and warheads to Syrian rebel groups under its Timber Sycamore program.
In June 2017, Iran attacked ISIL targets in the Deir ez - Zor area in eastern Syria with Zolfaghar ballistic missiles fired from western Iran, in the first use of mid-range missiles by Iran in 30 years. According to Jane 's Defence Weekly, the missiles travelled 650 -- 700 kilometres.
A number of sources have emphasized that as of at least late 2015 / early 2016 the Syrian government was dependent on a mix of volunteers and militias rather than the Syrian Armed Forces.
Before the uprising and war broke out, the Syrian Armed Forces were estimated at 325,000 regular troops and 280,000 -- 300,000 reservists. Of the regular troops, 220,000 were ' army troops ' and the rest in the navy, air force and air defense force. Following defections as early as June 2011, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights estimated that by July 2012, tens of thousands of soldiers had defected, and a Turkish official estimated 60,000.
The Syrian NDF was formed out of pro-government militias. They receive their salaries and military equipment from the government, and number around 100,000 troops. The force acts in an infantry role, directly fighting against rebels on the ground and running counter-insurgency operations in coordination with the army, who provides them with logistical and artillery support. The force has a 500 - strong women 's wing called "Lionesses of National Defense '' which operates checkpoints. NDF members, like regular army soldiers, are allowed to loot the battlefields (but only if they participate in raids with the army), and can sell the loot for extra money. Sensing that they depend on the largely secular government, many of the militias of Syrian Christians (like Sootoro in Al - Hasakah) fight on the Syrian government 's side and seek to defend their ancient towns, villages and farmsteads from ISIL (see also Christian Militias in Syria).
The Shabiha are unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Syria 's Alawite minority group. Since the uprising, the Syrian government has been accused of using shabiha to break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods. As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the term shabiha to describe civilians they suspected of supporting Bashar al - Assad and the Syrian government and clashing with pro-opposition demonstrators. The opposition blames the shabiha for the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers, as well as looting and destruction. In December 2012, the shabiha were designated a terrorist organization by the United States.
Bassel al - Assad is reported to have created the shabiha in the 1980s for government use in times of crisis. Shabiha have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad 's government ''; "gunmen loyal to Assad '', and, according to the Qatar - based Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the government ''. Despite the group 's image as an Alawite militia, some shabiha operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis. In 2012, the Assad government created a more organized official militia known as the Jaysh al - Sha'bi, allegedly with help from Iran and Hezbollah. As with the shabiha, the vast majority of Jaysh al - Sha'bi members are Alawite and Shi'ite volunteers.
In February 2013, former secretary general of Hezbollah, Sheikh Subhi al - Tufayli, confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting for the Syrian Army, which in October 2012, General Secretary Hassan Nasrallah had still denied was happening on a large scale, except to admit that Hezbollah fighters helped the Syrian government "retain control of some 23 strategically located villages (in Syria) inhabited by Shiites of Lebanese citizenship ''. Nasrallah said that Hezbollah fighters have died in Syria doing their "jihadist duties ''.
In 2012 and 2013, Hezbollah was active in gaining control of territory in the Al - Qusayr District of Syria, by May 2013 publicly collaborating with the Syrian Army and taking 60 percent of the city by the end of 14 May. In Lebanon, there have been "a recent increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters '' and "Syrian rebels have shelled Hezbollah - controlled areas. '' As of 14 May 2013, Hezbollah fighters were reported to be fighting alongside the Syrian Army, particularly in the Homs Governorate. Hassan Nasrallah has called on Shiites and Hezbollah to protect the shrine of Sayida Zeinab. President Bashar al - Assad denied in May 2013 that there were foreign fighters, Arab or otherwise, fighting for the government in Syria.
On 25 May 2013, Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah was fighting in Syria against Islamic extremists and "pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon ''. In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the takfiris, the people of our region will go into a dark period. '' According to independent analysts, by the beginning of 2014, approximately 500 Hezbollah fighters had died in the Syrian conflict. On 7 February 2016, 50 Hezbollah fighters were killed in a clash by the Jaysh al - Islam near Damascus. These fighters were embedded in the SAA formation called Army Division 39.
Iran continues to officially deny the presence of its combat troops in Syria, maintaining that it provides military advice to Assad 's forces in their fight against terrorist groups. Since the civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war, Iran has provided the Syrian government with financial, technical, and military support, including training and some combat troops. Iran and Syria are close strategic allies. Iran sees the survival of the Syrian government as being crucial to its regional interests. Iran 's supreme leader, Ali Khamenei, was reported to be vocally in favor of the Syrian government.
By December 2013 Iran was thought to have approximately 10,000 operatives in Syria. But according to Jubin Goodarzi, assistant professor and researcher at Webster University, Iran aided the Syrian government with a limited number of deployed units and personnel, "at most in the hundreds... and not in the thousands as opposition sources claimed ''. Lebanese Hezbollah fighters backed by Tehran have taken direct combat roles since 2012. In the summer of 2013, Iran and Hezbollah provided important battlefield support for Syrian forces, allowing them to make advances on the opposition. In 2014, coinciding with the peace talks at Geneva II, Iran has stepped up support for Syrian President Assad. The Syrian Minister of Finance and Economy stated more than 15 billion dollars had come from the Iranian government. Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps Quds Force commander Qasem Suleimani is in charge of Syrian President Assad 's security portfolio and has overseen the arming and training of thousands of pro-government Shi'ite fighters.
328 IRGC troops, including several commanders, have reportedly been killed in the Syrian civil war since it began.
Shia fighters from Afghanistan and Pakistan are "far more numerous '' than Sunni non-Syrian fighters, though they have received "noticeably less attention '' from the media. The number of Afghans fighting in Syria on behalf of the Syrian government has been estimated at "between 10,000 and 12,000 '', the number of Pakistanis is not known (approximately 15 % of Pakistan 's population is Shia). The main forces are the liwa ' fatimiyun (Fatimiyun Brigade) -- which is composed exclusively of Afghans and fights "under the auspices '' of Hezbollah Afghanistan -- and the Pakistani liwa ' zaynabiyun (Zaynabiyun Brigade) formed in November 2015. Many or most of the fighters are refugees, and Iran has been accused of taking advantage of their inability to "obtain work permits or establish legal residency in Iran '', and using threats of deportation for those who hesitate to volunteer. The fighters are also paid a relatively high salary, and some have told journalists, that "the Islamic State is a common enemy of Iran and Afghanistan... this is a holy war, '' and that they wish to protect the Shia pilgrimage site of Sayyida Zaynab, from Sunni jihadis.
On 30 September 2015, Russia 's Federation Council unanimously granted the request by President of Russia Vladimir Putin to permit the use of the Russian Armed Forces in Syria. On the same day, the Russian general Sergey Kuralenko, who represents Russia at the joint information center in Baghdad set up by Russia, Iran, Iraq and Syria to coordinate their operations against Islamic State, arrived at the US Embassy in Baghdad and requested that any U.S. forces in the targeted area leave immediately. An hour later, the Russian aircraft based in the government - held territory began conducting airstrikes against the rebel forces.
In response to the downing of a Syrian government Su - 22 plane by a U.S. fighter jet near the town of Tabqah in Raqqa province on 18 June 2017, Russia announced that U.S. - led coalition warplanes flying west of the Euphrates would be tracked by Russian anti-aircraft forces in the sky and on the ground and treated as targets; furthermore, the Russian military said they suspended the hotline (the "deconfliction '' line) with their U.S. counterparts based in Al Udeid. Nevertheless, a few days later, the U.S. military stated that the deconfliction line remained open and that Russia had given the U.S. a prior notification of its massive cruise missile strike from warships in the Mediterranean that was conducted on 23 June 2017, despite the fact that the U.S. was not among those countries mentioned as being forewarned in Russia ′ s official report on the strike. On 27 June 2017, U.S. defence minister Jim Mattis told the press: '' We deconflict with the Russians; it 's a very active deconfliction line. It 's on several levels, from the chairman of the Joint Chiefs and the secretary of state with their counterparts in Moscow, General Gerasimov and Minister Lavrov. Then we 've got a three - star deconfliction line that is out of the Joints Chiefs of Staff out of the J5 there. Then we have battlefield deconfliction lines. One of them is three - star again, from our field commander in Baghdad, and one of them is from our CAOC, our Combined Air Operations Center, for real - time deconfliction. ''
The armed opposition consists of various groups that were either formed during the course of the conflict or joined from abroad. The Syrian National Coalition formed the Syrian Interim Government. The minister of defense is to be chosen by the Free Syrian Army. Other Islamist factions are independent from the mainstream Syrian opposition.
Formed on 23 August 2011, the National Council is a coalition of anti-government groups, based in Turkey. The National Council seeks the end of Bashar al - Assad 's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil, democratic state. SNC has links with the Free Syrian Army. On 11 November 2012 in Doha, the National Council and other opposition groups united as the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces. The SNC has 22 out of 60 seats of the Syrian National Coalition. The following day, it was recognized as the legitimate government of Syria by numerous Persian Gulf states.
Delegates to the Coalition 's leadership council are to include women and representatives of religious and ethnic minorities, including Alawites. The military council will reportedly include the Free Syrian Army. The main aims of the National Coalition are replacing the Bashar al - Assad government and "its symbols and pillars of support '', "dismantling the security services '', unifying and supporting the Free Syrian Army, refusing dialogue and negotiation with the al - Assad government, and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying (Syria), and displacing (Syrians) ''.
Formed in 2011 and based in Damascus, the National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change is an opposition bloc consisting of 13 left - wing political parties and "independent political and youth activists ''. It has been defined by Reuters as the internal opposition 's main umbrella group. The NCC initially had several Kurdish political parties as members, but all except for the Democratic Union Party left in October 2011 to join the Kurdish National Council. Some have accused the NCC of being a "front organization '' for Bashar al - Assad 's government and some of its members of being ex-government insiders.
Relations with other Syrian political opposition groups are generally poor. The Syrian Revolution General Commission, the Local Coordination Committees of Syria or the Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution oppose the NCC calls to dialogue with the Syrian government. In September 2012, the Syrian National Council (SNC) reaffirmed that despite broadening its membership, it would not join with "currents close to (the) NCC ''. Despite recognizing the Free Syrian Army on 23 September 2012, the FSA has dismissed the NCC as an extension of the government, stating that "this opposition is just the other face of the same coin ''.
The formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) was announced on 29 July 2011 by a group of defecting Syrian Army officers, encouraging others to defect in order to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state and effect government change. By December 2011, estimates of the number of defectors to the FSA ranged from 1,000 to over 25,000. The FSA, initially "headquartered '' in Turkey, moved its headquarters to northern Syria in September 2012, and functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command.
In March 2012, two reporters of The New York Times witnessed an FSA attack and learned that the FSA had a stock of able, trained soldiers and ex-officers, organized to some extent, but without the weapons to put up a realistic fight.
In April 2013, the US announced it would transfer $123 million in nonlethal aid to Syrian rebels through defected general Salim Idriss, leader of the FSA, who later acknowledged "the rebels '' were badly fragmented and lacked military skill. Idriss said he was working on a countrywide command structure, but that a lack of material support was hurting that effort. "Now it is very important for them to be unified. But unifying them in a manner to work like a regular army is still difficult '', Idriss said. He acknowledged common operations with Islamist group Ahrar ash - Sham but denied any cooperation with Islamist group al - Nusra Front.
Abu Yusaf, a commander of the Islamic State (IS), said in August 2014 that many of the FSA members who had been trained by United States ' and Turkish and Arab military officers were actually joining IS, but by September 2014 the Free Syrian Army was joining an alliance and common front with Kurdish militias including the YPG to fight ISIS.
In October 2015, shortly after the start of Russia 's military intervention in Syria, a senior ex-US official was paraphrased as saying "the "moderates '' had collapsed long ago '' in a piece by Robert Fisk, who added that many fighters had defected to other rebel groups, while Russia 's foreign minister Sergey Lavrov called the FSA "an already phantom structure '', but later proclaimed that Russia was ready to aid the FSA with airstrikes against ISIS. On the other hand, in December 2015, according to the American Institute for the Study of War, groups that identify as FSA were still present around Aleppo and Hama and in southern Syria, and the FSA was still "the biggest and most secular of the rebel groups. ''
By March 2017, the FSA backed by Turkey finished clearing the Islamic State from the north of Syria. After this, they turned to attempting to take over Afrin canton from the YPG.
The Islamic Front (Arabic: الجبهة الإسلامية , al - Jabhat al - Islāmiyyah) was a merger of seven rebel groups involved in the Syrian civil war that was announced on 22 November 2013. The group had about 40,000 fighters. An anonymous spokesman for the group had stated that it will not have ties with the Syrian National Coalition, though a member of the political bureau of the group, Ahmad Musa, has stated that he hopes for recognition from the Syrian National Council in cooperation for what he suggested "the Syrian people want. They want a revolution and not politics and foreign agendas. '' The group is widely seen as backed and armed by Saudi Arabia.
In September 2013, US Secretary of State John Kerry stated that extremist Salafi jihadist groups make up 15 -- 25 % of rebel forces. According to Charles Lister, about 12 % of rebels are part of groups linked to al - Qaeda, 18 % belong to Ahrar ash - Sham, and 9 % belong to Suqour al - Sham Brigade. These numbers contrast with a report by Jane 's Information Group, a defense outlet, claiming almost half of all rebels being affiliated to Islamist groups. British think - tank Centre on Religion and Geopolitics, linked to former British PM Tony Blair, says that 60 % of the rebels could be classified as Islamist extremists.
In September 2013, leaders of 13 powerful salafist brigades rejected the Syrian National Coalition and called Sharia law "the sole source of legislation ''. In a statement they declared that "the coalition and the putative government headed by Ahmad Tomeh does not represent or recognize us ''. Among the signatory rebel groups were al - Nusra Front, Ahrar ash - Sham and Al - Tawheed.
The al - Qaeda - linked al - Nusra Front, being the biggest jihadist group in Syria, is often considered to be the most aggressive and violent part of the opposition. Being responsible for over 50 suicide bombings, including several deadly explosions in Damascus in 2011 and 2012, it is recognized as a terrorist organization by the Syrian government and was designated as such by United States in December 2012. It has been supported by the Turkish government for years, according to a US intelligence adviser quoted by Seymour Hersh. In April 2013, the leader of the Islamic State of Iraq released an audio statement announcing that al - Nusra Front is its branch in Syria. The leader of al - Nusra, Abu Mohammad al - Golani, said that the group would not merge with the Islamic State of Iraq but would still maintain allegiance to Ayman al - Zawahiri, the leader of al - Qaeda. The estimated manpower of al - Nusra Front is approximately 6,000 -- 10,000 people, including many foreign fighters.
The relationship between the al - Nusra Front and the indigenous Syrian opposition is tense, even though al - Nusra has fought alongside the FSA in several battles and some FSA fighters defected to the al - Nusra Front. The Mujahideen 's strict religious views and willingness to impose sharia law disturbed many Syrians. Some rebel commanders have accused foreign jihadists of "stealing the revolution '', robbing Syrian factories and displaying religious intolerance. Al - Nusra Front has been accused of mistreating religious and ethnic minorities since their formation. On 10 March 2014, al - Nusra released 13 Christian nuns captured from Ma'loula, Damascus, in exchange for the release of 150 women from the Syrian government 's prisons. The nuns reported that they were treated well by al - Nusra during their captivity, adding that they "were giving us everything we asked for '' and that "no one bothered us ''.
The al - Nusra Front renamed itself to Jabhat Fateh al - Sham (JFS) in June 2016, and later became the leading member of Hay'at Tahrir al - Sham (HTS) in 2017.
Called Dā'ash or the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (abbrv. ISIL or ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria)) made rapid military gains in Northern Syria starting in April 2013 and as of mid-2014 controls large parts of that region, where the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights describes it as "the strongest group ''. It has imposed strict Sharia law over land that it controls. The group was, until 2014, affiliated with al - Qaeda, led by the Iraqi fighter Abu Bakr al - Baghdadi, and has an estimated 7,000 fighters in Syria, including many non-Syrians. It has been praised as less corrupt than other militia groups and criticized for abusing human rights and for not tolerating non-Islamist militia groups, foreign journalists or aid workers, whose members it has expelled, imprisoned, or executed. According to Michael Weiss, ISIL has not been targeted by the Syrian government "with quite the same gusto '' as other rebel factions.
By summer 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria. It established itself as the dominant force of Syrian opposition, defeating Jabhat al - Nusra in Deir Ezzor Governorate and claiming control over most of Syria 's oil and gas production.
The Syrian government did not begin to fight ISIL until June 2014 despite its having a presence in Syria since April 2013, according to Kurdish officials. According to IHS Markit, between April 2016 and April 2017, ISIL offensively fought the Syrian government 43 % of times, Turkish - backed rebel groups 40 % of times, and the Syrian Democratic Forces 17 % of times.
ISIL was able to recruit more than 6,300 fighters in July 2014 alone. In September 2014, reportedly some Syrian rebels signed a "non-aggression '' agreement with ISIL in a suburb of Damascus, citing inability to deal with both ISIL and the Syrian Army 's attacks at once. Some Syrian rebels have, however, decried the news on the "non-aggression '' pact. ISIL have also planted bombs in the ancient city area of Palmyra, a city with population of 50,000. Palmyra is counted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as it is home to some of the most extensive and best - preserved ancient Roman ruins in the world. Having lost nearly half of their territory in Iraq since 2014, many more Islamic State leaders have begun to sell their property and sneak into Syria, further destabilizing the region.
The Syrian Democratic Council was established on 10 December 2015 in al - Malikiyah. It was co-founded by prominent human rights activist Haytham Manna and was intended as the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces. The council includes more than a dozen blocs and coalitions that support federalism in Syria, including the Movement for a Democratic Society, the Kurdish National Alliance in Syria, the Law -- Citizenship -- Rights Movement, and since September 2016 the Syria 's Tomorrow Movement. The last group is led by former National Coalition president and Syrian National Council Ahmad Jarba. In August 2016 the SDC opened a public office in al - Hasakah.
The Syrian Democratic Council was invited to participate in the international Geneva III peace talks on Syria in March 2016. However, it rejected the invitation.
The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) are an alliance of mainly Kurdish but also Arab, Syriac - Assyrian, and Turkmen militias with mainly left - wing and democratic confederalist political leanings. They are opposed to the Assad government, but have directed most of their efforts against Al - Nusra Front and ISIL.
The group formed in December 2015, led primarily by the predominantly Kurdish People 's Protection Units (YPG). Estimates of its size range from 55,000 to 80,000 fighters. While largely Kurdish, it 's estimated that about 40 % of the fighters are non-Kurdish. Kurds -- mostly Sunni Muslims, with a small minority of Yezidis -- represented 10 % of Syria 's population at the start of the uprising in 2011. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic, and social rights. When protests began, Assad 's government finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds, in an effort to try and neutralize potential Kurdish opposition. Despite this concession, most Kurds remain opposed to the government, hoping instead for a more decentralized Syria based on federalism. The Syriac Military Council, like many Christian militias (such as Khabour Guards, Nattoreh, and Sutoro), originally formed to defend Christian villages, but joined the Kurdish forces to retake Hasakah from ISIS in late 2015 The Female Protection Forces of the Land Between the Two Rivers is an all - female force of Assyrian fighters in north east Syria fighting ISIS alongside other Assyrian and Kurdish units. Before the formation of the SDF, the YPG was the primary fighting force in the DFNS, and first entered this Syrian civil war as belligerent in July 2012 by capturing a town, Kobanî, that until then was under control of the Syrian Assad - government (see Syrian Kurdistan campaign).
On 17 March 2016 the Syrian Democratic Council, the political wing of the SDF, declared the creation of an autonomous federation in northern Syria.
A number of countries, including some individual NATO members, have since September 2014 participated in air operations in Syria that came to be overseen by the Combined Joint Task Force, set up by the US Central Command to coordinate military efforts against ISIL pursuant to their collectively undertaken commitments, including those of 3 December 2014. Those who have conducted airstrikes in Syria include the United States, Australia, Bahrain, Canada, France, Jordan, The Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom. Some members are involved in the conflict beyond combating ISIL; Turkey has been accused of fighting against Kurdish forces in Syria and Iraq, including intelligence collaborations with ISIL in some cases. According to one intelligence adviser quoted by controversial journalist Seymour Hersh, the conclusion of a "highly classified assessment '' carried out by the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) and the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 2013 was that Turkey had effectively transformed the secret US arms program in support of moderate rebels, who no longer existed, into an indiscriminate program to provide technical and logistical support for all elements of the opposition, including Jabhat al - Nusra and Islamic State.
Both the Syrian government and the opposition have received support, militarily and diplomatically, from foreign countries leading the conflict to often be described as a proxy war. The major parties supporting the Syrian Government are Russia, Iran and Hezbollah. The main Syrian opposition body -- the Syrian coalition -- receives political, logistic and military support from the United States, Britain and France.
The pro-government countries are involved in the war politically and logistically by providing military equipment, training and battle troops. The Syrian government has also received arms from Russia and SIGINT support directly from GRU, in addition to significant political support from Russia.
Some Syrian rebels get training from the CIA at bases in Qatar, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Under the aegis of operation Timber Sycamore and other clandestine activities, CIA operatives and U.S. special operations troops have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of $1 billion a year since 2012. The Syrian coalition also receives logistic and political support from Sunni states, most notably Turkey, Qatar and Saudi Arabia; all the three major supporting states however have not contributed any troops for direct involvement in the war, though Turkey was involved in border incidents with the Syrian Army. The Financial Times and The Independent reported that Qatar had funded the Syrian rebellion by as much as $3 billion. It reported that Qatar was offering refugee packages of about $50,000 a year to defectors and family. Saudi Arabia has emerged as the main group to finance and arm the rebels. According to Seymour Hersh, US intelligence estimates that the opposition is financed by Saudi Arabia to the tune of $700 million a year (2014). The designation of the FSA by the West as a moderate opposition faction has allowed it, under the CIA - run programmes, to receive sophisticated weaponry and other military support from the U.S., Turkey and some Gulf countries that effectively increases the total fighting capacity of the Islamist rebels.
French television France 24 reported that the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant, with perhaps 3,000 foreign jihadists among its ranks, "receives private donations from the Gulf states. '' It is estimated ISIL has sold oil for between $1 m - 4m per day principally to Turkish buyers, during at least six months in 2013, greatly helping its growth. The Turkish government has been also accused of helping ISIL by turning a blind eye to illegal transfers of weapons, fighters, oil and pillaged antiquities across the southern border. As of 2015, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey are openly backing the Army of Conquest, an umbrella rebel group that reportedly includes an al - Qaeda linked al - Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar ash - Sham, and Faylaq Al - Sham, a coalition of Muslim Brotherhood - linked rebel groups.
On 21 August 2014, two days after US photojournalist James Foley was beheaded, the U.S. military admitted a covert rescue attempt involving dozens of US Special Operations forces had been made to rescue Americans and other foreigners held captive in Syria by ISIL militants. The rescue attempt is the first known US military ground action inside Syria. The resultant gunfight resulted in one US soldier being injured. The rescue was unsuccessful as the captives were not in the location targeted. On 11 September 2014 the US Congress expressed support to give President Obama the $500 million he wanted to arm and train moderate Syrian rebels. The question of whether the president has authority to continue airstrikes beyond the 60 - day window granted by the War Powers Resolution remained unresolved. On 12 September, US Secretary of State John Kerry met Turkish leaders to secure backing for US - led action against ISIL, but Ankara showed reluctance to play a frontline role. Kerry stated that it was "not appropriate '' for Iran to join talks on confronting ISIL.
The plans revealed in September also involve Iraq in targeting ISIL. US warplanes have launched 158 strikes in Iraq over the past five weeks while emphasizing a relatively narrow set of targets. The Pentagon 's press secretary, John Kirby, said the air campaign in Iraq, which began 8 Aug, will enter a more aggressive phase. On the other hand, according to Fanack, initial refusal from the West to support the Syrian liberal opposition has contributed to the emergence of extremist Sunni groups. These include ISIL and the Nusra Front, linked to al - Qaeda. American and Turkish militaries announced a joint plan to remove Islamic State militants from a 100 - kilometre (60 mi) strip along the Turkish border.
Foreign fighters have joined the conflict in opposition to Assad. While most of them are jihadists, some individuals, such as Mahdi al - Harati, have joined to support the Syrian opposition.
The ICSR estimates that 2,000 -- 5,500 foreign fighters have gone to Syria since the beginning of the protests, about 7 -- 11 percent of whom came from Europe. It is also estimated that the number of foreign fighters does not exceed 10 percent of the opposition armed forces. Another estimate puts the number of foreign jihadis at 15,000 by early 2014.
In October 2012, various Iraqi religious groups join the conflict in Syria on both sides. Radical Sunnis from Iraq have traveled to Syria to fight against President Bashar al - Assad and the Syrian government. In December 2015, the Soufan Group estimated a total of 27,000 -- 31,000 foreign fighters from 86 countries had travelled to Syria and Iraq to join extremist groups.
The Syrian Civil War is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that journalists face while in Syria.
During the early period of the civil war, The Arab League, European Union, the United Nations, and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government 's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters ' right to exercise free speech. Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted, they switched to a more balanced approach by criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Both the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspended Syria 's membership. Russia and China vetoed Western - drafted United Nations Security Council resolutions in 2011 and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.
The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency, $6.5 billon worth of requests of December 2013. The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304 were reached with food.
The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) in accordance with General Assembly Resolution 46 / 182. The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for USD $1.41 billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict. Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman). UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide vaccinations and care packages to those in need.
USAID and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385 million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies. Islamic Relief has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.
Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria. Israel has provided treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in Golan Heights. Rebels say that 250 of their fighters received medical treatment there. Syrian refugees make up one quarter of Lebanon 's population, mostly consisting of women and children. In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.
The World Health Organization has reported that 35 % of the country 's hospitals are out of service. Fighting makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a risk to countries to which they have fled. 400,000 civilians are isolated by the fighting in eastern Ghouta, resulting in acutely malnourished children according to the United Nations Special Advisor, Jan Egeland, who urges the parties for medical evacuations. 55,000 civilians are also isolated in Berm where they have last seen humanitarian relief in the early summer. 494 individuals are awaiting medical evacuations.
Financial information on the response to the SHARP and assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations can be found on UNOCHA 's Financial Tracking Service. As of 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were United States, European Commission, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE, and Norway.
On 2 January 2013, the United Nations stated that 60,000 had been killed since the civil war began, with UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay saying "The number of casualties is much higher than we expected, and is truly shocking. '' Four months later, the UN 's updated figure for the death toll had reached 80,000. On 13 June 2013, the UN released an updated figure of people killed since fighting began, the figure being exactly 92,901, for up to the end of April 2013. Navi Pillay, UN high commissioner for human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty figure. '' The real toll was guessed to be over 100,000. Some areas of the country have been affected disproportionately by the war; by some estimates, as many as a third of all deaths have occurred in the city of Homs.
One problem has been determining the number of "armed combatants '' who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors as civilians. At least half of those confirmed killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides, including 52,290 government fighters and 29,080 rebels, with an additional 50,000 unconfirmed combatant deaths. In addition, UNICEF reported that over 500 children had been killed by early February 2012, and another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons; both of these claims have been contested by the Syrian government. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners are known to have died under torture. In mid-October 2012, the opposition activist group SOHR reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 2,300, and in March 2013, opposition sources stated that over 5,000 children had been killed. In January 2014, a report was released detailing the systematic killing of more than 11,000 detainees of the Syrian government.
On 20 August 2014, a new U.N. study concluded that at least 191,369 people have died in the Syrian conflict. The UN thereafter stopped collecting statistics, but a study by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research released in February 2016 estimated the death toll to be 470,000, with 1.9 m wounded (reaching a total of 11.5 % of the entire population either wounded or killed).
Formerly rare infectious diseases have spread in rebel - held areas brought on by poor sanitation and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include measles, typhoid, hepatitis, dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping cough and the disfiguring skin disease leishmaniasis. Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling Poliomyelitis. As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to vaccination, sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic ''.
The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of March 2015, Al - Jazeera estimate 10.9 million Syrians, or almost half the population, have been displaced. 3.8 million have been made refugees. As of 2013, 1 in 3 of Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in Lebanon (normally 4.8 million population). Others have fled to Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq. Turkey has accepted 1,700,000 (2015) Syrian refugees, half of whom are spread around cities and a dozen camps placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs, and Hama were besieged. In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 3 million. According to the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon and undermining Hezbollah 's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine '' threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Additionally, "the West Bank is undergoing emigration pressures which will certainly be copied in Gaza if emigration is allowed ''. Greek Catholic Patriarch Gregorios III Laham claims more than 450,000 Syrian Christians have been displaced by the conflict. As of September 2016, the European Union has reported that there are 13.5 million refugees in need of assistance in the country.
According to various human rights organizations and United Nations, human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebels, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government ''.
According to three international lawyers, Syrian government officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing '' of about 11,000 detainees. Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution. Experts say this evidence is more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that has yet emerged from the 34 - month crisis.
UN reported also that "siege warfare is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts. '' Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access of humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces: Muadamiyah, Daraya, Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama. In Yarmouk Camp 20,000 residents are facing death by starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and Jabhat al - Nusra, which prevents food distribution by UNRWA. In July 2015, the UN quietly removed Yarmouk from its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined to explain why it had done so.
ISIS forces have been accused by the UN of using public executions, amputations, and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al - Sham have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity '', said the report from 27 August 2014.
Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began. An Amnesty International report, published in November 2015, accused the Syrian government of forcibly disappearing more than 65,000 people since the beginning of the Syrian Civil War. According to a report in May 2016 by the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, at least 60,000 people have been killed since March 2011 through torture or from poor humanitarian conditions in Syrian government prisons.
In February 2017, Amnesty International published a report which accused the Syrian government of murdering an estimated 13,000 persons, mostly civilians, at the Saydnaya military prison. They said the killings began in 2011 and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination '' and also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at the highest levels of the Syrian government. '' Three months later, the United States State Department stated a crematorium had been identified near the prison. According to the U.S., it was being used to burn thousands of bodies of those killed by the government 's forces and to cover up evidence of atrocities and war crimes. Amnesty International expressed surprise at the claims about the crematorium, as the photographs used by the US are from 2013 and they did not see them as conclusive, and fugitive government officials have stated that the government buries those its executes in cemeteries on military grounds in Damascus. The Syrian government denied the allegations.
On 19 August, American journalist James Foley was executed by ISIL, who claimed it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by Shabiha militia. ISIL also threatened to execute Steven Sotloff, who was kidnapped at the Syrian - Turkish border in August 2013. There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well. Sotloff was later executed in September 2014. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists. On 22 August 2014, the al - Nusra Front released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.
The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al - Assad have been closely associated with the country 's minority Alawite religious group, an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. Alawites started to be threatened and attacked by dominantly Sunni rebel fighting groups like al - Nusra Front and the FSA since December 2012 (see Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War # Alawites).
A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war. In May 2013, SOHR stated that out of 94,000 killed during the war, at least 41,000 were Alawites.
Many Syrian Christians reported that they had fled after they were targeted by the anti-government rebels. (See: Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War # Christians.)
Al Jazeera reported that "The Druze accuse rebels of committing atrocities against their community in Syria... Syria 's Druze minority has largely remained loyal to President Bashar al - Assad since the war began in 2011. ''
As militias and non-Syrian Shia -- motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad government -- have taken over fighting the opposition from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has alleged that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as well '' -- allegedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders.
According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights human rights abuses have been committed by the militias including "a series of sectarian massacres between March 2011 and January 2014 that left 962 civilians dead ''.
As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating. By July 2012, the human rights group Women Under Siege had documented over 100 cases of rape and sexual assault during the conflict, with many of these crimes believed to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women, and children, with about 80 % of the known victims being women and girls.
Local National Defense Forces commanders often engaged "in war profiteering through protection rackets, looting, and organized crime ''. NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings, and extortions throughout government - held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013 '', as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.
Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings. Rebel forces sometimes rely on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. Black market weapon prices in Syria 's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion, theft, and kidnapping.
In January 2018 Turkish air strikes have seriously damaged an ancient Neo-Hittite temple in Syria 's Kurdish - held Afrin region. It was built by the Arameans in the first millennium BC.
As of March 2015, the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed 24. Five of the six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Syria have been damaged. Destruction of antiquities has been caused by shelling, army entrenchment, and looting at various tells, museums, and monuments. A group called Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support for the protection and preservation of Syrian archaeology and architecture.
UNESCO listed all six Syria 's World Heritage sites as endangered but direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the Old City of Aleppo was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while Palmyra and Krak des Chevaliers suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is considered a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.
In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of a deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites. In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the Temples of Baalshamin and Bel, many tombs including the Tower of Elahbel, and part of the Monumental Arch. The 13th - century Palmyra Castle was extensively damaged by retreating militants during the Palmyra offensive in March 2016. ISIL also destroyed ancient statues in Raqqa, and a number of churches, including the Armenian Genocide Memorial Church in Deir ez - Zor.
The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer 2013 exhibition in London at the P21 Gallery showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria.
In June 2014, members of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern Iraq, and have taken control of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the Iraqi Army abandoned its positions. Fighting between rebels and government forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the North Governorate of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.
Starting on 5 June 2014, ISIL seized swathes of territory in Iraq. As of 2014, the Syrian Arab Air Force used airstrikes targeted against ISIL in Raqqa and al - Hasakah in coordination with the Iraqi government.
During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab League, the United Nations, and other actors. The Syrian government has refused efforts to negotiate with what it describes as armed terrorist groups. On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks that had been agreed on by the International Syria Support Group (ISSG) in Vienna. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks. On 14 March 2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government insisted that discussion of Bashar - al - Assad 's presidency "is a red line '', however Syria 's President Bashar al - Assad said he hoped peace talks in Geneva would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria.
A new round of talks between the Syrian government and some groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 24, 2017 in Astana, Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the ceasefire agreement brokered in late December 2016. The Astana Process talks was billed by a Russian official as a complement to, rather than replacement, of the United Nations - led Geneva Process talks. On 4 May 2017, at the fourth round of the Astana talks, representatives of Russia, Iran, and Turkey signed a memorandum whereby four "de-escalation zones '' in Syria would be established, effective of 6 May 2017.
Interviews
Supranational government bodies
Human rights bodies
Media
# invoke: navbox # invoke: Navbox
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who recorded from a jack to a king | From a Jack to a King - wikipedia
"From a Jack to a King '' is a country music song. Originally a crossover hit for artist Ned Miller, who also wrote "Dark Moon, '' "A Falling Star, '' and many other country songs. It has been covered extensively by country music artists.
The original version was recorded by Ned Miller. First released in 1957 by both Fabor Records (for regional audiences) and Dot Records (for national distribution), Ned 's version was unsuccessful, until he persuaded his label to re-release it five years later. Upon re-release, the song became a crossover hit, charting in the Top 10 on the Billboard U.S. country (# 2), pop (# 6), and adult contemporary (# 3) charts. In addition, Miller 's version reached # 1 on the Irish Singles Chart, while peaking at # 2 on the UK Singles Chart. Furthermore, it was the sixth most - played single of 1963 in the United Kingdom. Ned 's chart success was limited after the song, however, and by the 1970s he stopped recording entirely.
The song was also recorded in 1962 by Jim Reeves on the occasion of his tour to South Africa in August and charted there that year.
In December 1988, country music artist Ricky Van Shelton released his own version of "From a Jack to a King. '' Shelton 's version became his fifth consecutive Number One on the Billboard Hot Country Singles charts.
Bill Anderson covered the song on his 1963 album Still, released by Decca Records.
Elvis Presley recorded it in 1969 but it did not chart on Billboard. Jerry Lee Lewis also released a version of the song. Mud recorded the song in 1982.
South African singer Ray Dylan covered the song on his album Goeie Ou Country - Op Aanvraag.
Oesch 's die Dritten recorded it on their "Unser Regenbogen '' CD, released March 16, 2012. This is their first all - English recording of a song, as they are a Swiss family band from near Thun, Switzerland. Melanie Oesch mastered the singing of this song in English so well, there could be more English recordings from this family in the future.
Dutch country singer Ben Steneker released his single of "From a Jack to a King '' in 1963.
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the best minds of our generation destroyed by madness | Howl - wikipedia
"Howl '', also known as "Howl for Carl Solomon '', is a poem written by Allen Ginsberg in 1954 -- 1955 and published in his 1956 collection Howl and Other Poems. The poem is dedicated to Carl Solomon.
Ginsberg began work on "Howl '' in 1954. In the Paul Blackburn Tape Archive at the University of California, San Diego, Ginsberg can be heard reading early drafts of his poem to his fellow writing associates. "Howl '' is considered to be one of the great works of American literature. It came to be associated with the group of writers known as the Beat Generation.
It is not true that "Howl '' was written as a performance piece and later published by poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti of City Lights Books. This myth was perpetuated by Ferlinghetti as part of the defense 's case during the poem 's obscenity trial. Upon the poem 's release, Ferlinghetti and the bookstore 's manager, Shigeyoshi Murao, were charged with disseminating obscene literature, and both were arrested. On October 3, 1957, Judge Clayton W. Horn ruled that the poem was not obscene.
According to Ginsberg 's bibliographer and archivist Bill Morgan, it was a terrifying peyote vision that was the principal inspiration for Howl. This occurred on the evening of October 17, 1954, in the Nob Hill apartment of Shiela Williams, then Ginsberg 's girlfriend, with whom he was living. Ginsberg had the terrifying experience of seeing the façade of the Sir Francis Drake Hotel in the San Francisco fog as the monstrous face of a child - eating demon. As was his wont, Ginsberg took notes on his vision, and these became the basis for Part II of the poem.
In late 1954 and 1955, in an apartment he had rented at 1010 Montgomery Street in the North Beach neighborhood of San Francisco, Ginsberg worked on the poem, originally referring to it by the working title "Strophes. '' Some drafts were purportedly written at a coffeehouse known today as the Caffe Mediterraneum in Berkeley, California; Ginsberg had moved into a small cottage in Berkeley a few blocks from the campus of the University of California on September 1, 1955. Many factors went into the creation of the poem. A short time before the composition of "Howl '', Ginsberg 's therapist, Dr. Philip Hicks, encouraged him to realize his desire to quit his market - research job and pursue poetry full - time and to accept his own homosexuality. He experimented with a syntactic subversion of meaning called parataxis in the poem "Dream Record: June 8, 1955 '' about the death of Joan Vollmer, a technique that would become central in "Howl ''.
Ginsberg showed this poem to Kenneth Rexroth, who criticized it as too stilted and academic; Rexroth encouraged Ginsberg to free his voice and write from his heart. Ginsberg took this advice and attempted to write a poem with no restrictions. He was under the immense influence of William Carlos Williams and Jack Kerouac and attempted to speak with his own voice spontaneously. Ginsberg began the poem in the stepped triadic form he took from Williams but, in the middle of typing the poem, his style altered such that his own unique form (a long line based on breath organized by a fixed base) began to emerge.
Ginsberg would experiment with this breath - length form in many later poems. The first draft contained what would later become Part I and Part III. It is noted for relating stories and experiences of Ginsberg 's friends and contemporaries, its tumbling, hallucinatory style, and the frank address of sexuality, specifically homosexuality, which subsequently provoked an obscenity trial. Although Ginsberg referred to many of his friends and acquaintances (including Neal Cassady, Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, Peter Orlovsky, Lucien Carr, and Herbert Huncke), the primary emotional drive was his sympathy for Carl Solomon, to whom it was dedicated; he met Solomon in a mental institution and became friends with him.
Ginsberg admitted later this sympathy for Solomon was connected to bottled - up guilt and sympathy for his mother 's schizophrenia (she had been lobotomized), an issue he was not yet ready to address directly. In 2008, Peter Orlovsky told the co-directors of the 2010 film Howl that a short moonlit walk -- during which Orlovsky sang a rendition of the Hank Williams song "Howlin ' At the Moon '' -- may have been the encouragement for the title of Ginsberg 's poem. "I never asked him, and he never offered, '' Orlovsky told them, "but there were things he would pick up on and use in his verse form some way or another. Poets do it all the time. '' The Dedication by Ginsberg states he took the title from Kerouac.
The poem was first performed at the Six Gallery in San Francisco on October 7, 1955. The reading was conceived by Wally Hedrick -- a painter and co-founder of the Six -- who approached Ginsberg in mid-1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the Six Gallery. "At first, Ginsberg refused. But once he 'd written a rough draft of Howl, he changed his ' fucking mind ', as he put it. '' Further evidence that this was not performance art but poetry -- a written piece that Ginsberg would not and has not ever described as anything but a poem not a performance piece.
Ginsberg was ultimately responsible for inviting the readers (Gary Snyder, Philip Lamantia, and Philip Whalen, Michael McClure and Kenneth Rexroth) and writing the invitation. "Howl '' was the second to the last reading (before "A Berry Feast '' by Snyder) and was considered by most in attendance the highlight of the reading. Many considered it the beginning of a new movement, and the reputation of Ginsberg and those associated with the Six Gallery reading spread throughout San Francisco. In response to Ginsberg 's reading, McClure wrote: "Ginsberg read on to the end of the poem, which left us standing in wonder, or cheering and wondering, but knowing at the deepest level that a barrier had been broken, that a human voice and body had been hurled against the harsh wall of America... ''
Soon afterwards, it was published by Lawrence Ferlinghetti, who ran City Lights Bookstore and the City Lights Press. Ginsberg completed Part II and the "Footnote '' after Ferlinghetti had promised to publish the poem. "Howl '' was too short to make an entire book, so Ferlinghetti requested some other poems. Thus the final collection contained several other poems written at that time; with these poems, Ginsberg continued the experimentation with long lines and a fixed base he 'd discovered with the composition of "Howl '' and these poems have likewise become some of Ginsberg 's most famous: "America '', "Sunflower Sutra '', "A Supermarket in California '', etc.
The earliest extant recording of "Howl '' was thought to date from March 18, 1956. (The Blackburn Collection recordings show otherwise). Ginsberg and Snyder, after hitch - hiking from San Francisco, read from their poems in the Anna Mann dormitory at Reed College, Snyder 's alma mater. This recording, discovered in mid-2007 on a reel - to - reel tape in the Reed College archives, contains only Part I of "Howl ''. After beginning to read Part II, Ginsberg said to the audience, "I do n't really feel like reading anymore. I just sorta have n't got any kind of steam. ''
The poem consists of three parts, with an additional footnote.
Called by Ginsberg "a lament for the Lamb in America with instances of remarkable lamb - like youths '', Part I is perhaps the best known, and communicates scenes, characters, and situations drawn from Ginsberg 's personal experience as well as from the community of poets, artists, political radicals, jazz musicians, drug addicts, and psychiatric patients whom he encountered in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Ginsberg refers to these people, who were underrepresented outcasts in what the poet believed to be an oppressively conformist and materialistic era, as "the best minds of my generation ''. He describes their experiences in graphic detail, openly discussing drug use and homosexual activity at multiple points.
Most lines in this section contain the fixed base "who ''. In "Notes Written on Finally Recording Howl, '' Ginsberg writes, "I depended on the word ' who ' to keep the beat, a base to keep measure, return to and take off from again onto another streak of invention ''.
Ginsberg says that Part II, in relation to Part I, "names the monster of mental consciousness that preys on the Lamb ''. Part II is about the state of industrial civilization, characterized in the poem as "Moloch ''. Ginsberg was inspired to write Part II during a period of peyote - induced visionary consciousness in which he saw a hotel façade as a monstrous and horrible visage which he identified with that of Moloch, the Biblical idol in Leviticus to whom the Canaanites sacrificed children.
Ginsberg intends that the characters he portrays in Part I be understood to have been sacrificed to this idol. Moloch is also the name of an industrial, demonic figure in Fritz Lang 's Metropolis, a film that Ginsberg credits with influencing "Howl, Part II '' in his annotations for the poem (see especially Howl: Original Draft Facsimile, Transcript & Variant Versions). Most lines in this section contain the fixed base "Moloch ''. Ginsberg says of Part II, "Here the long line is used as a stanza form broken into exclamatory units punctuated by a base repetition, Moloch. ''
Part III, in relation to Parts I, II, and IV is "a litany of affirmation of the Lamb in its glory, '' according to Ginsberg. It is directly addressed to Carl Solomon, whom Ginsberg met during a brief stay at a psychiatric hospital in 1949; called "Rockland '' in the poem, it was actually Columbia Presbyterian Psychological Institute. This section is notable for its refrain, "I 'm with you in Rockland '', and represents something of a turning point away from the grim tone of the "Moloch '' - section. Of the structure, Ginsberg says Part III is, "pyramidal, with a graduated longer response to the fixed base ''.
The closing section of the poem is the "Footnote '', characterized by its repetitive "Holy! '' mantra, an ecstatic assertion that everything is holy. Ginsberg says, "I remembered the archetypal rhythm of Holy Holy Holy weeping in a bus on Kearny Street, and wrote most of it down in notebook there... I set it as ' Footnote to Howl ' because it was an extra variation of the form of Part II. ''
The frequently quoted and often parodied opening lines set the theme and rhythm for the poem:
I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked, dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn looking for an angry fix, Angel - headed hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly connection to the starry dynamo in the machinery of night,
Ginsberg 's own commentary discusses the work as an experiment with the "long line ''. For example, Part I is structured as a single run - on sentence with a repetitive refrain dividing it up into breaths. Ginsberg said, "Ideally each line of ' Howl ' is a single breath unit. My breath is long -- that 's the measure, one physical - mental inspiration of thought contained in the elastic of a breath. ''
On another occasion, he explained: "the line length... you 'll notice that they 're all built on bop -- you might think of them as a bop refrain -- chorus after chorus after chorus -- the ideal being, say, Lester Young in Kansas City in 1938, blowing 72 choruses of ' The Man I Love ' until everyone in the hall was out of his head... ''
"Howl '' contains many references to illicit drugs and sexual practices, both heterosexual and homosexual. On the basis of one line in particular
who let themselves be fucked in the ass by saintly motorcyclists, and screamed with joy
Customs officials seized 520 copies of the poem on March 25, 1957, being imported from the printer in London.
On June 3 Shig Murao, the bookstore manager, was arrested and jailed for selling Howl and Other Poems to an undercover San Francisco police officer. City Lights Publisher Lawrence Ferlinghetti was subsequently arrested for publishing the book. At the obscenity trial, nine literary experts testified on the poem 's behalf. Supported by the American Civil Liberties Union, Ferlinghetti won the case when California State Superior Court Judge Clayton Horn decided that the poem was of "redeeming social importance ''.
The case was widely publicized. (Articles appeared in both Time and Life magazines.) An account of the trial was published by Ferlinghetti 's lead defense attorney Jake Ehrlich in a book called Howl of the Censor. The 2010 film Howl depicts the events of the trial. James Franco stars as the young Allen Ginsberg and Andrew Rogers portrays Ferlinghetti.
Part one of "Howl '' was broadcast in Finland on September 30, 1969, on Yleisradio 's (Finland 's national public - broadcasting company) "parallel programme '' at 10: 30 p.m. The poem was read by three actors with jazz music specially composed for this radio broadcast by Henrik Otto Donner. The poem was preceded by an eight - minute introduction. The Finnish translation was made by Anselm Hollo. The translation was published already in 1961 in Parnasso literary magazine, and caused no turmoil then.
A Liberal - Party member of the Finnish Parliament, Arne Berner, happened to hear the broadcast, and started an interpellation, addressed to the Minister of Transport and Public Works. It was signed by him and 82 other members of the 200 members of parliament. It is unclear how many of the other signatories actually had heard the broadcast. The interpellation text only contained a short extract of six lines (considered to be offensive, and representative of the poem) of over seventy from the poem, and the debate was mainly based upon them.
Also, a report of an offence was filed to the criminal investigation department of Helsinki police district because the obscenity of the poem allegedly offended modesty and delicacy. The report was filed by Suomen kotien radio - ja televisioliitto (The radio and television association of Finnish homes), a Christian and patriotic organization, and it was only based on the six - line fragment. In connection with that, Yleisradio was -- without grounds -- accused of copyright violation as well. No charges ever followed.
At that time, homosexual acts were still illegal in Finland.
Yleisradio is formally the parliament 's radio station, and at that time, it was considered a bastion of left - minded editors and "radicalists '', especially because of Eino S. Repo, the president of Yleisradio. So the "Howl '' broadcast provided the right - wing politicians a good reason to question the operations of Yleisradio in general, especially in the light of the parliamentary election next year. There was a heated debate in the parliament and in the press in late 1969 concerning the educational role of the public service radio station that Yleisradio is, and the artistic value of Ginsberg 's poem, whether it is art or mere pornography. The debate seemed to boil down to the question of which words could be allowed in public - service radio.
Finally, the Ministry of Transport and Public Works considered in December 1969 that the broadcast of "Howl '' contravened the licence of operation of Yleisradio: it was neither educational nor useful. Yleisradio received a reprimand, and was instructed to be more careful when monitoring that no more such programs should be broadcast.
The New York Times sent Richard Eberhart to San Francisco in 1956 to report on the poetry scene there. The result of Eberhart 's visit was an article published in the September 2, 1956 New York Times Book Review titled "West Coast Rhythms ''. Eberhart 's piece helped call national attention to "Howl '' as "the most remarkable poem of the young group '' of poets who were becoming known as the spokespersons of the Beat generation.
On October 7, 2005, celebrations marking the 50th anniversary of the first reading of the poem were staged in San Francisco, New York City, and in Leeds in the UK. The British event, Howl for Now, was accompanied by a book of essays of the same name, edited by Simon Warner and published by Route Publishing (Howl for Now ISBN 1 - 901927 - 25 - 3) reflecting on the piece 's enduring influence.
Boston independent alternative rock radio station WFNX became the first commercial radio station to broadcast "Howl '' on Friday, July 18, 1997 at 6: 00 PM despite Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Safe Harbor laws which allow for mature content later at night.
In late August 2007, Ron Collins, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Nancy Peters, Bill Morgan, Peter Hale, David Skover, Al Bendich (one of LF 's 1957 lawyers in the Howl case), and Eliot Katz petitioned Pacifica Radio to air Ginsberg 's Howl on October 3, 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the verdict declaring the poem to be protected under the First Amendment against charges of obscenity. Fearing fines from the FCC, Pacifica New York radio station WBAI opted not to broadcast the poem. The station chose instead to play the poem on a special webcast program, replete with commentary (by Bob Holman, Regina Weinreich and Ron Collins, narrated by Janet Coleman), on October 3, 2007.
Part II of the poem was used as libretto for Song # 7 in Hydrogen Jukebox, a chamber opera using a selection of Ginsberg 's poems set to music by Philip Glass.
An excerpt from the poem was used in "Mad Generation Loss '', a sound recording exploring generation loss, partly inspired by Alvin Lucier 's 1969 I am Sitting in a Room.
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who sings can we talk for a minute | Can We Talk - wikipedia
"Can We Talk '' is a song recorded by American R&B singer Tevin Campbell and composed and produced by Babyface. It was the first single to be released from his double platinum second release I 'm Ready. The song hit top ten on the pop charts peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and spent a total of three weeks at number one on the US R&B chart. It sold 500,000 copies and earned a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America. The song was also Nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rhythm & Blues Vocal Performance - Male. It was also nominated and later won the Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B / Soul Single - Male ("Can We Talk ''). Cover versions of the hit song have been done by The Whispers, Sanchez, and Kirk Whalum (on his 2005 album Kirk Whalum Performs the Babyface Songbook). The song was later covered by British boyband Code Red in 1996, for their debut album Scarlet and was released as the album 's lead single becoming a modest hit and reaching # 1 in Asia. The song has also been covered by a Japanese / Korean singer during June 2008. The song became the opening theme to the 2012 sitcom 1600 Penn. The song was sampled in hip hop duo Luniz 's song "Playa Hata '' from their debut album Operation Stackola. The song was sung by 19 - year - old Victor Sulfa during the semi-finals on season 3 of New Zealand Idol as well as Nikko Smith during the Top 10 round on season 4 of American Idol. The song has been featured on at least two different compilation albums including Disc 14 of Classic Soul Ballads entitled "Tender Love '' and Volume 6 of MTV 's Party to Go compilation albums series entitled MTV Party to Go 6.
US Single
US Promo CD
Europe CD
Credits adapted from liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what's the boiling point of water in a vacuum | Boiling point - wikipedia
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. A liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For example, water boils at 100 ° C (212 ° F) at sea level, but at 93.4 ° C (200.1 ° F) at 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) altitude. For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures.
The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar.
The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.) of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure).
Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid 's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid.
A saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely a saturated vapor contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing).
Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition.
If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied.
The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa (or 1 atm), or the IUPAC standard pressure of 100.000 kPa. At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point can not be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling point can not be reduced below the triple point.
If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature are known, the boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius -- Clapeyron equation, thus:
where:
Saturation pressure is the pressure for a corresponding saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased, so is saturation temperature.
If the temperature in a system remains constant (an isothermal system), vapor at saturation pressure and temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the system pressure is increased. Similarly, a liquid at saturation pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as system pressure is decreased.
There are two conventions regarding the standard boiling point of water: The normal boiling point is 99.97 ° C (211.9 ° F) at a pressure of 1 atm (i.e., 101.325 kPa). The IUPAC recommended standard boiling point of water at a standard pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar) is 99.61 ° C (211.3 ° F). For comparison, on top of Mount Everest, at 8,848 m (29,029 ft) elevation, the pressure is about 34 kPa (255 Torr) and the boiling point of water is 71 ° C (160 ° F). The Celsius temperature scale was defined until 1954 by two points: 0 ° C being defined by the water freezing point and 100 ° C being defined by the water boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure.
The higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point (i.e., the boiling point at atmospheric pressure) of the liquid.
The vapor pressure chart to the right has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. As can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points.
For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point (− 24.2 ° C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure.
The critical point of a liquid is the highest temperature (and pressure) it will actually boil at.
See also Vapour pressure of water.
The element with the lowest boiling point is helium. Both the boiling points of rhenium and tungsten exceed 5000 K at standard pressure; because it is difficult to measure extreme temperatures precisely without bias, both have been cited in the literature as having the higher boiling point.
As can be seen from the above plot of the logarithm of the vapor pressure vs. the temperature for any given pure chemical compound, its normal boiling point can serve as an indication of that compound 's overall volatility. A given pure compound has only one normal boiling point, if any, and a compound 's normal boiling point and melting point can serve as characteristic physical properties for that compound, listed in reference books. The higher a compound 's normal boiling point, the less volatile that compound is overall, and conversely, the lower a compound 's normal boiling point, the more volatile that compound is overall. Some compounds decompose at higher temperatures before reaching their normal boiling point, or sometimes even their melting point. For a stable compound, the boiling point ranges from its triple point to its critical point, depending on the external pressure. Beyond its triple point, a compound 's normal boiling point, if any, is higher than its melting point. Beyond the critical point, a compound 's liquid and vapor phases merge into one phase, which may be called a superheated gas. At any given temperature, if a compound 's normal boiling point is lower, then that compound will generally exist as a gas at atmospheric external pressure. If the compound 's normal boiling point is higher, then that compound can exist as a liquid or solid at that given temperature at atmospheric external pressure, and will so exist in equilibrium with its vapor (if volatile) if its vapors are contained. If a compound 's vapors are not contained, then some volatile compounds can eventually evaporate away in spite of their higher boiling points.
In general, compounds with ionic bonds have high normal boiling points, if they do not decompose before reaching such high temperatures. Many metals have high boiling points, but not all. Very generally -- with other factors being equal -- in compounds with covalently bonded molecules, as the size of the molecule (or molecular mass) increases, the normal boiling point increases. When the molecular size becomes that of a macromolecule, polymer, or otherwise very large, the compound often decomposes at high temperature before the boiling point is reached. Another factor that affects the normal boiling point of a compound is the polarity of its molecules. As the polarity of a compound 's molecules increases, its normal boiling point increases, other factors being equal. Closely related is the ability of a molecule to form hydrogen bonds (in the liquid state), which makes it harder for molecules to leave the liquid state and thus increases the normal boiling point of the compound. Simple carboxylic acids dimerize by forming hydrogen bonds between molecules. A minor factor affecting boiling points is the shape of a molecule. Making the shape of a molecule more compact tends to lower the normal boiling point slightly compared to an equivalent molecule with more surface area.
Most volatile compounds (anywhere near ambient temperatures) go through an intermediate liquid phase while warming up from a solid phase to eventually transform to a vapor phase. By comparison to boiling, a sublimation is a physical transformation in which a solid turns directly into vapor, which happens in a few select cases such as with carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure. For such compounds, a sublimation point is a temperature at which a solid turning directly into vapor has a vapor pressure equal to the external pressure.
In the preceding section, boiling points of pure compounds were covered. Vapor pressures and boiling points of substances can be affected by the presence of dissolved impurities (solutes) or other miscible compounds, the degree of effect depending on the concentration of the impurities or other compounds. The presence of non-volatile impurities such as salts or compounds of a volatility far lower than the main component compound decreases its mole fraction and the solution 's volatility, and thus raises the normal boiling point in proportion to the concentration of the solutes. This effect is called boiling point elevation. As a common example, salt water boils at a higher temperature than pure water.
In other mixtures of miscible compounds (components), there may be two or more components of varying volatility, each having its own pure component boiling point at any given pressure. The presence of other volatile components in a mixture affects the vapor pressures and thus boiling points and dew points of all the components in the mixture. The dew point is a temperature at which a vapor condenses into a liquid. Furthermore, at any given temperature, the composition of the vapor is different from the composition of the liquid in most such cases. In order to illustrate these effects between the volatile components in a mixture, a boiling point diagram is commonly used. Distillation is a process of boiling and (usually) condensation which takes advantage of these differences in composition between liquid and vapor phases.
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laws of thermodynamics you can't win you can't break even | Ginsberg 's theorem - wikipedia
Ginsberg 's theorem is a parody of the laws of thermodynamics in terms of a person playing a game. The quote was first attributed to the poet Allen Ginsberg in a 1975 issue of the Coevolution Quarterly
It is possible that the quote originates as a slight misstatement of the opening lines of "You Ca n't Win, '' by Charlie Smalls, as the copyright date for Small 's song is 1974, earlier than the first attribution to Ginsberg. While the song was cut from 1975 Broadway debut of the Wiz, it was performed at the original, 1974, Baltimore run of the musical.
The "theorem '' is given as a restatement of the consequences of the zeroth, first, second, and third laws of thermodynamics, with regard to the usable energy of a closed system:
0. There is a game (consequence of zeroth law of thermodynamics) 1. You ca n't win. (consequence of first law of thermodynamics) 2. You ca n't break even. (consequence of second law of thermodynamics) 3. You ca n't even get out of the game. (consequence of third law of thermodynamics)
It is sometimes stated as a general adage without specific reference to the laws of thermodynamics.
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who conquered all of greece around 330 bc | Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
Alexander III of Macedon (20 / 21 July 356 BC -- 10 / 11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, Aléxandros ho Mégas Koine Greek: (a. lék. san. dros ho mé. gas)), was a king (basileus) of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, and he created one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the age of thirty, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history 's most successful military commanders.
During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until age 16. After Philip 's assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father 's Panhellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.
He endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea '' and invaded India in 326 BC, winning an important victory over the Pauravas at the Battle of the Hydaspes. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander 's surviving generals and heirs.
Alexander 's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco - Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander 's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics. He is often ranked among the most influential people in history.
Alexander was born on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is disputed, in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.
Several legends surround Alexander 's birth and childhood. According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide '' before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife 's womb with a seal engraved with a lion 's image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander 's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander 's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.
On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander 's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania. Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.
When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse 's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you '', and bought the horse for him. Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox - head ''. Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.
When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle 's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the ' Companions '. Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle 's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.
At age 16, Alexander 's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. During Philip 's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named Alexandropolis.
Upon Philip 's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father 's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.
Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days ' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes ' favour, but Athens won the contest. Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city 's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.
As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip 's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip 's generals. Having damaged the enemy 's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war. At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance '' (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco - Persian Wars), which included most Greek city - states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander '') of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of his general Attalus. The marriage made Alexander 's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half - Macedonian. During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.
At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain, '' said he, "what, am I then a bastard? '' Then Philip, taking Attalus 's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there, '' said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another. ''
Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. He continued to Illyria, where he sought refuge with the Illyrian king and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.
In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander 's half - brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of Alexander 's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter 's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. Philip exiled four of Alexander 's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.
In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias 's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias. As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander 's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.
Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra 's uncle.
Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra 's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.
News of Philip 's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander 's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander 's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes. '' At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader '') and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians ''; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.
News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.
While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south. While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.
Alexander 's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek city - states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander 's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father 's preference for diplomacy.
After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large - scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.
From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid '' the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia ''. According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.
In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius ' significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure. He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.
Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant. In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege. The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt ''. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus - Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity. During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria - by - Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), while Alexander captured Babylon.
From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.
On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes. Years later upon revisiting the city he had burnt, Alexander regretted the burning of Persepolis. Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:
Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius ' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius ' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.
Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest '') in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.
Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander 's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.
During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.
A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander 's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.
Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after. It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II 's "Old Guard '', in charge of Macedon. Alexander 's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis. Antipater referred the Spartans ' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.
In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander 's campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. However, Alexander 's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon 's manpower, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171 -- 168 BC).
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold ''. Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund (Fox 1973), supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.
On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC.
In the winter of 327 / 326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.
The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble. '' A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill - fort after four bloody days.
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander was impressed by Porus ' bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus ' territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south - east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas). Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time. The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern - day Mong, Punjab.
East of Porus ' kingdom, near the Ganges River, were the Nanda Empire of Magadha and further east the Gangaridai Empire (of the modern - day Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent). Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander 's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander 's conquests.
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty - two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men - at - arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.
Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland ''. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern - day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.
Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran. Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet for several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon 's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus 's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus ' tomb.
Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. Hephaestion 's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly thereafter.
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander 's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch 's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa. He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony. Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander 's wine - pourer. There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.
The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long - acting poisons were probably not available. However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander 's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance. Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern - day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.
Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis. Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus. Natural - cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander 's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion 's death may also have contributed to his declining health.
Alexander 's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever ''. Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.
While Alexander 's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy 's final successors, replaced Alexander 's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander 's funeral cortege.
Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander 's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander 's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.
The so - called "Alexander Sarcophagus '', discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander 's remains, but because its bas - reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331. However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus ' death.
Alexander 's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander 's death. According to Diodorus, Alexander 's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi '' -- "to the strongest ''.
Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.
Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane 's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander 's half - brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.
Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors '' (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.
Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death. Craterus started to carry out Alexander 's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant. Nevertheless, Perdiccas read Alexander 's will to his troops.
Alexander 's will called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:
Alexander earned the epithet "the Great '' due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, in the manner of a Macedonian king.
In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persian 's scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.
At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius ' center, causing the latter to flee once again.
When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents ' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus ' elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants ' handlers.
Greek biographer Plutarch (c. 45 -- 120 AD) describes Alexander 's appearance as:
1 The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. 2 For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. 3 Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder - bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.
Greek historian Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus ' Xenophon ' c. 86 -- 160) described Alexander as:
(T) he strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one blue as the sky.
The semi-legendary Alexander Romance also suggests that Alexander suffered from heterochromia iridum: that one eye was dark and the other light.
British historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander 's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents:
Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean - shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.
Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos had often used the contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros. Lysippos ' sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.
Some of Alexander 's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias ' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him, and Plutarch tells us that his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years ''. However, his father Philip was Alexander 's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. Alexander 's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to out - do his father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world '', he also downplayed his father 's achievements to his companions.
According to Plutarch, among Alexander 's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions. Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side -- perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle 's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. He had great self - restraint in "pleasures of the body '', in contrast with his lack of self - control with alcohol.
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos). He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death -- only Alexander had the ability to do so.
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world, in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition, an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché.
He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa. He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus - Ammon. Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine. Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.
Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria, out of love; and the Persian princesses Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons. He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.
Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion 's death devastated Alexander. This event may have contributed to Alexander 's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.
Alexander 's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. No ancient sources stated that Alexander had homosexual relationships, or that Alexander 's relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander 's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter riddling that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles. '' Noting that the word eromenos (ancient Greek for beloved) does not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in his time was not controversial.
Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. However, he was relatively young when he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander 's matrimonial record is more impressive than his father 's at the same age. Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions. Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, showing great self - control in "pleasures of the body ''. Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius ' mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander 's death.
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Alexander 's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.
Alexander 's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander 's empire covered some 5,200,000 km (2,000,000 sq mi), and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200 -- 300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.
The eastern borders of Alexander 's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos ''), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities ' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander 's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander 's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.
Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander 's conquest. That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad). Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite ' Orientalization ' of the successor states.
The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander 's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic - based "koine '', or "common '' Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.
Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late - rising Greco - Bactrian Kingdom (250 -- 125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo - Greek Kingdom (180 BC -- 10 CE) in modern Afghanistan and India. There on the newly formed Silk Road Greek culture apparently hybridized with Indian, and especially Buddhist culture. The resulting syncretism known as Greco - Buddhism heavily influenced the development of Buddhism and created a culture of Greco - Buddhist art. These Greco - Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka, and the Mediterranean (Greco - Buddhist monasticism). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modeled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco - Buddhist style. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as ' Milinda '. The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco - Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern - day Afghanistan, while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long - standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far - ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC. The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo - Corinthian capitals.
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander 's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus '' and even Alexander 's anastole - type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander 's 260 - year - old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander 's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander 's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander 's profile. The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.
On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).
Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander 's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander 's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time. ''
In the first centuries after Alexander 's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, containing many dubious stories, and was translated into numerous languages.
Alexander the Great 's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.
Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros '') is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play. One well - known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship 's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive? '' The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world! '' causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.
In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed '', and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. Firdausi 's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings '') includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality. The figure of Dhul - Qarnayn (literally "the Two - Horned One '') mentioned in the Quran is believed by some scholars to represent Alexander, due to parallels with the Alexander Romance. In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog. He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.
The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God ''. In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest. His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt 's salvation, "proving '' Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.
According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.
In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar '', derived from Persian, denotes a rising young talent. In medieval Europe he was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes who encapsulated all the ideal qualities of chivalry.
Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem.
Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander 's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander 's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander 's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to - late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.
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does north korea have an airforce and navy | Korean People 's Navy - wikipedia
The Korean People 's Navy (KPN), officially known as the Korean People 's Army Naval Force (Chosŏn'gŭl: 조선 인민군 해군; Hanja: 朝鮮 人民 軍 海軍, Chosŏn - inmingun Haegun, literally "Korean People 's Military Navy ''), is the naval service branch of the Korean People 's Army, which contains each branch of the North Korean armed forces.
There are some 780 vessels including 70 midget submarines (including the Yono - class submarine and Sang - O - class submarine), 20 Romeo - class submarines, and about 140 air cushioned landing craft.
The North Korean navy is considered a brown water navy and operates mainly within the 50 kilometer exclusion zone. The fleet consists of east and west coast squadrons, which can not support each other in the event of war with South Korea. The limited range of most of the antiquated and derelict vessels means that, even in peacetime, it is virtually impossible for a ship on one coast to visit the other coast.
The KPN was established on June 5, 1946.
According to the 1997 edition of North Korea Country Handbook, published by the Defense Intelligence Agency:
"The 146,000 - man (North Korean navy (NKN)) is primarily a coastal navy. The NKN is organized into two fleets: the East Coast Fleet, with eight operational commands, and the West Coast Fleet, with five operational commands. The East Coast Fleet is headquartered at Toejo Dong, with major bases at Najin and Wonsan.
The West Coast Fleet is headquartered at Nampo, with major bases at Pipagot and Sagon Ni. Numerous smaller naval bases are located along both coasts. The fleets do not exchange vessels because geographical limitations make mutual support almost impossible. The NKN does not have a Marine Corps or naval aviation capabilities. Amphibious operations are conducted by SOF units in addition to naval personnel. ''
According to South Korea 's National Intelligence Service (in 1999):
"The DPRK Navy is divided into East Sea (10 squadrons) and West Sea fleets (6 squadrons) with a total manpower of 148,000.
North Korea 's fleet consist of approximately 630 combat vessels (Patrol craft, guided missile boats, torpedo boats, fire support craft, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, and three cruisers), 100 submarines, and 340 support craft (landing craft, hovercraft). As with the ground forces, 60 % of the vessels are stationed near the demarcation line.
North Korea has constructed and is operating up to 130 hovercraft, each one capable of transporting a special forces platoon and operating freely in difficult terrain such as tidal flats, and able to be used for multiple landings by special forces troops at the onset of any war. ''
The Times puts the total in 2009 at "420 warships and 60 submarines. ''
The annual report of North Korea 's military capabilities by the U.S. Department of Defense, released in early 2014, identified the North Korean Navy 's strength at 60,000 personnel, 70 submarines, 420 gun boats, 260 amphibious landing craft, 30 mine warfare vessels, and 30 support ships.
The 1997 edition of North Korea Country Handbook, published by the Defense Intelligence Agency, assesses the North Korean navy (NKN) as follows:
Most NKN vessels are small patrol - size craft unable to operate over 50 nautical miles (NM) from the coast but capable of policing the DPRK 's territorial waters. The navy 's numerous amphibious craft and midget submarines are intended to clandestinely insert SOF units into the ROK. The DPRK also maintains coastal defense artillery and missile sites. Coastal defense artillery includes 122 mm, 130 mm, and 152 mm systems. Land - based coastal defense missiles include the SSC - 2B SAMLET, CSSC - 2 SILKWORM, and CSSC - 3 SEERSUCKER.
The NKN 's most capable weapons systems are their approximately 43 guided - missile patrol boats equipped with the SS - N - 2A STYX antiship missile (or its Chinese version, the CSS - N - 1 SCRUBBRUSH). Though their small size limits operations to coastal waters and calm seas, they have a capability to quickly respond to Combined Forces Command (CFC) shipping approaching the coast. The NKN has 12 OSA - 1 guidedmissile patrol boats, 10 DPRK versions of the OSA - 1 called the SOJU, and 19 other fast - attack missile craft; the OSA and SOJU are all equipped with four CSS - N - 1 missile launchers. The missiles have a maximum range of 25 NM and carry radar or infrared homing seekers.
The largest part of the NKN consists of small combatants, including torpedo boats, patrol boats, patrol craft, fast attack craft, and small amphibious landing craft. Of the approximately 200 torpedo boats, nearly half are DPRK - built. Most are equipped with 25 mm to 37 mm guns. The DPRK built at least 62 CHAHO fire - support patrol units. This unique vessel has a multiple rocket launcher in the center of its deck to provide fire support to ground troops or attack surface ships.
The DPRK 's attack submarine inventory is estimated to include 4 former Soviet Whiskey class submarine, 22 Chinese ROMEO Class submarines, and DPRK - built ROMEO Class submarines. The WHISKEYs, acquired in the 1960s, can carry 12 torpedoes or 24 mines. Shortly after delivering four ROMEOs in the early 1970s, China helped the DPRK start its own ROMEO construction program. The ROMEOs are well equipped, have an improved sonar, and can carry 14 torpedoes or 28 mines.
To date, the DPRK has indigenously produced over 200 personnel landing craft. This includes approximately 100 NAMPO personnel landing craft based on a former Soviet P - 6 torpedo boat hull. The NAMPO has a maximum speed of 40 knots (74 km / h) and a radius of 335 nmi (620 km) at 28 knots (52 km / h). The NAMPOs provide a limited amphibious capability, each carrying up to 30 troops with a basic combat load. Amphibious assaults against CFC probably would be small, clandestine landings involving two to six NAMPO craft; CHAHO or other naval craft could provide fire support. Other amphibious craft include 8 HANTAE medium landing ships, which can carry 3 to 4 light tanks, and approximately 125 KONG BANG amphibious hovercraft.
The DPRK has a credible mine warfare capability. There are numerous small surface ships that are capable of delivering mines within both the navy and civilian sectors. Mines will be used to defend against amphibious assaults, defend strategic ports, and provide seaward flank protection for land forces. Defensive mine fields will be monitored by coastal observation teams and radar, and they will be supported by well emplaced artillery and missile batteries. This will make close approach and mine clearing operations extremely hazardous. DPRK has a large inventory of older technology mines, significant historical experience with their effectiveness, and, most importantly, the willingness to use them.
For years, the Korean People 's Navy stagnated with a number of ships becoming old and weapons turning obsolete, this peaked with an accident during drills, when the Chosun Ilbo reported that in mid-October 2013, one of the DPRK 's Hainan Class submarine chasers and one of its smaller patrol boats sank during maneuvers in the Sea of Japan with an unknown loss of life.
After 2013 surfaced on western analysis, a number of upgrades and new classes in service with the Navy appeared: most of this modernization 's program is left to speculation and analysis of satellite images, due the absence of details released by North Korea.
South Korea reported that North Korea has built a new high - speed, wave piercing craft to deploy troops as part of efforts to enhance infiltration capabilities by sea. Called a Very Slender Vessel (VSV), it is cylindrical with a small cross section to pierce through waves at high speed. It is 10 -- 15 m (33 -- 49 ft) long and can carry a small number of special forces at over 100 km / h (62 mph; 54 kn), compared to air - cushion vehicles than can travel at 96 km / h (60 mph; 52 kn). VSVs are considered one of the most threatening craft in the Korean People 's Navy for their commando infiltration capabilities onto border islands.
North Korea has built two helicopter frigates to enhance its anti-submarine warfare capabilities. Construction began in 2006 - 07 and launched in 2011 - 12, but it is unknown if they have been commissioned and are in service. The frigates are estimated to be 76 m (249 ft) long and 11 m (36 ft) wide, with a 29 m × 11 m (95 ft × 36 ft) flight deck and a displacement of 1,300 tonnes (1,300 long tons; 1,400 short tons). Armament is believed to include 4 RBU 1200 ASW rocket launchers, a 30 mm CIWS, and possibly the C - 802 missile. Its main weapon is either a Mil Mi - 4 or Mil Mi - 14 helicopter.
In June 2014, propaganda pictures from the North Korean state TV briefly showed one of the newly built patrol SES vessels, firing a Kh - 35 anti-ship cruise missile. Despite some initial doubts over the nature of the missile, they appear to be built in North Korea and have been exported to Myanmar (earlier speculations believed they were imported from Myanmar). The missile gives the KPN the potential to considerably improve its anti-surface missiles. In addition to the missiles, the SES vessels show a reversed - engined gun of 76 mm (3 in). Kh - 35 missiles were also installed during 2014 on one of the two old Najin - class frigates (replacing the previous obsolete KN - 01 missiles): the ship also received upgrades in gunnery.
In autumn 2014, satellite images identified a newly built submarine of a new class: with a length of 67metres, it 's the largest - ever submarine built so far by North Korea, it 's believed to be related to older Yugoslavian projects, but if mass - built could potentially replace the aging fleet of Romeo submarines.
In spring 2015, the new submarine was observed at sea during trials, paired with a test of the KN - 11 missile.
The KPN has 20 bases split between the two coasts (Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea) with major and minor bases:
The western fleet has approximately 300 watercraft (administrative, operational and logistic support), berthing facility for Yellow Sea Fleet; home to shipyard and sub base
The eastern fleet has approximately 470 ships and small craft.
Some ships are domestically built at Wonsan and Nampho shipyards. Southern bases on each coasts are used to organize infiltrations into South Korea and Japan.
The Korean People 's Army Navy has five categories of ranks; flag officers, senior officers, junior officers, non-commissioned officers, and seamen.
The seaman and Petty Officer rates are seaman recruit, seaman apprentice, seaman, able seaman, petty officer third class, petty officer second class, petty officer first class and chief petty officer.
Junior officer ranks are ensign, lieutenant junior grade, lieutenant senior grade and captain lieutenant.
Senior officer ranks are lieutenant commander, commander, captain and commodore.
Flag officer ranks are rear admiral, vice admiral, admiral, and fleet admiral.
Rank insignia are worn on shoulder and collar boards and / or sleeves.
Occasionally KPA Navy officers are promoted above Fleet Admiral. In that case, they wear army - style uniform, since ranks from Vice-Marshal and above are not divided into army, navy and air force.
The naval officers wear black jackets and pants with blue shirt and dark tie underneath. Their peaked caps are from the Soviet era. In summer jackets are white in the full dress uniform.
Junior ratings and seamen wear white shirts (in the summer) or navy blue shirts (in the winter) with black / white jackets and slacks (skirts for women) and wear sailor caps.
All ranks wear shoulder and collar insignia while all officers, flag officers included, wear sleeve insignia as well in their service blue uniforms.
At first, an ordinance issued by the Supreme People 's Assembly on June 3, 1972 designated August 28 as the Navy Day, claiming that the first leader Kim il - Sung organized the Torpedo Unit on that date of 1949. In 1993 the North Korean authorities changed it to June 5, as its "Maritime Security Corps '' were organized on June 5, 1946.
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diya aur baati hum me sandhya ka real name | Diya Aur Baati Hum - Wikipedia
Diya Aur Baati Hum (Translation: You are the lamp and I am the wick) is an Indian television soap opera that was broadcast on Star Plus. The series premiered on 29 August 2011. It starred Anas Rashid and Deepika Singh. The last episode aired on 10 September 2016. A sequel series, Tu Sooraj, Main Saanjh Piyaji began airing on 3 April 2017 and ended on 1 June 2018. It is one of the Longest running Indian soap opera with total 1,487 episodes.
The story narrates the journey of a young woman who has to find a way to her dreams and who unexpectedly finds a constant companion in the person she least expected it from: her traditional husband and his family.
Sandhya Kothari (Deepika Singh) is an ambitious, educated young woman, who pursues her dream of becoming an IPS officer. Sooraj Rathi (Anas Rashid) is a partially - educated, simple young master - confectioner, who 's also the perfect son of the middle - class Rathi Family.
Sandhya 's dreams and aspirations are destroyed when she loses her parents Arvind Kothari (Rakesh Kukreti) and Kanchan Kothari (Surbhi Tiwari) in a terrorist attack and her elder brother Ankur Kothari (Varun Khandelwal), planning to move abroad, fixes her marriage to Sooraj, a person, raised in a completely different environment and with different manners.
But Sooraj 's strict and conservative mother, Santosh Rathi aka Bhabho (Neelu Vaghela) wants Sooraj 's spouse and her daughter - in - law to be simple, not well - educated, with the excellent skills of a housewife. As it is not accepted for a woman to live alone in Indian society, Ankur has to lie about Sandhya 's education level to ensure her settlement.
Sandhya has to give her college education and dreams of personal growth and independence up and accustom herself to a whole new family of strangers, while accepting her roles as a wife and a daughter - in - law of a traditional provincial Rajasthani joint family.
After Sandhya 's truth of being educated and not knowing how to cook is revealed, Bhabho banishes her. However, Sooraj stands up for his wife and vows to teach her everything she has to know to establish herself as the daughter - in - law that Bhabho expects her to be.
Sandhya also starts caring for Sooraj and helps him in various situations, including an international confection competition in Singapore. Later, he helps her complete her studies and eventually convinces his mother to accept Sandhya for who she is and turns her into one of Sandhya 's greatest supporters.
Sandhya faces great challenges in the IPS Academy, including a terrorist occupation, but with the help of the rest of the students, manages to stop the criminals, establishing herself as an extraordinary police officer. The story then focuses on Sandhya 's career as a police officer, as she fights various criminals, including terrorist leader Rajkumar (Gaurav Sharma), while in the meantime, solving her various family problems as she struggles to balance between her professional duties and domestic responsibilities.
Together with Sooraj, she forms a deep relationship with underlying love, until a misunderstanding tears the couple apart. Sandhya moves to the United Kingdom to live with Ankur and his family, but with Bhabho 's help, the misunderstanding is cleared up between her and Sooraj and they get back together.
Ankur also returns to India with his wife Ankita Kothari (Urmila Nimbalkar / Shubha Uplopwar) and little daughter, Bulbul Kothari, who is greatly eager of having a sibling. Ankita is pregnant for a 2nd time but suffers a miscarriage and is unable to conceive again. Sandhya and Sooraj, who are expecting twins, decide to give 1 baby away to Ankita but are hesitant.
Sandhya delivers twin sons, named Ved and Vansh. The infants are kidnapped in order to be sold out of Rajasthan. In the ensuing rescue actions, Ved is saved but Vansh succumbs to his death, leaving everybody shattered.
Sandhya and Sooraj are living happily with their son Ved Rathi (Devyansh Tapuriah). After some twists and turns, the Rathis find out that Sandhya and Sooraj 's other twin son Vansh Rathi (Ricky Patel) never died, but was raised by Ankur, who plotted the whole kidnapping fiasco, and Ankita. Sandhya cuts all ties with her brother, but lets him keep the child for the sake of her son Vansh 's happiness.
Sandhya is appointed for an extremely jepardious mission, titled Mahabhali, to track a dangerous terrorist and defeat him on his own territory. Therefore, she has to leave her family and enact her own death in a train accident for the sake of the country 's safety.
Everybody in the family believe that Sandhya is dead. Sooraj (who was present at Sandhya 's accident) has lost his mental stability due to the shock of witnessing his wife 's death and refuses to believe she 's gone. Bhabho now hates Sandhya as she holds her responsible for Sooraj 's condition.
Now, Bhabho wants Sooraj to remarry to a girl, named Laalima Agarwal (Shefali Sharma), for whom she believes, is able to help him get better. Meanwhile, Sandhya is shown to be alive, struggling with the difficulties of Mahabhali Mission in an outlying Bengali village, under the name of Segarika Taas.
Later, Sandhya discovers that the terrorists are planning to force the government to capitulate, using nuclear weapons. She eventually manages to sabotage their plan but her true identity is exposed and the terrorists capture and almost torture her to death.
By the accident, Sooraj finds out Sandhya is indeed alive which restores his sanity. After lots of insisting, the police agrees to send Sooraj on the mision and help Sandhya. After many challenges, he rescues her, the leader of the terrorists is killed and the others arrested, and after successfully completing the mission, Sandhya and Sooraj return home safe and sound. However, Bhabho refuses to forgive Sandhya, who also faces a stiff competition in the face of Laalima, who falls in love with Sooraj, but Sooraj and Sandhya 's love wins and Bhabho forgives her.
Later, Sooraj 's youngest brother Mohit Rathi (Varun Jain) is shot to death after attempting to molest Laalima. The police suspect Laalima 's brother Lokesh Agarwal (Akshay Batchu) but Bhabho confesses to the crime. With the help of women 's rights activists, Sandhya bails her out which strengthens their mother - in - law and daughter - in - law bond.
The story later focuses on the latest addition to the Rathi Family: a Pakistani girl named Arzoo Khan (Prachi Tehlan). Bhabho hates Pakistan because of a tragic accident on the border which took her younger brother 's life when they were children.
Not knowing Arzoo is from Pakistan, Bhabho fixes her alliance with her foster son, Aryan Rathi aka Chotu (Randeep Rai / Kunal Khosla). Initially, Sandhya suspects Arzoo of being a terrorist but later not only saves her from the terrible misunderstanding, but also helps her get accepted by Bhabho as her daughter - in - law.
Sooraj meets with an accident and is stuck in a wheelchair. Thus, he is unable to run his confectionary shop anymore and Sandhya decides to take it over, leaving her dreamed and hardly - achieved job in the police aside, much to Sooraj and the family 's displeasure. She gets to know about her 2nd pregnancy and delivers a daughter. Overjoyed Sooraj overcomes his disability and is able to walk and run his shop again. The daughter is named Kanak which means "gold ''. Sandhya gets a proposal from the commissioner and decides to join the police again. There she meets IPS Arpita Khanna (Rishina Kandhari), who considers Sandhya as her rival at 1 - st, but later becomes 1 of her best allies.
After many theme changes in the show (including the return of Rajkumar and Sandhya and Ankur 's reconciliation), as well as challenges and adventures of Sandhya and her family, the story finally comes to the long - expected denouement. Vansh discovers the truth of his birth parents but hates them for giving him away.
4 terrorists take the residents of the Rathis ' neighbourhood hostage, including them. Sandhya and Sooraj bravely rescue the civilians. Upon seeing his parents ' selflesness and courage, Vansh forgives them and the family is reunited, but not for long. Sandhya and Sooraj unsuccessfully try to set a trap for the terrorists and to punish them, they kidnap Ved and Kanak.
The terrorist 's leader makes Sandhya and Sooraj eat bomb pills to save Kanak. Eventually, the terrorists are arrested by Arpita, the police and the army but Sandhya and Sooraj are informed that the pills can not be removed from their bodies and that they have 30 minutes before they explode.
They bid their farewell to their family and jump into the river before exploding. The show ends with Sandhya 's mangalsutra and Sooraj 's chain becoming entangled in the water before the setting Sun, highlighting that even death can not separate them.
Anas Rashid was cast as Sooraj as Lead Protagonist of the show, Deepika Singh opposite Rashid was cast as Sandhya While Kanika Maheshwari was cast as the Main Antagonist of the show. Recently (December 2012), According to the Producers of the Show, There will be a new cast member, Kiran Bhargava will be entering in the show with a Reprise roles, The Story will be focusing on Sandhya 's Dream, Where she decide to fulfill her dream, She joins a Night College The Situation will be worse for her, Sooraj and his Family is unaware about Sandhya 's decision, Kiran is the owner of the Night College.
Diya aur baati hum maintained its no 1 position on the ratings charts from the beginning till it completed 1000 episodes. It became the no 1 show in India at that time with 14.5 TVM, considered to be extremely good at that time. It also became the only fiction show to have a rating of 6.6 on a Saturday. In UK Diya aur baati hum is one of the most watched shows and also got a record viewership of 383,700 viewers. Diya Aur Baati Hum is also known as the most popular teledrama in South Asia.
It is dubbed in Telugu on MAA TV as Eetharam Illalu. In the Tamil it airs under the title, En Kanavan En Thozhan on Star Vijay. However both Telugu and Tamil dubbed versions were discontinued by their respective channels after airing more than 1000 episodes. Internationally it airs in Sri Lanka dubbed into Sinhala as Swapna on Sirasa TV and in Vietnam dubbed in Vietnamese as Vợ tôi là cảnh sát on VTVCab 5 Echannel, although the ending was altered with the family celebrating. It also airs in Afghanistan in Pashto on Lmar TV as د مینې ډيوه. On 2 January 2017 Dyia Aur Baati Hum started airing also in Slovakia as Sandhya - svetlo môjho života. It also began airing on CVM Television in Jamaica on 1 May 2017, as Made For Each Other. It also began airing on TV1 in Lithuania as "Mano gyvenimo šviesa '' In Indonesia, the series is dubbed in Indonesian under the title Sandya, and airs on Indosiar.
It also airs successfully in Romania as'Destine Implinite ', Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Bulgaria as ' Svetlinata Na moya jivot ', Macedonia, Russia as ' Svet tvoey lyubvi ', Kazakhstan, Sri Lanka, Thailand as ' Likhit rak ni pheux thex ', Vietnam, Uganda, Nigeria, Lithuania, Georgia as ' Dinastia ', Cambodia as ' Veasna kon brosa srey ', Indonesia and Pakistan and is watched by more than 148 Million viewers worldwide.
The series was dubbed in other languages throughout India including
However the Bengali and Marathi versions were stopped after several episodes. While the Malayalam version has completed 1524 episodes which was more than the original version on Asianet. It was one of the top rated serial on Malayalam Television.
The creators of the show have launched a Season 2 of Diya Aur Baati Hum named Tu Sooraj, Main Saanjh Piyaji with the main leads of the show Anas Rashid and Deepika Singh not being part of it. In the new series Rhea Sharma plays new female lead of Kanak, the grown up daughter of Sooraj and Sandhya; Avinesh Rekhi plays the male lead and Neelu Vaghela among others reprises their role from first season. It begun airing from 3 April 2017 and ended on 1 June 2018.
Diya Aur Baati Hum has won and been nominated for a lot of awards specially Deepika Singh. They have won various Star Parivaar Awards from 2012 to 2016.
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describe the use of metal compound in medicine | Metals in Medicine - wikipedia
Metals in medicine are used in organic systems for diagnostic and treatment purposes. Inorganic elements are also essential for organic life as cofactors in enzymes called metalloproteins. When metals are scarce or high quantities, equilibrium is set out of balance and must be returned to its natural state via interventional and natural methods.
Metals can be toxic in high quantities. Either ingestion or faulty metabolic pathways can lead to metal poisoning. Sources of toxic metals include cadmium from tobacco, arsenic from agriculture and mercury from volcanoes and forest fires. Nature, in the form of trees and plants, is able to trap many toxins and can bring abnormally high levels back into equilibrium. Toxic metal poisoning is usually treated with some type of chelating agent. Heavy metal poisoning, e.g., Hg, Cd, Pb, are particularly pernicious.
Examples of specific types of toxic metals include:
Humans need a certain amount of certain metals to function normally. Most metals are used as cofactors or prosthetics in enzymes, catalyzing specific reactions and serving essential roles. The essential metals for humans are: Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium, Copper, Vanadium, Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Zinc, Molybdenum, and Cadmium. Anemia symptoms are caused by lack of a certain essential metal. Anemia can be associated with malnourishment or faulty metabolic processes, usually caused by a genetic defect.
Examples of specific types of metal anemia include:
Metal ions are often used for diagnostic medical imaging. Metal complexes can be used either for radioisotope imaging (from their emitted radiation) or as contrast agents, for example, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Such imaging can be enhanced by manipulation of the ligands in a complex to create specificity so that the complex will be taken up by a certain cell or organ type.
Examples of metals used for diagnosis include:
Metals have been used in treatments since ancient times. The Ebers Papyrus from 1500BC is the first written account of the use of metals for treatment and describes the use of Copper to reduce inflammation and the use of iron to treat anemia. Sodium vanadate has been used since the early 20th century to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Recently metals have been used to treat cancer, by specifically attacking cancer cells and interacting directly with DNA. The positive charge on most metals can interact with the negative charge of the phosphate backbone of DNA. Some drugs developed that include metals interact directly with other metals already present in protein active sites, while other drugs can use metals to interact with amino acids with the highest reduction potential.
Examples of Metals used in treatment include:
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who is the girl in the bon jovi it's my life video | It 's My Life (Bon Jovi song) - wikipedia
"It 's My Life '' is Bon Jovi 's first single from the album Crush. It was released on May 23, 2000. It was written by Jon Bon Jovi, Richie Sambora, and Max Martin.
The song charted in the top 10 across several countries (although it only reached number 33 in the US). Though the band had moved away from the glam - oriented sound with 1992 's Keep the Faith, it has the distinction of making Bon Jovi one of the only bands once classified as 1980s glam metal to reach the top 40 in the 2000s, a testament to how the song managed to introduce the band to a new, younger fanbase. The song is arguably their most well known post-1980s hit single and it has been performed live at almost all shows since its release. This song appeared on Mitsubishi Motors promotional video in 2001 - 2004
The song has many classic Bon Jovi features, such as Sambora 's use of the talk box, and a line in the second verse "For Tommy and Gina, who never backed down '' refers to Tommy and Gina, a fictional working class couple that Bon Jovi and Sambora first wrote about in their 1986 hit "Livin ' on a Prayer ''.
"It 's My Life '' is also notable for its line referencing fellow New Jerseyan Frank Sinatra: "My heart is like an open highway / Like Frankie said / I did it ' My Way '. '' Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora apparently had a disagreement over those lines, with Bon Jovi recalling:
I had just come home from making U-571 and I said "Sinatra made 16 movies and toured ' til he was 80. This is my role model ''. He (Sambora) said, "You ca n't write that damn lyric. Nobody cares about Frank Sinatra but you. '' And I wrote it anyway.
"Nobody had anticipated the song ' It 's My Life ', '' noted Jon Bon Jovi in 2007. "Except us. We knew we had a hit. '' The song became an anthem that appealed to many fans. As Bon Jovi later stated:: "I thought I was writing very self - indulgently about my own life and where I was in it. I did n't realize that the phrase ' It 's My Life ' would be taken as being about everyone -- by teenagers, by older guys, mechanics, whatever. ' It 's my life, and I 'm taking control. ' Everyone kind of feels that way from time to time. ''
The music video was directed by Wayne Isham. Will Estes (as Tommy) and Shiri Appleby (as Gina) are the two main characters. At the beginning, Tommy is watching a video of a Bon Jovi concert on his computer when he is ordered by his mother to take out the trash. Suddenly, Gina calls, and Tommy starts running down to his apartment and obediently takes out the trash. He then runs through the streets of Los Angeles up to the concert, getting chased by dogs, running a marathon, posing for pictures, and jackknifing a truck. The video was inspired by the film, Run Lola Run. Jon Bon Jovi met Will Estes on the set of U-571 and chose him to be in the video. The music video features the 2nd Street Tunnel as one of the main settings.
It is the most viewed video for Bon Jovi, with over 530 million views as of January 2018.
Major formats released for "It 's My Life '':
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The following versions and remixes were commercially released.
A much slower, acoustic ballad version of the song is featured on Bon Jovi 's 2003 album This Left Feels Right, a collection of their greatest hits that were adapted into new formats. This version was also released as a single.
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who was president during the movie the post | The Post (film) - wikipedia
The Post is a 2017 American historical political thriller film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg and written by Liz Hannah and Josh Singer. It stars Meryl Streep as Katharine Graham, the first female publisher of a major American newspaper, and Tom Hanks as Ben Bradlee, the executive editor of The Washington Post, with Sarah Paulson, Bob Odenkirk, Tracy Letts, Bradley Whitford, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Carrie Coon, and Matthew Rhys in supporting roles. Set in the early 1970s, The Post depicts the true story of attempts by journalists at The Washington Post to publish the Pentagon Papers, classified documents regarding the 30 - year involvement of the United States government in the Vietnam War.
Principal photography began in New York City in May 2017. The film premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017, and began a limited release in the United States on December 22, 2017. It had a wide release on January 12, 2018, and grossed $174 million worldwide.
The film received largely positive reviews, with critics praising the performances (particularly those of Streep, Hanks, and Odenkirk) and noting the references and allusions to the presidencies of Richard Nixon and Donald Trump. The Post was chosen by the National Board of Review as the best film of 2017 and was named as one of the top 10 films of the year by Time and the American Film Institute. The film was nominated for Best Picture and Best Actress (for Streep) at the 90th Academy Awards, and also received six nominations at the 75th Golden Globe Awards: Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Director, Best Actress -- Drama (for Streep), Best Actor -- Drama (for Hanks), Best Screenplay and Best Original Score.
In 1966 Vietnam, State Department military analyst Daniel Ellsberg (Matthew Rhys) accompanies U.S. troops in combat, documenting the progress of U.S. military activities in the region for Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara (Bruce Greenwood). On the flight home, McNamara expresses to Ellsberg and William Macomber (Cotter Smith) his view that the war in Vietnam is hopeless, yet, upon landing, tells the press he has every confidence in the war effort. Ellsberg overhears this and becomes disillusioned. Years later, as a civilian military contractor working for the RAND Corporation, Ellsberg surreptitiously photocopies classified reports documenting the country 's decades - long involvement in the conflict in Vietnam, dating back to the Truman administration. Ellsberg then leaks these documents to reporters at The New York Times; the movie follows two weeks in 1971 at The Washington Post and the publishing of the Pentagon Papers.
Newspaper heiress Katharine Graham (Meryl Streep) tries to balance her social life with her responsibility as owner and publisher of The Washington Post, following the deaths of her husband, Phil Graham, and her father, Eugene Meyer. She is troubled over preparations for the newspaper 's stock - market launch, a move she recognizes as important for strengthening the paper 's economic stability. Graham lacks experience and is frequently overruled by more assertive men who advise or work for her, such as editor - in - chief Ben Bradlee (Tom Hanks), and board member Arthur Parsons (Bradley Whitford). Bradlee tries in vain to match The New York Times 's ability to get scoops. Meanwhile, McNamara, Graham 's longtime friend, confides in her that he is to be the subject of unflattering coverage by the Times. The story turns out to be an exposé of the government 's long - running deception of the American public. However, the series is halted by a court injunction against further publication by the Times.
Post assistant editor Ben Bagdikian (Bob Odenkirk) tracks down Ellsberg as the source for the leak, who provides Bagdikian with copies of the same material given to the Times. A hand - picked team of Post reporters sorts through the piles of papers, searching for the headline stories. The lawyers for the Post advise against publishing the material, lest the Nixon administration bring criminal charges against them. Graham talks to McNamara, Bradlee, and trusted Post chairman Fritz Beebe (Tracy Letts), agonizing over the decision of whether to publish. The situation is made even more complicated when the Post 's lawyers discover that Bagdikian 's source is the same as the Times 's, possibly putting Graham in contempt of court. If charges are brought against the company, Graham could destroy the newspaper she sees as a family legacy. Alternately, if she were to win any legal challenge, the Post could instead establish itself as an important journalistic institution. She chooses to run the story.
The White House retaliates, and in short order the Post and Times appear together before the Supreme Court to plead their First Amendment argument for the right to publish the material. Meanwhile, newspapers across the country pick up the story in solidarity with the Post and Times. The court rules 6 -- 3 in the newspapers ' favor, vindicating Graham 's decision. Nixon demands that the Post should be barred from the White House. One year later, security guard Frank Wills discovers a break - in in progress at the Watergate complex after a guest at the Watergate hotel called complaining about people using flashlights.
In October 2016, Amy Pascal won a bid for the rights to the screenplay The Post, written by Liz Hannah. In February 2017, Steven Spielberg had halted pre-production on The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara after a casting setback, and consequently opened his schedule to other potential films to direct. The following month, it was announced that Spielberg was in negotiations to direct and produce the film, with Meryl Streep and Tom Hanks in talks for the roles of Katharine Graham and Ben Bradlee, respectively. The Post is the first time that Spielberg, Streep, and Hanks had all worked together on a film.
Spielberg read the screenplay and decided to direct the film as soon as possible, citing that "when I read the first draft of the script, this was n't something that could wait three years or two years -- this was a story I felt we needed to tell today. '' Spielberg worked on The Post while post-production work continued on the visual - effects - heavy Ready Player One, a situation familiar to him from concurrently producing, in the early 1990s, Jurassic Park and Schindler 's List. Josh Singer was hired to re-write the screenplay ten weeks before filming.
As filming commenced, a number of New York Times figures who were associated with the Pentagon Papers case -- among them James Greenfield, James Goodale, Allan Siegal, and Max Frankel -- objected to the film 's production due to the script 's lack of emphasis on the Times ' role in breaking the story. Goodale, who was at the time the Times 's in - house counsel, later called the film "a good movie but bad history. ''
The film began principal photography in New York on May 30, 2017. On June 6, 2017, it was announced that the project, retitled The Papers, would also star Alison Brie, Carrie Coon, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Tracy Letts, Bob Odenkirk, Sarah Paulson, Jesse Plemons, Matthew Rhys, Michael Stuhlbarg, Bradley Whitford, and Zach Woods. On August 25, 2017, the film 's title reverted to The Post. Spielberg finished the final cut of the film on November 6, 2017, with the final sound mix also completed along with the musical score a week later, on November 13.
Writing for The New York Times, Manogla Dargis indicated some high points in the costume design used in the film stating, "The costume designer Ann Roth subtly brightens Katharine, taking her from leaden gray to free - flowing gold. ''.
The score for the film was written by John Williams; it is his 28th collaboration with Spielberg. The music is a combination of traditional orchestral instrumentation and what Williams has called "very light, computerised electronic effects. '' Williams was originally attached to write the music for Spielberg 's Ready Player One, but, because both films had similar post-production schedules, Williams chose to work on The Post, while Alan Silvestri composed for Ready Player One. Spielberg has said that The Post was a rare instance in which he went to the recording sessions "having not heard a note '' in advance.
Recording began on October 30, 2017 in Los Angeles. The soundtrack was released digitally by Sony Classical Records on December 22, 2017 and in physical form on January 12, 2018.
December 22, 2017 (2017 - 12 - 22) (digital)
The Post premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017. It began a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 22, 2017, and a wide release on January 12, 2018. The film is distributed internationally through Amblin Partners ' distribution agreements with Universal Pictures, Reliance Entertainment, and Entertainment One Films. The film was released by Reliance in India. Tom Hanks has expressed disinterest in appearing at a potential White House screening for Donald Trump.
The first official image from The Post was released on October 31, 2017. The trailer for The Post premiered exclusively on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, on November 7, 2017, and the film 's poster, designed by BLT Communications, was released the next day. The first TV spot, titled "Uncover the Truth '', was released on November 21, 2017.
The Post was released on Digital HD on April 3 and on Blu - ray / DVD April 17 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
The Post has grossed $81.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $92.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $174.5 million, against a production budget of $50 million. During The Post 's limited opening weekend, December 22 to 24, it grossed $526,011 (and a total of $762,057 over the four - day Christmas weekend) from nine theaters. The following weekend, the film grossed $561,080 for a per - theater average of $62,342, one of the highest of 2017. The film had its wide release alongside the openings of The Commuter, Paddington 2 and Proud Mary, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 2,819 theaters over the weekend. It made $5.9 million on its first day and $18.6 million over the weekend (and a four - day MLK weekend total of $23.4 million), finishing second at the box office behind holdover Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. 66 % of its opening weekend audience was over the age of 35. It dropped 37 % the following weekend to $12.2 million, finishing 4th behind Jumanji and newcomers 12 Strong and Den of Thieves. It dropped to 5th in its third week of wide release, grossing $8.9 million.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88 % based on 321 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Post 's period setting belies its bitingly timely themes, brought compellingly to life by director Steven Spielberg and an outstanding ensemble cast. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported 63 % of audience members gave the film a "definite recommend ''.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap praised the acting and Spielberg 's direction, though noted the script as being too on - the - nose at times, saying, "The Post passes the trickiest tests of a historical drama: It makes us understand that decisions that have been validated by the lens of history were difficult ones to make in the moment, and it generates suspense over how all the pieces fell into place to make those decisions come to fruition. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film an A -- and wrote: "Nobody needs to be reminded that history tends to go in circles, but The Post is so vital because it captures the ecstasy of trying to break the chain and bend things towards justice; defending the fundamental tenets of the Constitution has n't been this much fun since Hamilton. ''
Chris Nashawaty, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the film a positive review, but also compared it with previous journalism films such as All the President 's Men and stating: "Spielberg makes these crucial days in American history easy to follow. But if you look at The Post next to something like All the President 's Men, you see the difference between having a story passively explained to you and actively helping to untangle it. That 's a small quibble with an urgent and impeccably acted film. But it 's also the difference between a very good movie and a great one. ''
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times awarded the film an NYT Critic 's Pick with a strong acknowledgment of Spielberg as director stating, "Mostly, (the Post decision to publish) went down fast, a pace that Mr. Spielberg conveys with accelerated rhythms, flying feet, racing cameras and an enjoyably loose approach to the material. With his virtuosic, veteran crew, Mr. Spielberg paints the scene vividly and with daubs of beauty; most notably, he creates distinct visual realms for the story 's two main overlapping, at times colliding worlds. Katharine reigns over one; at first she 's all but entombed in her darkly lighted, wood - paneled empire. Ben rules the other, overseeing the talking and typing warriors of the glaring, noisily freewheeling newsroom ''.
Matt Bobkin, writing for Exclaim!, gave the film a 6 out of 10 score, saying the film "has all the makings of an awards season hit, but is too calculated to reflect today 's ragged, tenuous sociopolitical climate. ''
The film downplays the role that journalists from The New York Times had in the leak of the Pentagon Papers and emphasizes The Washington Post 's involvement. In an interview with the Columbia Journalism Review, former New York Times associates James Greenfield, who coordinated the Pentagon Papers project as the Times ' foreign editor; James Goodale, the Times ' general counsel at the time; and Max Frankel, the Times ' Washington bureau chief when the Papers were published, criticized the film 's more minor portrayal of the paper. The New York Times had not only published the Pentagon Papers before The Washington Post, but had also set the stage for the major legal battle between the press and the United States government. The newspaper also won the 1972 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its contributions. The 1972 Pulitzer jury of journalists noted in their recommendation not only the significance of Daniel Ellsberg 's Pentagon Papers leak, but also that of Times reporters Neil Sheehan, Hedrick Smith, Fox Butterfield and E.W. Kenworthy, and stated that their effort was "a combination of investigative reporting, analysis, research, and writing -- all of which added to a distinctly meritorious public service, not only for readers of The Times but also for an entire nation. '' Goodale noted in an article for The Daily Beast that the Times published the Papers after Ellsberg had leaked them to Sheehan, and further stated that the film "creates a false impression that the Post was a major player in such publication. It 's as though Hollywood had made a movie about the Times ' triumphant role in Watergate. '' On PBS NewsHour, Goodale further said, "Although a producer has artistic license, I think it should be limited in a situation such as this, so that the public comes away with an understanding of what the true facts are in this case... And I think that if you 're doing a movie now, when (President Donald) Trump is picking on the press for ' fake news ', you want to be authentic. You do n't want to be in any way fake. ''
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where did the clippers play in san diego | Los Angeles Clippers - wikipedia
The Los Angeles Clippers, abbreviated by the team as the LA Clippers, are an American professional basketball team based in Los Angeles. The Clippers compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division. The Clippers play their home games at Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles, an arena shared with the Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA, the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA), and the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL).
The franchise was founded in 1970 as the Buffalo Braves, one of three expansion teams to join the NBA that year. The Braves moved from Buffalo, New York to San Diego, California in 1978 and became known as the San Diego Clippers. In 1984, the Clippers moved to Los Angeles. Through much of its history, the franchise failed to see significant regular season or playoff success. The Clippers were frequently seen as an example of a perennial loser in American professional sports, drawing unfavorable comparisons to the historically successful Lakers, with whom they have shared a market since 1984 and an arena since 1999.
The Clippers ' fortunes turned in the early 2010s with the acquisition of core players Blake Griffin, DeAndre Jordan, and Chris Paul. In 2013, the franchise won its first division title, as the team made the playoffs for the ninth time in franchise history and the third time in the previous eight seasons. They also added to their budding rivalry with the Lakers, as they finished with a better record than the Lakers for the fifth time and won the season series for the second time since moving to Los Angeles in 1984, this time in a sweep. They repeated as division champions in 2014.
The franchise began in Western New York as the Buffalo Braves, one of three NBA expansion franchises that began play in the 1970 -- 71 season, along with the Portland Trail Blazers and Cleveland Cavaliers. They played their home games at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium, along with another Buffalo team that would begin play that year, the National Hockey League 's Buffalo Sabres.
After two bad seasons, the Braves ' fortunes started to change under coach Jack Ramsay and star forward / center Bob McAdoo. McAdoo led the NBA in scoring three consecutive seasons and was named the league 's MVP in the 1974 -- 75 season. The Braves qualified for the playoffs three times in a row, losing twice to the eventual Eastern Conference champions (the Boston Celtics in 1974 and 1976, and the Washington Bullets in 1975). Despite the team 's modest success in Buffalo, Braves owner Paul Snyder and the league found it impossible to schedule home games at the auditorium because the Canisius Golden Griffins men 's basketball team, which had a pre-existing lease on the arena and priority on game dates over the Braves, saw the Braves as a threat to their own success and purposely scheduled all the best dates at the arena to prevent the Braves from succeeding. As a result, after a failed attempt to sell the team to an owner who intended to move it to South Florida, Snyder sold the team to Kentucky Colonels owner John Y. Brown, Jr., who decimated the team 's roster, traded away all of its stars, and drove attendance down to the point where they could break their own lease on the arena. Eventually in 1978, Brown dealt with Celtics owner Irv Levin so they would trade franchise ownerships. Southern California resident Levin then decided to move the Braves to San Diego, something the league would have never allowed him to do with the Celtics.
In 1978, San Diego welcomed the relocation of the Buffalo Braves franchise because the city had lost their Rockets to Houston seven years earlier. San Diego team officials did not think Braves was a representative nickname for the club and a contest decided on "Clippers '', because the city was known for the great sailing ships that passed through San Diego Bay. When the Clippers moved to Los Angeles in 1984, they kept their nickname.
Playing at the San Diego Sports Arena, the Clippers posted a record of 43 -- 39 in their first season in California under new head coach Gene Shue, leaving them two wins shy of the final playoff spot. It would be the Clippers ' last winning season for 13 years. It was also in that first season in southern California that long - time announcer Ralph Lawler began his association with the club. World B. Free, who was acquired in the offseason from the Philadelphia 76ers, finished second overall in NBA scoring average, with 28.9 per game, while George Gervin of the San Antonio Spurs had a 29.6 average.
The 1979 -- 80 season saw the Clippers begin to struggle despite adding center Bill Walton, a San Diego native who was two years removed from an NBA Championship with the Trail Blazers. Walton missed 68 games due to foot injuries (which he also suffered in his final years in Portland). San Diego finished 35 -- 47 as key players missed games due to injuries. Free again finishing second in league scoring, with 30.2 PPG. Paul Silas replaced Shue the following season, and the Clippers finished 36 -- 46, again missing the postseason. Walton missed the entire season again due to foot injuries. Free was traded to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for guard Phil Smith.
The 1981 -- 82 season brought changes to the franchise as Irv Levin sold the team to Los Angeles - area real estate developer and attorney Donald Sterling for $12.5 million. The Clippers ' poor play in the final years in San Diego resulted in averaging only 4,500 fans a game. Sterling lobbied the NBA to relocate the team to his native Los Angeles.
In 1984, the Clippers moved north to Los Angeles, playing at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. However, the move was not approved by the NBA, which fined Sterling $250 million. He sued the league for $100 million, but dropped the suit when the league agreed to decrease the fine to $6 million. The Clippers finished their first season in Los Angeles 31 -- 51 under head coach Jim Lynam.
The Clippers ' early days in Los Angeles were marred with many seasons of hapless performances. Despite fielding a squad of talented veterans, the organization suffered systematic injuries to many of its star players. The phenomenon was dubbed the "Clipper Triangle '' by some sports writers. Derek Smith suffered a knee injury during the 1985 -- 86 season, followed by Norm Nixon (knee) and Marques Johnson (spinal cord) the following season. The team 's 12 -- 70 finish in the 1987 season was the second - worst single - season record in NBA history at that time (and is now the third - worst winning percentage in NBA history behind the 1973 Philadelphia 76ers and the 2012 Charlotte Bobcats). That same season also saw Hall of Famer Elgin Baylor join the team as the general manager and vice president of basketball operations. Nixon was plagued with another ailment, this time suffering an ailing Achilles tendon in 1987 -- 88, while number one draft pick rookie Danny Manning injured his anterior cruciate ligament during the 1988 -- 89 campaign.
The Clippers traded the rights to the recently drafted Danny Ferry and Reggie Williams for high - scoring shooting guard Ron Harper at the start of the 1989 -- 90 season. Los Angeles had a 19 -- 19 record nearly halfway into the season, prompting some to seriously consider the team as a possible playoff contender. That move, along with the 1987 NBA draft of Ken Norman, the 1988 draftings of Danny Manning and Charles Smith (Smith was acquired from Philadelphia in exchange for the draft rights to Hersey Hawkins), and the 1990 draft of Loy Vaught, formed a nucleus that would make the franchise a playoff contender.
Midway through the 1991 -- 92 season, the Clippers made yet another coaching change. Larry Brown, recently fired by the San Antonio Spurs, was hired as the team 's head coach in late January 1992. He replaced Mike Schuler, who had led the team to a 22 -- 25 record before his firing. Brown finished the season with a 23 -- 12 mark, for a 45 -- 37 overall -- the franchise 's first winning season in 13 years. For the first time since moving to Los Angeles, they finished with a better record than the crosstown Los Angeles Lakers. The Clippers advanced to the playoffs for the first time in 16 years (since the franchise 's Buffalo heyday), but were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the Utah Jazz, 3 -- 2. Due to the late April 1992 Los Angeles riots, the Anaheim Convention Center was the site of Game 4 of the series, which the Clippers won. The team made the playoffs again in the 1992 -- 93 season with a 41 -- 41 record, but lost again in five games in the first round, this time to the Rockets.
Brown left to become the Indiana Pacers ' head coach after the season and Bob Weiss was brought in to replace him. That 1993 -- 94 season proved to be one of the worst in Los Angeles NBA history, with the Clippers and Lakers going a combined 60 -- 104. In February 1994, the Clippers traded Manning to the Atlanta Hawks for Dominique Wilkins. Wilkins played 25 games for the club, averaging 29.1 points, 7.0 rebounds, and 2.2 assists in 37.9 minutes per game. After one year on the job, Weiss was fired, and veteran head coach Bill Fitch was brought in to guide a roster of young and inexperienced players.
Anaheim, a suburb approximately thirty miles south of Downtown Los Angeles in affluent Orange County, expressed interest in obtaining an NBA franchise. The city, expecting to lose the NFL 's Los Angeles Rams (who relocated to St. Louis in 1995 for 21 seasons, before moving back to Los Angeles in 2016), was looking for a new professional team and began courting the Clippers, who struggled carving out an identity competing against the popular Lakers for audience share. From 1994 to 1999, the Clippers played several games annually (usually five to eight regular season games a season, and an annual preseason game) at the Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim, sharing the venue with the NHL 's Ducks and the Splash indoor soccer team. Clippers games regularly drew a much - higher average attendance per game at the Pond than when the team played its home games at their regular venue, the Los Angeles Sports Arena; the Anaheim games proved so popular that many Clippers players and much of the fan base, as well as the NBA, wanted to the team to stay in what was considered at the time a state - of - the - art arena. For instance, between 1994 and 1997, the Clippers drew an average of nearly 16,000 fans per game at the Pond, while in Los Angeles, they drew in the neighborhood of 9,200 per home game. Anaheim officials and the Clippers had had on - going talks about moving to Anaheim full - time years before the Pond was eventually built, as Donald Sterling was pursuing options to play elsewhere in the Los Angeles metropolitan region if there was not a replacement for the Sports Arena being built.
The Clippers, however, nearly moved to Anaheim permanently in time for the 1996 -- 97 season, but according to a Los Angeles Times article published in June 1996, owner Donald Sterling turned down a deal that would have paid the team $95 million over 12 years. Odgen Corporation, who at the time managed the Pond, and the city of Anaheim offered the Clippers a multi-tiered deal that would have included upwards of $33 million paid to the team over the first six years of their Pond agreement, plus other monies allocated towards new locker rooms, team offices, and a practice facility. In another related Times article, Odgen and Sterling were in talks to have the management company take care of the Clippers ' day - to - day operations for a $4 million a year fee. Also at the time, the Walt Disney Company, owners of the Ducks and Anaheim Angels baseball team during that period, were pursuing at least a partial ownership of the Clippers, with the key element being that its game telecasts would be part of a planned ESPN regional network for Southern California. However, as the planned ESPN West network never came to reality, all three teams had continued to maintain broadcast partnerships with Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket.
On the court, the Clippers continued to make frequent roster changes throughout this particular period, which only resulted with one playoff appearance under Bill Fitch. Along with Loy Vaught, a collection of young players (including Lamond Murray, Eric Piatkowski, and Lorenzen Wright), and journeyman veterans (among them Pooh Richardson, Tony Massenburg, Rodney Rogers, Darrick Martin, and Brian Williams), the Fitch - coached teams during this particular era struggled mightily although they did make the playoffs once during this time. The 1996 -- 97 team made the playoffs with a losing record (36 -- 46) and were swept in the first round by the eventual Western Conference Champion Utah Jazz, three games to none.
Four members of the 1996 -- 97 squad are now deceased. Malik Sealy died in a car accident in 2000, Kevin Duckworth died of heart disease in 2008, Lorenzen Wright went missing and was murdered in 2010, and Dwayne Schintzius died from cancer complications in 2012. Two other players from the Fitch era suffered tragic circumstances of their own; Brian Williams (who played for the Clippers during the 1995 -- 96 season, and later became known as Bison Dele) was believed to have been murdered by his brother while the two were vacationing in 2002 while in the South Pacific, and Rodney Rogers became paralyzed after a dirt bike crash in 2008 in his native North Carolina.
In December, Vaught, the team 's leading scorer for the past three seasons, had season - ending back surgery. Without Vaught, the Clippers finished 17 -- 65, the third - worst record in the league. Fitch was fired after the 1997 -- 98 season (and later sued the team to recover the remaining money on his contract), and was replaced by one of his proteges, former Celtics and Bucks coach Chris Ford. Meanwhile, Vaught 's career as a Clipper was effectively finished, as he left as a free agent after that season, and signed with the Detroit Pistons; at the time of his departure, he was the franchise 's all - time rebounds leader with 4,471 (a number that was later surpassed by Elton Brand, with 4,710).
The Clippers won the first overall pick in the 1998 Draft Lottery and selected center Michael Olowokandi from University of the Pacific. The team had a 0 -- 17 start and finished with a 9 -- 41 record in the shortened 1998 -- 99 season. They were led by second - year forward Maurice Taylor, who averaged 16.8 points per game, and won the fourth overall pick in the following draft, which coincided with their move to the Staples Center. The Clippers would draft Lamar Odom, and then hired former All - Star (and Los Angeles native) Dennis Johnson as an assistant coach, as well as Hall of Fame former Laker great Kareem Abdul - Jabbar to help tutor Olowokandi during his second - year. Johnson remained an assistant coach until the middle of the 2002 -- 03 season, when he took over as head coach. Abdul - Jabbar remained only one season, detailing a lack of improvement in Olowokandi.
During the 1999 offseason, Rodney Rogers signed with the Phoenix Suns. The Clippers also sent Lamond Murray to the Cleveland Cavaliers for Derek Anderson and Johnny Newman. However, Newman was then traded to the New Jersey Nets for Eric Murdock a month later without ever playing a game for the Clippers. The team finished with the worst record in the league (15 -- 67) in the 1999 -- 2000 season, while the Lakers had the best record that year (67 -- 15).
In what was supposed to be a counter-move, the Coliseum Commission, the management entity that managed the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena and Coliseum, had planned to build a new 18,700 - seat arena in the parking lot next to the Sports Arena that would have cost up to $94 million, that would have included 1,100 club seats, 84 luxury suites, and an on - site practice facility for the Clippers. However, those plans were scuttled once planning for Staples Center (two miles directly up the street from the Sports Arena) were taking place, and the Clippers decided to become a tenant at Staples.
In 1999, the Clippers joined the Lakers and Los Angeles Kings in the new Staples Center in Downtown Los Angeles. In sharing the building with other tenants, such as the more popular Lakers, the Clippers, with relatively low success, were often overshadowed. Also, because of the terms of its leasing agreement with Staples Center, the Kings and Lakers had scheduling priority over the Clippers, with the Clippers taking whatever dates that were available, including scheduling same - day Clipper - Laker and Clipper - King doubleheaders (which continues as of 2016). However, in the years after, the Clippers ' scheduling at Staples Center became gradually more favorable (especially given the popularity of the team in recent years) in their lease renewals in 2004 and 2013, with the team receiving increased profits, including more of a share of luxury suite and concession revenue. Since February 2011, the Clippers have sold out every regular season and post-season home game, behind the popularity of stars Blake Griffin, DeAndre Jordan, and Chris Paul.
The 2000 -- 01 season brought changes. Derek Strong was sent to the Orlando Magic in exchange for Corey Maggette and the draft rights to Keyon Dooling. The Clippers ' two draft picks that year were childhood friends from Illinois: high schooler Darius Miles (3rd overall pick) and Quentin Richardson, (18th overall pick). The team became popular among fans with its high - flying style of basketball and the Clippers did improve a bit with a 31 -- 51 record, leading the NBA in bench - scoring with 37 points per game.
To improve upon the previous season, the Clippers acquired high - scoring and rebounding power forward Elton Brand from the Chicago Bulls in exchange for the draft rights to Tyson Chandler. Brand earned a spot on the 2002 NBA Western Conference All - Star team as an injury replacement for Shaquille O'Neal of the Lakers. The Clippers contended for most of the season, but won only 3 of the last 12 games and finished 39 -- 43, five games out of the playoffs.
The 2002 off - season brought changes, as Miles was traded to the Cavaliers for Andre Miller, who led the NBA in assists in 2001 -- 02 with 11 per game. With a good point guard in Miller, Lamar Odom at small forward, one of the league 's best power forwards, Brand, the center Olowokandi, and a good supporting cast off the bench, the Clippers could actually make a run for the playoffs. However, with poor team chemistry and injuries (the Clippers lost 293 man - games to injury), they finished with a disappointing 27 -- 55 record. Head coach Alvin Gentry was replaced by Dennis Johnson midway through the 2002 -- 03 season.
In the 2003 -- 04 season, the Clippers lost many of their core players to free agency (Miller, Odom, Olowokandi, and forward Eric Piatkowski -- one of the longest - tenured players in Clippers history), while opting to retain Brand and Maggette with long - term contracts. They, along with Richardson, made up one of the NBA best high - scoring trios, with a combined 58 points per game. With new head coach Mike Dunleavy, Sr., they finished 28 -- 54, due to inexperience and injuries.
The 2004 -- 05 season saw the Clippers, although also missed the playoffs, finished with a better record than the Lakers for the first time since 1993. Bobby Simmons won the 2004 -- 05 NBA Most Improved Player award after averaging 16 points, 6 rebounds, and 3 assists per game. As a result, Simmons signed a 5 - year, $47 million deal with the Milwaukee Bucks. To counter Simmons ' defection, the Clippers announced they would sign Cuttino Mobley to a contract similar in years (5) but less money ($42 million) to what Simmons received. Mobley was the first significant free agent signing from outside the organization since Bill Walton in the late 1970s. The Clippers also completed the building of a practice facility (the first NBA practice facility within the four corners of the City of Los Angeles) in the Playa Vista development.
More deals were made. The Clippers traded Marko Jarić (in a sign and trade transaction) and Lionel Chalmers to the Minnesota Timberwolves in exchange for Sam Cassell and a lottery - protected 1st round pick in the 2006 NBA draft. In relation to the lottery - protected pick, in order for the Clippers to acquire the pick, the Timberwolves would have to make the playoffs, or Minnesota would retain the pick.
The 2005 -- 06 season was a turning point for the team 's image; marked by several wins over top teams. Brand was chosen for the All - Star Game and articles have been written in sports magazines giving recognition to the much improved team. Just before the trade deadline, the Clippers traded Chris Wilcox to the Seattle SuperSonics for Vladimir Radmanović. They had lacked consistent outside shooting, which is what they looked for in the trade.
While the Clippers had a few stretches of poor play they were able to maintain a solid record, including posting several winning streaks. They achieved their first winning record in 14 seasons and clinched their first playoff spot since 1997. They also finished with a better record than the Lakers for the second straight year. By finishing sixth in the Western Conference, with a record of 47 -- 35 (their highest finish since the team left Buffalo), they benefited from the current NBA playoff format of regular season records taking precedence over winning the division, and secured home court advantage over the Denver Nuggets instead of traveling to Denver for four games as a No. 6 seed would usually be expected to do.
On April 22, 2006, the Clippers won their first NBA playoff game in 13 years. Two days later, they won their second playoff game, going 2 -- 0 against an opponent for the first time in franchise history. They lost Game 3, but won Game 4. On May 1, 2006, they won Game 5 in Los Angeles and their first playoff series since they moved from Buffalo.
The team faced the Phoenix Suns in the Western Conference Semi-finals. After losing a close Game 1, they won Game 2, 122 -- 97. The series shifted to Staples Center for Game 3, but the Suns won, 94 -- 91. In Game 4, Elton Brand posted 30 points, nine rebounds, and eight assists as the Clippers evened the series. In Game 5, Suns guard / forward Raja Bell made a key 3 - pointer with 1.1 seconds left in the first overtime to send the game into a second overtime. However, Phoenix won in double - overtime, 125 -- 118.
They bounced back with a series - saving 118 -- 106 Game 6 win. Second - year defensive specialist Quinton Ross had a timely offensive game, scoring a then career - high 18 points. Brand had 30 points (his scoring average in this particular series), 12 rebounds, and five blocks. Corey Maggette came off the bench to score 25 points, with 7 -- 8 shooting from the field, and 9 -- 9 from the free throw line. Kaman and Cassell each scored 15 points. The Clippers lost the seventh game 127 -- 107. General Manager (and Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame member) Elgin Baylor won the NBA Executive of the Year award for leading the Clippers to the playoffs.
The 2006 off - season started as the team drafted Paul Davis in the second round of the 2006 NBA draft, as the 34th overall pick. The pick was acquired by the Clippers by way of a 2004 trade for Melvin Ely. The team also drafted Guillermo Diaz as the 52nd overall pick. While Davis signed with the team, Diaz decided to play overseas. However, the team still holds his draft rights.
Meanwhile, in free agency they signed Tim Thomas away from divisional Phoenix, in a four - year, $24 million deal. That was to counter the defection of Vladimir Radmanović to the Lakers in a similar deal, except Radmanovic signed for an extra year, but both players would make the same amount of money annually, which would be $6 million. Sam Cassell (widely credited as the biggest reason for the Clippers ' recent success) signed a two - year, $13 million deal. Cassell stated that once he retired he would like to join the Clippers ' coaching staff under Mike Dunleavy, Sr. The team also signed veteran Aaron Williams to an undisclosed deal.
In September, the Clippers announced a radio broadcast deal with KSPN - AM, the local ESPN Radio - operated outlet. The team did not perform to expectations, compared to the previous season. A lot of this had been attributed to lack of team chemistry and injuries to several key players, including Cassell, Thomas, Livingston, and Kaman. Players such as Luke Jackson, Alvin Williams, and Doug Christie were signed to 10 - day contracts to help solidify the team 's bench.
Adding to the disappointment of the 2006 -- 07 season, Shaun Livingston suffered a dislocated left knee in which he tore every ligament in his knee. This was one of the most devastating injuries that season that left him a player that would never be the same. The extent of the injury was so severe, local news outlets such as KCBS - TV / KCAL - TV and KNBC - TV elected not to air the clip of the injury. According to the team 's lead physician, Dr. Tony Daly, Livingston 's prognosis for him to return to basketball activity was eight months (which was around the first week of the upcoming season) to a full calendar year. The Clippers, expected by many to make the playoffs after their surprise appearance the season before, finished the season 40 -- 42, 2 games behind the 8th - seed. The Lakers finished with a better record for the first time since the 2003 -- 04 NBA season. The Clippers received the 14th draft pick from the NBA lottery. They selected Al Thornton and Jared Jordan.
The 2007 -- 08 season started off on a negative note, with Brand on the disabled list because of a ruptured left Achilles tendon, and Livingston still out. Brand missed most of the season, and they struggled to stay competitive. Chris Kaman took advantage of a depleted roster by averaging 15.7 points and 12.7 rebounds per game, but was limited to playing 56 games due to various injuries. The Clippers ended the season 23 -- 59.
Several players departed for the 2008 -- 09 season, including Brand and Maggette, and they acquired ten players. Brand 's had stated that he loved playing for Los Angeles and wanted to stay, but negotiations for a new contract fell apart and he accepted a deal from the Philadelphia 76ers. Baron Davis, a Los Angeles native and formerly of the Golden State Warriors, signed a five - year contract with the Clippers, worth an estimated $65 million.
After a disappointing 2007 -- 08 season, the Clippers obtained the 7th pick in the 2008 NBA draft, and selected Eric Gordon. They also selected DeAndre Jordan (35th overall pick). Mike Taylor (55th overall pick), was acquired from the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for a future second - round pick.
Also in July, they acquired Marcus Camby from the Denver Nuggets in return for a $10 million trade exception and the choice to exchange second round picks with the Clippers in 2010. On July 23, the Clippers also acquired guard Jason Hart from the Utah Jazz in exchange for guard Brevin Knight. On July 28, they signed Ricky Davis to a one - year deal, with a player option for a second year. They continued an active offseason, signing former Clipper Brian Skinner in July, and traded for Steve Novak in August for future second - round pick considerations, in a deal similar to the Camby trade.
In August, the team signed Jason Williams to a one - year deal. The Clippers re-signed Paul Davis. They signed three Davises (Baron, Ricky, and Paul) in their "rebuilding offseason '' in which they obtained key players such as Baron Davis, Marcus Camby, Ricky Davis, and Williams. However, just prior to the start of training camp, in September, Williams announced his retirement.
In October, according to reports from various sources including the Los Angeles Times, Orange County Register, and the team 's own web site (Clippers.com), Elgin Baylor ended his 22 - year reign as Vice President and General Manager of basketball operations. It was one of the longest tenures in professional sports history. The Clippers indicated that Baylor had retired from his post, and as a result, head coach Mike Dunleavy, Sr. assumed the role of General Manager, while director of player personnel Neil Olshey was promoted to assistant general manager.
In many of those reports, including a related article in the October 8 edition of the Times, it was also indicated that Baylor had either been fired, resigned, or retired, depending on the source. According to similar reports, Baylor had been offered a different position in the organization, with the same salary, but with little to no decision - making power; Baylor refused. In fact, when pressed about his status with the franchise, Baylor had been advised by his attorneys not to say anything, indicating that the team and Baylor are in negotiations to work out a settlement agreement based on his departure. According to the above - mentioned article, Baylor had been working without a formal contract since the early 1990s.
On November 21, 2008, the Clippers and New York Knicks completed a trade, in which Los Angeles sent Tim Thomas and Cuttino Mobley to New York, in exchange for Zach Randolph and Mardy Collins. With the trade of Mobley, only one member of their 2005 -- 06 playoff team remained on the roster, Chris Kaman. In December, Mobley announced his retirement due to a heart condition known as Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy discovered during his physical; although he never played a game for the Knicks, they completed the trade anyway for salary cap reasons.
On January 6, 2009, the Clippers waived Fred Jones and Paul Davis to open a roster spot for a center from Senegal Cheikh Samb (the Clippers have since re-signed Jones). The Clippers ended the 2008 -- 09 season 14th in the Western Conference with a record of 19 -- 63.
In May 2009, the Clippers won the first overall pick in the 2009 NBA draft and selected Blake Griffin. To clear a spot in the lineup for him, they traded Zach Randolph to Memphis for Quentin Richardson. Richardson was then traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves for Sebastian Telfair, Craig Smith, and Mark Madsen.
Griffin immediately impressed in training camp and preseason. On October 23, he broke his kneecap during the Clippers ' final exhibition game against the New Orleans Hornets, following a dunk. Initially, the Clippers ' stated that he only had a sore left knee, which would make him questionable for the season opener the following night, before they revealed the break. The injury sidelined Griffin for the entire season.
On February 4, 2010, head coach Mike Dunleavy resigned, and Kim Hughes was named interim coach. Dunleavy retained his front - office title and duties for just over a month, but on March 10 he was fired as General Manager, being replaced by Neil Olshey. Dunleavy received the news of his dismissal from the internet, as well as friends and reporters calling his cell phone. The Los Angeles Times reported that Dunleavy had filed for arbitration and that the Clippers had cut off his salary, even though his guaranteed contract did not end until after the 2010 -- 2011 season. Although the Clippers saw minor improvement, finishing with ten more wins at 29 -- 53, Hughes was fired as head coach at the end of the season.
In July, former Chicago Bulls coach Vinny Del Negro was hired as the next head coach. In August, the team introduced new uniform designs at a photo shoot, at the team 's practice facility. Griffin and DeAndre Jordan modeled the new uniforms, which were re-designed for the first time since the 2000 -- 01 season. The Clippers ' primary and secondary logos, which are modifications of the previous ones, were introduced to the public weeks earlier, on the night of the 2010 NBA draft.
With Eric Gordon, Chris Kaman, an improved DeAndre Jordan, a re-energized Baron Davis, and the debut of No. 1 pick Blake Griffin, the Clippers had high hopes for the season. However, they started slowly, losing ten of the first 11 games with Davis and Kaman out with injuries. However, the Clippers showed strength when three of their first four wins came from the top teams in the Western Conference. Griffin got off to a strong start, drawing increased media attention in Clippers games and boosting ratings of local broadcasts of Clippers games. Griffin was chosen as a Western Conference Reserve in the 2011 NBA All - Star Game, a rare honor for a rookie, the first chosen by the coaches for the game since Tim Duncan in 1997. He also won the NBA Sprite Slam Dunk Contest. As the trade deadline approached, the Clippers sent Baron Davis along with their 2011 first round draft pick to the Cleveland Cavaliers for Mo Williams and Jamario Moon. The first pick they gave turned out to be first overall, Kyrie Irving.
In December 2011, the Clippers signed Caron Butler to a $24 million deal and claimed veteran point guard Chauncey Billups three days later. On December 14, 2011, they traded Eric Gordon, Chris Kaman, Al - Farouq Aminu and Minnesota 's 2012 first - round pick acquired in 2005 for New Orleans Hornets ' four - time all - star Chris Paul. Paul had previously almost been traded to the Los Angeles Lakers, but NBA commissioner David Stern had vetoed the trade. Paul and Griffin were selected as starters for the Western Conference team in the 2012 NBA All - Star Game, the first time in franchise history the team had two All - Star starters in the same year.
The team gained the nickname "Lob City '' due to a comment made by Griffin during the Clippers Media Day when the announcement of Chris Paul 's trade reached the team. Griffin, after being told the news by close friend DeAndre Jordan, declared, "Yeah! It 's going to be lob city! ''
In February 2012, the Clippers signed Kenyon Martin. An 11 - year NBA veteran and former NBA All - Star (2004), Martin joined the Clippers after signing with the Xinjiang Guanghui Flying Tigers of the Chinese Basketball Association the previous summer. On February 6, 2012, during a game against the Orlando Magic, Billups tore his Achilles tendon and missed the remainder of the season. In March 2012, Nick Young joined the Clippers as part of a three - team trade with the Washington Wizards and the Denver Nuggets. He became the eighth player to debut in the 2011 -- 2012 season.
After a stretch that saw the Clippers lose 12 of 19 games after Billups 's season - ending injury, with rumors of Vinny Del Negro 's career as head coach of the Clippers possibly coming to an abrupt end, Los Angeles went on a tear. The Clippers won 12 of their next 14 games, including road wins over the defending champion Dallas Mavericks and the Western - Conference - leading Oklahoma City Thunder, clinching their fifth playoff berth since their 1976 conference semi-finals loss to the Boston Celtics (the last time they made the playoffs as the Buffalo Braves) before a dominating home win over the Oklahoma City Thunder on April 16, 2012. It was their third win in four regular season games against the Thunder. Chris Paul 's push for the NBA Most Valuable Player Award was at its peak. The 2011 -- 12 season was the first time the Clippers were in the playoffs since 2005 -- 06 season.
In their first playoff game, the Clippers rallied from a 27 - point deficit against the Grizzlies to win 99 -- 98 in one of the biggest rallies in playoff history. They led the series 3 -- 1, then lost two straight, before coming back to win Game 7 in Memphis 82 -- 72, becoming the 6th NBA road team to win Game 7 after leading series 3 -- 1, and prevail to the second round. The Clippers relied on their bench during that game, and they came through, scoring all but two of their points in the fourth quarter. In the second round of the playoffs, the team was swept by the San Antonio Spurs.
On June 4, 2012, GM Neil Olshey reached an agreement to become General Manager of the Portland Trail Blazers. Olshey was replaced as Clippers GM by Gary Sacks. On draft night of 2012, the team re-acquired forward Lamar Odom from the Dallas Mavericks as part of a four - team deal that also sent Mo Williams and Furkan Aldemir, their 2012 draftee, to the Utah Jazz and Houston Rockets respectively.
On July 11, 2012, the Clippers sent Reggie Evans to the Brooklyn Nets for the right to swap second - round draft picks with the Nets in the 2016 NBA draft. On the same day, the Clippers signed free agent Jamal Crawford, formerly of the Portland Trail Blazers. Two days later, the Clippers re-signed Billups to a one - year deal.
On July 17, 2012, the Clippers agreed to a deal with Grant Hill and then Ryan Hollins two days later. On July 27, 2012, the Clippers signed ex-Heat center Ronny Turiaf. To cap off their off - season moves, they traded away draft rights for Hawks ' shooting guard Willie Green. On September 14, 2012, the Clippers signed Matt Barnes to a one - year deal. On November 29, 2012, public address (PA) announcer David Courtney died in a hospital in Los Angeles for reasons not yet revealed. He was replaced by former Clippers and current Los Angeles Dodgers PA announcer Eric Smith.
On December 15, 2012, with a 111 -- 85 victory over the Milwaukee Bucks, the Clippers recorded their record ninth consecutive win, breaking their previous franchise record (in Los Angeles) of eight wins set in the 1991 -- 92 season. On December 21, 2012, with a 97 -- 85 win over the Sacramento Kings, they notched their twelfth consecutive victory, breaking their previous 11 - game streak as the Buffalo Braves in the 1974 -- 75 season. On December 30, 2012, the Clippers recorded their 17th straight win against the Utah Jazz, beating them 107 -- 96. The win also made the Clippers the third team in NBA history to record an undefeated month ending the month of December 16 -- 0. Their streak ended when they lost to the Denver Nuggets on January 2, 2013. They ended the streak with a franchise record of 17 wins.
On January 9, 2013, with a 99 -- 93 victory over the Dallas Mavericks, the Clippers recorded another franchise record with their 13th straight home victory On January 12, 2013, the Clippers 13 game home win streak came to an end with a 104 -- 101 loss to the Orlando Magic.
A 126 -- 101 victory over the Phoenix Suns saw the Clippers reach the 50 - win mark for the first time in franchise history, breaking their previous mark of 49 from 1975 -- 76 when they were in Buffalo. On April 7, 2013, with a 109 -- 95 victory over the Lakers, they swept the LA season series and clinched the first division title in franchise history. They would finish the season with a 56 -- 26 record. The Clippers entered the 2013 NBA Playoffs as the 4th seed to once again face the 5th seeded Memphis Grizzlies. The Clippers would go up 2 -- 0 early in the series after a buzzer beater by Chris Paul in game 2. After being up 2 -- 0 in the series, the Clippers would lose 4 games in a row to be eliminated the first round.
On May 21, 2013, the team declined to renew Vinny Del Negro 's contract as head coach. On June 24, 2013, the NBA approved a trade of Doc Rivers, from the Boston Celtics to the Los Angeles Clippers for an unprotected 2015 NBA first round draft pick.
A day later, on June 25, 2013, Glenn "Doc '' Rivers, a former Clippers player best known for his nine - year tenure as the head coach of the Boston Celtics, was announced as Del Negro 's replacement. As compensation for Boston allowing Rivers to leave his contract with the Celtics and join the Clippers, Los Angeles traded two future first - round draft picks, in addition to an anti-trade clause preventing the Clippers and Celtics from engaging in further transactions amongst each other, including the exchanging of players, for the duration of the 2013 -- 14 season.
On July 3, 2013, the Clippers traded Eric Bledsoe and Caron Butler to the Phoenix Suns for Jared Dudley and J.J Redick (from the Bucks). The Clippers and Suns also sent two 2nd round draft picks to the Milwaukee Bucks. On July 7, 2013, the team resigned Matt Barnes, Chris Paul and Ryan Hollins. Paul 's deal was for 5 years, worth around $105.3 million. The team also signed Darren Collison to fill the back - up point guard role, replacing the departed Eric Bledsoe and free agent Chauncey Billups, who signed with the Detroit Pistons. On August 28, 2013, the Clippers signed free agent power forward Antawn Jamison to a one - year deal worth the veteran minimum, appeared only 22 games and eventually traded to Atlanta Hawks on February 20, 2014 in exchange for the draft rights to Cenk Akyol. On December 19, 2013, the Clippers signed free agent small forward Stephen Jackson appeared only nine games with the team, and eventually waived on January 7, 2014.
On January 16, 2014, the Clippers signed free agent small forward Hedo Türkoğlu for the remainder of 2013 -- 2014 season. On February 24, 2014, the Clippers signed free agent power forward Glen Davis. On February 28, 2014, the Clippers signed free agent small forward Danny Granger. On March 6, 2014, the Clippers defeated their crosstown rival the Los Angeles Lakers by 48 points 142 -- 94, the most lopsided victory ever for the Clippers ' franchise and the most one - sided loss in Lakers history. On April 15, 2014, the Clippers broke the franchise record of wins with 57. In the playoffs, they defeated the Warriors in seven games before falling to the Thunder in six games in the second round.
On April 25, 2014, entertainment news website TMZ released a taped conversation in which team owner Donald Sterling -- who had a history of accusations of racist behavior against African Americans and Latinos dating back to the 1990s -- reprimanded V. Stiviano (born Maria Vanessa Perez and of African American and Mexican heritage, who had reportedly been dating Sterling while he was estranged from wife Rochelle Stein) after posting an Instagram photo featuring her, former Los Angeles Lakers point guard Magic Johnson and another woman. Sterling stated that it bothered him that she had "broadcast that (she is) associating with black people '', and that he did not want Stiviano to bring them to the team 's games. The remarks in the tape caused public backlash (including condemnations from many current and former NBA players such as Magic Johnson, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Charles Barkley, Shaquille O'Neal, LeBron James, and Kobe Bryant); several sponsors also severed ties with the team, among them Kia Motors (for whom Blake Griffin serves as its television spokesperson), State Farm Insurance and Virgin America. Threats of boycotts against the Clippers were also considered, with the team itself briefly contemplating one of the April 27 playoff game against the Golden State Warriors (the fourth game in the team 's first round playoff series) -- players opted to protest Sterling 's remarks by wearing their shirts inside - out, obscuring team logos.
On April 29, 2014, the NBA issued Sterling a lifetime ban from the organization after a league investigation into the recording confirmed that he was the one conversing with Stiviano. The league also issued a $2.5 million fine against Sterling (the highest allowable by the NBA) and barred him from attending games or practices involving any NBA team; being present in any Clippers office or facility; and from participating in any team business, player personnel decisions or league activity. NBA commissioner Adam Silver stated in a press conference regarding the decision that he will try to force Sterling to sell the Clippers, which would require the consent of 3⁄4 of the league 's 29 other team owners. Silver later announced that the NBA would appoint a CEO to run the team. Before the ban was handed down, Sterling said in a phone conversation with Fox News contributor Jim Gray that he had no plans to sell the team.
On May 9, 2014, the NBA named former Citigroup chairman and former Time Warner chairman and CEO Richard Parsons the interim CEO of the team.
On May 27, 2014, Steve Ballmer, former CEO of Microsoft, agreed to purchase the team for $2 billion -- 4 times the expected purchase - evaluated price. To buy the team, Ballmer reportedly beat out other candidates including Oprah Winfrey, Floyd Mayweather, Magic Johnson, and a group of crowdfunders. Although Ballmer lives in the Seattle area and had been part of an ownership group that had unsuccessfully attempted to move the Sacramento Kings to that city, he has indicated that he has no intention of moving the Clippers.
On August 12, 2014, Ballmer officially took control of the team following an order by a California court that confirmed the sale from Shelly Sterling to Ballmer. As part of the deal Shelly Sterling gets the titles of "Owner Emeritus '' and "Clippers ' Number 1 Fan '', as well as ten tickets in sections 101 or 111 for all Clippers games, two courtside tickets for all games in Los Angeles, six parking spots in Lot C for each game, 12 VIP passes that include access to the Lexus Club, Arena Club, or Chairman 's Lounge and Media room or equivalent, for each Staples games, three championship rings following any Clippers title, and will run a yet to be named charitable foundation. The deal also included a stipulation that Steve Ballmer would keep the Clippers in Los Angeles, implying that they would not be relocated. On November 6, 2014, the team hired its first major female executive as former Auto Club Speedway president Gillian Zucker was hired as the Clippers ' president of business operations. Zucker became one of two women to serve in an executive capacity in any of the four major professional sports leagues; the other being Jeanie Buss, president and part - owner of the crosstown Lakers.
The Clippers first regular season under Ballmer 's ownership ended with a 56 -- 26 record and the # 3 Western Conference seed going into the 2015 NBA Playoffs. They met with the defending the NBA champions San Antonio Spurs. The series went a full 7 games, and with 1 second left, Chris Paul hit the clutch game - winning shot to advance Los Angeles into the Western Conference Semi-Finals. In the next series, they matched up against the # 2 seeded Houston Rockets. The Clippers would build a 3 -- 1 series lead that included 25 and 33 - point wins in games 3 and 4, respectively. However, Houston would rally and win the final 3 games to prevent Los Angeles from making their first ever appearance in the Conference Finals, including a 40 -- 15 run in the 4th quarter in game 6 to force a game 7 after being down by 13 points in the 3rd quarter.
On June 15, 2015, the Clippers acquired Lance Stephenson from the Charlotte Hornets in exchange for Matt Barnes and Spencer Hawes. In the 2015 NBA draft, the Clippers acquired Branden Dawson from the New Orleans Pelicans for $600,000. After a decisive last moratorium day, DeAndre Jordan resigned with the Clippers to a 4 - year, $87.7 million deal with a player option for the fourth year on July 9, 2015, after previously agreeing to a 4 - year, $80 million deal with the Dallas Mavericks. Additionally, the Clippers signed small forward Wesley Johnson from the Los Angeles Lakers on the same day. On July 10, 2015, the Clippers signed veteran forward Paul Pierce to a 3 - year, $10 million deal with a player option. On July 12, the Clippers resigned coach Doc Rivers ' son, Austin Rivers to a two - year, $6.4 million deal. The Clippers finished the 2016 -- 17 season with a 51 -- 31 record, the team 's fifth straight 50 - win season, despite injuries to both Blake Griffin and Chris Paul during the regular season. The Clippers were able to finish the season strong, winning their last 7 games to achieve the 4th seed by defeating the Sacramento Kings in the final game of the season. This game also marked the last regular season game of Paul Pierce 's storied career. The Clippers faced off against the Utah Jazz in the First Round of the playoffs where they lost in seven games.
On June 15, 2017, the Clippers and the city of Inglewood, California entered into an exclusive negotiating agreement in which the team plans to build a new privately funded 18,000 -- 20,000 - seat arena, planning to open by 2024, when the Clippers ' current lease with Staples Center expires. The planned arena is expected to be located at Century Boulevard between Yukon and Prairie Avenues, directly south of the under - construction Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park, the future home of the Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers of the National Football League. The arena is also expected to house a practice facility and team headquarters for the Clippers, as the team 's current practice facility in Los Angeles ' Playa Vista neighborhood is still owned by the Sterling Family Trust, and is leased back to the team. The Inglewood city council unanimously voted for the agreement in which a subsidiary of the Clippers will purchase 22 acres covering four large city blocks in what is largely a lower - class / lower middle - class residential neighborhood (Century to the north, 104th Street to the south, Yukon to the east, and Prairie to the west) to build the new facility.
The planned arena, however, was met with immediate opposition from the nearby Forum and its operator, the Madison Square Garden Company (parent company of the New York Knicks), as they accused both the Clippers and the Inglewood city government of "backroom dealing '' and the fear that a new Clippers ' arena will siphon events from the recently renovated sports arena - turned - concert venue.
On June 18, 2015, the Los Angeles Clippers unveiled its new brand identity. The club 's primary logo features a basketball in the shape of a compass, with the club 's "LAC '' monogram situated in the middle. Below that is the club 's wordmark logo in black, with the two curved lines below the wordmark symbolizing the horizon of the ocean, which the club says it alludes to its nautical roots. The team also unveiled its new home and away uniforms, which kept the design template from the previous uniforms. The home white uniform features the club 's wordmark logo in black across the front. The away red uniform features the club 's "LAC '' monogram across the right breast, with the player 's jersey number across the left breast.
The Clippers introduced an alternate black uniform intended to celebrate downtown Los Angeles on November 6, 2015. The uniform keeps the design template from the previous uniform, and features the club 's primary logo without the wordmark.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 01 -- 30
The Clippers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
McAdoo and Randy Smith (G, 1972 -- 1979, 1983 -- 1984) are also members of the Greater Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame.
Bold denotes still active with team. Italic denotes still active but not with team.
Regular season (as of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season)
Points
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player
NBA Sixth Man of the Year
NBA Sportsmanship Award
NBA Teammate of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
NBA All - Star selections
NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player
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where did the tradition of knocking on wood come from | Knocking on wood - wikipedia
Knocking on wood - in Britain and Australia the phrase is touch wood - is an apotropaic tradition of literally touching, tapping, or knocking on wood, or merely stating that one is doing or intend to do so, in order to avoid "tempting fate '' after making a favourable observation, a boast, or declaration concerning one 's own death or other unfavorable situation beyond one 's control.
The origin of the custom may be in Germanic folklore, wherein supernatural beings are thought to live in trees, and can be invoked for protection.
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who plays meg in phantom of the opera | Meg Giry - wikipedia
Meg Giry is one of the fictional characters from Gaston Leroux 's novel The Phantom of the Opera. In the story she is Madame Giry 's oldest daughter.
In the novel she is described as having "eyes black as sloes, hair black as ink, a swarthy complexion and a poor little skin stretched over poor little bones ''. She is also, in the novel, portrayed as a child of around fifteen years old and adores having her own way and attention. Due to her mother 's role as the keeper of Box Five, Meg occasionally acts as a source of information about the ghost to the other ballet girls. She is described by the author in the prologue as "the most charming star of our admirable corps de ballet. ''
In the Andrew Lloyd Webber adaptation, she is older and her personality is much sweeter, caring and innocent showing genuine concern for Christine 's claim of an Angel of Music (really the Phantom) coaching her. Meg is more curvaceous and has blonde hair and blue eyes.
Madame Giry is compelled to work for the Phantom because he left her a letter that told her that Meg (should she deserve it) would become Empress. Early in the novel, it is explained in the Prologue that Meg Giry, after the story 's events, had indeed become the Baroness de Barbazac.
In contrast to the musical version, in the novel it is never mentioned that she is friends with Christine Daaé and the only reference she makes about Christine is when confronted with the news that Christine was singing in the opening Gala, she tells Count Phillipe de Chagny that it was impossible for her to have a "divine voice '' let alone become a success, that "six months ago she sang like a rusty hinge ''.
In Susan Kay 's novel Phantom she is mentioned briefly through Erik 's point of view as she is telling Christine of the Opera Ghost he listens to her story.
"Never you mind how I know I just do that 's all. We know a lot about the Opera Ghost, Ma and I, but it is n't safe to talk about it here. And you 'd better believe me for your own good - he does n't like people who do n't know how to show a proper respect, and when he 's angry terrible things happen. ''
"What sort of things? '' I heard real alarm enter the other voice now.
"Awful things! '' said Meg cheerfully, "truly awful. The floor in our dressing room starts to run with blood... ''
In the musical Meg Giry is the one who suggests to the theatre managers to put Christine in the leading role of the opera Hannibal once leading lady Carlotta Giudicelli is spooked by the Phantom 's threats. Her mother, Madame Giry agrees and supports the decision. Normally she and Christine would be part of the ballet ensemble led by Madame Giry. At the end of Christine 's performance, Christine confides in Meg in the musical number "Angel of Music '' that she has been coached by a mysterious tutor who is calling her to him. Meg dismisses her claims, but after Christine 's disappearance, comes to believe in the Phantom 's powers, in part due to her mother 's experiences with the Phantom as a young man.
At the end of the musical, Meg finds the Phantom 's mask that he had used to cover his disfigured face resting on his chair in his abandoned underground lair, suggesting a romance between the two, or at least a deep connection.
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what is an example of the columbian exchange | Columbian Exchange - wikipedia
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus 's 1492 voyage. Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. However, the most significant immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people between continents. Furthermore, a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange was the Atlantic slave trade, where as many as 12.5 million enslaved African people were forcibly transferred as a labor source to other regions.
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange. It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange. This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus ' landing in the new world.
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby 's original research.
Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease. Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.
Maize and cassava, introduced to the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century, have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa 's most important food crops. 16th - century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general. Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.
Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th - century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours. '' In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de ' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De ' Medici 's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely. '' At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty '' and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said (tomatoes) are good for sauces. '' Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle - cell disease.
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long - distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World '' diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death. It is estimated that upwards of 80 -- 95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100 -- 150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100 %. The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well - documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518. At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African - descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave - based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators. Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.
The history of syphilis has been well - studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate. There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized. These are referred to as the "Columbian '' and "pre-Columbian '' hypotheses. The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493. The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494 / 1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.
Prior to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, Columbus directly participated in and championed the slave trade. Upon landing in what is now known and assumed to be San Salvador Island, Columbus encountered the Taíno. In his journal of 1492, Columbus noted that
It appears to me, that the people are ingenious and would be good servants and I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion. They very quickly learn such words as are spoken to them. If it please our Lord, I intend at my return to carry home six of them to your Highnesses, that they may learn our language.
The idea of enslaving the Tainos had instantly struck Columbus as plausible, even desirable. "They ought to be good servants, '' he continued, "and of good skill, for I see they repeat very quickly whatever was said to them. '' As part of his journey,
Columbus had planned to inaugurate a regular slave trade between the Indies and Spain. With gold in short supply, the slave trade gradually took on greater urgency. Portugal and Genoa had their slave trade, why not Spain? Columbus set about establishing a slave trade including both Caribs and Tainos.
However, it was not until the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands that the use of West African people as slaves transformed the globe.
Following Columbus were a series of Spaniards seeking to expand the Spanish empire while at the same time increasing their own power and wealth. Such an example was explorer Hernán Cortés. Cortés was interested in expanding the Spanish - controlled lands and often disobeyed his rulers in the process. However, the Spanish royalty was struggling to accurately define the policy related to the enslavement of the Taínos and other Caribbean people. Mann notes that "obtaining the wealth of the Americas would involve subjugating people who had committed no offense against Spain ''. Like Cortez, Columbus angered the Spanish royalty through subjugating and enslaving the native people. For example, Columbus sent 550 Taíno to Seville in 1495. The parade of enslaved Taíno in Seville angered Queen Isabella to the point that she ordered the Spanish to send the enslaved people back to the Americas. By 1503, the Spanish solidified their policy through the implementation of the encomienda system. This system was supposed to ensure the safety and freedom of the Taíno and other indigenous populations, while also converting them to Christianity. To achieve these goals, Spaniards were appointed as trustees who oversaw the religious instruction and treatment of the people. However, the trustees did not like working with the Taíno, and the Taíno resisted the efforts of the Spaniards. For the Taíno, this system represented a "legal justification for slavery '' and the Spaniards justified the enslavement of the people through arguing that the Taíno were "less human than Europeans ''.
These earlier forays into the enslavement of people laid the foundation for the future trans - Atlantic slave trade. Like other enslaved people, the Taíno and other enslaved Indians had periods of rebellion. Indigenous peoples in what is now known as New Mexico resisted early Spanish colonization and enslavement, resulting in the Acoma Massacre under Juan de Oñate at Acoma Pueblo. In recounting this event, it was said,
(W) hat had happened was that the Indians, as soon as they saw that the forces were divided, began to attack and kill. So this witness fell back immediately with his soldiers to rejoin the maese de campo, followed by the Indians who had hitherto accompanied this witness. They paused the Spaniards in large groups, and began to hurl countless stones, arrows, and clubs, not only from the ground but from the terraces, both men and women participating in the attack.
When the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands, the Spanish and other colonizers increased the importation of Africans as enslaved laborers, altering global demographics.
The trans - Atlantic Slave Trade represents the largest migration in human history. While many Europeans migrated to the Americas, it was enslaved Africans that dominated the North and South American continents. The Columbian Exchange saw the rise of luxury goods which necessitated cheap or free labor to produce the largest potential profit. One of these luxury goods was sugar. In the early history of sugar, Islamic and European - owned plantations paid relatively high wages for this labor - intensive and profitable crop. However, as time progressed the European - sugar plantation owners reconsidered the use of highly paid labor and made the transition to the exploitation of people to meet the growing global sugar demand. In the 1440s the Portuguese discovered that the Madeira Islands were better suited to growing sugarcane than wheat. It was on Madeira that the early system of Iberian slavery was transformed. Originally, the enslaved people who worked on the Madeira sugarcane plantations were convicts, Guanches (natives of the Canary Islands), Berbers (individuals from Northwest Africa), and Conversos (Iberian Jewish people). As time passed, these early enslaved peoples were replaced by enslaved Africans from West and Central Africa). Eventually, by the 1560s and 1570s sugarcane plantations in Brazil dominated the sugar industry and Madeira switched from sugar production to wine.
The use of slave labor was not restricted to sugarcane plantations. Rather, slave labor was used for coffee, tobacco and even grains such as rice. In these systems, the enslaved people had little power, however, they did have some influence on farming methods. For example, in rice production there is some evidence that slaves from Africa utilized traditional methods to grow rice. Furthermore, enslaved Africans were responsible for growing their own food. In these cases, the enslaved people preferred rice that was part of their culture as opposed to the European preference for Carolina rice. However, in a system of power and control the slaves were eventually banned from using their preferred rice Therefore, the system of slavery transmitted not only the people but also their cultures to new regions.
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500 -- 1800 '' Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a ' clash of cultures ' had begun in the Atlantic ''. This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor ''. An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization '' they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves ''. In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493 -- 1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have ''. As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous peoples, they took with them the cultural practices related to tobacco, and spread them to additional regions. Therefore demand for tobacco grew in the course of the cultural exchanges and increased contacts among peoples.
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments. A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships. Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.
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when was the last time liverpool won barclays premier league | Liverpool F.C. - Wikipedia
Liverpool Football Club (/ ˈlɪvərpuːl /) is a professional football club in Liverpool, England, which competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. The club has won 5 European Cups, 3 UEFA Cups, 3 UEFA Super Cups, 18 League titles, 7 FA Cups, 8 League Cups, and 15 FA Community Shields.
Founded in 1892, the club joined the Football League the following year and has played at Anfield since its formation. Liverpool established itself as a major force in English and European football in the 1970s and 1980s when Bill Shankly and Bob Paisley led the club to 11 League titles and seven European trophies. Under the management of Rafael Benítez and captained by Steven Gerrard, Liverpool became European champions for the fifth time in 2005.
Liverpool was the ninth highest - earning football club in the world in 2016 -- 17, with an annual revenue of € 424.2 million, and the world 's eighth most valuable football club in 2017, valued at $1.492 billion. The club has long - standing rivalries with Manchester United and Everton.
The club 's supporters have been involved in two major tragedies: the Heysel Stadium disaster, where escaping fans were pressed against a collapsing wall at the 1985 European Cup Final in Brussels, with 39 people -- mostly Italians and Juventus fans -- dying, after which English clubs were given a five - year ban from European competition, and the Hillsborough disaster in 1989, where 96 Liverpool supporters died in a crush against perimeter fencing.
The team changed from red shirts and white shorts to an all - red home strip in 1964 which has been used ever since. The club 's anthem is "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''.
Liverpool F.C. was founded following a dispute between the Everton committee and John Houlding, club president and owner of the land at Anfield. After eight years at the stadium, Everton relocated to Goodison Park in 1892 and Houlding founded Liverpool F.C. to play at Anfield. Originally named "Everton F.C. and Athletic Grounds Ltd '' (Everton Athletic for short), the club became Liverpool F.C. in March 1892 and gained official recognition three months later, after The Football Association refused to recognise the club as Everton. The team won the Lancashire League in its début season, and joined the Football League Second Division at the start of the 1893 -- 94 season. After finishing in first place the club was promoted to the First Division, which it won in 1901 and again in 1906.
Liverpool reached its first FA Cup Final in 1914, losing 1 -- 0 to Burnley. It won consecutive League championships in 1922 and 1923, but did not win another trophy until the 1946 -- 47 season, when the club won the First Division for a fifth time under the control of ex-West Ham Utd centre half George Kay. Liverpool suffered its second Cup Final defeat in 1950, playing against Arsenal. The club was relegated to the Second Division in the 1953 -- 54 season. Soon after Liverpool lost 2 -- 1 to non-league Worcester City in the 1958 -- 59 FA Cup, Bill Shankly was appointed manager. Upon his arrival he released 24 players and converted a boot storage room at Anfield into a room where the coaches could discuss strategy; here, Shankly and other "Boot Room '' members Joe Fagan, Reuben Bennett, and Bob Paisley began reshaping the team.
The club was promoted back into the First Division in 1962 and won it in 1964, for the first time in 17 years. In 1965, the club won its first FA Cup. In 1966, the club won the First Division but lost to Borussia Dortmund in the European Cup Winners ' Cup final. Liverpool won both the League and the UEFA Cup during the 1972 -- 73 season, and the FA Cup again a year later. Shankly retired soon afterwards and was replaced by his assistant, Bob Paisley. In 1976, Paisley 's second season as manager, the club won another League and UEFA Cup double. The following season, the club retained the League title and won the European Cup for the first time, but it lost in the 1977 FA Cup Final. Liverpool retained the European Cup in 1978 and regained the First Division title in 1979. During Paisley 's nine seasons as manager Liverpool won 21 trophies, including three European Cups, a UEFA Cup, six League titles and three consecutive League Cups; the only domestic trophy he did not win was the FA Cup.
Paisley retired in 1983 and was replaced by his assistant, Joe Fagan. Liverpool won the League, League Cup and European Cup in Fagan 's first season, becoming the first English side to win three trophies in a season. Liverpool reached the European Cup final again in 1985, against Juventus at the Heysel Stadium. Before kick - off, Liverpool fans breached a fence which separated the two groups of supporters, and charged the Juventus fans. The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 fans, mostly Italians. The incident became known as the Heysel Stadium disaster. The match was played in spite of protests by both managers, and Liverpool lost 1 -- 0 to Juventus. As a result of the tragedy, English clubs were banned from participating in European competition for five years; Liverpool received a ten - year ban, which was later reduced to six years. Fourteen Liverpool fans received convictions for involuntary manslaughter.
Fagan had announced his retirement just before the disaster and Kenny Dalglish was appointed as player - manager. During his tenure, the club won another three League Championships and two FA Cups, including a League and Cup "Double '' in the 1985 -- 86 season. Liverpool 's success was overshadowed by the Hillsborough disaster: in an FA Cup semi-final against Nottingham Forest on 15 April 1989, hundreds of Liverpool fans were crushed against perimeter fencing. Ninety - four fans died that day; the 95th victim died in hospital from his injuries four days later and the 96th died nearly four years later, without regaining consciousness. After the Hillsborough disaster there was a government review of stadium safety. The resulting Taylor Report paved the way for legislation that required top - division teams to have all - seater stadiums. The report ruled that the main reason for the disaster was overcrowding due to a failure of police control.
Liverpool was involved in the closest finish to a league season during the 1988 -- 89 season. Liverpool finished equal with Arsenal on both points and goal difference, but lost the title on total goals scored when Arsenal scored the final goal in the last minute of the season.
Dalglish cited the Hillsborough disaster and its repercussions as the reason for his resignation in 1991; he was replaced by former player Graeme Souness. Under his leadership Liverpool won the 1992 FA Cup Final, but their league performances slumped, with two consecutive sixth - place finishes, eventually resulting in his dismissal in January 1994. Souness was replaced by Roy Evans, and Liverpool went on to win the 1995 Football League Cup Final. While they made some title challenges under Evans, third - place finishes in 1996 and 1998 were the best they could manage, and so Gérard Houllier was appointed co-manager in the 1998 -- 99 season, and became the sole manager in November 1998 after Evans resigned. In 2001, Houllier 's second full season in charge, Liverpool won a "Treble '': the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup. Houllier underwent major heart surgery during the 2001 -- 02 season and Liverpool finished second in the League, behind Arsenal. They won a further League Cup in 2003, but failed to mount a title challenge in the two seasons that followed.
Houllier was replaced by Rafael Benítez at the end of the 2003 -- 04 season. Despite finishing fifth in Benítez 's first season, Liverpool won the 2004 -- 05 UEFA Champions League, beating A.C. Milan 3 -- 2 in a penalty shootout after the match ended with a score of 3 -- 3. The following season, Liverpool finished third in the Premier League and won the 2006 FA Cup Final, beating West Ham United in a penalty shootout after the match finished 3 -- 3. American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks became the owners of the club during the 2006 -- 07 season, in a deal which valued the club and its outstanding debts at £ 218.9 million. The club reached the 2007 UEFA Champions League Final against Milan, as it had in 2005, but lost 2 -- 1. During the 2008 -- 09 season Liverpool achieved 86 points, its highest Premier League points total, and finished as runners up to Manchester United.
In the 2009 -- 10 season, Liverpool finished seventh in the Premier League and failed to qualify for the Champions League. Benítez subsequently left by mutual consent and was replaced by Fulham manager Roy Hodgson. At the start of the 2010 -- 11 season Liverpool was on the verge of bankruptcy and the club 's creditors asked the High Court to allow the sale of the club, overruling the wishes of Hicks and Gillett. John W. Henry, owner of the Boston Red Sox and of Fenway Sports Group, bid successfully for the club and took ownership in October 2010. Poor results during the start of that season led to Hodgson leaving the club by mutual consent and former player and manager Kenny Dalglish taking over. In the 2011 -- 12 season, Liverpool secured a record 8th League Cup success and reached the FA Cup final, but finished in eighth position, the worst league finish in 18 years; this led to the sacking of Dalglish. He was replaced by Brendan Rodgers, whose Liverpool team in the 2013 -- 14 season mounted an unexpected title charge to finish second behind champions Manchester City and subsequently return to the Champions League, scoring 101 goals in the process, the most since the 106 scored in the 1895 -- 96 season. Following a disappointing 2014 -- 15 season, where Liverpool finished sixth in the league, and a poor start to the following campaign, Rodgers was sacked in October 2015. He was replaced by Jürgen Klopp, who in his first season at Liverpool, took the club to the finals of both the Football League Cup and UEFA Europa League, finishing as runner - up in both competitions.
For much of Liverpool 's history its home colours have been all red, but when the club was founded its kit was more like the contemporary Everton kit. The blue and white quartered shirts were used until 1894, when the club adopted the city 's colour of red. The city 's symbol of the liver bird was adopted as the club 's badge in 1901, although it was not incorporated into the kit until 1955. Liverpool continued to wear red shirts and white shorts until 1964, when manager Bill Shankly decided to change to an all red strip. Liverpool played in all red for the first time against Anderlecht, as Ian St. John recalled in his autobiography:
He (Shankly) thought the colour scheme would carry psychological impact -- red for danger, red for power. He came into the dressing room one day and threw a pair of red shorts to Ronnie Yeats. "Get into those shorts and let 's see how you look '', he said. "Christ, Ronnie, you look awesome, terrifying. You look 7ft tall. '' "Why not go the whole hog, boss? '' I suggested. "Why not wear red socks? Let 's go out all in red. '' Shankly approved and an iconic kit was born.
The Liverpool away strip has more often than not been all yellow or white shirts and black shorts, but there have been several exceptions. An all grey kit was introduced in 1987, which was used until the 1991 -- 92 centenary season, when it was replaced by a combination of green shirts and white shorts. After various colour combinations in the 1990s, including gold and navy, bright yellow, black and grey, and ecru, the club alternated between yellow and white away kits until the 2008 -- 09 season, when it re-introduced the grey kit. A third kit is designed for European away matches, though it is also worn in domestic away matches on occasions when the current away kit clashes with a team 's home kit. Between 2012 -- 15, the kits were designed by Warrior Sports, who became the club 's kit providers at the start of the 2012 -- 13 season. In February 2015, Warrior 's parent company New Balance announced it would be entering the global football market, with teams sponsored by Warrior now being outfitted by New Balance. The only other branded shirts worn by the club were made by Umbro until 1985, when they were replaced by Adidas, who produced the kits until 1996 when Reebok took over. They produced the kits for ten years before Adidas made the kits from 2006 to 2012.
Liverpool was the first English professional club to have a sponsor 's logo on its shirts, after agreeing a deal with Hitachi in 1979. Since then the club has been sponsored by Crown Paints, Candy, Carlsberg and Standard Chartered Bank. The contract with Carlsberg, which was signed in 1992, was the longest - lasting agreement in English top - flight football. The association with Carlsberg ended at the start of the 2010 -- 11 season, when Standard Chartered Bank became the club 's sponsor.
The Liverpool badge is based on the city 's liver bird, which in the past had been placed inside a shield. In 1992, to commemorate the centennial of the club, a new badge was commissioned, including a representation of the Shankly Gates. The next year twin flames were added at either side, symbolic of the Hillsborough memorial outside Anfield, where an eternal flame burns in memory of those who died in the Hillsborough disaster. In 2012, Warrior Sports ' first Liverpool kit removed the shield and gates, returning the badge to what had adorned Liverpool shirts in the 1970s; the flames were moved to the back collar of the shirt, surrounding the number 96 for the number who died at Hillsborough.
Anfield was built in 1884 on land adjacent to Stanley Park. It was originally used by Everton before the club moved to Goodison Park after a dispute over rent with Anfield owner John Houlding. Left with an empty ground, Houlding founded Liverpool in 1892 and the club has played at Anfield ever since. The capacity of the stadium at the time was 20,000, although only 100 spectators attended Liverpool 's first match at Anfield.
The Kop was built in 1906 due to the high turnout for matches and was called the Oakfield Road Embankment initially. Its first game was on 1 September 1906 when the home side beat Stoke City 1 -- 0. In 1906 the banked stand at one end of the ground was formally renamed the Spion Kop after a hill in KwaZulu - Natal. The hill was the site of the Battle of Spion Kop in the Second Boer War, where over 300 men of the Lancashire Regiment died, many of them from Liverpool. At its peak, the stand could hold 28,000 spectators and was one of the largest single - tier stands in the world. Many stadia in England had stands named after Spion Kop, but Anfield 's was the largest of them at the time; it could hold more supporters than some entire football grounds.
Anfield could accommodate more than 60,000 supporters at its peak, and had a capacity of 55,000 until the 1990s. The Taylor Report and Premier League regulations obliged Liverpool to convert Anfield to an all - seater stadium in time for the 1993 -- 94 season, reducing the capacity to 45,276. The findings of the Taylor Report precipitated the redevelopment of the Kemlyn Road Stand, which was rebuilt in 1992, coinciding with the centenary of the club, and was known as the Centenary Stand until 2017 when it was renamed the Kenny Dalglish Stand. An extra tier was added to the Anfield Road end in 1998, which further increased the capacity of the ground but gave rise to problems when it was opened. A series of support poles and stanchions were inserted to give extra stability to the top tier of the stand after movement of the tier was reported at the start of the 1999 -- 2000 season.
Because of restrictions on expanding the capacity at Anfield, Liverpool announced plans to move to the proposed Stanley Park Stadium in May 2002. Planning permission was granted in July 2004, and in September 2006, Liverpool City Council agreed to grant Liverpool a 999 - year lease on the proposed site. Following the takeover of the club by George Gillett and Tom Hicks in February 2007, the proposed stadium was redesigned. The new design was approved by the Council in November 2007. The stadium was scheduled to open in August 2011 and would hold 60,000 spectators, with HKS, Inc. contracted to build the stadium. Construction was halted in August 2008, as Gillett and Hicks had difficulty in financing the £ 300 million needed for the development. In October 2012, BBC Sport reported that Fenway Sports Group, the new owners of Liverpool FC, had decided to redevelop their current home at Anfield stadium, rather than building a new stadium in Stanley Park. As part of the redevelopment the capacity of Anfield was to increase from 45,276 to approximately 60,000 and would cost approximately £ 150m. When construction was completed on the new Main stand the capacity of Anfield was increased to 54,074. This £ 100 million expansion added a third tier to the stand. This was all part of a £ 260 million project to improve the Anfield area. Jurgen Klopp the manager at the time described the stand as "impressive. ''
Liverpool is one of the best supported clubs in Europe. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised Club of the LFC Official Supporters Clubs in at least 50 countries. Notable groups include Spirit of Shankly and Reclaim The Kop. The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours. Liverpool fans often refer to themselves as Kopites, a reference to the fans who once stood, and now sit, on the Kop at Anfield. In 2008 a group of fans decided to form a splinter club, A.F.C. Liverpool, to play matches for fans who had been priced out of watching Premier League football.
The song "You 'll Never Walk Alone '', originally from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel and later recorded by Liverpool musicians Gerry & The Pacemakers, is the club 's anthem and has been sung by the Anfield crowd since the early 1960s. It has since gained popularity among fans of other clubs around the world. The song 's title adorns the top of the Shankly Gates, which were unveiled on 2 August 1982 in memory of former manager Bill Shankly. The "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' portion of the Shankly Gates is also reproduced on the club 's crest.
The club 's supporters have been involved in two stadium disasters. The first was the 1985 Heysel Stadium disaster, in which 39 Juventus supporters were killed. They were confined to a corner by Liverpool fans who had charged in their direction; the weight of the cornered fans caused a wall to collapse. UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the Liverpool supporters, and banned all English clubs from European competition for five years. Liverpool was banned for an additional year, preventing it from participating in the 1990 -- 91 European Cup, even though it won the League in 1990. Twenty - seven fans were arrested on suspicion of manslaughter and were extradited to Belgium in 1987 to face trial. In 1989, after a five - month trial in Belgium, 14 Liverpool fans were given three - year sentences for involuntary manslaughter; half of the terms were suspended.
The second disaster took place during an FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest at Hillsborough Stadium, Sheffield, on 15 April 1989. Ninety - six Liverpool fans died as a consequence of overcrowding at the Leppings Lane end, in what became known as the Hillsborough disaster. In the following days The Sun newspaper published an article entitled "The Truth '', in which it claimed that Liverpool fans had robbed the dead and had urinated on and attacked the police. Subsequent investigations proved the allegations false, leading to a boycott of the newspaper by Liverpool fans across the city and elsewhere; many still refuse to buy The Sun more than 20 years later. Many support organisations were set up in the wake of the disaster, such as the Hillsborough Justice Campaign, which represents bereaved families, survivors and supporters in their efforts to secure justice.
Liverpool 's longest - established rivalry is with fellow Liverpool team Everton, against whom they contest the Merseyside derby. The rivalry stems from Liverpool 's formation and the dispute with Everton officials and the then owners of Anfield. The Merseyside derby is one of the few local derbies which do not enforce fan segregation, and hence has been known as the "friendly derby ''. Since the mid-1980s, the rivalry has intensified both on and off the field and, since the inception of the Premier League in 1992, the Merseyside derby has had more players sent off than any other Premier League game. It has been referred to as "the most ill - disciplined and explosive fixture in the Premier League ''.
Liverpool 's rivalry with Manchester United stems from the cities ' competition in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century. The two clubs alternated as champions between 1964 and 1967, and Manchester United became the first English team to win the European Cup in 1968, followed by Liverpool 's four European Cup victories. Despite the 38 league titles and eight European Cups between them the two rivals have rarely been successful at the same time -- Liverpool 's run of titles in the 1970s and 1980s coincided with Manchester United 's 26 - year title drought, and United 's success in the Premier League - era has likewise coincided with Liverpool 's ongoing drought, and the two clubs have finished first and second in the league only five times. Nonetheless, former Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson said in 2002, "My greatest challenge was knocking Liverpool right off their fucking perch '', and the last player to be transferred between the two clubs was Phil Chisnall, who moved to Liverpool from Manchester United in 1964.
As the owner of Anfield and founder of Liverpool, John Houlding was the club 's first chairman, a position he held from its founding in 1892 until 1904. John McKenna took over as chairman after Houlding 's departure. McKenna subsequently became President of the Football League. The chairmanship changed hands many times before John Smith, whose father was a shareholder of the club, took up the role in 1973. He oversaw the most successful period in Liverpool 's history before stepping down in 1990. His successor was Noel White who became chairman in 1990 In August 1991 David Moores, whose family had owned the club for more than 50 years became chairman. His uncle John Moores was also a shareholder at Liverpool and was chairman of Everton from 1961 to 1973. Moores owned 51 percent of the club, and in 2004 expressed his willingness to consider a bid for his shares in Liverpool.
Moores eventually sold the club to American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks on 6 February 2007. The deal valued the club and its outstanding debts at £ 218.9 million. The pair paid £ 5,000 per share, or £ 174.1 m for the total shareholding and £ 44.8 m to cover the club 's debts. Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and the fans ' lack of support for them, resulted in the pair looking to sell the club. Martin Broughton was appointed chairman of the club on 16 April 2010 to oversee its sale. In May 2010, accounts were released showing the holding company of the club to be £ 350m in debt (due to leveraged takeover) with losses of £ 55m, causing auditor KPMG to qualify its audit opinion. The group 's creditors, including the Royal Bank of Scotland, took Gillett and Hicks to court to force them to allow the board to proceed with the sale of the club, the major asset of the holding company. A High Court judge, Mr Justice Floyd, ruled in favour of the creditors and paved the way for the sale of the club to Fenway Sports Group (formerly New England Sports Ventures), although Gillett and Hicks still had the option to appeal. Liverpool was sold to Fenway Sports Group on 15 October 2010 for £ 300m.
Liverpool has been described as a global brand; a 2010 report valued the club 's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £ 141m, an increase of £ 5m on the previous year. Liverpool was given a brand rating of AA (Very Strong). In April 2010 business magazine Forbes ranked Liverpool as the sixth most valuable football team in the world, behind Manchester United, Real Madrid, Arsenal, Barcelona and Bayern Munich; they valued the club at $822 m (£ 532m), excluding debt. Accountants Deloitte ranked Liverpool eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League, which ranks the world 's football clubs in terms of revenue. Liverpool 's income in the 2009 -- 10 season was € 225.3 m.
Because of its successful history, Liverpool is often featured when football is depicted in British culture and has appeared in a number of media firsts. The club appeared in the first edition of the BBC 's Match of the Day, which screened highlights of its match against Arsenal at Anfield on 22 August 1964. The first football match to be televised in colour was between Liverpool and West Ham United, broadcast live in March 1967. Liverpool fans featured in the Pink Floyd song "Fearless '', in which they sang excerpts from "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''. To mark the club 's appearance in the 1988 FA Cup Final, Liverpool released a song known as the "Anfield Rap '', featuring John Barnes and other members of the squad.
A documentary drama on the Hillsborough disaster, written by Jimmy McGovern, was screened in 1996. It featured Christopher Eccleston as Trevor Hicks, whose story is the focus of the script. Hicks, who lost two teenage daughters in the disaster, went on to campaign for safer stadiums and helped to form the Hillsborough Families Support Group. Liverpool featured in the film The 51st State (also known as Formula 51), in which ex-hitman Felix DeSouza (Robert Carlyle) is a keen supporter of the team and the last scene takes place at a match between Liverpool and Manchester United. The club was featured in a children 's television show called Scully; the plot revolved around a young boy, Francis Scully, who tried to gain a trial match with Liverpool. The show featured prominent Liverpool players of the time such as Kenny Dalglish.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Since the establishment of the club in 1892, 45 players have been club captain of Liverpool F.C. Andrew Hannah became the first captain of the club after Liverpool separated from Everton and formed its own club. Initially Alex Raisbeck, who was club captain from 1899 to 1909, was the longest serving captain before being overtaken by Steven Gerrard who served 12 seasons as Liverpool captain starting from the 2003 -- 04 season. The present captain is Jordan Henderson, who replaced Gerrard in the 2015 -- 16 season following Gerrard 's move to LA Galaxy.
Liverpool 's first trophy was the Lancashire League, which it won in the club 's first season. In 1901, the club won its first League title, while its first success in the FA Cup was in 1965. In terms of the number of trophies won, Liverpool 's most successful decade was the 1980s, when the club won six League titles, two FA Cups, four League Cups, five Charity Shields (one shared) and two European Cups.
The club has accumulated more top - flight wins and points than any other English team. Liverpool also has the highest average league finishing position (3.3) for the 50 - year period to 2015 and second - highest average league finishing position for the period 1900 -- 1999 after Arsenal, with an average league placing of 8.7. Liverpool has won the European Cup, UEFA 's premier club competition, five times, an English record and only surpassed by Real Madrid and A.C. Milan. Liverpool 's fifth European Cup win, in 2005, meant that the club was awarded the trophy permanently and was also awarded a multiple - winner badge. Liverpool also hold the English record of three wins in the UEFA Cup, UEFA 's secondary club competition.
Especially short competitions, such as the FA Community Shield and the UEFA Super Cup, are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble.
Footnotes
Citations
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how many states in america and their names | List of States and territories of the United States - wikipedia
The United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states, a federal district (Washington, D.C., the capital city of the United States), five major territories, and various minor islands. The 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C., are in central North America between Canada and Mexico; the two other states, Alaska and Hawaii, are in the northwestern part of North America and an archipelago in the mid-Pacific, respectively, while the territories are scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States, and possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state has its own constitution, grounded in republican principles, and government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state. Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to the current total of 50, and each new state is admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.
As provided by Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, Congress exercises "exclusive jurisdiction '' over the federal district, which is not part of any state. Prior to passage of the 1973 District of Columbia Home Rule Act, which devolved certain Congressional powers to an elected mayor and council, the district did not have an elected local government. Even so, Congress retains the right to review and overturn laws created by the council and intervene in local affairs. As it is not a state, the district does not have representation in the Senate. However, since 1971, its residents have been represented in the House of Representatives by a non-voting delegate. Additionally, since 1961, following ratification of the 23rd Amendment, the district has been entitled to select three electors to vote in the Electoral College.
In addition to the 50 states and federal district, the United States has sovereignty over 14 territories. Five of them (American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands) have a permanent, nonmilitary population, while nine of them do not. With the exception of Navassa Island, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, which are located in the Caribbean, all territories are located in the Pacific Ocean. One territory, Palmyra Atoll, is considered to be incorporated, meaning the full body of the Constitution has been applied to it; the other territories are unincorporated, meaning the Constitution does not fully apply to them. Ten territories (the Minor Outlying Islands and American Samoa) are considered to be unorganized, meaning they have not had an Organic Act enacted by Congress; the four other territories are organized, meaning they have had an Organic Act that has been enacted by Congress. The five inhabited territories each have limited autonomy and a non-voting delegate in Congress, in addition to having territorial legislatures and governors, but residents can not vote in federal elections.
California is the most populous state, with 38,332,521 residents (2013 estimate); Wyoming is the least populous, with an estimated 582,658 residents. The District of Columbia, with an estimated 646,449 residents as of 2012, has a higher population than the two least populous states (Wyoming and Vermont). The largest state by area is Alaska, encompassing 665,384 square miles (1,723,340 km), while the smallest is Rhode Island, encompassing 1,545 square miles (4,000 km). The first state to ratify the current Constitution was Delaware, which it did on December 7, 1787, while the newest state is Hawaii, which was admitted to the Union on August 21, 1959. The largest territory in terms of both population and size is Puerto Rico, with 3,725,789 residents as of the 2010 Census and a total area of 5,325 square miles (13,790 km).
The table below lists the 50 states, with their current capital, largest city, the date they ratified the constitution or were admitted to the Union, population and area data, and number of representative (s) in the United States House of Representatives (Each state is entitled to at least one representative. Current law limits the number of representatives to 435, which are then apportioned among states every ten years according to their relative population. Each state is also entitled to two U.S. Senators.)
Notes
Footnotes
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who did we fight in the world wars | List of wars involving the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of wars involving the United States of America since its founding during the American Revolution.
Location: Eastern North America, Gibraltar, India, Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic
Spain
Iroquois
Watauga Association Catawba Lenape Choctaw
Dutch Republic
Mysore
Iroquois
Cherokee
Location: Old Southwest
Location: Northwest Territory
Location: Massachusetts
Location: Western Pennsylvania
Location: Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, and the Mediterranean
Co-belligerent: Great Britain
Location: Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Tripoli.
Location: Territory of Orleans
Supported by: Haiti
Location: Northwest River Ohio
Location: Eastern and Central North America
Tecumseh 's Confederacy
Treaty of Ghent; Status quo ante bellum with no boundary changes
Location: Southern United States
Location: Mediterranean Sea and the Barbary states.
Location: Pensacola, Florida
Spanish Florida
Location: Texas
Mexico
Republic of Texas United States
Location: Missouri River
Location: Off Greece, Aegean Sea
Location: Illinois and Michigan Territory
Location: Aceh Sultanate
Location: Illinois and Michigan Territory
Location: Florida, United States
Location: Aceh Sultanate
Location: Maine & New Brunswick
Location: Texas, New Mexico, California, and Mexico
Location: Oregon
Location: Southwestern United States
Location: Washington
Location: Fiji
Location: Rogue Valley
Location: Pensacola, Florida
Location: Washington Territory
Location: China
Location: Utah Territory and Wyoming
Location: New Mexico
Location: Fiji
Location: West Virginia
Location: Texas and Mexico
Confederate States
Location: Pyramid Lake, Nevada
Location: United States
Location: Arizona
Location: Minnesota and Dakota
Location: Colorado, Wyoming, and Nebraska
Location: Kanmon Straits
Locations: Oregon, Nevada, California, and Idaho
Location: Powder River State
Location: Powder River State
Location: Southern Formosa
Location: Western United States
Location: Ganghwado
Location: California and Oregon
Location: Texas
Location: Texas and Mexico
Location: Montana, Dakota and Wyoming
Location: Texas and Oklahoma
Location: Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana
Location: Idaho, Oregon, and Wyoming
Location: Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota and Montana
Location: Idaho
Location: Mexico
Location: Colorado
Location: South Dakota
Location: Texas and Mexico
Location: Arizona and Mexico
Location: Samoa
Location: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines and Guam
Location: Philippines
1902 - 1906 United States
Limited Foreign Support: Empire of Japan
1902 - 1906 Tagalog Republic
Philippines
Location: China
Location: Oklahoma
Location: Mexico -- United States border
Location: Cuba
Location: Nicaragua
Location: Utah and Colorado
Location: Mexico
Location: Haiti
Location: Dominican Republic
Location: Europe, Africa, Asia, Middle East, the Pacific Islands, and coast of North and South America
Russia United States China Italy Japan Serbia Montenegro Romania Belgium Greece Portugal Brazil
Location: Russia, Mongolia, and Iran
Japan Czechoslovakia Greece Poland United States France Romania Serbia Italy China
Location: Utah
Location: Europe, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Southeast Asia, Middle East, Mediterranean, North Africa, North and South America
Location: Korea
Pathet Lao North Vietnam Supported by: Soviet Union China
Location: Lebanon
Location: Cuba
Location: Democratic Republic of the Congo
Location: Dominican Republic
Location: Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos
China Soviet Union
Other Supports
Khmer Rouge Khmer Rumdo Khmer Việt Minh North Vietnam Việt Cộng
Other Supports
Location: Zaire
Angola Cuba Soviet Union
Location: Gulf of Sidra
Location: Lebanon
Hezbollah
Islamic Unification Movement
Supported by: Ba'athist Iraq
Location: Grenada
Location: Libya
Location: Persian Gulf
Location: Mediterranean Sea
Location: Panama
Location: Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Israel
Location: Somalia
Location: Haiti
Location: Bosnia and Herzegovina
Herzeg - Bosnia Croatia
United States Belgium Canada Denmark France Germany Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Turkey United Kingdom
Location: Serbia
Location: Sudan and Afghanistan
Location: Afghanistan
Allied groups HIG al - Qaeda IJU
Taliban splinter groups
2001 invasion: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
Phase II (RS): Ongoing
Location: Iraq
Ba'athist Iraq
Location: Pakistan
United States United Kingdom
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria
Location: Indian Ocean
Location: Libya
United States United Kingdom Belgium Bulgaria Canada Denmark France Greece Italy Netherlands Norway Romania Spain Turkey Sweden Jordan Qatar United Arab Emirates
Location: Iraq
Iran Hezbollah
Location: Syria
Syrian Democratic Forces Free Syrian Army (2011 - 2017)
al - Qaeda al - Nusra Front Khorasan group Tahrir al - Sham Jaysh al - Sunna Jund al - Aqsa Ahrar al - Sham
Location: Yemen
Ansar al - Sharia AQAP
Wilayah al - Yaman
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where does the eastern-most population of the imperial eagle breed | Eastern imperial eagle - wikipedia
nesting area wintering area
Aquila heliaca heliaca
The eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) is a large species of bird of prey that breeds from southeastern Europe to western and central Asia. Most populations are migratory and winter in northeastern Africa and southern and eastern Asia. The Spanish imperial eagle found in Spain and Portugal, was formerly lumped with this species, the name imperial eagle being used in both circumstances. However, the two are now regarded as separate species due to significant differences in morphology, ecology and molecular characteristics.
The eastern imperial eagle is a large eagle with a length of 72 -- 90 cm (28 -- 35 in), a wingspan of 1.8 -- 2.16 m (5.9 -- 7.1 ft) and a weight of 2.45 -- 4.55 kilograms (5.4 -- 10.0 lb). Females are about a quarter larger than males. It closely resembles the Spanish imperial eagle, but has far less white to the "shoulder '' and it is slightly larger.
In Europe, the eastern imperial eagle is threatened with extinction. It has nearly vanished from many areas of its former range, e.g. Hungary and Austria. Today, the only European populations are increasing in the Carpathian basin, mainly the northern mountains of Hungary and the southern region of Slovakia. The breeding population in Hungary consists of about 105 pairs. The most western breeding population on the border between Austria and Czech Republic consists of 25 -- 30 pairs and is mostly non-migratory.
There are many eastern imperial eagle nests in the Bulgaria / Turkey section of the European Green Belt (the uncultivated belt along the former Iron Curtain.)
The monarchy of Austria - Hungary once chose the imperial eagle to be its heraldic animal, but this did not help this bird. The eagle 's preferred habitat is open country with small woods; unlike many other species of eagle, it does not generally live in mountains, large forests or treeless steppes.
Eastern imperial eagles generally prefer to construct a nest in a tree which is not surrounded by other trees, so that the nest is visible from a considerable distance, and so that the occupants may observe the surroundings unobstructed. Tree branches are taken in order to build the nest, which is upholstered with grass and feathers. Very rarely it nests on cliffs or the ground.
In March or April the female lays two to three eggs. The chicks hatch after about 43 days and leave the nest after 60 -- 77 days. Often, however, only one will survive to leave the nest, with the others dying before becoming fully fledged. In at least a part of its range, more than a third of all nesting attempts are entirely unsuccessful.
The eastern imperial eagle feeds mainly on hares, hamsters and pheasants as well as a variety of other birds and mammals.
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who do you think you are when is it on | Who Do You Think You Are? (UK TV series) - wikipedia
Who Do You Think You Are? is a British genealogy documentary series that has aired on the BBC since 2004. In each episode, a celebrity traces their family tree. It is made by the production company Wall to Wall. The show has regularly attracted an audience of more than 6 million viewers. More than ten international adaptations of the show have been produced.
Series one and two were broadcast on BBC Two, and the first was the channel 's highest - rating programme of 2004. This led to episodes being shown on BBC One from the third series onwards. The current narrator, as of Series 14 in 2017, is Phil Davis. Mark Strong took over from David Morrissey after the first series, which was nominated for "Best Factual Series or Strand '' in the 2005 BAFTAs; Cherie Lunghi was the narrator between Series 10 and 13.
In the first series, the last ten minutes of each episode featured presenter Adrian Chiles and genealogical researcher Nick Barratt giving tips on tracing a family tree. In 2007, a special episode was broadcast in conjunction with the BBC 's "Family Wanted '' campaign featuring Nicky Campbell, who was adopted a few days after he was born.
The theme tune was composed by Mark Sayer - Wade, who also provided the background music for earlier episodes. The music for later episodes is provided by Julian Hamlin and Edmund Jolliffe.
On 23 June 2015, the BBC confirmed the lineup for Series 12, which began on 13 August 2015.
On 13 July, the line - up for the 13th series was confirmed. The series started on 24 November 2016.
On 23 June 2017, the BBC announced the line - up for the show 's 14th series, which again would comprise 10 episodes.
On 10 May 2018, the BBC announced the lineup of celebrities taking part in Series 15, which aired during the summer of 2018.
The show was nominated for the 2010 BAFTA Television Award for Best Factual Series.
Series 1 -- 11 of Who Do You Think You Are? are available on DVD in the UK (Region 2).
In October 2007, BBC Magazines began issuing Who Do You Think You Are? Magazine, a monthly publication that includes material from the TV series.
The series 1 -- 4 box set of Who Do You Think You Are? is available, distributed by Acorn Media UK.
The format of the series has proved popular around the world and the BBC has licensed it to many foreign television companies, who have produced their own individual versions:
TVP1 has aired a Polish version, called Sekrety rodzinne, which was broadcast from November 2006 to March 2007.
In September 2007, a first series of Canadian version, consisting of 13 episodes, aired on CBC Television. In 2015, Radio - Canada produced a French language version called Qui êtes - vous?
An Australian version aired on SBS in January 2008, after six episodes of the BBC version had been shown; the BBC programmes were those featuring Stephen Fry, Bill Oddie, Julia Sawalha, Jeremy Clarkson, Gurinder Chadha, and Nigella Lawson.
In 2008, ARD 's Das Erste aired the German version, called Das Geheimnis meiner Familie ("The secret of my family ''). They aired four episodes featuring Marie - Luise Marjan, Armin Rohde, Christine Neubauer and Peter Maffay.
Ireland 's national broadcaster RTÉ has aired two series of Irish version of Who Do You Think You Are? in autumn 2008 and autumn 2009. The Irish version has included internationally recognised names such as Ardal O'Hanlon, Dana, Rosanna Davison, and Diarmuid Gavin.
Sveriges Television, the Swedish public service broadcaster, aired a Swedish version called Vem tror du att du är? in 2009. Later that year, in May and June, they also aired the BBC episodes featuring Stephen Fry, Jeremy Irons, Nigella Lawson, John Hurt, and Jane Horrocks.
Also on 31 May 2009, South African station SABC2 premiered its version, split into two parts, featuring local personalities.
An American adaptation of the show premiered on 5 March 2010 on NBC. In Britain, this began airing on BBC One on Sunday 13 June 2010.
In 2010, the Dutch version called Verborgen Verleden (nl) ("Hidden Past '') of the show started. Thus far, ten series have been produced between 2010 and 2018. From 2005 to 2008, four series of the show Verre Verwanten ("Distant Relatives '') were shown on Dutch television.
In September 2010, the Danish TV station Danmarks Radio aired the first episode of the Danish version, called Ved du hvem du er?.
On 1 September 2010, France 2 aired two episodes of the French version, Retour aux Sources, featuring Vincent Pérez and Clémentine Célarié
In January 2011, the Norwegian TV station NRK started to air the Norwegian version, called Hvem tror du at du er?
Starting on 9 January 2012, Finland 's national public - broadcasting company, YLE, aired 15 episodes of the Finnish version, called Kuka oikein olet?, in which local public figures searched for their origins.
A furthering of the concept was developed for American public broadcast TV, called Finding Your Roots, with Henry Louis Gates. This series adds DNA profiling to the format; including Y - chromosome DNA, mitochondrial DNA and autosomal DNA analyses to infer both ancient and recent genetic relationships. The series started airing on 25 March 2012.
In January 2013, Czech broadcaster ČT started broadcasting their version of this show, called Tajemství rodu ("The secret of the lineage '').
Starting 15 January 2013, RTP1 broadcast a Portuguese version called Quem É que Tu Pensas Que És? ("Who Do You Think You Are? '') at the 10: 30 pm timeslot. The first season featured such names as the comedian Herman José, the actresses Maria do Céu Guerra and Maria João Abreu, the musician Zé Pedro from the Xutos & Pontapés rock band and the fadista Camané.
BBC Wales has a similar series called Coming Home, which is made by Yellow Duck Productions and features celebrities with a Welsh background. In 2007, Wall to Wall developed You Do n't Know You 're Born for ITV1. The series saw various celebrities taking on their ancestors ' jobs. UKTV broadcast My Famous Family in 2007.
A short parody sketch of the show featured in the first series of The Armstrong and Miller Show in which Alexander Armstrong plays a fictionalised version of himself, discovering that his paternal grandfather and maternal grandmother were a child molester and a brothel - owner, respectively.
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who won the gold metal for men's ice hockey in 2014 | Ice hockey at the 2014 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
The ice hockey competitions of the 2014 Winter Olympics were played at two venues, located 300 meters from each other, within the Olympic Park in Sochi, Russia. The Bolshoy Ice Dome, which seats 12,000, resembles a Fabergé egg. The Shayba Arena, seating 7,000, is a moveable structure that will be used after the games in another Russian city. Both venues are international sized (60 meters by 30 meters).
Twelve teams competed in the men 's tournament and eight teams in the women 's. The tournaments began 8 February 2014. The women 's concluded on 20 February and the men 's on 23 February.
Canada went undefeated throughout both the men and women 's tournaments and repeated as gold medalists, after winning both tournaments on home soil in Vancouver.
Teemu Selanne, at age 43 years and 234 days, became the oldest ice hockey player to win an Olympic medal, by being part of Team Finland 's bronze. He also holds the Olympic record for total ice hockey points, upping it to 43. He also shares the record for most appearances in ice hockey at the Olympics, with 2014 being his 6th Olympics.
In a drug test at the Olympics, Nicklas Bäckström 's A-sample indicated doping pseudoephedrine and he was prevented from playing in the final. The B - sample, analyzed after the final, also showed values above the allowed limit.
The tournament featured 12 countries, 9 qualifying through the IIHF World Ranking, and 3 through subsequent qualifying tournaments. The format was the same as 2010; there were three groups of 4 to determine seeding, with four rounds of elimination games. Each group winner received a bye into the second round, along with the best second place team while the remaining eight teams played a qualification game. Each quarter - final winner advanced to the semis with the winners playing for the gold medal, and the losers the bronze. The NHL has agreed to allow its players to participate in the tournament.
Qualification for the men 's tournament at the 2014 Winter Olympics was determined by the IIHF World Ranking following the 2012 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships. The top nine teams in the World Ranking received automatic berths into the Olympics, while all other teams had an opportunity to qualify for the remaining three spots in the Olympics.
The twelve nations played in three pools.
The women 's tournament ran from 8 to 20 February. Eight nations contested the gold. A new format was introduced, with the top 4 ranked teams in group A, with the next four in group B. The bottom two group A teams played the top 2 teams in group B in the quarter finals, where the winners played either the first or second place team in group A.
Qualification for the women 's tournament at the 2014 Winter Olympics was determined by the IIHF World Ranking following the 2012 IIHF Women 's World Championships. The top five teams in the World Ranking received automatic berths into the Olympics, Russia gained direct entry by being host and all other teams had an opportunity to qualify for the remaining two spots in the Olympics.
The eight nations played in two pools.
On December 6, 2017 six Russian ice hockey players were disqualified for doping violations resulting in the team being disqualified. Tatiana Burina and Anna Shukina were also disqualified ten days later.
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which are the most frequent cause of helminth infections in the united states | Helminthiasis - wikipedia
Helminthiasis (plural helminthiases), also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms. They often live in the gastrointestinal tract of their hosts, but they may also burrow into other organs, where they induce physiological damage.
Soil - transmitted helminthiasis and schistosomiasis are the most important helminthiases, and are among the neglected tropical diseases. This group of helmianthiases have been targeted under the joint action of the world 's leading pharmaceutical companies and non-governmental organizations through a project launched in 2012 called the London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases, which aims to control or eradicate certain neglected tropical diseases by 2020.
Helminthiasis has been found to result in poor birth outcome, poor cognitive development, poor school and work performance, poor socioeconomic development, and poverty. Chronic illness, malnutrition, and anemia are further examples of secondary effects.
Soil - transmitted helminthiases are responsible for parasitic infections in as much as a quarter of the human population worldwide. One well - known example of soil - transmitted helminthiases is ascariasis.
The signs and symptoms of helminthiasis depend on a number of factors including: the site of the infestation within the body; the type of worm involved; the number of worms and their volume; the type of damage the infesting worms cause; and, the immunological response of the body. Where the burden of parasites in the body is light, there may be no symptoms.
Certain worms may cause particular constellations of symptoms. For instance, taeniasis can lead to seizures due to neurocysticercosis.
In extreme cases of intestinal infestation, the mass and volume of the worms may cause the outer layers of the intestinal wall, such as the muscular layer, to tear. This may lead to peritonitis, volvulus, and gangrene of the intestine.
As pathogens in the body, helminths induce an immune response. Immune - mediated inflammatory changes occur in the skin, lung, liver, intestine, central nervous system, and eyes. Signs of the body 's immune response may include eosinophilia, edema, and arthritis. An example of the immune response is the hypersensitivity reaction that may lead to anaphylaxis. Another example is the migration of Ascaris larvae through the bronchi of the lungs causing asthma.
In humans, T helper cells and eosinophils respond to helminth infestation. Inflammation leads to encapsulation of egg deposits throughout the body. Helminths excrete into the intestine toxic substances after they feed. These substances then enter the circulatory and lymphatic systems of the host body.
Chronic immune responses to helminthiasis may lead to increased susceptibility to other infections such as tuberculosis, HIV, and malaria. There is conflicting information about whether deworming reduces HIV progression and viral load and increases CD4 counts in antiretroviral naive and experienced individuals.
Chronic helminthiasis may cause severe morbidity. Helminthiasis has been found to result in poor birth outcome, poor cognitive development, poor school and work performance, decreased productivity, poor socioeconomic development, and poverty.
Helminthiasis may cause chronic illness through malnutrition including vitamin deficiencies, stunted growth, anemia, and protein - energy malnutrition. Worms compete directly with their hosts for nutrients, but the magnitude of this effect is likely minimal as the nutritional requirements of worms is relatively small. In pigs and humans, Ascaris has been linked to lactose intolerance and vitamin A, amino acid, and fat malabsorption. Impaired nutrient uptake may result from direct damage to the intestinal mucosal wall or from more subtle changes such as chemical imbalances and changes in gut flora. Alternatively, the worms ' release of protease inhibitors to defend against the body 's digestive processes may impair the breakdown of other nutrients. In addition, worm induced diarrhoea may shorten gut transit time, thus reducing absorption of nutrients.
Malnutrition due to worms can give rise to anorexia. A study of 459 children in Zanzibar revealed spontaneous increases in appetite after deworming. Anorexia might be a result of the body 's immune response and the stress of combating infection. Specifically, some of the cytokines released in the immune response to worm infestation have been linked to anorexia in animals.
Helminths may cause iron - deficiency anemia. This is most severe in heavy hookworm infections, as Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale feed directly on the blood of their hosts. Although the daily consumption of an individual worm (0.02 -- 0.07 ml and 0.14 -- 0.26 ml respectively) is small, the collective consumption under heavy infection can be clinically significantly. Intestinal whipworm may also cause anemia. Anemia has also been associated with reduced stamina for physical labor, a decline in the ability to learn new information, and apathy, irritability, and fatigue. A study of the effect of deworming and iron supplementation in 47 students from the Democratic Republic of the Congo found that the intervention improved cognitive function. Another study found that in 159 Jamaican schoolchildren, deworming led to better auditory short - term memory and scanning and retrieval of long - term memory over a period of nine - weeks.
Malnutrition due to helminths may affect cognitive function leading to low educational performance, decreased concentration and difficulty with abstract cognitive tasks. Iron deficiency in infants and preschoolers is associated with "lower scores... on tests of mental and motor development... (as well as) increased fearfulness, inattentiveness, and decreased social responsiveness ''. Studies in the Philippines and Indonesia found a significant correlation between helminthiasis and decreased memory and fluency. Large parasite burdens, particularly severe hookworm infections, are also associated with absenteeism, under - enrollment, and attrition in school children.
Of all the known helminth species, the most important helminths with respect to understanding their transmission pathways, their control, inactivation and enumeration in samples of human excreta from dried feces, faecal sludge, wastewater, and sewage sludge are:
Helminthiases are classified as follows (the disease names end with "- sis '' and the causative worms are in brackets):
Helminths are transmitted to the final host in several ways. The most common infection is through ingestion of contaminated vegetables, drinking water, and raw or undercooked meat. Contaminated food may contain eggs of nematodes such as Ascaris, Enterobius, and Trichuris; cestodes such as Taenia, Hymenolepis, and Echinococcus; and treamtodes such as Fasciola. Raw or undercooked meats are the major sources of Taenia (pork, beef and venison), Trichinella (pork and bear), Diphyllobothrium (fish), Clonorchis (fish), and Paragonimus (crustaceans). Schistosomes and nematodes such as hookworms (Ancylostoma and Necator) and Strongyloides can penetrate the skin directly. Finally, Wuchereria, Onchocerca, and Dracunculus are transmitted by mosquitoes and flies. In the developing world, the use of contaminated water is a major risk factor for infection. Infection can also take place through the practice of geophagy, which is not uncommon in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Soil is eaten, for example, by children or pregnant women to counteract a real or perceived deficiency of minerals in their diet.
Specific helminths can be identified through microscopic examination of their eggs (ova) found in faecal samples. The number of eggs is measured in units of eggs per gram. However, it does not quantify mixed infections, and in practice, is inaccurate for quantifying the eggs of schistosomes and soil - transmitted helmiths. Sophisticated tests such as serological assays, antigen tests, and molecular diagnosis are also available; however, they are time - consuming, expensive and not always reliable.
Disrupting the cycle of the worm will prevent infestation and re-infestation. Prevention of infection can largely be achieved by addressing the issues of WASH -- water, sanitation and hygiene. The reduction of open defecation is particularly called for, as is stopping the use of human waste as fertilizer.
Further preventive measures include adherence to appropriate food hygiene, wearing of shoes, regular deworming of pets, and the proper disposal of their feces.
Scientists are also searching for a vaccine against helminths, such as a hookworm vaccine.
Broad - spectrum benzimidazoles (such as albendazole and mebendazole) are the first line treatment of intestinal roundworm and tapeworm infections. Macrocyclic lactones (such as ivermectin) are effective against adult and migrating larval stages of nematodes. Praziquantel is the drug of choice for schistosomiasis, taeniasis, and most types of food - borne trematodiases. Oxamniquine is also widely used in mass deworming programmes. Pyrantel is commonly used for veterinary nematodiasis. Artemisinins and derivatives are proving to be candidates as drugs of choice for trematodiasis.
In regions where helminthiasis is common, mass deworming treatments may be performed, particularly among school - age children, who are a high - risk group. Most of these initiatives are undertaken by the World Health Organization (WHO) with positive outcomes in many regions. Deworming programs can improve school attendance by 25 percent. Although deworming improves the health of an individual, outcomes from mass deworming campaigns, such as reduced deaths or increases in cognitive ability, nutritional benefits, physical growth, and performance, are uncertain or not apparent.
If complications of helminthiasis, such as intestinal obstruction occur, emergency surgery may be required. Patients who require non-emergency surgery, for instance for removal of worms from the biliary tree, can be pre-treated with the anthelmintic drug albendazole.
Areas with the highest prevalence of helminthiasis are tropical and subtropical areas including sub-Saharan Africa, central and east Asia, and the Americas.
Some types of helminthiases are classified as neglected tropical diseases. They include:
The soil - transmitted helminths (A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, N. americanus, A. duodenale), schistosomes, and filarial worms collectively infect more than a quarter of the human population worldwide at any one time, far surpassing HIV and malaria together. Schistosomiasis is the second most prevalent parasitic disease of humans after malaria.
In 2014 -- 15, the WHO estimated that approximately 2 billion people were infected with soil - transmitted helminthiases, 249 million with schistosomiasis, 56 million people with food - borne trematodiasis, 120 million with lymphatic filariasis, 37 million people with onchocerciasis, and 1 million people with echinococcosis. Another source estimated a much higher figure of 3.5 billion infected with one or more soil - transmitted helminths.
In 2014, only 148 people were reported to have dracunculiasis because of a successful eradication campaign for that particular helminth, which is easier to eradicate than other helminths as it is transmitted only by drinking contaminated water.
Because of their high mobility and lower standards of hygiene, school - age children are particularly vulnerable to helminthiasis. Most children from developing nations will have at least one infestation. Multi-species infections are very common.
Even in areas of high prevalence, the frequency and severity of infection is not uniform within communities or families. A small proportion of community members harbour the majority of worms, and this depends on age. The maximum worm burden is at five to ten years of age, declining rapidly thereafter. Individual predisposition to helminthiasis for people with the same sanitation infrastructure and hygiene behavior is thought to result from differing immunocompetence, nutritional status, and genetic factors. Because individuals are predisposed to a high or a low worm burden, the burden reacquired after successful treatment is proportional to that before treatment.
It is estimated that intestinal nematode infections cause 5 million disability - adjusted life years (DALYS) to be lost, of which hookworm infections account for more than 3 million DALYS and ascaris infections more than 1 million. There are also signs of progress: The Global Burden of Disease Study published in 2015 estimates a 46 percent (59 percent when age standardised) reduction in years lived with disability (YLD) for the 13 - year time period from 1990 to 2013 for all intestinal / nematode infections, and even a 74 percent (80 percent when age standardised) reduction in YLD from ascariasis.
As many as 135,000 die annually from soil transmitted helminthiasis.
The 1990 -- 2013 Global Burden of Disease Study estimated 5,500 direct deaths from schistosomiasis, while more than 200,000 people were estimated in 2013 to die annually from causes related to schistosomiasis. Another 20 million have severe consequences from the disease. It is the most deadly of the neglected tropical diseases.
807 to 1,121
604 -- 795
576 -- 740 (hookworm in general)
(210 "affected '')
200,000 indirect deaths from "causes related to '' Schistosomiasis
(all types of Taenia: 40 to 60)
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when did the merchant of venice take place | The Merchant of Venice - wikipedia
The Merchant of Venice is a 16th - century play by William Shakespeare in which a merchant in Venice must default on a large loan provided by an abused Jewish moneylender. It is believed to have been written between 1596 and 1599. Though classified as a comedy in the First Folio and sharing certain aspects with Shakespeare 's other romantic comedies, the play is perhaps most remembered for its dramatic scenes, and it is best known for Shylock and the famous "Hath not a Jew eyes? '' speech. Also notable is Portia 's speech about "the quality of mercy ''. Critic Harold Bloom listed it among Shakespeare 's great comedies.
Bassanio, a young Venetian of noble rank, wishes to woo the beautiful and wealthy heiress Portia of Belmont. Having squandered his estate, he needs 3,000 ducats to subsidise his expenditures as a suitor. Bassanio approaches his friend Antonio, a wealthy merchant of Venice who has previously and repeatedly bailed him out. Antonio agrees, but since he is cash - poor -- his ships and merchandise are busy at sea -- he promises to cover a bond if Bassanio can find a lender, so Bassanio turns to the Jewish moneylender Shylock and names Antonio as the loan 's guarantor.
Antonio has already antagonized Shylock through his outspoken antisemitism, and because Antonio 's habit of lending money without interest forces Shylock to charge lower rates. Shylock is at first reluctant to grant the loan, citing abuse he has suffered at Antonio 's hand. He finally agrees to lend the sum to Bassanio without interest upon one condition: if Bassanio is unable to repay it at the specified date, Shylock may take a pound of Antonio 's flesh. Bassanio does not want Antonio to accept such a risky condition; Antonio is surprised by what he sees as the moneylender 's generosity (no "usance '' -- interest -- is asked for), and he signs the contract. With money at hand, Bassanio leaves for Belmont with his friend Gratiano, who has asked to accompany him. Gratiano is a likeable young man, but is often flippant, overly talkative, and tactless. Bassanio warns his companion to exercise self - control, and the two leave for Belmont.
Meanwhile, in Belmont, Portia is awash with suitors. Her father left a will stipulating each of her suitors must choose correctly from one of three caskets -- one each of gold, silver and lead. If he picks the right casket, he gets Portia. The first suitor, the Prince of Morocco, chooses the gold casket, interpreting its slogan, "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire '', as referring to Portia. The second suitor, the conceited Prince of Arragon, chooses the silver casket, which proclaims, "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves '', as he believes he is full of merit. Both suitors leave empty - handed, having rejected the lead casket because of the baseness of its material and the uninviting nature of its slogan, "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath ''. The last suitor is Bassanio, whom Portia wishes to succeed, having met him before. As Bassanio ponders his choice, members of Portia 's household sing a song which says that "fancy '' (not true love) is "engend'red in the eyes, / With gazing fed ''; Bassanio chooses the lead casket and wins Portia 's hand.
At Venice, Antonio 's ships are reported lost at sea so the merchant can not repay the bond. Shylock has become more determined to exact revenge from Christians because his daughter Jessica eloped with the Christian Lorenzo and converted. She took a substantial amount of Shylock 's wealth with her, as well as a turquoise ring which Shylock had been given by his late wife, Leah. Shylock has Antonio brought before court.
At Belmont, Bassanio receives a letter telling him that Antonio has been unable to repay the loan from Shylock. Portia and Bassanio marry, as do Gratiano and Portia 's handmaid Nerissa. Bassanio and Gratiano leave for Venice, with money from Portia, to save Antonio 's life by offering the money to Shylock. Unknown to Bassanio and Gratiano, Portia sent her servant, Balthazar, to seek the counsel of Portia 's cousin, Bellario, a lawyer, at Padua.
The climax of the play takes place in the court of the Duke of Venice. Shylock refuses Bassanio 's offer of 6,000 ducats, twice the amount of the loan. He demands his pound of flesh from Antonio. The Duke, wishing to save Antonio but unable to nullify a contract, refers the case to a visitor. He identifies himself as Balthazar, a young male "doctor of the law '', bearing a letter of recommendation to the Duke from the learned lawyer Bellario. The doctor is Portia in disguise, and the law clerk who accompanies her is Nerissa, also disguised as a man. As Balthazar, Portia repeatedly asks Shylock to show mercy in a famous speech, advising him that mercy "is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes '' (IV, i, 185). However, Shylock adamantly refuses any compensations and insists on the pound of flesh.
As the court grants Shylock his bond and Antonio prepares for Shylock 's knife, Portia deftly appropriates Shylock 's argument for "specific performance ''. She says that the contract allows Shylock only to remove the flesh, not the "blood '', of Antonio (see quibble). Thus, if Shylock were to shed any drop of Antonio 's blood, his "lands and goods '' would be forfeited under Venetian laws. She tells him that he must cut precisely one pound of flesh, no more, no less; she advises him that "if the scale do turn, But in the estimation of a hair, Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate. ''
Defeated, Shylock concedes to accepting Bassanio 's offer of money for the defaulted bond, first his offer to pay "the bond thrice '', which Portia rebuffs, telling him to take his bond, and then merely the principal, which Portia also prevents him from doing on the ground that he has already refused it "in the open court ''. She cites a law under which Shylock, as a Jew and therefore an "alien '', having attempted to take the life of a citizen, has forfeited his property, half to the government and half to Antonio, leaving his life at the mercy of the Duke. The Duke pardons Shylock 's life. Antonio asks for his share "in use '' until Shylock 's death, when the principal will be given to Lorenzo and Jessica. At Antonio 's request, the Duke grants remission of the state 's half of forfeiture, but on the condition that Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath his entire estate to Lorenzo and Jessica (IV, i).
Bassanio does not recognise his disguised wife, but offers to give a present to the supposed lawyer. First she declines, but after he insists, Portia requests his ring and Antonio 's gloves. Antonio parts with his gloves without a second thought, but Bassanio gives the ring only after much persuasion from Antonio, as earlier in the play he promised his wife never to lose, sell or give it. Nerissa, as the lawyer 's clerk, succeeds in likewise retrieving her ring from Gratiano, who does not see through her disguise.
At Belmont, Portia and Nerissa taunt and pretend to accuse their husbands before revealing they were really the lawyer and his clerk in disguise (V). After all the other characters make amends, Antonio learns from Portia that three of his ships were not stranded and have returned safely after all.
The forfeit of a merchant 's deadly bond after standing surety for a friend 's loan was a common tale in England in the late 16th century. In addition, the test of the suitors at Belmont, the merchant 's rescue from the "pound of flesh '' penalty by his friend 's new wife disguised as a lawyer, and her demand for the betrothal ring in payment are all elements present in the 14th - century tale Il Pecorone by Giovanni Fiorentino, which was published in Milan in 1558. Elements of the trial scene are also found in The Orator by Alexandre Sylvane, published in translation in 1596. The story of the three caskets can be found in "Gesta Romanorum '', a collection of tales probably compiled at the end of the 13th century.
The date of composition for The Merchant of Venice is believed to be between 1596 and 1598. The play was mentioned by Francis Meres in 1598, so it must have been familiar on the stage by that date. The title page of the first edition in 1600 states that it had been performed "divers times '' by that date. Salerino 's reference to his ship the Andrew (I, i, 27) is thought to be an allusion to the Spanish ship St. Andrew, captured by the English at Cádiz in 1596. A date of 1596 -- 97 is considered consistent with the play 's style.
The play was entered in the Register of the Stationers Company, the method at that time of obtaining copyright for a new play, by James Roberts on 22 July 1598 under the title The Merchant of Venice, otherwise called The Jew of Venice. On 28 October 1600 Roberts transferred his right to the play to the stationer Thomas Heyes; Heyes published the first quarto before the end of the year. It was printed again in a pirated edition in 1619, as part of William Jaggard 's so - called False Folio. (Afterward, Thomas Heyes ' son and heir Laurence Heyes asked for and was granted a confirmation of his right to the play, on 8 July 1619.) The 1600 edition is generally regarded as being accurate and reliable. It is the basis of the text published in the 1623 First Folio, which adds a number of stage directions, mainly musical cues.
The play is frequently staged today, but is potentially troubling to modern audiences due to its central themes, which can easily appear antisemitic. Critics today still continue to argue over the play 's stance on the Jews and Judaism.
English society in the Elizabethan era has been described as "judeophobic ''. English Jews had been expelled under Edward I in 1290 and were not permitted to return until 1656 under the rule of Oliver Cromwell. In Venice and in some other places, Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to make sure that they were easily identified, and had to live in a ghetto protected by Christian guards.
Shakespeare 's play may be seen as a continuation of this tradition. The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day, which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe 's The Jew of Malta. One interpretation of the play 's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the vengefulness of a Jew, who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock 's forced conversion to Christianity to be a "happy ending '' for the character, as, to a Christian audience, it saves his soul and allows him to enter Heaven.
Regardless of what Shakespeare 's authorial intent may have been, the play has been made use of by antisemites throughout the play 's history. The Nazis used the usurious Shylock for their propaganda. Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, The Merchant of Venice was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the German airwaves. Productions of the play followed in Lübeck (1938), Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within the Nazi territory.
In a series of articles called Observer, first published in 1785, British playwright Richard Cumberland created a character named Abraham Abrahams who is quoted as saying, "I verily believe the odious character of Shylock has brought little less persecution upon us, poor scattered sons of Abraham, than the Inquisition itself. '' Cumberland later wrote a successful play, The Jew (1794), in which his title character, Sheva, is portrayed sympathetically, as both a kindhearted and generous man. This was the first known attempt by a dramatist to reverse the negative stereotype that Shylock personified.
The depiction of Jews in literature throughout the centuries bears the close imprint of Shylock. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as "a monied, cruel, lecherous, avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard ''.
Many modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance, noting that Shylock is a sympathetic character. They cite as evidence that Shylock 's "trial '' at the end of the play is a mockery of justice, with Portia acting as a judge when she has no right to do so. The characters who berated Shylock for dishonesty resort to trickery in order to win. In addition, Shakespeare gives Shylock one of his most eloquent speeches:
Salerio. Why, I am sure, if he forfeit, thou wilt not take his flesh. What 's that good for? Shylock. To bait fish withal; if it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. He hath disgraced me and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies -- and what 's his reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.
It is difficult to know whether the sympathetic reading of Shylock is entirely due to changing sensibilities among readers, or whether Shakespeare, a writer who created complex, multi-faceted characters, deliberately intended this reading.
One of the reasons for this interpretation is that Shylock 's painful status in Venetian society is emphasised. To some critics, Shylock 's celebrated "Hath not a Jew eyes? '' speech redeems him and even makes him into something of a tragic figure; in the speech, Shylock argues that he is no different from the Christian characters. Detractors note that Shylock ends the speech with a tone of revenge: "if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? '' Those who see the speech as sympathetic point out that Shylock says he learned the desire for revenge from the Christian characters: "If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction. ''
Even if Shakespeare did not intend the play to be read this way, the fact that it retains its power on stage for audiences who may perceive its central conflicts in radically different terms is an illustration of the subtlety of Shakespeare 's characterisations. In the trial Shylock represents what Elizabethan Christians believed to be the Jewish desire for "justice '', contrasted with their obviously superior Christian value of mercy. The Christians in the courtroom urge Shylock to love his enemies, although they themselves have failed in the past. Jewish critic Harold Bloom suggests that, although the play gives merit to both cases, the portraits are not even - handed: "Shylock 's shrewd indictment of Christian hypocrisy delights us, but... Shakespeare 's intimations do not alleviate the savagery of his portrait of the Jew... ''
Antonio 's unexplained depression -- "In sooth I know not why I am so sad '' -- and utter devotion to Bassanio has led some critics to theorise that he is suffering from unrequited love for Bassanio and is depressed because Bassanio is coming to an age where he will marry a woman. In his plays and poetry Shakespeare often depicted strong male bonds of varying homosociality, which has led some critics to infer that Bassanio returns Antonio 's affections despite his obligation to marry:
ANTONIO: Commend me to your honourable wife: Tell her the process of Antonio 's end, Say how I lov 'd you, speak me fair in death; And, when the tale is told, bid her be judge Whether Bassanio had not once a love. BASSANIO: But life itself, my wife, and all the world Are not with me esteemed above thy life; I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all Here to this devil, to deliver you. (IV, i)
In his essay "Brothers and Others '', published in The Dyer 's Hand, W.H. Auden describes Antonio as "a man whose emotional life, though his conduct may be chaste, is concentrated upon a member of his own sex. '' Antonio 's feelings for Bassanio are likened to a couplet from Shakespeare 's Sonnets: "But since she pricked thee out for women 's pleasure, / Mine be thy love, and my love 's use their treasure. '' Antonio, says Auden, embodies the words on Portia 's leaden casket: "Who chooseth me, must give and hazard all he hath. '' Antonio has taken this potentially fatal turn because he despairs, not only over the loss of Bassanio in marriage, but also because Bassanio can not requite what Antonio feels for him. Antonio 's frustrated devotion is a form of idolatry: the right to live is yielded for the sake of the loved one. There is one other such idolator in the play: Shylock himself. "Shylock, however unintentionally, did, in fact, hazard all for the sake of destroying the enemy he hated; and Antonio, however unthinkingly he signed the bond, hazarded all to secure the happiness of the man he loved. '' Both Antonio and Shylock, agreeing to put Antonio 's life at a forfeit, stand outside the normal bounds of society. There was, states Auden, a traditional "association of sodomy with usury '', reaching back at least as far as Dante, with which Shakespeare was likely familiar. (Auden sees the theme of usury in the play as a comment on human relations in a mercantile society.)
Other interpreters of the play regard Auden 's conception of Antonio 's sexual desire for Bassanio as questionable. Michael Radford, director of the 2004 film version starring Al Pacino, explained that although the film contains a scene where Antonio and Bassanio actually kiss, the friendship between the two is platonic, in line with the prevailing view of male friendship at the time. Jeremy Irons, in an interview, concurs with the director 's view and states that he did not "play Antonio as gay ''. Joseph Fiennes, however, who plays Bassanio, encouraged a homoerotic interpretation and, in fact, surprised Irons with the kiss on set, which was filmed in one take. Fiennes defended his choice, saying "I would never invent something before doing my detective work in the text. If you look at the choice of language... you 'll read very sensuous language. That 's the key for me in the relationship. The great thing about Shakespeare and why he 's so difficult to pin down is his ambiguity. He 's not saying they 're gay or they 're straight, he 's leaving it up to his actors. I feel there has to be a great love between the two characters... there 's great attraction. I do n't think they have slept together but that 's for the audience to decide. ''
The earliest performance of which a record has survived was held at the court of King James in the spring of 1605, followed by a second performance a few days later, but there is no record of any further performances in the 17th century. In 1701, George Granville staged a successful adaptation, titled The Jew of Venice, with Thomas Betterton as Bassanio. This version (which featured a masque) was popular, and was acted for the next forty years. Granville cut the clownish Gobbos in line with neoclassical decorum; he added a jail scene between Shylock and Antonio, and a more extended scene of toasting at a banquet scene. Thomas Doggett was Shylock, playing the role comically, perhaps even farcically. Rowe expressed doubts about this interpretation as early as 1709; Doggett 's success in the role meant that later productions would feature the troupe clown as Shylock.
In 1741, Charles Macklin returned to the original text in a very successful production at Drury Lane, paving the way for Edmund Kean seventy years later (see below).
Arthur Sullivan wrote incidental music for the play in 1871.
Jewish actor Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean, and that previously the role had been played "by a comedian as a repulsive clown or, alternatively, as a monster of unrelieved evil. '' Kean 's Shylock established his reputation as an actor.
From Kean 's time forward, all of the actors who have famously played the role, with the exception of Edwin Booth, who played Shylock as a simple villain, have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character; even Booth 's father, Junius Brutus Booth, played the role sympathetically. Henry Irving 's portrayal of an aristocratic, proud Shylock (first seen at the Lyceum in 1879, with Portia played by Ellen Terry) has been called "the summit of his career ''. Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century: Adler played the role in Yiddish - language translation, first in Manhattan 's Yiddish Theater District in the Lower East Side, and later on Broadway, where, to great acclaim, he performed the role in Yiddish in an otherwise English - language production.
Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge; Adler 's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role, first as a stock Shakespearean villain, then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge, and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride. In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine, Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man, "rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats '' and that Antonio is "far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear. He has insulted the Jew and spat on him, yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him. '' Shylock 's fatal flaw is to depend on the law, but "would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect, the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn? ''
Some modern productions take further pains to show the sources of Shylock 's thirst for vengeance. For instance, in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock, the film begins with text and a montage of how Venetian Jews are cruelly abused by bigoted Christians. One of the last shots of the film also brings attention to the fact that, as a convert, Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice, no longer allowed to live in the ghetto. Another interpretation of Shylock and a vision of how "must he be acted '' appears at the conclusion of the autobiography of Alexander Granach, a noted Jewish stage and film actor in Weimar Germany (and later in Hollywood and on Broadway).
The Shakespeare play has inspired several films.
The play contains the earliest known use of the phrase "with bated breath '' (by Shylock, in Act I, Scene 3, "Shall I bend low and, in a bondman 's key, / With bated breath and whisp'ring humbleness, / Say this... ''), which has come into common use to convey the idea of restraining one 's breathing in anticipation or supplicance (in which the archaic "bated '' is often misidentified as "baited '' in modern usage).
Arnold Wesker 's play The Merchant tells the same story from Shylock 's point of view. In this retelling, Shylock and Antonio are fast friends bound by a mutual love of books and culture and a disdain for the crass anti-Semitism of the Christian community 's laws. They make the bond in defiant mockery of the Christian establishment, never anticipating that the bond might become forfeit. When it does, the play argues, Shylock must carry through on the letter of the law or jeopardise the scant legal security of the entire Jewish community. He is, therefore, quite as grateful as Antonio when Portia, as in Shakespeare 's play, shows the legal way out. The play received its American premiere on 16 November 1977 at New York 's Plymouth Theatre, with Joseph Leon as Shylock and Marian Seldes as Shylock 's sister Rivka. This production had a challenging history in previews on the road, culminating (after the first night out of town in Philadelphia on 8 September 1977) with the death of the larger - than - life Broadway star Zero Mostel, who was initially cast as Shylock. The play 's author, Arnold Wesker, wrote a book chronicling the out - of - town tribulations that beset the play and Zero 's death called The Birth of Shylock and the Death of Zero Mostel.
David Henry Wilson 's play Shylock 's Revenge, which was first performed by The University Players at the Audimax (University of Hamburg) on 9 June 1989, can be seen as a full - length sequel to Shakespeare 's drama.
The title of the film Seven Pounds is a reference to the "pound of flesh '' from the play.
Edmond Haraucourt, the French playwright and poet, was commissioned in the 1880s by the actor and theatrical director Paul Porel to make a French - verse adaptation of The Merchant of Venice. His play Shylock, first performed at the Théâtre de l'Odéon in December 1889, had incidental music by the French composer Gabriel Fauré, later incorporated into an orchestral suite of the same name.
One of the four short stories comprising Alan Isler 's Op Non Cit is also told from Shylock 's point of view. In this story, Antonio was a boy of Jewish origin kidnapped at an early age by priests.
Ralph Vaughan Williams ' choral work Serenade to Music draws its text from the discussion about music and the music of the spheres in Act V, scene 1.
In both versions of the comic film To Be or Not to Be the character "Greenberg '', specified as a Jew only in the later version, gives a recitation of the "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech to Nazi soldiers.
In The Pianist, Henryk Szpilman quotes a passage from Shylock 's "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech to his brother Władysław Szpilman in a Jewish ghetto in Warsaw, Poland, during the Nazi occupation in World War II. Given the questioning of Antisemitism in the speech and also the Nazi use of the play for antisemitic propaganda purposes, the quote is seen as particularly poignant and symbolic.
Steven Spielberg 's Schindler 's List depicts SS Lieutenant Amon Göth quoting Shylock 's "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech when deciding whether or not to rape his Jewish maid.
The rock musical Fire Angel was based on the story of the play, with the scene changed to the Little Italy district of New York. It was performed in Edinburgh in 1974 and in a revised form at Her Majesty 's Theatre, London, in 1977.
Christopher Moore combines The Merchant of Venice and Othello in his 2014 comic novel The Serpent of Venice, in which he makes Portia (from The Merchant of Venice) and Desdemona (from Othello) sisters. All of the characters come from those two plays with the exception of Pocket, the Fool, who comes from Moore 's earlier novel based on King Lear.
Jane Lindskold 's book Changer contains a scene in which the protagonists consider "using Portia 's gambit from The Merchant of Venice '' to escape from a situation and binding contract analogous to Antonio 's.
In its article "Unconventional Director Sets Shakespeare Play In Time, Place Shakespeare Intended '', the online satirical news site The Onion satirized the contemporary fashion of altering the play 's setting.
The play has been quoted and paraphrased several times in the Star Trek Universe:
In the film OSS 117: Lost in Rio, the final speech of Von Zimmel parodies Shylock 's tirade.
In the Brazilian film A Dog 's Will, the marriage bargain involving a lump - sum payment or the skin off Chicó 's back is foiled by reference to the legal contrivance familiar from the play -- that is, the skin may be owing but not a drop of blood must be taken with it.
In Hey Arnold! episode, "Eating Contest / Rhonda 's Glasses, '' Rhonda, becoming fed up with the treatment toward the geeks, yells "If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh?, '' a direct quote from Shylock 's famous speech.
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what was needed to keep the southern states in the union during the constitutional convention | Corwin Amendment - wikipedia
The Corwin Amendment is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would shield "domestic institutions '' of the states (which in 1861 included slavery) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress. It was passed by the 36th Congress on March 2, 1861, and submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. Senator William H. Seward of New York introduced the amendment in the Senate and Representative Thomas Corwin of Ohio introduced it in the House of Representatives. Prior to the American Civil War, it was one of several measures considered by Congress in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to attract the seceding states back into the Union and in an attempt to entice border slave states to stay.
No amendment shall be made to the Constitution which will authorize or give to Congress the power to abolish or interfere, within any State, with the domestic institutions thereof, including that of persons held to labor or service by the laws of said State.
The text refers to slavery with terms such as "domestic institutions '' and "persons held to labor or service '' and avoids using the word "slavery '', following the example set at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which referred to slavery in its draft of the Constitution with comparable descriptions of legal status: "Person held to Service '', "the whole Number of free Persons..., three fifths of all other Persons '', "The Migration and Importation of such Persons ''.
In the Congressional session that began in December 1860, more than 200 resolutions with respect to slavery, including 57 resolutions proposing constitutional amendments, were introduced in Congress. Most represented compromises designed to avert military conflict. Senator Jefferson Davis, a Democrat from Mississippi, proposed one that explicitly protected property rights in slaves. A group of House members proposed a national convention to accomplish secession as a "dignified, peaceful, and fair separation '' that could settle questions like the equitable distribution of the federal government 's assets and rights to navigate the Mississippi River.
On February 27, 1861, the House of Representatives considered the following text of a proposed constitutional amendment:
No amendment of this Constitution, having for its object any interference within the States with the relations between their citizens and those described in second section of the first article of the Constitution as "all other persons '', shall originate with any State that does not recognize that relation within its own limits, or shall be valid without the assent of every one of the States composing the Union.
Corwin proposed his own text as a substitute and those who opposed him failed on a vote of 68 to 121. The House then declined to give the resolution the required two - thirds vote, with a tally of 120 to 61, and then of 123 to 71. On February 28, 1861, however, the House approved Corwin 's version by a vote of 133 to 65. The contentious debate in the House was relieved by abolitionist Republican Owen Lovejoy of Illinois, who questioned the amendment 's reach: "Does that include polygamy, the other twin relic of barbarism? '' Missouri Democrat John S. Phelps answered: "Does the gentleman desire to know whether he shall be prohibited from committing that crime? ''
On March 2, 1861, the United States Senate adopted it, with no changes, on a vote of 24 to 12. Since proposed constitutional amendments require a two - thirds majority, 132 votes were required in the House and 24 in the Senate. The Senators and Representatives from the seven slave states that had already declared their secession from the Union did not vote on the Corwin Amendment. The resolution called for the amendment to be submitted to the state legislatures and to be adopted "when ratified by three - fourths of said Legislatures. '' Its supporters believed that the Corwin Amendment had a greater chance of success in the legislatures of the Southern states than would have been the case in state ratifying conventions, since state conventions were being conducted throughout the South at which votes to secede from the Union were successful -- just as Congress was considering the Corwin Amendment.
The Corwin Amendment was the second proposed "Thirteenth Amendment '' submitted to the states by Congress. The first was the similarly ill - fated Titles of Nobility Amendment in 1810.
Out - going President James Buchanan endorsed the Corwin Amendment by taking the unprecedented step of signing it. His signature on the Congressional joint resolution was unnecessary, as the President has no formal role in the constitutional amendment process.
Abraham Lincoln, in his first inaugural address on March 4, said of the Corwin Amendment:
I understand a proposed amendment to the Constitution -- which amendment, however, I have not seen -- has passed Congress, to the effect that the Federal Government shall never interfere with the domestic institutions of the States, including that of persons held to service... holding such a provision to now be implied constitutional law, I have no objection to its being made express and irrevocable.
Just weeks prior to the outbreak of the Civil War, Lincoln sent a letter to each state 's governor transmitting the proposed amendment, noting that Buchanan had approved it.
On February 8, 1864, during the 38th Congress, with the prospects for a Union victory improving, Republican Senator Henry B. Anthony of Rhode Island introduced Senate (Joint) Resolution No. 25 to withdraw the Corwin Amendment from further consideration by the state legislatures and to halt the ratification process. That same day, Anthony 's joint resolution was referred to the Senate 's Committee on the Judiciary. On May 11, 1864, Illinois Senator Lyman Trumbull, Chairman of the Judiciary Committee, received the Senate 's permission to discharge Senate (Joint) Resolution No. 25 from the Committee, with no further action having been taken on Anthony 's joint resolution.
The Corwin Amendment was ratified by:
The Restored Government of Virginia, consisting mostly of representatives of what would become West Virginia, voted to approve the amendment on February 13, 1862. However, West Virginia did not ratify the amendment after it became a state in 1863.
In 1963, more than a century after the Corwin Amendment was submitted to the state legislatures by the Congress, a joint resolution to ratify it was introduced in the Texas House of Representatives by Dallas Republican Henry Stollenwerck. The joint resolution was referred to the House 's Committee on Constitutional Amendments on March 7, 1963, but received no further consideration.
The Corwin Amendment, when viewed through the lens of the plain meaning rule (literal rule), would have, had it been ratified by the required number of states prior to 1865, made institutionalized slavery immune to the constitutional amendment procedures and to interference by Congress. As a result, the later Reconstruction Amendments (Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth) would not have been permissible, as they abolish or interfere with the domestic institution of the states. A competing theory, however, suggests that a later amendment conflicting with an already - ratified Corwin Amendment could either explicitly repeal the Corwin Amendment (as the Twenty - first Amendment explicitly repealed the Eighteenth Amendment) or be inferred to have partially or completely repealed any conflicting provisions of an already - adopted Corwin Amendment.
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which countries were on each side in ww1 | Participants in World war I - wikipedia
This is a list of countries that participated in World War I, sorted by alphabetical order.
The "Entente Powers '' are also known as the Allies of World War I or the Allies
The following table shows the timeline of the several declarations of war among the belligerent powers. Entries on a yellow background show severed diplomatic relations only, not actual declarations of war.
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orange is the new black crazy eyes backstory | Crazy Eyes (character) - wikipedia
Suzanne "Crazy Eyes '' Warren is a fictional character played by Uzo Aduba on the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black. Warren is portrayed as intelligent, but lacking in social skills, and prone to spiral into emotional outbursts when agitated, as well as hallucinations and delusions, due to mental illness. The character is the only role that has received Emmy Award recognition in both the comedy and drama genres from the same show and the second character to earn Emmy recognition in both genres. Aduba won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series as well as the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Guest Performer in a Comedy Series for her season one performance. She received the Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series for her season two performance. Her season three performance again won Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series. She is a recurring character in season one and a regular character beginning with season two.
In season one, Aduba is credited for 11 of the 13 episodes (not the first or seventh), although she appears in the first episode via footage filmed from another episode.
In season two, episode three ("Hugs Can Be Deceiving ''), Eden Wiggins, and Taliyah Whitaker portray the 10 - year - old and 5 - year - old versions of Warren. Throughout the first two seasons, it is shown that Warren aspires "to be included '' and "to make friends and be valued ''. The character is known for her bantu knots, an awkward grin, and her crazy eyes.
Suzanne is fixated on Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling) at the beginning of the season. When Chapman, who has offended prison matriarch Red (Kate Mulgrew), seems hopelessly isolated, Suzanne is the only inmate not too intimidated to help her. She helps Chapman by getting jalapeños, so she can put them in a medicinal lotion for Red 's sore back, and Red forgives Chapman. Suzanne nicknames Chapman "Dandelion '', because of her blonde hair and puts in a request to become Chapman 's bunkmate. Nonetheless, Chapman resists her advances. As a result, Suzanne urinates on the floor in Chapman 's bunk quarters. In episode 9, "Fucksgiving '', her white adoptive parents, Pat and Dennis Warren, are introduced.
As she rebounds from her unrequited love for Chapman, Suzanne is befriended by veteran inmate Yvonne "Vee '' Parker (Lorraine Toussaint) as Vee develops her powerbase in the prison. Vee takes advantage of Suzanne 's desperation for affection, and Suzanne becomes Vee 's fanatically loyal right - hand woman. Suzanne serves Vee as muscle, even beating up her friend Poussey Washington (Samira Wiley) on Vee 's orders. When Vee attacks prison matriarch Galina "Red '' Reznikov (Kate Mulgrew) and puts her in the hospital ward, she manipulates Suzanne into believing that she committed the crime. Suzanne gives a statement to prison officials confessing to the attack, but inmate counselor Sam Healy (Michael J. Harney) produces evidence that exonerates her. When she realizes that Vee used her, she breaks into tears.
In episode 3, "Hugs Can Be Deceiving '', Suzanne 's backstory is revealed via a flashback. She was adopted by white parents and raised in the suburbs, but her mental instability alienated her classmates and their parents alike. Her adoptive mother pushed her to excel at everything she did to prove that she was as good as everyone else; ironically, the constant pressure only made Suzanne 's psychological problems worse. In the same episode, it is revealed that Suzanne had run outside and knocked Chapman unconscious after Chapman had beaten Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett (Taryn Manning) unconscious at the end of season 1.
In season 3, Taystee has her hands full trying to control Suzanne, who is still grieving Vee 's death and is unstable, prone to losing her temper and constantly fighting with Poussey. Eventually, she turns to new prison counsellor Berdie Rogers 's drama class. There, she begins writing a surrealistic science - fiction erotica series called "The Time Hump Chronicles '' which, although considered obscene and strange by both Rogers and Taystee, becomes an instant hit amongst the inmates. Although they prove to be therapeutic for her mental health, Suzanne becomes stressed and irritated with the constant harassment by the other inmates for more material, the persistent ideas that are being floated past her and the fan - fiction that is left at her bunk or lying around. Soon, some of the extracts find their way into the hands of the COs, resulting in Officer Donaldson being mocked by both his colleagues and the inmates alike upon the realization that he is the inspiration for one of the characters. This leads to Rogers ' suspension. Meanwhile, Suzanne is taken by surprise when she discovers that one of her more prolific fans, Maureen Kukudio, is actually interested in her romantically. Suzanne seeks advice from Lorna about how to respond; she admits she finds Maureen attractive, but she has never had a girlfriend before and subsequently feels she must back away from a sexual liaison. In the season finale, Suzanne assists Poussey and Taystee in caring for Brook Soso, whom they discover unconscious from a drug overdose, and develops a closer bond with Maureen in the final scene, owing to a misunderstanding over a turtle that bites Maureen 's foot.
In season 4 it is revealed that Suzanne 's crime was kidnapping and accidental manslaughter of a child she grew friendly with while working as a store greeter. Believing that she and the boy were simply being friends, she did not realize the implications of her actions when she came across him playing in the park and invited him to her apartment for ice cream and video games. The boy went willingly, but soon became frightened and wanted to call his dad. While Suzanne is out of the room preparing for what she plans as more fun, he calls 911. Suzanne becomes agitated as she tells him that 911 should only be called when there is an emergency. The child panics and tries to get away. He goes onto the fire escape and falls to his death. It is mentioned that she took a plea deal. When the inmates take advantage of a temporary lack of security and enjoy the nearby lake and woods, Kukudio insists that she and Suzanne run away together. Suzanne refuses and their relationship becomes rocky. In "People Persons '', CO Humphrey commands the two of them to fight. Suzanne rejects this but Maureen, who wants to fight, provokes her by launching into a stream of insults. Suzanne fully retaliates by throwing Maureen to the ground and beating her repeatedly, until the Dominicans pull her off. This fight leads her to extreme guilt and a wish to punish herself. She demonstrates this especially when a peaceful protest in the jail cafeteria turns into a chaotic scene and Poussey Washington dies by suffocation. Whilst the inmates grieve over her death, Suzanne believes that Poussey is alive and tries numerous times to suffocate herself. Finally, she is sent to Medical and is placed in a bed next to Kukudio.
In season five, Suzanne continues to recover from her injuries and also goes out of her way to help Maureen, whose injuries are severe. She continues to believe that Poussey 's spirit is trying to talk to her and performs a seance on the spot in the cafeteria where Poussey died. Lorna and Nicky take over the dispensation of meds; Lorna refuses to give Suzanne hers, pressuring her to believe she no longer needs them. As a result, Suzanne 's grasp on reality soon spirals out of control, especially when she tears down fiberboard in the dorm ceiling, trying to find "heaven ''. Cindy intervenes but, not knowing the correct prescriptions, feeds Suzanne lithium instead. Suzanne becomes catatonic but is subsequently revived by an epipen.
According to Tom Meltzer of The Guardian, "Shakespeare - quoting loner ' Crazy Eyes ' invites pity, shock, reproach and belly - laughs in equal measure. '' The Huffington Post Canada entertainment editor Chris Jancelewicz, noted that after the first six episodes of season two, he was impressed by this appropriately nicknamed character: "Girl is crazy, and Aduba is genuinely frightening in the role. You ca n't tell if she 's harmless or secretly plotting Piper 's death ''.
Aduba won Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards as well as Best Guest Performer in a Comedy Series at the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Awards and was nominated for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 18th Satellite Awards for her season 1 performance.
Aduba 's season 2 performance earned her the Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards and a nomination Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards. At the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards, due to recent rule changes, the show was forced to compete as a drama series rather than a comedy one and Aduba was nominated and won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Previously, Lou Grant played by Ed Asner was the only character for whom an actor had won both drama and comedy Emmy recognition (but in different shows). She also earned a nomination at the 46th NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series.
Aduba 's season 3 performance earned another Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series win for the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards. She earned a second nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series at the 47th NAACP Image Awards. She also earned a Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards.
At the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, Aduba was again nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
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what the bible says about the blind leading the blind | The blind leading the blind - wikipedia
"The blind leading the blind '' is an idiom and a metaphor in the form of a parallel phrase, it is used to describe a situation where a person who knows nothing is getting advice and help from another person who knows almost nothing. It can be traced back to the Upanishads, which were written between 800 BCE and 200 BCE.
Abiding in the midst of ignorance, thinking themselves wise and learned, fools go aimlessly hither and thither, like blind led by the blind.
A similar metaphor exists in the Buddhist Pali Canon, composed in North India, and preserved orally until it was committed to writing during the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in 29 BCE.
Suppose there were a row of blind men, each holding on to the one in front of him: the first one does n't see, the middle one does n't see, the last one does n't see. In the same way, the statement of the Brahmans turns out to be a row of blind men, as it were: the first one does n't see, the middle one does n't see, the last one does n't see.
The expression appears in Horace: Caecus caeco dux ("the blind leader of the blind ''). Horace was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (27 BCE -- 14 CE)
The saying appears several times in the Bible with similar stories appearing in the gospels of Matthew, Luke and Thomas, possibly via the Q source.
"Every plant that my heavenly Father has not planted will be pulled up by the roots. Leave them; they are blind guides (of the blind). If a blind man leads a blind man, both will fall into a pit. ''
Sextus Empiricus (160 -- 210CE) compares ignorant teachers and blind guides in Outlines of Scepticism:
"Nor does the non-expert teach the non-expert - any more than the blind can lead the blind. ''
The phrase appears in Adagia, an annotated collection of Greek and Latin proverbs, compiled during the Renaissance by Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus. The first edition, titled Collectanea Adagiorum, was published in Paris in 1500 CE.
Perhaps the most famous artistic depiction of the phrase is Pieter Bruegel 's The Blind Leading the Blind. Little is known about Bruegel 's life, although he frequently depicted scenes of rustic life. The distemper on canvas painting was completed in 1568, and is currently in the collection of the Museo di Capodimonte in Naples, Italy.
"Blind Leading the Blind '' is a song by Lynsey de Paul. It was the ' B ' side of her 1973 single, All Night.
"Blind leading the blind '' was a song written by Mick Jagger, performed by Mick Jagger and Dave Stewart for the soundtrack of the 2004 film Alfie.
In a notable episode of Sex and the City Samantha tells Carrie that giving her advice is like ' the blind leading the blind '.
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which of the following is not part of a tooth | Pulp (tooth) - wikipedia
The dental pulp is the part in the center of a tooth made up of living connective tissue and cells called odontoblasts. The dental pulp is a part of the dentin -- pulp complex (endodontium). The vitality of the dentin - pulp complex, both during health and after injury, depends on pulp cell activity and the signaling processes that regulate the cell 's behavior.
The pulp is the neurovascular bundle central to each tooth, permanent or primary. It comprises a central pulp chamber, pulp horns and radicular canals. The large mass of pulp is contained within the pulp chamber, which is contained in and mimics the overall shape of the crown of the tooth. Because of continuous deposition of dentin, the pulp chamber becomes smaller with age. This is not uniform throughout the coronal pulp but progresses faster on the floor than on the roof or side walls.
Radicular pulp canals extend down from the cervical region of the crown to the root apex. They are not always straight but vary in shape, size and number. They are continuous with the periapical tissues through the apical foramen or foramina.
The total volumes of all the permanent teeth organs is 0.38 cc and the mean volume of a single adult human pulp is 0.02 cc.
Accessory canals are pathways from the radicular pulp, extending laterally through the dentin to the periodontal tissue seen especially in the apical third of the root. Accessory canals are also called lateral canals, because they are usually located on the lateral surface of the roots of the teeth.
The pulp has a background similar to that of dentin, because both are derived from the dental papilla of the tooth germ. During odontogenesis, when the dentin forms around the dental papilla, the innermost tissue is considered pulp.
The central region of the coronal and radicular pulp contains large nerve trunks and blood vessels.
This area is lined peripherally by a specialized odontogenic area which has four layers (from innermost to outermost):
Cells found in the dental pulp include fibroblasts (the principal cell), odontoblasts, defence cells like histiocytes, macrophage, granulocytes, mast cells and plasma cells. The nerve plexus of Raschkow is located central to the cell - rich zone.
The plexus of Raschkow monitors painful sensations. By virtue of their peptide content they also play important functions in inflammatory events and subsequent tissue repair. There are two types of nerve fiber that mediate the sensation of pain: A-fibers conduct rapid and sharp pain sensations and belong to the myelinated group, whereas C - fibers are involved in dull aching pain and are thinner and unmyelinated. The A-fibers, mainly of the A-delta type, are preferentially located in the periphery of the pulp, where they are in close association with the odontoblasts and extend fibers to many but not all dentinal tubules. The C - fibers typically terminate in the pulp tissue proper, either as free nerve endings or as branches around blood vessels.
The primary function of the dental pulp is to form dentin (by the odontoblasts).
Other functions include:
Dental pulp testing is an investigation that is used to assess the pulpal vitality. This assessment is crucial in order to plan the most suitable endodontic treatment for the tooth. Traditionally, the pulp 's condition is inspected via a pulp sensibility test, which extrapolates pulpal status based on its sensory response towards stimuli such as heat and cold. Listed are the diagnostic techniques most commonly used to assess the pulpal sensitivity:
1. Thermal Test
a. Heat test -- A heated Gutta - Percha stick is the most commonly used method for heat testing.
b. Cold Test -- Ethyl Chloride, frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) and Dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon) are used as cold testing material.
2. Electric pulp testing -- Health status of the pulp is tested by electrical excitations of neural elements within the pulp.
3. Anaesthesia testing -- A single tooth is anaesthetized at a time until the pain is diminished. If the pain continues, the procedure is repeated to the next tooth mesial to it. It is continued until the pain is gone. If source of pain can not be determined, the same technique on the opposite arch is repeated.
4. Bite test -- In this test patient is asked to bite on a hard object such as cotton swab, tooth pick, or orange wood stick. Pain on biting may indicate a fractured tooth.
5. Test Cavity -- This technique is only used when the results produced by all other methods above are inconclusive. High speed burs are used to make the test cavity. Patient is asked whether painful sensation is felt during drilling. Pulpal vitality is indicated if there is any sensitivity or pain felt by the patient.
However, these traditional testing methods have some disadvantages compared to the pulp vitality test in which the pulp blood circulation is evaluated instead. Major limitations of the traditional pulp sensitivity test include:
Recent studies have suggested that blood circulation is the most reliable factor in testing the pulp 's vitality. The recent diagnostic methods to assess the vascular response of the pulp include:
1. Laser Doppler Flowmetry
2. Pulse Oximetry
3. Dual Wavelength Spectrophotometry
A mild to moderate inflammation of dental pulp caused by any momentary irritation or stimulant whereby no pain is felt upon removal of stimulants. Nevertheless, there is no significant radiographic changes in the periapical region hence further examination is mandatory to ensure that the dental pulp has returned to its normal healthy state.
- Bacterial infection from caries
- Thermal shock
- Trauma
- Excessive dehydration of a cavity during restoration
- Irritation of exposed dentine
- Temporary post-restoration sensitivity
- Short sharp pain due to a stimulant
- Regular check - ups for carcinogenic or non-carcinogenic caries
- When preparing cavities, dehydrate with adequate amount of alcohol or chloroform and apply enough varnish to protect the pulp
Pain occurs spontaneously if the reversible pulpitis has n't been treated well leaving the cause of inflammation. Usually occurs as a result of cracked tooth following trauma, extensive restorations, dental caries. Incapable of healing and hence root canal treatment is required. It can present as symptomatic irreversible pulpitis or asymptomatic irreversible pulpitis.
Symptoms
The intensity of pain varies at different temperatures. A person may experience
Treatments: Require endodontic (root canal) treatment or tooth extraction. In endodontic therapy, removal of the inflamed pulp relieves the pain. The empty root canal system is then obturated with Gutta - Percha which is a rubber material that acts as a pressure and pain reliever.
Pulp acts as a security and alarm system for a tooth. Slight decay in tooth structure not extending to the dentin may not alarm the pulp but as the dentin gets exposed, either due to dental caries or trauma, sensitivity starts. The dentinal tubules pass the stimulus to odontoblastic layer of the pulp which in turns triggers the response. This mainly responds to cold. At this stage simple restorations can be performed for treatment. As the decay progresses near the pulp the response also magnifies and sensation to a hot diet as well as cold gets louder. At this stage indirect pulp capping might work for treatment but at times it is impossible to clinically diagnose the extent of decay, pulpitis may elicit at this stage. Carious dentin by dental decay progressing to pulp may get fractured during mastication (chewing food) causing direct trauma to the pulp hence eliciting pulpitis.
The inflammation of the pulp is known as pulpitis. Pulpitis can be extremely painful and in serious cases calls for root canal therapy or endodontic therapy. Traumatized pulp starts an inflammatory response but due to the hard and closed surroundings of the pulp pressure builds inside the pulp chamber compressing the nerve fibres and eliciting extreme pain (acute pulpitis). At this stage the death of the pulp starts which eventually progresses to periapical abscess formation (chronic pulpitis).
The pulp horns recede with age. Also with increased age, the pulp undergoes a decrease in intercellular substance, water, and cells as it fills with an increased amount of collagen fibers. This decrease in cells is especially evident in the reduced number of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells. Thus, the pulp becomes more fibrotic with increased age, leading to a reduction in the regenerative capacity of the pulp due its loss of these cells. Also, the overall pulp cavity may be smaller by the addition of secondary or tertiary dentin, thus causing pulp recession. The lack of sensitivity associated with older teeth is due to receded pulp horns, pulp fibrosis, addition of dentin, or possibly all these age - related changes; many times restorative treatment can be performed without local anesthesia on older dentitions.
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who has the most assists in the premier league ever | Premier League records and statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League since then.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the start of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2017 -- 18 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2017 -- 18:
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who pitched the first game of the world series 2017 | 2017 World Series - wikipedia
The 2017 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball 's (MLB) 2017 season. The 113th edition of the World Series, it was played between October 24 and November 1. The series was a best - of - seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Los Angeles Dodgers and the American League (AL) champion Houston Astros. It was sponsored by the internet television service YouTube TV and officially known as the World Series presented by YouTube TV.
The Astros defeated the Dodgers, four games to three, to win their first World Series in franchise history, and the first team from Texas to do so. Both teams set a World Series record with a combined total of 25 home runs throughout the entire series, including a team record 15 home runs by the Astros, and hit a combined total of eight home runs in Game 2 to set the single game World Series mark. Houston outfielder George Springer was named as the World Series Most Valuable Player (MVP) after hitting five home runs in the series to tie a World Series record with Reggie Jackson in 1977 and Dodgers ' 2017 World Series representative Chase Utley in 2009 when he played for the Philadelphia Phillies.
This was the first World Series in which home - field advantage was decided by the regular season record of pennant winners. From 1903 to 2002, home - field advantage alternated between the AL and NL, and from 2003 to 2016, it was determined by results from that season 's All - Star Game, when it was awarded to the team from the winning league. With 104 regular season wins, the Dodgers earned home - field advantage over the Astros, who had 101 regular season wins. The series was played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format, with the Dodgers hosting Games 1, 2, 6, and 7; and the Astros hosting Games 3, 4, and 5.
This was the first World Series matchup, and second postseason meeting overall, between the Astros and Dodgers. Los Angeles defeated Houston in the 1981 National League Division Series in five games en route to its World Series championship that year. The teams also met in the 1980 National League West tie - breaker game. This was the first Fall Classic since 1970, and the eighth overall, in which both participants had 100 or more wins during the regular season.
With the Astros and Dodgers having waited a combined 84 years for a championship (the Dodgers last won the World Series in 1988, and the Astros had never won since their 1962 formation), this was the third straight year in which the World Series teams had waited a combined 50 years or more to win a World Series, following 2015 at 59 years and 2016 at 176 years. Both teams had not lost at home this postseason leading to the World Series. The two teams did not meet in interleague play during the regular season. This was also the third consecutive World Series to extend into November, although the 2015 World Series did not go up to Game 7.
The Dodgers held a 91 -- 36 record through August 25. However, a late season slump, in which the team lost 20 of 25 games (highlighted by 11 straight losses), led to questions about whether the Dodgers would succeed in the postseason. Despite the slump, the team recovered to win eight of its final ten regular season games, securing their fifth consecutive National League West title and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. In the postseason, the Dodgers swept the Arizona Diamondbacks in the National League Division Series and defeated the defending World Series champion Chicago Cubs in the previous year 's rematch of the National League Championship Series in five games. This was the first appearance in the Fall Classic for the Dodgers since 1988, the tenth since the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles in 1958, and the 19th overall.
Entering the 2017 World Series, the Dodgers bullpen had thrown 23 consecutive scoreless innings, a postseason record for a bullpen. Additionally, by outscoring the Arizona Diamondbacks and Chicago Cubs by a combined 48 -- 19 margin, the Dodgers entered the World Series with the third - best run differential of any pennant winner since the playoff structure was expanded in 1995.
All - Star shortstop Corey Seager, who was out for the entire National League Championship Series with a back injury, was included on the Dodgers ' World Series roster. Manager Dave Roberts became first manager of Asian heritage ever in the World Series, as well as the fourth African - American manager.
With a 101 -- 61 regular season record, the team won its first American League West title since moving from the National League Central starting in its 2013 season, and their first division title since 2001. In the American League Division Series, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in four games and then defeated the New York Yankees in the American League Championship Series (ALCS) in seven games. This was their second World Series appearance and first since 2005, when they were swept in four games by the Chicago White Sox. They became the first team in history to make it to the World Series as members of both the National League and the American League.
The city of Houston in August 2017 suffered record flooding from Hurricane Harvey. The team began to wear patches which had the logo of the team with the word "Strong '' on the bottom of the patch, as well as promoting the hashtag Houston Strong. Manager A.J. Hinch has stated in an interview that the team was n't just playing for a title, but to help boost moral support for the city.
On August 31, just seconds before the midnight deadline, the Astros traded for Justin Verlander. Following the trade, including the regular season and postseason to this point, Verlander had posted a 9 -- 0 win - loss record with a 1.23 earned run average. He was named the ALCS MVP.
Houston won the series, 4 -- 3.
The temperature at the start of the game was 103 ° F (39 ° C), which made this the hottest World Series game ever recorded. Clayton Kershaw started Game 1 for the Dodgers, while Dallas Keuchel started for the Astros.
Chris Taylor hit a home run for the Dodgers on Keuchel 's first pitch of the game. It was the third home run to leadoff a game in Dodgers postseason history (following Davey Lopes in 1978 World Series and Carl Crawford in 2013 NLDS). Alex Bregman hit a tying solo home run for the Astros in the fourth inning. In the sixth inning, Justin Turner hit a go - ahead two - run home run for the Dodgers. Turner tied Duke Snider for most career runs batted in (RBIs) in Dodgers postseason history with 26. Kershaw struck out 11 in seven innings pitched with no walks and only three hits allowed while Keuchel allowed three runs on six hits in 6 ⁄ innings. Brandon Morrow pitched a scoreless eighth and Kenley Jansen earned the save. The two - hour, 28 - minute game was the shortest World Series contest since Game 4 in 1992.
The starting pitchers for Game 2 were Rich Hill for the Dodgers and Justin Verlander for the Astros. The Astros scored first when Bregman drove in Josh Reddick with a hit in the third inning. Hill struck out seven in four innings but was replaced by Kenta Maeda in the fifth. Joc Pederson tied the game with a solo home run in the bottom of the fifth inning, and the Dodgers took the lead when Corey Seager hit a two - run home run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Verlander allowed two hits, both home runs, in his six innings pitched. Carlos Correa drove in the Astros ' second run of the game on a single in the eighth, ending the Dodgers bullpen 's streak of 28 consecutive scoreless innings in the postseason. Marwin González hit a home run off Jansen in the ninth to tie the game. This was only Jansen 's second blown save all season and snapped his streak of converting his first 12 postseason save opportunities, a major league record.
The game went into extra innings. José Altuve and Correa hit home runs off Josh Fields in the tenth inning to put the Astros in the lead. In the bottom of the inning, Yasiel Puig hit a home run off of Ken Giles and Enrique Hernández drove in Logan Forsythe to tie the game, with the latter being the Dodgers ' first run that was not driven in by a home run. In the next inning, George Springer hit a two - run home run for the Astros off of Brandon McCarthy to retake the lead. In the bottom of the 11th inning, Charlie Culberson homered off of Chris Devenski, who later struck out Puig to end the game. This was the first ever World Series game in which a team hit home runs in the ninth, tenth and eleventh inning. The teams set a new record for combined home runs in a single World Series game with eight and this was the first time in MLB history, regular season or postseason, that five home runs were hit in extra innings. The Astros won their first World Series game in franchise history as they had been swept in their previous appearance in 2005.
The starting pitchers for Game 3 were Yu Darvish for the Dodgers and Lance McCullers Jr. for the Astros. The Astros scored four runs in the bottom of the second inning on a home run by Yuli Gurriel and RBIs by González, Brian McCann, and Bregman. Darvish left the game after 1 ⁄ innings, which was the shortest outing of his career. The Dodgers scored one run in the top of the third inning as Seager grounded into a double play after McCullers loaded the bases with three consecutive walks. The Astros added another run in the fifth on an RBI single by Evan Gattis and the Dodgers added two in the sixth on an RBI groundout by Puig and a wild pitch. McCullers wound up pitching 5 ⁄ innings and allowed three runs on four hits. Brad Peacock replaced McCullers, completing the final 3 ⁄ innings with no hits allowed and four strikeouts to earn his first major league save. It was the longest hitless World Series relief outing since Ron Taylor 's four innings in Game 4 of the 1964 Series, and tied Ken Clay for the longest hitless postseason save, first accomplished in the 1978 ALCS.
Gurriel made a racially insensitive gesture in the dugout after his home run. He stretched the sides of his eyes and mouthing the Spanish word chinito, which translates to "little Chinese Boy ''; Darvish is from Japan. Gurriel apologized, and said that anyone from Asia is called a chino in Cuba, although he acknowledged knowing that the term was offensive in Japan from having played there. As a result, Gurriel was suspended for the first five games of the 2018 MLB season without pay, but allowed to continue playing in the World Series.
The starting pitchers for Game 4 were Alex Wood for the Dodgers and Charlie Morton for the Astros. Springer homered off Wood in the bottom of the sixth for the first run of the ballgame. It was the only hit Wood allowed in 5 ⁄ innings pitched in the game. Forsythe drove in Cody Bellinger to tie the game in the top of the seventh. Morton struck out seven and only allowed three hits and one run in 6 ⁄ innings. Bellinger then drove in the go - ahead run with a double in the top of the ninth off of Giles and the Dodgers added four more runs on a sacrifice fly by Austin Barnes and a three - run homer by Pederson. Bregman homered off of Jansen in the bottom of the ninth but the Dodgers managed to even up the series. The Astros had two hits in the game; both were home runs. This was the first game in World Series history where both starting pitchers allowed four or fewer baserunners.
After Game 4, both teams ' pitching coaches, Rick Honeycutt for the Dodgers and Brent Strom for the Astros, commented on how the baseball being used for the World Series is slicker than the baseball used during the regular season. Pitchers on both teams noted that this difference has made it more difficult for them to throw their sliders.
Kershaw and Keuchel started Game 5, in a rematch of the opening game of the series. Forsythe singled in two runs off of Keuchel in the first inning to put the Dodgers up early. A third run scored on a throwing error by Gurriel. Barnes singled in the fourth to score Forsythe. Keuchel pitched only 3 ⁄ innings for the Astros, allowing five hits and four runs (three earned). This was his shortest home start of the season. The Astros scored their first run with an RBI double by Correa in the bottom of the fourth inning, followed by a three - run home run by Gurriel to tie the game. Bellinger hit a three - run home run off of Collin McHugh in the top of the fifth to put the Dodgers back on top only for Altuve to hit his own three - run home run in the bottom of the inning off Maeda to tie it back up. Kershaw pitched 4 ⁄ innings and allowed six runs on four hits and three walks.
A triple by Bellinger on a line drive that Springer missed on a dive in the seventh inning off of Peacock scored Hernández from first base. In the bottom of the seventh inning, Springer hit a home run off the first pitch he saw off of Morrow, who was pitching for the third consecutive day, to tie the game. Bregman scored on a double by Altuve to put the Astros ahead for the first time in the game, and then Correa hit a two - run home run to extend the lead. Seager doubled in a run in the top of the eighth inning, but McCann hit a home run in the bottom of the inning. That was the 21st home run of the series, tying the record set in the 2002 World Series. Puig broke the record with a two - run home run in the top of the ninth inning. Down to their last strike, Chris Taylor drove in Barnes to tie the game with a single.
In the tenth inning, Jansen hit McCann with a pitch to put him on base with two outs. Subsequently, Springer walked on five pitches to move McCann to second base. McCann was then replaced by pinch runner Derek Fisher. On the next pitch, Bregman singled in Fisher for the winning run. Bregman became the third youngest player to have a walk - off hit in the World Series ever. The Astros became only the second team to come back twice from three runs down in a World Series game, the other were the Toronto Blue Jays in the 15 -- 14 win during Game 4 of the 1993 World Series. The six game tying home runs in the series to this point is the most for any World Series on record. This World Series set a new record for most players to hit a home run (14 to date in the World Series). With the teams combining to score 25 runs throughout the game, this was the highest scoring World Series game since the Florida Marlins defeated the Cleveland Indians 14 -- 11 in Game 3 of the 1997 World Series. Game 5 lasted five hours and seventeen minutes, making it the second longest World Series game in history by time, trailing only the 14 inning contest between the Astros and the Chicago White Sox in Game 3 of the 2005 World Series in the same ballpark, as well as the third World Series game ever to go beyond five hours of game time. This game is considered one of the greatest World Series games of all time.
Game 6 featured the same starting pitchers as the second game: Verlander and Hill. Springer hit a solo home run off of Hill in the top of the third for the first run of the night. It was Springer 's fourth homer of the series, tied for third all - time in a single series and joining Gene Tenace, in 1972, as the only players with four game - tying or go - ahead home runs in a World Series. Springer also joined Hank Bauer in the 1958 World Series and Barry Bonds in the 2002 World Series with four home runs in a series. The Astros loaded the bases in the fifth inning, but did not score. Hill pitched 4 ⁄ innings, struck out five and allowed four hits and one run.
In the sixth inning, Taylor tied the game with an RBI double and Seager hit a sacrifice fly to give the Dodgers the lead. Verlander pitched six innings with nine strikeouts and only three hits allowed. Pederson hit a home run in the bottom of the seventh inning and Jansen pitched two scoreless innings for the save. Pederson tied a World Series record with his fifth consecutive game with an extra base hit and Andre Ethier, who appeared in the game as a pinch hitter, set a new Dodgers franchise record with his 50th career postseason game.
This was the first World Series Game 7 to be played at Dodger Stadium (and the first postseason Game 7 at the stadium since the 1988 NLCS). It was also the first time since the 1931 World Series that a Game 7 occurred in a Series with both teams having won at least 100 games during the season. This was the first time since the 2001 World Series and 2002 World Series that back - to - back Fall Classics had a Game 7.
The starting pitchers for this game were the same as in the third game: McCullers and Darvish. Springer doubled to open the game and scored the first run on an error by Bellinger, which allowed Bregman to reach second base. Bregman stole third base and scored on an Altuve groundout. McCann scored the next inning on a groundout hit by the pitcher McCullers. Springer hit a two - run home run, his fifth of the series, tying Reggie Jackson and Chase Utley for most home runs in a single World Series and setting a new record with 29 total bases in any postseason series. As in Game 3, Darvish lasted only 1 ⁄ innings (tying the shortest outing of his career) and became the third pitcher with two starts of less than two innings in a World Series, and the first since Art Ditmar in the 1960 World Series. Morrow relieved Darvish and in the process became only the second pitcher to pitch in all seven games of a single World Series, joining Darold Knowles in the 1973 World Series. McCullers lasted only 2 ⁄ innings himself; he allowed three hits and hit a World Series record four batters. This was the first Game 7 in World Series history where neither starting pitcher got past the third inning.
The Dodgers failed to score a run and left eight men on base through five innings. Ethier, pinch hitting, scored Pederson on a single in the sixth inning for the Dodgers ' only run. They only had one hit in 13 chances with runners in scoring position in the game. Kershaw pitched four scoreless innings of relief in the game, and in the process, he broke Orel Hershiser 's Dodgers postseason record with his 33rd strikeout. Morton pitched four innings of relief to earn the win, as Corey Seager grounded out to José Altuve, who threw to Yuli Gurriel to end the game, series, baseball season, and their 56 - year drought. The Astros became the third consecutive road team to win a World Series Game 7 as well as the fourth consecutive team to end a World Series on the road (after the 2014 Giants, 2015 Royals and 2016 Cubs). They also became just the second team to win a seven game League Championship Series and a seven game World Series in the same year, following the 1985 Kansas City Royals. Springer won the World Series MVP Award. With the Astros winning this is the third consecutive year that the team with the longer World Series drought won the series.
2017 World Series (4 -- 3): Houston Astros beat Los Angeles Dodgers.
Fox broadcast the series in the United States, with Joe Buck serving as the play - by - play announcer, along with John Smoltz as color commentator and Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci as field reporters. Kevin Burkhardt hosted the pregame shows, joined by analysts Keith Hernandez, David Ortiz, Alex Rodriguez, and Frank Thomas.
Outside the United States, MLB International televised the series, with Matt Vasgersian on play - by - play and Buck Martinez doing color commentary.
After Game 7, Correa proposed to his girlfriend, 2016 Miss Texas USA winner Daniella Rodríguez, on live television during a postgame interview conducted by Rosenthal. She accepted.
This series turned out to be the 3rd highest rated since 2005, trailing only the 2009 World Series and the 2016 World Series. For the second straight year, Game 5 beat out NBC Sunday Night Football in ratings.
ESPN Radio broadcast the series in English, with Dan Shulman providing the play - by - play and Aaron Boone serving as color analyst. Tim Kurkjian and Buster Olney served as reporters for the network, while Marc Kestecher hosted the pre-game and post-game coverage along with analyst Chris Singleton. The ESPN Radio coverage was carried on affiliated stations throughout the United States and Canada, as well as online at ESPN.com and via the ESPN mobile app. Spanish - language coverage was provided by ESPN Deportes Radio, with Eduardo Ortega, Renato Bermúdez, José Francisco Rivera, and Orlando Hernández announcing.
Locally, both teams ' flagship radio stations broadcast the series with their regular announcers. Sportstalk 790 aired the English - language broadcast for the Houston area, with Robert Ford and Steve Sparks calling the games. In Los Angeles, AM 570 LA Sports aired the English - language broadcast, with Charley Steiner and Rick Monday announcing. In Spanish, Univision America 1020 carried the broadcast, with Jaime Jarrín and Jorge Jarrín on the call. In Korean, Radio Korea 1540 aired the series, with Richard Choi and Chong Ho Yim in the booth.
For the first time, MLB sold presenting sponsorships to all of its postseason series; the internet television service YouTube TV is the first - ever presenting sponsor of the World Series. The series is officially known as the 2017 World Series Presented by YouTube TV. This sponsorship includes logo branding in - stadium and on official digital properties, as well as commercial inventory during Fox 's telecasts of the games.
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when does the regular season start for football | 2017 NFL season - wikipedia
The 2017 NFL season is the 98th and current season in the history of the National Football League (NFL). The season began on September 7, 2017, with the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots 42 -- 27 in the NFL Kickoff Game. The season will conclude with Super Bowl LII, the league 's championship game, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
For the second consecutive year, a team relocated to the Los Angeles metropolitan area, as the former San Diego Chargers announced their intent to relocate to the area in January 2017.
The 2017 NFL League year began on March 9 at 4: 00 p.m. ET. On March 7, clubs were allowed to contact and enter into contract negotiations with the agents of players who became unrestricted free agents upon the expiration of their contracts two days later. On March 9, clubs exercised options for 2017 on players who have option clauses in their contracts, submitted qualifying offers to their restricted free agents with expiring contracts and to whom desire to retain a Right of Refusal / Compensation, submitted a Minimum Salary Tender to retain exclusive negotiating rights to their players with expiring 2016 contracts and who have fewer than three accrued seasons of free agent credit, and teams were required to be under the salary cap using the "Top - 51 '' definition (in which the 51 highest paid - players on the team 's payroll must have a collected salary cap hit below the actual cap). The 2017 trading period also began the same day.
A total of 496 players were eligible for some form of free agency at the beginning of the free agency period. Among the high - profile players who changed teams via free agency were cornerbacks A.J. Bouye (from Texans to Jaguars), Logan Ryan (from Patriots to Titans), and Stephon Gilmore (from Bills to Patriots); safeties Barry Church (from Cowboys to Jaguars), Johnathan Cyprien (from Jaguars to Titans), Micah Hyde (from Packers to Bills), and Tony Jefferson (from Cardinals to Ravens); linebackers Jabaal Sheard (from Patriots to Colts), Malcolm Smith (from Raiders to 49ers), and Manti Te'o (from Chargers to Saints); defensive tackles Johnathan Hankins (from Giants to Colts) and Calais Campbell (from Cardinals to Jaguars); offensive tackles Andrew Whitworth (from Bengals to Rams), Kelvin Beachum (from Jaguars to Jets), Matt Kalil (from Vikings to Panthers), Mike Remmers (from Panthers to Vikings), Ricky Wagner (from Ravens to Lions), Riley Reiff (from Lions to Vikings), and Russell Okung (from Broncos to Chargers); offensive guards Kevin Zeitler (from Bengals to Browns), Larry Warford (from Lions to Saints), Ronald Leary (from Cowboys to Broncos), and T.J. Lang (from Packers to Lions); tight ends Martellus Bennett (from Patriots to Packers) and Jared Cook (from Packers to Raiders); wide receivers Alshon Jeffery (from Bears to Eagles), Brandon Marshall (from Jets to Giants), DeSean Jackson (from Redskins to Buccaneers), Kenny Britt (from Rams to Browns), Pierre Garçon (from Redskins to 49ers), Robert Woods (from Bills to Rams), Terrelle Pryor (from Browns to Redskins), and Torrey Smith (from 49ers to Eagles); running backs Latavius Murray (from Raiders to Vikings), Adrian Peterson (from Vikings to Saints), Eddie Lacy (from Packers to Seahawks), and Jamaal Charles (from Chiefs to Broncos); fullbacks Mike Tolbert (from Panthers to Bills) and Patrick DiMarco (from Falcons to Bills); quarterback Mike Glennon (from Buccaneers to Bears).
The 2017 NFL Draft was held on April 27 -- 29 in Philadelphia. The Cleveland Browns selected Myles Garrett with the first overall pick.
Training camps for the 2017 season were held in late July through August. Teams started training camp no earlier than 15 days before the team 's first scheduled preseason game.
Prior to the start of the regular season, each team played four preseason exhibition games, beginning on August 10. The preseason began on the evening of August 3 with the 2017 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, that featured the Dallas Cowboys (represented in the 2017 Hall of Fame Class by owner Jerry Jones) who hosted Arizona Cardinals (represented by former quarterback and 2017 Hall of Famer Kurt Warner). It was televised nationally on NBC. The 64 - game preseason schedule ended on August 31; a 65th game, that of the 2017 Texas Governor 's Cup, was canceled due to the aftermath of Hurricane Harvey.
The 2017 regular season 's 256 games will be played over a 17 - week schedule which began on September 7. Each of the league 's 32 teams plays a 16 - game schedule, with one bye week for each team. The slate also features games on Monday nights. There are games played on Thursday, including the National Football League Kickoff game in prime time on September 7 and games on Thanksgiving Day. The regular season will conclude with a full slate of 16 games on Sunday, December 31, all of which will be intra -- division matchups, as it has been since 2010.
Under the NFL 's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team 's schedule are against the two teams in the team 's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The preset division pairings for 2017 will be as follows.
Intra-conference AFC East vs AFC West AFC North vs AFC South NFC East vs NFC West NFC North vs NFC South
Inter-conference AFC East vs NFC South AFC North vs NFC North AFC South vs NFC West AFC West vs NFC East
Highlights of the 2017 schedule include:
The entire schedule was released on April 20, 2017.
The following games were moved or canceled because of severe weather, by way of flexible scheduling, or for other reasons:
The 2017 playoffs began on the weekend of January 6 -- 7, 2018 with the Wild Card playoff round. The four winners of these playoff games will visit the top two seeded teams in each conference in the Divisional round games, which will be played on the weekend of January 13 -- 14, 2018. The winners of those games will advance to the Conference championship games, which will be held on January 21, 2018. The two Conference champions will advance to Super Bowl LII which will be held on February 4, 2018 at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis. The 2018 Pro Bowl will be held at Camping World Stadium in Orlando on January 28, 2018.
During a September 22, 2017 speech, the President of the United States, Donald Trump made controversial remarks criticizing the practice of taking a knee during the playing of the national anthem -- a practice popularized by Colin Kaepernick in 2016 as part of an effort to protest racial inequality and police brutality. Trump suggested that those who partake in the practice were disrespecting the country 's heritage, and asked his audience, "would n't you love to see one of these NFL owners, when somebody disrespects our flag, to say, ' Get that son of a bitch off the field right now. Out! He 's fired. He 's fired! ' '' During the subsequent weekend of games, over 200 players protested the anthem in protest of the remarks, by either kneeling or locking arms. The Pittsburgh Steelers, Tennessee Titans and Seattle Seahawks chose to not go out on field at all during the anthem.
On December 17, 2017, Jerry Richardson, owner of the Carolina Panthers, announced he was putting the team up for sale. Richardson had previously indicated the team would be put up for sale after his death (since his only living son left the team in 2009), but an exposé in Sports Illustrated accused Richardson of paying hush money to cover up questionable conduct, including racial slurs and sexually suggestive requests of employees, hastening Richardson 's decision. The Panthers ' lease on Bank of America Stadium expires after the 2018 season, which would allow any incoming owner to relocate the team out of the Carolinas to another market of their choice without penalty if they so desired.
The following people associated with the NFL (or AFL) have died in 2017.
Dan Rooney was chairman and plurality owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers and one of the sons of founding owner Art Rooney, Sr. Having been officially involved with the franchise since 1960, Rooney was a part of all six of the Steelers ' Super Bowl victories. In addition to this, Rooney was considered an active and progressive owner in the league 's operations, most famously by successfully pushing for the Rooney Rule, an affirmative action policy requiring all NFL franchises to interview persons of color for head coaching vacancies. Concurrently with his role with the Steelers, Rooney also served as United States Ambassador to Ireland from 2009 to 2014. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2000, making him and his father the second father - son duo in the Hall behind Tim & Wellington Mara (to whom the Rooneys are related by marriage). Rooney died on April 13 at the age of 84.
The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the owners ' meeting on March 28, 2017:
The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the NFL Spring League meeting on May 23, 2017:
The following will be "points of emphasis '' for the 2017 season:
The ban on teams contacting potential coaching candidates until that candidate 's team has been eliminated from the playoffs was tabled.
The following were named the top performers during the 2017 season:
Vance Joseph, who spent the previous season as the Miami Dolphins ' defensive coordinator, was hired on January 11, 2017.
Anthony Lynn was hired as the Chargers ' new head coach on January 12, 2017.
The Atlanta Falcons will play their first season at Mercedes - Benz Stadium, after playing in the Georgia Dome for the previous 25 seasons.
On January 12, 2017, the San Diego Chargers exercised their option to relocate to Los Angeles as the Los Angeles Chargers. They will be joining the Los Angeles Rams as tenants in their new stadium, Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood, California when that stadium is complete in 2020. For the time being, the Chargers will play at the 30,000 seat StubHub Center in Carson, California, the smallest venue (in terms of number of seats) the league has used for a full season since 1956.
On January 19, 2017, the Oakland Raiders filed paperwork to relocate to Las Vegas, Nevada. The NFL officially approved the Raiders relocation to Las Vegas on March 27. Unlike the Chargers, the Raiders will remain at the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum through at least the 2018 season (with the 2019 season to be determined) while Las Vegas Stadium is built, with the team moving to Nevada in 2019 or 2020.
The Los Angeles Rams, who had capped season ticket sales at 55,000 for the 2017 season, announced to have 60,128 spectators in the first home game on week 1. However, reports estimate that spectators only filled a third of the 93,607 seats of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Los Angeles Chargers did not sell out their week 2 game at the StubHub Center, which was never expanded to 30,000 seats as originally stated and has typically had less than 26,000 fans in attendance. When the StubHub Center is at capacity, the majority of the fans present are of the opposing team.
The Los Angeles teams were not the only ones with visible attendance problems. The San Francisco 49ers reported a Week 3 attendance total that exceeded the capacity of Levi 's Stadium, even as wide swaths of empty seats were visible in the stadium throughout the game. This followed similar sparse attendance for the 49ers ' home opener. Even the Dallas Cowboys, a team whose fan base is among the largest in the United States, played their week 13 Thursday Night Football game in front of a half - empty AT&T Stadium. The lifting of the league 's blackout policy was cited as one factor in the decline in ticket sales, as viewers would rather watch from the comfort of their homes, especially when weather conditions were less than ideal. At a Buffalo Bills / Indianapolis Colts game held in blinding lake - effect snow on December 10, scalpers said they had not sold any tickets, an extreme rarity. Indeed, a majority of television sets in all Western New York were tuned into some portion of the game, the highest viewership for a non-Super Bowl NFL game in the region since record - keeping began.
This is the fourth season under the current broadcast contracts with ESPN, CBS, Fox, and NBC. This includes "cross-flexing '' (switching) Sunday Afternoon games between CBS and Fox before or during the season (regardless of the conference of the visiting team). NBC will continue to air Sunday Night Football, the annual Kickoff game, and the primetime Thanksgiving game. ESPN will continue to air Monday Night Football and the Pro Bowl. NBC will also serve as the broadcaster of Super Bowl LII. This will also be the second and final year of the current Thursday Night Football contract with CBS, NBC, and NFL Network. Along with ESPN 's simulcasted Wild Card game on ABC, ESPN announced on May 24, 2017, that the 2018 Pro Bowl will also be simulcast on ABC, marking the return of the Pro Bowl to the network for the first time since 2003. For the first 9 weeks of the regular season, ESPN2 simulcasted ESPN Deportes ' Spanish - language Monday Night Football broadcasts. The simulcasts ended after Week 9 due to ESPN2 's Monday - night college basketball broadcasts.
Although never explicitly announced, the league continued the moratorium on its blackout policy, ensuring all games will be televised in the market of their home teams regardless of ticket sales.
Because of fog and smoke obstruction, NBC was forced to televise large portions of two of their Sunday Night Football games from the skycam angle. Positive reception led NBC to experiment with increased usage of the angle as a primary view during its November 16 and December 14 Thursday Night Football telecasts. Because the angle distorts distance, the traditional sideline camera angle was used for close - yardage situations such as the red zone.
In over-the - top rights, Amazon Video acquired non-exclusive streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television Thursday Night Football games for $50 million. These streams are exclusive to paid Amazon Prime subscribers, in contrast to Twitter, which held the rights to the same package in 2016 and had made those streams free to most of the world.
Verizon Communications acquired international streaming rights to an NFL London Game between the Baltimore Ravens and Jacksonville Jaguars, in a similar arrangement to the 2015 game that was streamed by Yahoo! -- which was acquired by Verizon in 2017. The game was streamed by Yahoo and other Verizon - owned platforms, including AOL, go90, and Complex. NFL Network remains a partner with Twitter for online content, including its new streaming news program NFL Blitz Live. The NFL also reached a deal with Facebook in September 2017 to offer video highlights following games, and streaming programs on the service 's new Watch platform.
This is the final season of the NFL 's exclusive mobile streaming contract with Verizon Wireless; the league intends to no longer have a single exclusive partner going forward, citing changes to viewing habits. On December 11, 2017, the NFL announced that it had agreed to a new 5 - year, $2.5 billion digital rights agreement with Verizon, allowing it to stream in - market Sunday afternoon games, as well as all nationally televised games, across its mobile platforms. Unlike the previous deal, these streams will no longer be exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers, as Verizon plans to leverage the divisions of its digital media subsidiary Oath (including the aforementioned Yahoo and go90) as a platform to promote these streams to a larger audience, as well as other digital content and expanded highlights rights. As part of the agreement, Verizon will begin allowing access to its existing mobile streams to non-customers for the 2017 - 18 playoffs. As the new contract is non-exclusive, the NFL 's television partners may negotiate to add the mobile streaming rights that were reserved to Verizon under the previous contract; NBC was the first to do so.
Two new international digital rights deals led to user criticism over their quality of service. In Canada, NFL Sunday Ticket shifted from distribution through television providers to the over-the - top provider DAZN, while in Europe, Deltatre took over European distribution of NFL Game Pass and launched new mobile apps. Both services faced criticism over their streaming quality, while Delatre 's app faced criticism for having bugs and initially lacking features seen in the previous version of the platform. The Independent exposed that Deltatre had also issued an internal e-mail instructing its employees to give the apps 5 - star reviews. DAZN subsequently announced that it would return to distributing Sunday Ticket through Canadian television providers in addition to their OTT service.
This is the final season of the NFL 's current national radio contract with Westwood One.
The league has sought to reduce the number of standard commercial breaks (media timeouts) on its telecasts from 21 to 16, four in each quarter, with each break extended by one additional 30 - second commercial. One particular scenario the league sought to eliminate is the "double - up, '' in which a network cuts to a commercial after a scoring play, then airs the kickoff, and again goes to commercial before play from scrimmage resumes. Under the proposal, the league will allow networks to cut to commercial during instant replay reviews, which it had not been allowed to do before. Commissioner Roger Goodell stated that the changes are being made in an attempt to consolidate downtime between the actual game play so that there are fewer and less noticeable interruptions; he does not expect the changes to have an appreciable impact on the real - time length of a game, which currently clocks in at slightly over three hours.
The NFL has also, as a trial, lifted its ban on the broadcast of commercials for distilled spirits during its telecasts. However, they are subject to restrictions; a maximum of four liquor ads may be broadcast per - game, along with two per - pregame and postgame show. These ads may not contain football - related themes or target underage viewers, and must contain a "prominent social responsibility message ''.
Tony Romo, who announced his retirement as a player on April 4, 2017, joined CBS, where he replaced Phil Simms as lead color commentator. Simms and Nate Burleson, who comes over from NFL Network, will replace Tony Gonzalez and Bart Scott on CBS 's pregame show, The NFL Today. Jay Cutler also announced his retirement from professional football on May 5 and was slated to join Fox as a color analyst for its NFL coverage; he later rescinded that announcement in August and joined the Miami Dolphins. Gonzalez will move to Fox, where he will join Fox NFL Kickoff; upon his departure, Gonzalez stated that he wished to pursue opportunities closer to his home in California, rather than travel to New York weekly to appear on CBS. James Lofton, coming over from radio, will replace Solomon Wilcots as a CBS analyst.
On May 31, 2017, it was announced that Mike Tirico would replace Al Michaels on play - by - play on NBC 's portion of the Thursday Night Football package, joined by Cris Collinsworth. The NFL had previously required this role to be filled by NBC 's lead broadcast team of Michaels and Collinsworth; Tirico called a limited slate of games in 2016, including several NBC - broadcast games as a fill - in for Michaels (who voluntarily took several games off due to the increased number he was calling that season), and as part of a secondary team for selected games the TNF package. He will also succeed Bob Costas as the lead studio host for NBC. However, due to its proximity to the 2018 Winter Olympics (where he is also succeeding Bob Costas as lead host), Tirico will not participate in NBC 's Super Bowl LII coverage.
Beth Mowins became the second woman to call play - by - play for a national NFL broadcast, following Gayle Sierens in 1987, when she served as play - by - play announcer for the nightcap in ESPN 's Week 1 Monday Night doubleheader, with Rex Ryan as her color commentator. In an unusual case of a broadcaster working for two networks in the same season, Mowins also called a regional game for CBS in Weeks 3, 15 and 17, with Jay Feely as her partner.
* Note -- Late DH matchups listed in table are the matchups that were shown to the largest percentage of the market.
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who has the right a way at a four way stop | All - way stop - Wikipedia
An all - way stop (or four - way stop when there are four approaches to the intersection) is an intersection system used predominantly in the United States of America, Canada, and South Africa where traffic approaching it from all directions is required to stop before proceeding through the intersection. An all - way stop may have multiple approaches and may be marked with a supplemental plate stating the number of approaches.
A motorist approaching an all - way stop is always required to come to a full stop before the crosswalk or stop line. In most jurisdictions that use all - way stops, pedestrians always have priority at a crosswalk, even if the crosswalk is not delineated with pavement markings. Within some U.S. jurisdictions, such as the state of Idaho, bicyclists are exempt from the need to make a complete stop, but must give way to other vehicles as otherwise required by law. After a full - stop has been made, vehicles usually have the right - of - way to proceed through the intersection in the order that they arrived at the intersection. In the United States, if vehicles arrive at approximately the same time, each driver must yield to the drivers on their right, while in South Africa drivers must use common sense and make eye contact and gestures. Some areas have additional formal and informal rules which may or may not include special procedures for when all stop signs are approached simultaneously.
In the United States the Federal Highway Administration 's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) defines the standards commonly used for the application of all - way stops. Where a stop has been determined to qualify, it is signed at all approaches to the intersections with a standard octagonal "Stop '' sign, with a supplemental "ALL WAY '' plaque. Earlier editions of the MUTCD allowed supplemental plaques specifying the number of approaches in an all - way stop, as in "3 WAY '' or "4 WAY ''. According to the MUTCD, installation of an all - way stop should be based on a traffic engineering study to determine if minimum traffic volume or safety criteria are met. These intersections are often found where roads with considerably equal traffic levels meet each other but the overall level of traffic present at the intersection does not justify a traffic light, and or in a location where the right of way was otherwise unclear. An all - way stop may also be justified if the intersection has a demonstrated history of crashes in a given period of a type susceptible to correction by installing an all - way stop. All - way stops may also be used as an interim measure preceding the placement of a traffic light, to provide a low - speed area for pedestrians to cross, where a cross street experiences considerable difficulty finding safe gaps due to heavy traffic volumes, or where traffic is frequently delayed by turning conflicts. Additionally the MUTCD advocates the placement of all - way stops at intersections between through roads in residential areas if an engineering study can show that traffic flow would be improved by installing the all - way stop control. Despite published guidelines, all - way stops are routinely placed by jurisdictions due to political pressure from adjacent residents. Intersections between two minor highways with similar traffic counts, two collector roads in an urban or suburban setting or a collector road and a local road in a busy setting (such as near a school) are the most common locations for an all - way stop.
Traffic signals will sometimes flash red indications in all directions following a malfunction, or all - red flashing operation may be scheduled to reduce delay or handle construction activity or unusual traffic patterns. When a traffic signal flashes in all - red mode, it legally operates as an all - way stop. When all approaches to an intersection are controlled in this way the rules for an all - way stop apply. However, it must also be noted that traffic signals may also flash yellow to major directions and flash red to minor directions during off - peak times to minimize traffic delays, in which case only side - street traffic is required to stop and yield the right of way to crossing traffic on the major street.
During electrical outages when a traffic signal does not display any indications including flashing red, some jurisdictions require that the intersection be treated as an all - way stop. Other jurisdictions treat a dark signal as an uncontrolled intersection, where standard rules of right - of - way apply without the requirement of a complete stop.
The main reason for the use of stop signs at road junctions is safety. According to an international study of locations where the system is in use, all - way stop control applied to four - legged intersections may reduce accident occurrence by 45 %. However, given alternative methods of intersection control and some of the disadvantages of all - way stops, the Handbook of Road Safety Measures recommends that four - way stops are best used between minor roads away from urbanized areas. Another benefit of all - way stops is assurance that vehicles enter the intersection at a low speed and have more time to take heed of the traffic situation, especially useful when sight distance is highly restricted.
Some of the disadvantages associated with all - way stops are:
Few countries outside North America -- least of all, those in Europe -- have intersections at which all users must stop at all times; the conditions for stop sign placement may indeed preclude such an arrangement in many places. In Sweden all - way stops (Flervägsstopp) have been tested since the 1980s but are little used even though they are now permitted. In the UK they have always been very uncommon and were formally prohibited by the Department for Transport in 2002.
At four - legged intersections within Europe, a roundabout or mini-roundabout is commonly used to assign a relative priority to each approach. (Roundabouts remain rare in North America, where early failures of rotaries and traffic circles caused such designs to lose favor until the gradual introduction of the modern roundabout in the late 20th century.) Alternatively, at smaller intersections, priority to the right is widely used in most countries with right - hand traffic.
Pedestrian scramble, where all directions are red, allowing diagonal pedestrian crossing
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what were the values of the victorian era | Victorian morality - wikipedia
Victorian morality is a distillation of the moral views of people living during the time of Queen Victoria 's reign (1837 -- 1901), the Victorian era, and of the moral climate of Great Britain in the mid-19th century in general. Many of these values spread throughout the British Empire. Historian Harold Perkin states:
Victorian values emerged in all classes and reached all facets of Victorian living. The values of the period -- which can be classed as religion, morality, Evangelicalism, industrial work ethic, and personal improvement -- took root in Victorian morality. Current plays and all literature -- including old classics like Shakespeare -- were cleansed of naughtiness ("bowdlerized '').
Historians now regard the Victorian era as a time of many conflicts, such as the widespread cultivation of an outward appearance of dignity and restraint together with serious debates about how to implement the new morality. The international slave trade was abolished -- and was enforced by the Royal Navy. Slavery was ended in all the British colonies, child labour was ended in British factories, and a long debate ensued regarding whether prostitution should be totally abolished or tightly regulated. Homosexuality remained illegal.
Today, the term "Victorian morality '' can describe any set of values that espouse sexual restraint, low tolerance of crime and a strict social code of conduct.
William Wilberforce, Thomas Fowell Buxton and Richard Martin introduced the first legislation to prevent cruelty to animals, the Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822; it pertained only to cattle and it passed easily in 1822.)
In the Metropolitan Police Act 1839 "fighting or baiting Lions, Bears, Badgers, Cocks, Dogs, or other Animals '' was made a criminal offence. The law laid numerous restrictions on how, when, and where animals could be used. It prohibited owners from letting mad dogs run loose and gave police the right to destroy any dog suspected of being rabid. It prohibited the use of dogs for drawing carts. The law was extended to the rest of England and Wales in 1854.
Up until then, dogs were used for delivering milk, bread, fish, meat, fruit, vegetables, animal food (the cat 's - meat man), and other items for sale and for collecting refuse (the rag - and - bone man). The prohibition against dogs pulling carts in or near London caused most of the dogs to be killed by their owners. Cart dogs were replaced by people with handcarts. About 150,000 dogs were killed or abandoned. Erica Fudge quotes Hilda Kean:
At the heart of nineteenth - century animal welfare campaigns is the middle - class desire not to be able to see cruelty.
The Protection of Animals Act 1911 extended the ban on draft dogs to the rest of the kingdom. As many as 600,000 dogs were killed or abandoned.
Historians Peter Gay and Michael Mason both point out that modern society often confuses Victorian etiquette for a lack of knowledge. For example, those going for a bath in the sea or at the beach, would use a bathing machine. Despite the use of the bathing machine, it was still possible to see people bathing nude. Typical middle - class brides likely knew nothing about sex and learned about their husbands ' expectations for it on their wedding night; the experience was often traumatic. Contrary to popular conception, however, Victorian society recognised that both men and women enjoyed copulation.
Verbal or written communication of sexual feelings was also often proscribed so people instead used the language of flowers. However, they also wrote explicit erotica, perhaps the most famous being the racy tell - all My Secret Life by the pseudonym Walter (allegedly Henry Spencer Ashbee), and the magazine The Pearl, which was published for several years and reprinted as a paperback book in the 1960s. Victorian erotica also survives in private letters archived in museums and even in a study of women 's orgasms. Some current historians now believe that the myth of Victorian repression can be traced back to early twentieth - century views, such as those of Lytton Strachey, a member of the Bloomsbury Group, who wrote Eminent Victorians.
The enormous expansion of police forces, especially in London, produced a sharp rise in prosecutions for illegal sodomy at midcentury. However, law officers saw it as an unfortunate duty that detracted them from the real business of fighting crime. Male sexuality became a favorite subject of study especially by medical researchers whose case studies explored the progression and symptoms of institutionalized subjects. Henry Maudsley shaped late Victorian views about aberrant sexuality. George Savage and Charles Arthur Mercier wrote about homosexuals living in society. Daniel Hack Tuke 's Dictionary of Psychological Medicine covered sexual perversion. All these works show awareness of continental insights, as well as moral disdain for the sexual practices described.
Simeon Solomon and poet Algernon Charles Swinburne, as they contemplated their own sexual identities in the 1860s, fastened on the Greek lesbian poet Sappho. They made Victorian intellectuals aware of Sappho and and help shape the modern image of lesbianism.
Michel Foucault has argued that homosexual and heterosexual identities did not emerge until the 19th century; before that time terms described practices and not identity. Foucault cites "Westphal 's famous article of 1870 on ' contrary sexual sensations ' '' as the "date of birth '' of the categorization of the homosexual (Foucault 1976).
Prostitution had been a factor in city life for centuries. The reformers started mobilizing in the late 1840s, major news organisations, clergymen, and single women became increasingly concerned about prostitution, which came to be known as "The Great Social Evil ''. Estimates of the number of prostitutes in London in the 1850s vary widely (in his landmark study, Prostitution, William Acton reported that the police estimated there were 8,600 in London alone in 1857).
While the Magdalene Asylums had been reforming prostitutes since the mid-18th century, the years between 1848 and 1870 saw a veritable explosion in the number of institutions working to "reclaim '' these "fallen women '' from the streets and retrain them for entry into respectable society -- usually for work as domestic servants. The theme of prostitution and the "fallen woman '' (any woman who has had sexual intercourse out of marriage) became a staple feature of mid-Victorian literature and politics. In the writings of Henry Mayhew, Charles Booth, Charles Dickens and others, prostitution began to be seen as a social problem.
When Parliament passed the first of the Contagious Diseases Acts in 1864 (which allowed the local constabulary to force any woman suspected of venereal disease to submit to its inspection), Josephine Butler 's crusade to repeal the CD Acts yoked the anti-prostitution cause with the emergent feminist movement. Butler attacked the long - established double standard of sexual morality.
Prostitutes were often presented as victims in sentimental literature such as Thomas Hood 's poem The Bridge of Sighs, Elizabeth Gaskell 's novel Mary Barton, and Dickens ' novel Oliver Twist. The emphasis on the purity of women found in such works as Coventry Patmore 's The Angel in the House led to the portrayal of the prostitute and fallen woman as soiled, corrupted, and in need of cleansing.
This emphasis on female purity was allied to the stress on the homemaking role of women, who helped to create a space free from the pollution and corruption of the city. In this respect, the prostitute came to have symbolic significance as the embodiment of the violation of that divide. The double standard remained in force. Divorce legislation introduced in 1857 allowed for a man to divorce his wife for adultery, but a woman could only divorce if adultery were accompanied by cruelty. The anonymity of the city led to a large increase in prostitution and unsanctioned sexual relationships. Dickens and other writers associated prostitution with the mechanisation and industrialisation of modern life, portraying prostitutes as human commodities consumed and thrown away like refuse when they were used up. Moral reform movements attempted to close down brothels, something that has sometimes been argued to have been a factor in the concentration of street - prostitution.
Victoria ascended to the throne in 1837, only four years after the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. The anti-slavery movement had campaigned for years to achieve the ban, succeeding with a partial abolition in 1807 and the full ban on slave trade, but not slave ownership, which only happened in 1833. It took so long because the anti-slavery morality was pitted against powerful economic interests which claimed their businesses would be destroyed if they were not permitted to exploit slave labour. Eventually, plantation owners in the Caribbean received £ 20 million in compensation. William E. Gladstone, later a famous reformer, handled the large payments to his father for their hundreds of slaves. The Royal Navy patrolled the Atlantic Ocean, stopping any ships that it suspected of trading African slaves to the Americas and freeing any slaves found. The British had set up a Crown Colony in West Africa -- Sierra Leone -- and transported freed slaves there. Freed slaves from Nova Scotia founded and named the capital of Sierra Leone "Freetown ''.
After 1815, there was widespread fear of growing crimes, burglaries mob action, and threats of large - scale disorder. Crime had been handled on an ad - hoc basis by poorly organized local parish constables and private watchmen, supported by very stiff penalties, including hundreds of causes for execution or deportation to Australia. London, with 1, 5 million people -- more than the next 15 cities combined -- over the decades had worked out informal arrangements to develop a uniform policing system in its many boroughs. The Metropolitan Police Act 1829, championed by Home Secretary Robert Peel, was not so much a startling innovation, as a systemization with expanded funding of established informal practices. It created the Metropolitan Police Service, headquartered at Scotland Yard. London now had the world 's first modern police force. The 3000 policemen were called "bobbies '' (after Peel 's first name). They were well - organized, centrally directed, wore standard blue uniforms, and carried no weapons besides the baton. Legally they had the historic status of constable, with authority to make arrests of suspicious persons and book offenders before a magistrate court. They were assigned in teams to specified beats, especially at night. Gas lighting was installed on major streets, making their task of surveillance much easier. Crime rates went down. An 1835 law required all incorporated boroughs in England and Wales to establish police forces. Scotland, with its separate legal system, was soon added. By 1857 every jurisdiction in Great Britain had an organized police force, for which the Treasury paid a subsidy. The police had steady pay, were selected by merit rather than by political influence, and were rarely used for partisan purposes. The pay scale was not high (one guinea a week in 1833), but the prestige was especially high for Irish Catholics, who were disproportionately represented in every city where they had a large presence.
Intellectual historians searching for causes of the new morality often point to the ideas by Hannah More, William Wilberforce, and the Clapham Sect. Perkin argues this exaggerates the influence of a small group of individuals, who were "as much an effect of the revolution as a cause. '' It also has a timing problem, for many many predecessors had failed. The intellectual approach tends to minimize the importance of Nonconformists and Evangelicals -- the Methodists, for example, played a powerful role among the upper tier of the working class. Finally, it misses a key ingredient: instead of trying to improve an old society, the reformers were trying to lead Britain into a new society of the future.
Victorian Era movements for justice, freedom, and other strong moral values made greed, and exploitation into public evils. The writings of Charles Dickens, in particular, observed and recorded these conditions. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels carried out much of their analysis of the evils of capitalism in and as a reaction to Victorian Britain.
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in the context of the discipline of psychology identify a true statement about structuralism | Structuralism (psychology) - wikipedia
Structuralism in psychology (also structural psychology) is a theory of consciousness developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his protégé Edward Bradford Titchener. This theory was challenged in the 20th century. It is debated who deserves the credit for finding this field of psychology, but it is widely accepted that Wundt created the foundation on which Titchener expanded. Structuralism as a school of psychology seeks to analyze the adult mind (the total sum of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences as well as how they correlated to physical events. To do this, psychologists employ introspection, self - reports of sensations, views, feelings, emotions, etc.
Edward B. Titchener, along with Wilhelm Wundt, is credited for the theory of structuralism. It is considered to be the first "school '' of psychology. Because he was a student of Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig, Titchener 's ideas on how the mind worked were heavily influenced by Wundt 's theory of voluntarism and his ideas of association and apperception (the passive and active combinations of elements of consciousness respectively). Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind, like chemists classify the elements of nature, into the nature.
Titchener said that only observable events constituted that science and that any speculation concerning unobservable events have no place in society (this view was similar to the one expressed by Ernst Mach). In his book, Systematic Psychology, Titchener wrote:
It is true, nevertheless, that observation is the single and proprietary method of science, and that experiment, regarded as scientific method, is nothing else than observation safeguarded and assisted.
Titchener believed the mind was the accumulated experience of a lifetime. He believed that he could understand reasoning and the structure of the mind if he could define and categorize the basic components of mind and the rules by which the components interacted.
The main tool Titchener used to try to determine the different components of consciousness was introspection. Titchener writes in his Systematic Psychology:
The state of consciousness which is to be the matter of psychology... can become an object of immediate knowledge only by way of introspection or self - awareness.
and in his book An Outline of Psychology:
... within the sphere of psychology, introspection is the final and only court of appeal, that psychological evidence can not be other than introspective evidence.
Unlike Wundt 's method of introspection, Titchener had very strict guidelines for the reporting of an introspective analysis. The subject would be presented with an object, such as a pencil. The subject would then report the characteristics of that pencil (color, length, etc.). The subject would be instructed not to report the name of the object (pencil) because that did not describe the raw data of what the subject was experiencing. Titchener referred to this as stimulus error.
In his translation of Wundt 's work, Titchener illustrates Wundt as a supporter of introspection as a method through which to observe consciousness. However, introspection only fits Wundt 's theories if the term is taken to refer to psychophysical methods.
Introspection literally means ' looking within ', to try to describe a person 's memory, perceptions, cognitive processes, and / or motivations.
Titchener 's theory began with the question of what each element of the mind is. He concluded from his research that there were three types of mental elements constituting conscious experience: Sensations (elements of perceptions), Images (elements of ideas), and affections (elements of emotions). These elements could be broken down into their respective properties, which he determined were quality, intensity, duration, clearness, and extensity. Both sensations and images contained all of these qualities; however, affections were lacking in both clearness and extensity. And images and affections could be broken down further into just clusters of sensations. Therefore, by following this train of thinking all thoughts were images, which being constructed from elementary sensations meant that all complex reasoning and thought could eventually be broken down into just the sensations which he could get at through introspection.
The second issue in Titchener 's theory of structuralism was the question of how the mental elements combined and interacted with each other to form conscious experience. His conclusions were largely based on ideas of associationism. In particular, Titchener focuses on the law of contiguity, which is the idea that the thought of something will tend to cause thoughts of things that are usually experienced along with it.
Titchener rejected Wundt 's notions of apperception and creative synthesis (voluntary actio n), which were the basis of Wundt 's voluntarism. Titchener argued that attention was simply a manifestation of the "clearness '' property within sensation.
Once Titchener identified the elements of mind and their interaction, his theory then asked the question of why the elements interact in the way they do. In particular, Titchener was interested in the relationship between the conscious experience and the physical processes. Titchener believed that physiological processes provide a continuous substratum that give psychological processes a continuity they otherwise would not have. Therefore, the nervous system does not cause conscious experience, but can be used to explain some characteristics of mental events...
Wilhelm Wundt instructed Titchener, the founder of structuralism, at the University of Leipzig. The ' science of immediate experience ' was stated by him. This simply means that the complex perceptions can be raised through basic sensory information. Wundt is often associated in past literature with structuralism and the use of similar introspective methods. Wundt makes a clear distinction between pure introspection, which is the relatively unstructured self - observation used by earlier philosophers, and experimental introspection. Wundt believes this type of introspection to be acceptable since it uses laboratory instruments to vary conditions and make results of internal perceptions more precise.
The reason for this confusion lies in the translation of Wundt 's writings. When Titchener brought his theory to America, he also brought with him Wundt 's work. Titchener translated these works for the American audience, and in so doing misinterpreted Wundt 's meaning. He then used this translation to show that Wundt supported Titchener 's own theories. In fact, Wundt 's main theory was that of psychological voluntarism (psychologische Voluntarismus), the doctrine that the power of the will organizes the mind 's content into higher - level thought processes.
Structuralism has faced a large amount of criticism, particularly from the school of psychology, functionalism which later evolved into the psychology of pragmatism (reconvening introspection into acceptable practices of observation). The main critique of structuralism was its focus on introspection as the method by which to gain an understanding of conscious experience. Critics argue that self - analysis was not feasible, since introspective students can not appreciate the processes or mechanisms of their own mental processes. Introspection, therefore, yielded different results depending on who was using it and what they were seeking. Some critics also pointed out that introspective techniques actually resulted in retrospection -- the memory of a sensation rather than the sensation itself.
Behaviorists, specifically methodological behaviorists, fully rejected even the idea of the conscious experience as a worthy topic in psychology, since they believed that the subject matter of scientific psychology should be strictly operationalized in an objective and measurable way. Because the notion of a mind could not be objectively measured, it was not worth further inquiry. However, radical behaviorism includes thinking, feeling, and private events in its theory and analysis of psychology. Structuralism also believes that the mind could be dissected into its individual parts, which then formed conscious experience. This also received criticism from the Gestalt school of psychology, which argues that the mind can not be broken down into individual elements.
Besides theoretical attacks, structuralism was criticized for excluding and ignoring important developments happening outside of structuralism. For instance, structuralism did not concern itself with the study of animal behavior, and personality.
Titchener himself was criticized for not using his psychology to help answer practical problems. Instead, Titchener was interested in seeking pure knowledge that to him was more important than commonplace issues.
One alternative theory to structuralism, to which Titchener took offense, was functionalism (functional psychology). Functionalism was developed by William James in contrast to structuralism. It stressed the importance of empirical, rational thought over an experimental, trial - and - error philosophy. James in his theory included introspection (i.e., the psychologist 's study of his own states of mind), but also included things like analysis (i.e., the logical criticism of precursor and contemporary views of the mind), experiment (e.g., in hypnosis or neurology), and comparison (i.e., the use of statistical means to distinguish norms from anomalies) which gave it somewhat of an edge. Functionalism also differed in that it focused on the how useful certain processes were in the brain to the environment you were in and not the processes and other detail like in structuralism.
Researchers are still working to offer objective experimental approaches to measuring conscious experience, in particular within the field of cognitive psychology and is in some ways carrying on the torch of Titchener 's ideas. It is working on the same type of issues such as sensations and perceptions. Today, any introspective methodologies are done under highly controlled situations and are understood to be subjective and retrospective. Proponents argue that psychology can still gain useful information from using introspection in this case.
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when is cortisol secreted in response to a stressor | Cortisol - Wikipedia
Cortisol is a steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones. When used as a medication, it is known as hydrocortisone.
It is produced in humans by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex within the adrenal gland. It is released in response to stress and low blood - glucose concentration. It functions to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis, to suppress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. It also decreases bone formation.
In the early fasting state, cortisol stimulates gluconeogenesis (the formation of glucose), and activates antistress and anti-inflammatory pathways. Cortisol also plays an important, but indirect, role in liver and muscle glycogenolysis, the breaking down of glycogen to glucose - 1 - phosphate and glucose. This is done through its passive influence on glucagon. Additionally, cortisol facilitates the activation of glycogen phosphorylase, which is necessary for epinephrine to have an effect on glycogenolysis.
In the late fasting state, the function of cortisol changes slightly and increases glycogenesis. This response allows the liver to take up glucose not being used by the peripheral tissue and turn it into liver glycogen stores to be used if the body moves into the starvation state.
Elevated levels of cortisol, if prolonged, can lead to proteolysis (breakdown of proteins) and muscle wasting. Several studies have shown that cortisol can have a lipolytic effect (promote the breakdown of fat). Under some conditions, however, cortisol may somewhat suppress lipolysis.
Cortisol prevents the release of substances in the body that cause inflammation. It is used to treat conditions resulting from overactivity of the B - cell - mediated antibody response. Examples include inflammatory and rheumatoid diseases, as well as allergies. Low - potency hydrocortisone, available as a nonprescription medicine in some countries, is used to treat skin problems such as rashes and eczema.
It inhibits production of interleukin (IL) - 12, interferon (IFN) - gamma, IFN - alpha, and tumor - necrosis - factor (TNF) - alpha by antigen - presenting cells (APCs) and T helper (Th) 1 cells, but upregulates IL - 4, IL - 10, and IL - 13 by Th2 cells. This results in a shift toward a Th2 immune response rather than general immunosuppression. The activation of the stress system (and resulting increase in cortisol and Th2 shift) seen during an infection is believed to be a protective mechanism which prevents an over-activation of the inflammatory response.
Cortisol can weaken the activity of the immune system. It prevents proliferation of T - cells by rendering the interleukin - 2 producer T - cells unresponsive to interleukin - 1 (IL - 1), and unable to produce the T - cell growth factor (IL - 2). Cortisol also has a negative - feedback effect on interleukin - 1.
Though IL - 1 is useful in combating some diseases, endotoxic bacteria have gained an advantage by forcing the hypothalamus to increase cortisol levels (forcing the secretion of corticotropin - releasing hormone, thus antagonizing IL - 1). The suppressor cells are not affected by glucosteroid response - modifying factor, so the effective setpoint for the immune cells may be even higher than the setpoint for physiological processes (reflecting leukocyte redistribution to lymph nodes, bone marrow, and skin). Rapid administration of corticosterone (the endogenous type I and type II receptor agonist) or RU28362 (a specific type II receptor agonist) to adrenalectomized animals induced changes in leukocyte distribution. Natural killer cells are affected by cortisol.
Cortisol stimulates many copper enzymes (often to 50 % of their total potential), probably to increase copper availability for immune purposes. This includes lysyl oxidase, an enzyme that cross-links collagen, and elastin. Especially valuable for immune response is cortisol 's stimulation of the superoxide dismutase, since this copper enzyme is almost certainly used by the body to permit superoxides to poison bacteria.
Cortisol counteracts insulin, contributes to hyperglycemia - causing hepatic gluconeogenesis and inhibits the peripheral use of glucose (insulin resistance) by decreasing the translocation of glucose transporters (especially GLUT4) to the cell membrane. Cortisol also increases glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) in the liver, storing glucose in easily accessible form. The permissive effect of cortisol on insulin action in liver glycogenesis is observed in hepatocyte culture in the laboratory, although the mechanism for this is unknown.
Cortisol reduces bone formation, favoring long - term development of osteoporosis (progressive bone disease). It transports potassium out of cells in exchange for an equal number of sodium ions (see above). This can trigger the hyperkalemia of metabolic shock from surgery. Cortisol also reduces calcium absorption in the intestine.
Collagen is an important component of connective tissue. It is vital for structural support and is found in muscles, tendons, and joints, as well as throughout the entire body. Cortisol down - regulates the synthesis of collagen.
Cortisol raises the free amino acids in the serum by inhibiting collagen formation, decreasing amino acid uptake by muscle, and inhibiting protein synthesis. Cortisol (as opticortinol) may inversely inhibit IgA precursor cells in the intestines of calves. Cortisol also inhibits IgA in serum, as it does IgM; however, it is not shown to inhibit IgE.
Cortisol and the stress response have known deleterious effects on the immune system. High levels of perceived stress and increases in cortisol have been found to lengthen wound - healing time in healthy, male adults. Those who had the lowest levels of cortisol the day following a 4 mm punch biopsy had the fastest healing time. In dental students, wounds from punch biopsies took an average of 40 % longer to heal when performed three days before an examination as opposed to biopsies performed on the same students during summer vacation. This is in line with previous animal studies that show similar detrimental effects on wound healing, notably the primary reports showing that turtles recoil from cortisol.
Cortisol acts as a diuretic, increasing water diuresis, glomerular filtration rate, and renal plasma flow from the kidneys, as well as increasing sodium retention and potassium excretion. It also increases sodium and water absorption and potassium excretion in the intestines.
Cortisol promotes sodium absorption through the small intestine of mammals. Sodium depletion, however, does not affect cortisol levels so cortisol can not be used to regulate serum sodium. Cortisol 's original purpose may have been sodium transport. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that freshwater fish use cortisol to stimulate sodium inward, while saltwater fish have a cortisol - based system for expelling excess sodium.
A sodium load augments the intense potassium excretion by cortisol. Corticosterone is comparable to cortisol in this case. For potassium to move out of the cell, cortisol moves an equal number of sodium ions into the cell. This should make pH regulation much easier (unlike the normal potassium - deficiency situation, in which two sodium ions move in for each three potassium ions that move out -- closer to the deoxycorticosterone effect).
Cortisol stimulates gastric - acid secretion. Cortisol 's only direct effect on the hydrogen - ion excretion of the kidneys is to stimulate the excretion of ammonium ions by deactivating the renal glutaminase enzyme.
Cortisol works with epinephrine (adrenaline) to create memories of short - term emotional events; this is the proposed mechanism for storage of flash - bulb memories, and may originate as a means to remember what to avoid in the future. However, long - term exposure to cortisol damages cells in the hippocampus; this damage results in impaired learning. Furthermore, cortisol inhibits memory retrieval of already stored information.
Diurnal cycles of cortisol levels are found in humans. In humans, the amount of cortisol present in the blood undergoes diurnal variation; the level peaks in the early morning (around 8 am) and reaches its lowest level at about midnight - 4 am, or three to five hours after the onset of sleep. Information about the light / dark cycle is transmitted from the retina to the paired suprachiasmatic nuclei in the hypothalamus. This pattern is not present at birth; estimates of when it begins vary from two weeks to nine months of age.
Sustained stress can lead to high levels of circulating cortisol, which can create an allostatic load. An allostatic load can lead to various physical modifications in the body 's regulatory networks. Changed patterns of serum cortisol levels have been observed in connection with abnormal ACTH levels, mood disorders such as major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, psychological stress, and physiological stressors such as hypoglycemia, illness, fever, trauma, surgery, fear, pain, physical exertion, or temperature extremes. Cortisol levels may also differ for individuals with autism or Asperger 's syndrome. Also, significant individual variation is seen, although a given person tends to have consistent rhythms.
During human pregnancy, increased fetal production of cortisol between weeks 30 and 32 initiates production of fetal lung surfactant to promote maturation of the lungs. In fetal lambs, glucocorticoids (principally cortisol) increase after about day 130, with lung surfactant increasing greatly, in response, by about day 135, and although lamb fetal cortisol is mostly of maternal origin during the first 122 days, 88 % or more is of fetal origin by day 136 of gestation. Although the timing of fetal cortisol concentration elevation in sheep may vary somewhat, it averages about 11.8 days before the onset of labor. In several livestock species (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs), the surge of fetal cortisol late in gestation triggers the onset of parturition by removing the progesterone block of cervical dilation and myometrial contraction. The mechanisms yielding this effect on progesterone differ among species. In the sheep, where progesterone sufficient for maintaining pregnancy is produced by the placenta after about day 70 of gestation, the prepartum fetal cortisol surge induces placental enzymatic conversion of progesterone to estrogen. (The elevated level of estrogen stimulates prostaglandin secretion and oxytocin receptor development.)
Exposure of fetuses to cortisol during gestation can have a variety of developmental outcomes, including alterations in prenatal and postnatal growth patterns. In marmosets, a species of New World primates, pregnant females have varying levels of cortisol during gestation, both within and between females. Infants born to mothers with high gestational cortisol during the first trimester of pregnancy had lower rates of growth in body mass indices than infants born to mothers with low gestational cortisol (about 20 % lower). However, postnatal growth rates in these high - cortisol infants was more rapid than low - cortisol infants later in postnatal periods, and complete catch - up in growth had occurred by 540 days of age. These results suggest that gestational exposure to cortisol in fetuses has important potential fetal programming effects on both pre - and postnatal growth in primates.
Cortisol is produced in the human body by the adrenal gland in the zona fasciculata, the second of three layers comprising the adrenal cortex. The cortex forms the outer "bark '' of each adrenal gland, situated atop the kidneys. The release of cortisol is controlled by the hypothalamus, a part of the brain. The secretion of corticotropin - releasing hormone by the hypothalamus triggers cells in the neighboring anterior pituitary to secrete another hormone, the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), into the vascular system, through which blood carries it to the adrenal cortex. ACTH stimulates the synthesis of cortisol, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and dehydroepiandrosterone.
Normal values indicated in the following tables pertain to humans (normal levels vary among species). Measured cortisol levels, and therefore reference ranges, depend on the analytical method used and factors such as age and sex. Test results should, therefore, always be interpreted using the reference range from the laboratory that produced the result.
Using the molecular weight of 362.460 g / mole, the conversion factor from μg / dl to nmol / l is approximately 27.6; thus, 10 μg / dl is about 276 nmol / l.
Disorders of cortisol production, and some consequent conditions, are:
The primary control of cortisol is the pituitary gland peptide, ACTH, which probably controls cortisol by controlling the movement of calcium into the cortisol - secreting target cells. ACTH is in turn controlled by the hypothalamic peptide corticotropin - releasing hormone (CRH), which is under nervous control. CRH acts synergistically with arginine vasopressin, angiotensin II, and epinephrine. (In swine, which do not produce arginine vasopressin, lysine vasopressin acts synergistically with CRH.)
When activated macrophages start to secrete IL - 1, which synergistically with CRH increases ACTH, T - cells also secrete glucosteroid response modifying factor (GRMF), as well as IL - 1; both increase the amount of cortisol required to inhibit almost all the immune cells. Immune cells then assume their own regulation, but at a higher cortisol setpoint. The increase in cortisol in diarrheic calves is minimal over healthy calves, however, and falls over time. The cells do not lose all their fight - or - flight override because of interleukin - 1 's synergism with CRH. Cortisol even has a negative feedback effect on interleukin - 1 -- especially useful to treat diseases that force the hypothalamus to secrete too much CRH, such as those caused by endotoxic bacteria. The suppressor immune cells are not affected by GRMF, so the immune cells ' effective setpoint may be even higher than the setpoint for physiological processes. GRMF affects primarily the liver (rather than the kidneys) for some physiological processes.
High - potassium media (which stimulates aldosterone secretion in vitro) also stimulate cortisol secretion from the fasciculata zone of canine adrenals -- unlike corticosterone, upon which potassium has no effect.
Potassium loading also increases ACTH and cortisol in humans. This is probably the reason why potassium deficiency causes cortisol to decline (as mentioned) and causes a decrease in conversion of 11 - deoxycortisol to cortisol. This may also have a role in rheumatoid - arthritis pain; cell potassium is always low in RA.
Ascorbic acid presence, particularly in high doses has also been shown to mediate response to psychological stress and speed the decrease of the levels of circulating cortisol in the body post stress. This can be evidenced through a decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressures and decreased salivary cortisol level after treatment with ascorbic acid.
Cortisol is synthesized from cholesterol. Synthesis takes place in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex. (The name cortisol is derived from cortex.) While the adrenal cortex also produces aldosterone (in the zona glomerulosa) and some sex hormones (in the zona reticularis), cortisol is its main secretion in humans and several other species. (However, in cattle, corticosterone levels may approach or exceed cortisol levels.). The medulla of the adrenal gland lies under the cortex, mainly secreting the catecholamines adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) under sympathetic stimulation.
The synthesis of cortisol in the adrenal gland is stimulated by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland with ACTH; ACTH production is, in turn, stimulated by CRH, which is released by the hypothalamus. ACTH increases the concentration of cholesterol in the inner mitochondrial membrane, via regulation of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein. It also stimulates the main rate - limiting step in cortisol synthesis, in which cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone and catalyzed by cytochrome P450SCC (side - chain cleavage enzyme).
Cortisol is metabolized by the 11 - beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase system (11 - beta HSD), which consists of two enzymes: 11 - beta HSD1 and 11 - beta HSD2.
Overall, the net effect is that 11 - beta HSD1 serves to increase the local concentrations of biologically active cortisol in a given tissue; 11 - beta HSD2 serves to decrease local concentrations of biologically active cortisol.
Cortisol is also metabolized into 5 - alpha tetrahydrocortisol (5 - alpha THF) and 5 - beta tetrahydrocortisol (5 - beta THF), reactions for which 5 - alpha reductase and 5 - beta reductase are the rate - limiting factors, respectively. 5 - Beta reductase is also the rate - limiting factor in the conversion of cortisone to tetrahydrocortisone.
An alteration in 11 - beta HSD1 has been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of obesity, hypertension, and insulin resistance known as metabolic syndrome.
An alteration in 11 - beta HSD2 has been implicated in essential hypertension and is known to lead to the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess (SAME).
Cortisol is a naturally occurring pregnane corticosteroid and is also known as 11β, 17α, 21 - trihydroxypregn - 4 - ene - 3, 20 - dione.
In animals, cortisol is often used as an indicator of stress and can be measured in blood, saliva, urine, hair, and faeces.
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when is lucifer season 3 episode 3 coming out | List of Lucifer episodes - wikipedia
Lucifer is an American fantasy police procedural comedy - drama television series developed by Tom Kapinos that premiered on Fox on January 25, 2016. It features a character created by Neil Gaiman, Sam Kieth, and Mike Dringenberg taken from the comic book series The Sandman, which later became the protagonist of the spin - off comic book series Lucifer written by Mike Carey, both published by DC Comics ' Vertigo imprint.
In April 2016, Fox renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on September 19, 2016. On February 13, 2017, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on October 2, 2017. As of November 6, 2017, 37 episodes of Lucifer have aired.
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describe the pattern of volcanoes located in and around the pacific ocean | Ring of Fire - wikipedia
The Ring of Fire is a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. In a 40,000 km (25,000 mi) horseshoe shape, it is associated with a nearly continuous series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, and volcanic belts and plate movements. It has 452 volcanoes (more than 75 % of the world 's active and dormant volcanoes). The Ring of Fire is sometimes called the circum - Pacific belt.
About 90 % of the world 's earthquakes and 81 % of the world 's largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire. The next most seismically active region (5 -- 6 % of earthquakes and 17 % of the world 's largest earthquakes) is the Alpide belt, which extends from Java to the northern Atlantic Ocean via the Himalayas and southern Europe.
All but three of the world 's 25 largest volcanic eruptions of the last 11,700 years occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire.
The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics: the movement and collisions of lithospheric plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the westward - moving South American Plate. The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate, in Central America. A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate. Along the northern portion, the northwestward - moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the Kamchatka Peninsula arcs on south past Japan. The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the Mariana Islands, the Philippines, Bougainville, Tonga, and New Zealand; this portion excludes Australia, since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate. Indonesia lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor. The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of California is a transform fault which offsets a portion of the East Pacific Rise under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a magnitude 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada 's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.
Bolivia hosts numerous active and extinct volcanoes across its territory. The active volcanoes are located in western Bolivia where they make up the Cordillera Occidental, the western limit of the Altiplano plateau. Many of the active volcanoes are international mountains shared with Chile. All Cenozoic volcanoes of Bolivia are part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andean Volcanic Belt that results due to processes involved in the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate. The Central Volcanic Zone is a major upper Cenozoic volcanic province. Apart from Andean volcanoes, the geology of Bolivia hosts the remnants of ancient volcanoes around the Precambrian Guaporé Shield in the eastern part of the country.
The volcanoes in Chile are monitored by the National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN)
Earthquake activity in Chile is related to subduction of the Nazca Plate to the east. Chile notably holds the record for the largest earthquake ever recorded, the 1960 Valdivia earthquake. Villarrica, one of Chile 's most active volcanoes, rises above Villarrica Lake and the town of Villarrica. It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andean chain. A 6 - km - wide caldera formed during the late Pleistocene, more than 0.9 million years ago.
A 2 - km - wide postglacial caldera is located at the base of the presently active, dominantly basaltic - to - andesitic cone at the northwest margin of the Pleistocene caldera. About 25 scoria cones dot Villarica 's flanks. Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows have been produced during the Holocene from this dominantly basaltic volcano, but historical eruptions have consisted of largely mild - to - moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion. Lahars from the glacier - covered volcanoes have damaged towns on its flanks.
The Llaima Volcano is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Chile. It is situated 82 km northeast of Temuco and 663 km southeast of Santiago, within the borders of Conguillío National Park. Llaima 's activity has been documented since the 17th century, and consists of several separate episodes of moderate explosive eruptions with occasional lava flows. The last major eruption occurred in 1994.
Chile has experienced numerous volcanic eruptions from 60 volcanoes, including Llaima Volcano and the Chaitén Volcano. More recently, a magnitude - 8.8 earthquake struck central Chile on February 27, 2010, the Puyehue - Cordón Caulle volcano erupted in 2011, and a M8. 2 earthquake struck northern Chile on April 1, 2014. The main shock was preceded by a number of moderate to large shocks and was followed by a large number of moderate to very large aftershocks, including a magnitude - 7.6 event on 2 April.
Lascar is a stratovolcano, is the most active volcano of the northern Chilean Andes. The largest eruption of Lascar took place about 26,500 years ago, and following the eruption of the Tumbres scoria flow about 9,000 years ago, activity shifted back to the eastern edifice, where three overlapping craters were formed. Frequent small - to - moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded from Lascar in historical time since the mid-19th century, along with periodic larger eruptions that produced ash and tephra fall up to hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. The largest eruption of Lascar in recent history took place in 1993, producing pyroclastic flows as far as 8.5 km (5 mi) northwest of the summit and ash fall in Buenos Aires, Argentina, more than 1,600 km (994 mi) to the southeast. The latest series of eruptions began on 18 April 2006 and was continuing as of 2011.
Chiliques is a stratovolcano located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile, immediately north of Cerro Miscanti. Laguna Lejía lies to the north of the volcano and has been dormant for at least 10,000 years, but is now showing signs of life. A January 6, 2002, nighttime thermal infrared image from ASTER revealed a hot spot in the summit crater, as well as several others along the upper flanks of the volcano 's edifice, indicating new volcanic activity. Examination of an earlier nighttime thermal infrared image from May 24, 2000, showed no such hot spots.
Calbuco is a stratovolcano in southern Chile, located southeast of Llanquihue Lake and northwest of Chapo Lake, in Los Lagos Region. The volcano and the surrounding area are protected within Llanquihue National Reserve. It is a very explosive andesite volcano that underwent edifice collapse in the late Pleistocene, producing a volcanic debris avalanche that reached the lake. At least nine eruptions occurred since 1837, with the latest one in 1972. One of the largest historical eruptions in southern Chile took place there in 1893 -- 1894. Violent eruptions ejected 30 - cm bombs to distances of 8 km from the crater, accompanied by voluminous hot lahars. Strong explosions occurred in April 1917, and a lava dome formed in the crater accompanied by hot lahars. Another short explosive eruption in January 1929 also included an apparent pyroclastic flow and a lava flow. The last major eruption of Calbuco, in 1961, sent ash columns 12 -- 15 km high and produced plumes that dispersed mainly to the southeast and two lava flows were also emitted. A minor, four - hour eruption happened on August 26, 1972. Strong fumarolic emission from the main crater was observed on August 12, 1996.
Lonquimay is a stratovolocano of late - Pleistocene to dominantly Holocene age, with the shape of a truncated cone. The cone is largely andesitic, though basaltic and dacitic rocks are present. It is located in La Araucanía Region of Chile, immediately southeast of Tolhuaca volcano. Sierra Nevada and Llaima are their neighbors to the south. The snow - capped volcano lies within the protected area Malalcahuello - Nalcas. The volcano last erupted in 1988, ending in 1990. The VEI was 3. The eruption was from a flank vent and involved lava flows and explosive eruptions. Some fatalities occurred.
Antuco Volcano is a stratovolocano located in the Bío Bío Region of Chile, near Sierra Velluda and on the shore of Laguna del Laja, with its last eruption in 1869.
Villarrica is one of Chile 's most active volcanoes, rising above the lake and town of the same name. The volcano is also known as Rucapillán, a Mapuche word meaning "House of the Pillán ''. It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andes along the Gastre Fault. Villarrica, along with Quetrupillán and the Chilean portion of Lanín, are protected within Villarrica National Park. Ascents of the volcano are popular with several guided ascents reaching the top during summer.
Villarrica, with its lava of basaltic - andesitic composition, is one of only five volcanoes worldwide known to have an active lava lake within its crater. The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions, with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows. Melting of snow and glacier ice, as well as rainfall, often causes massive lahars, such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971.
In Ecuador, EPN monitors the volcanic activity in this andean nation.
Cotopaxi is a stratovolcano in the Andes, located about 50 km (31 mi) south of Quito, Ecuador, South America. It is the second - highest summit in the country, reaching a height of 5,897 m (19,347 ft). Some consider it the world 's highest active volcano, and it is one of Ecuador 's most active volcanoes. Since 1738, Cotopaxi has erupted more than 50 times, resulting in the creation of numerous valleys formed by mudflows around the volcano.
In October 1999, Pichincha Volcano erupted in Quito and covered the city with several inches of ash. Prior to that, the last major eruptions were in 1553 and in 1660, when about 30 cm of ash fell on the city.
At 5,230 m, Sangay Volcano) is an active stratovolcano in central Ecuador, and is one of the highest active volcanoes in the world and one of Ecuador 's most active ones, erupting three times in recorded history. It exhibits mostly strombolian activity; the most recent eruption, which started in 1934, is still going on. Geologically, Sangay marks the southern bound of the Northern Volcanic Zone, and its position straddling two major pieces of crust accounts for its high level of activity. Sangay 's roughly 500,000 - year history is one of instability; two previous versions of the mountain were destroyed in massive flank collapses, evidence of which still litters its surroundings today. Sangay is one of two active volcanoes located within the namesake Sangay National Park, the other being Tungurahua to the north. As such, it has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.
Reventador is an active stratovolcano which lies in the eastern Andes of Ecuador. Since 1541, it has erupted over 25 times, with its most recent eruption in 2009, but the largest historical eruption occurred in 2002. During that eruption, the plume from the volcano reached a height of 17 km, and pyroclastic flows went up to 7 km from the cone. On March 30, 2007, the mountain spewed ash again. The ash reached a height of about two miles (3 km, 11,000 ft).
Cotopaxi, outside of Quito, started activity in April 2015. A large increase in earthquakes (including harmonic tremors) and SO emissions began. IGPEN reported slight deformation of the edifice, suggesting an intrusion of magma under the volcano. As of 25 July, the unrest continued, and the most recent major eruption was an ash and steam eruption that occurred on August 14 and 15, 2015.
Volcanoes in Peru are monitored by the Peruvian Geophysical Institute.
Sabancaya is an active 5,976 - metre (19,606 ft) stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru, about 100 kilometres (62 mi) northwest of Arequipa. It is the most active volcano in Peru, with an ongoing eruption that started in August 2014.
Ubinas is another active volcano 5,672 - metre (18,609 ft) in southern Peru with an ongoing eruption. Until 2006, this stratovolcano had not erupted for about 40 years. On April 23, 2006, Peru declared a state of emergency in towns near the volcano. On April 28, 2014, despite a recent decline in earthquakes, Ubinas Volcano erupted an ash plume on April 28, 2014.
The Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica (OVSICORI) at the National University of Costa Rica, in Spanish Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica (OVSICORI) have a dedicated team in charge of researching and monitoring the volcanoes, earthquakes, and other tectonic processes in the Central America Volcanic Arc. In 1984, the OVSICORI - A initiated the operation of a seismographic network designed to monitor seismic and volcanic activity throughout the national territory. Currently, the seismographic network has an analog and a digital registration system. The latter enables online analysis of seismic signals, allowing to expedite the analysis of signals and the study using modern computerized methods. Poás Volcano is an active 2,708 - metre (8,885 ft) stratovolcano located in central Costa Rica; it has erupted 39 times since 1828. On February 25, 2014, a webcam from the OVSICORI captured the moment a dark cloud exploded about 1,000 feet (300 m) in the air from a massive crater of the Poás Volcano.
In 1902, the Santa Maria Volcano erupted violently in Guatemala, with the largest explosions occurring over two days, ejecting an estimated 5.5 km (1.3 mi) of magma. The eruption was one of the largest of the 20th century, only slightly less in magnitude to that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. The eruption had a volcanic explosivity index of 6. Today Santiaguito is one of the world 's most active volcanoes. (1) (2)
Volcanoes of Mexico are related to subduction of the Cocos and Rivera plates to the east, which has produced large, explosive eruptions. Most active volcanoes in Mexico occur in the Trans - Mexican Volcanic Belt, which extends 900 kilometres (559 mi) from west to east across central - southern Mexico. A few other active volcanoes in northern Mexico are related to extensional tectonics of the Basin and Range Province, which splits the Baja California peninsula from the mainland. Popocatépetl, lying in the eastern half of the Trans - Mexican Volcanic Belt, is the second - highest peak in Mexico after the Pico de Orizaba. It is one of the most active volcanoes in Mexico, having had more than 20 major eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. The 1982 eruption of El Chichón, which killed about 2,000 people who lived near the volcano, created a 1 - km - wide caldera that filled with an acidic crater lake. Prior to 2000, this relatively unknown volcano was heavily forested and of no greater height than adjacent nonvolcanic peaks.
The United States Geological Survey and the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) are located on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado. Both monitor volcanos in the United States; in the western United States lies the Cascade Volcanic Arc. It includes nearly 20 major volcanoes, among a total of over 4,000 separate volcanic vents including numerous stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones, along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as tuyas. Volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago, but most of the present - day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2,000,000 years old, and the highest peaks are less than 100,000 years old. The arc formed by the subduction of the Gorda and Juan de Fuca plates at the Cascadia subduction zone. This is a 680 - mi - long fault, running 50 mi (80 km) off the coast of the Pacific Northwest from northern California to Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The plates move at a relative rate over 0.4 in (10 mm) per year at a somewhat oblique angle to the subduction zone.
Because of the very large fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce very large earthquakes, magnitude 9.0 or greater, if rupture occurred over its whole area. When the "locked '' zone stores energy for an earthquake, the "transition '' zone, although somewhat plastic, can rupture. Thermal and deformation studies indicate that the locked zone is fully locked for 60 km (about 40 mi) down - dip from the deformation front. Further down - dip, a transition from fully locked to aseismic sliding occurs.
Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, no oceanic trench is present along the continental margin in Cascadia. Instead, terranes and the accretionary wedge have been lifted up to form a series of coast ranges and exotic mountains. A high rate of sedimentation from the outflow of the three major rivers (Fraser River, Columbia River, and Klamath River) which cross the Cascade Range contributes to further obscuring the presence of a trench. However, in common with most other subduction zones, the outer margin is slowly being compressed, similar to a giant spring. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes such as the magnitude - 9 Cascadia earthquake of 1700. Geological evidence indicates that great earthquakes may have occurred at least seven times in the last 3,500 years, suggesting a return time of 400 to 600 years. Also, evidence of accompanying tsunamis with every earthquake is seen, as the prime reason these earthquakes are known is through "scars '' the tsunami left on the coast, and through Japanese records (tsunami waves can travel across the Pacific).
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was the most significant to occur in the contiguous 48 U.S. states in recorded history (VEI = 5, 0.3 cu mi, 1.2 km of material erupted), exceeding the destructive power and volume of material released by the 1915 eruption of California 's Lassen Peak. The eruption was preceded by a two - month series of earthquakes and steam - venting episodes caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the mountain that created a huge bulge and a fracture system on Mount St. Helens ' north slope. An earthquake at 8: 32 am on May 18, 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, suddenly exposing the partly molten, gas - and steam - rich rock in the volcano to lower pressure. The rock responded by exploding into a very hot mix of pulverized lava and older rock that sped toward Spirit Lake so fast that it quickly passed the avalanching north face.
Alaska is known for its seismic and volcanic activity, holding the record for the second - largest earthquake in the world, the Good Friday earthquake, and having more than 50 volcanoes which have erupted since about 1760. Volcanoes can be found not only in the mainland, but also in the Aleutian Islands.
The most recent activity in the American portion of the Ring of Fire occurred in early 2009 when Mount Redoubt in Alaska became active and finally erupted late in the evening of March 22. The eruption ended in May 2009.
The Public Safety Geo - science Program at the Natural Resources Canada undertakes research to support risk reduction from the effects of space weather, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and landslides.
British Columbia and Yukon are home to a vast region of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Several mountains that many British Columbians look at every day are dormant volcanoes. Most of them erupted during the Pleistocene and Holocene. Although none of Canada 's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes, volcanic fields, and volcanic centers are considered potentially active. Hot springs are at some volcanoes, while 10 volcanoes in British Columbia appear related to seismic activity since 1975, including: the Silverthrone Caldera, Mount Meager, Wells Gray - Clearwater volcanic field, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, Castle Rock, The Volcano, Mount Edziza, Hoodoo Mountain, Crow Lagoon, and Nazko Cone. The volcanoes are grouped into five volcanic belts with different tectonic settings.
The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province (sometimes known as the Stikine Volcanic Belt) is the most active volcanic region in Canada. It formed due to extensional cracking, faulting, and rifting of the North American Plate, as the Pacific Plate grinds and slides past the Queen Charlotte Fault, unlike subduction that produces the volcanoes in Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The region has Canada 's largest volcanoes, much larger than the minor stratovolcanoes found in the Canadian portion of the Cascade Volcanic Arc. Several eruptions are known to have occurred within the last 400 years. Mount Edziza is a huge volcanic complex that erupted several times in the past several thousand years and has formed several cinder cones and lava flows. The complex comprises the Mount Edziza Plateau, a large volcanic plateau (65 km long and 20 km wide) made of predominantly basaltic lava flows with four large stratovolcanoes built on top of the plateau. The associated lava domes and satellite cones were constructed over the past 7.5 million years during five magmatic cycles beginning with eruption of alkali basalts and ending with felsic and basaltic eruptions as late as 1,340 years ago. The blocky lava flows still maintain their original forms. Hoodoo Mountain is a tuya in northwestern British Columbia, which has had several periods of subglacial eruptions. The oldest eruptions occurred about 100,000 years ago and the most recent about 7000 years ago. Hoodoo Mountain is also considered active, so could erupt in the future. The nearby Tseax Cone and The Volcano produced some of Canada 's youngest lava flows, about 150 years old.
Canada 's worst known geophysical disaster came from the Tseax Cone during the 18th century at the southernmost end of the volcanic belt. The eruption produced a 22.5 - km - long lava flow, destroying the Nisga'a villages and the death of at least 2000 Nisga'a people by volcanic gases and poisonous smoke. The Nass River valley was inundated by the lava flows and contains abundant tree molds and lava tubes. The event happened at the same time as the arrival of the first European explorers to penetrate the uncharted coastal waters of northern British Columbia. Today, the basaltic lava deposits are a draw to tourists and are part of the Nisga'a Memorial Lava Beds Provincial Park.
The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt in southwestern British Columbia is the northern extension of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the United States (which includes Mount Baker and Mount St. Helens) and contains the most explosive young volcanoes in Canada. It formed as a result of subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate (a remnant of the much larger Farallon Plate) under the North American Plate along the Cascadia subduction zone. The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt includes the Bridge River Cones, Mount Cayley, Mount Fee, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Price, Mount Meager, the Squamish Volcanic Field, and more smaller volcanoes. The eruption styles in the belt range from effusive to explosive, with compositions from basalt to rhyolite. Morphologically, centers include calderas, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes and small isolated lava masses. Due to repeated continental and alpine glaciations, many of the volcanic deposits in the belt reflect complex interactions between magma composition, topography, and changing ice configurations. The most recent major catastrophic eruption in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt was the 2350 BP eruption of Mount Meager. It was similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, sending an ash column about 20 km into the stratosphere.
The Chilcotin Group is a north - south range of volcanoes in southern British Columbia running parallel to the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. The majority of the eruptions in this belt happened either 6 -- 10 million years ago (Miocene) or 2 -- 3 million years ago (Pliocene), although with some slightly more recent eruptions (in the Pleistocene). It is thought to have formed as a result of back - arc extension behind the Cascadia subduction zone. Volcanoes in this belt include Mount Noel, the Clisbako Caldera Complex, Lightning Peak, Black Dome Mountain, and many lava flows.
The Anahim Volcanic Belt is a line of volcanoes stretching from just north of Vancouver Island to near Quesnel, British Columbia. These volcanoes were formed 8 to 1 million years ago, and the Nazko Cone last erupted only 7,200 years ago. The volcanoes generally get younger moving from the coast to the interior. These volcanoes are thought to have formed as a result of the North American Plate sliding westward over a small hotspot, called the Anahim hotspot. The hotspot is considered similar to the one feeding the Hawaiian Islands. The belt is defined by three large shield volcanoes (Rainbow, Ilgachuz and the Itcha Ranges) and 37 Quaternary basalt centers.
Eruptions of basaltic to rhyolitic volcanoes and hypabyssal rocks of the Alert Bay Volcanic Belt in northern Vancouver Island are probably linked with the subducted margin flanked by the Explorer and Juan de Fuca Plates at the Cascadia subduction zone. It appears to have been active during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. However, no Holocene eruptions are known, and volcanic activity in the belt has likely ceased.
The Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East is one of the most various and active volcanic areas in the world, with an area of 472,300 km. It lies between the Pacific Ocean to the east and the Okhotsk Sea to the west. Immediately offshore along the Pacific coast of the peninsula runs the 10,500 - m - deep Kuril - Kamchatka Trench, where rapid subduction of the Pacific Plate fuels the intense volcanism. Almost all types of volcanic activity are present, from stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes to Hawaiian - style fissure eruptions.
Over 30 active volcanoes and hundreds of dormant and extinct volcanoes are in two major volcanic belts. The most recent activity takes place in the eastern belt, starting in the north at the Shiveluch volcanic complex, which lies at the junction of the Aleutian and Kamchatka volcanic arcs. Just to the south is the famous Klyuchi volcanic group, comprising the twin volcanic cones of Kliuchevskoi and Kamen, the huge volcanic complexes of Tolbachik and Ushkovsky, and a number of other large stratovolcanoes. The only active volcano in the central belt is found west of here, the huge remote Ichinsky. Farther south, the eastern belt continues to the southern slope of Kamchatka, topped by loads of stratovolcanoes, continuing onto the Kuril Islands, and southwards into Japan.
About 10 % of the world 's active volcanoes are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. They are formed by subduction of the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of 4 to 6 are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing some slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the 20th century were: the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died; and the Great Hanshin earthquake of 17 January 1995, in which 6,434 people died. On March 11, 2011 a magnitude 9.0 earthquake hit Japan, the country 's biggest ever and the fifth largest on record, according to US Geological Survey data. Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis.
Mount Bandai, one of Japan 's most noted volcanoes, rises above the north shore of Lake Inawashiro. Mount Bandai is formed of several overlapping stratovolcanoes, the largest of which is O - Bandai forming a complex volcano. O - Bandai volcano was constructed within a horseshoe - shaped caldera that formed about 40,000 years when an earlier volcano collapsed, forming the Okinajima debris avalanche, which traveled to the southwest and was accompanied by a plinian eruption. Four major phreatic eruptions have occurred during the past 5,000 years, two of them in historical time, in 806 and 1888. Seen from the south, Bandai presents a conical profile, but much of the north side of the volcano is missing as a result of the collapse of Ko - Bandai volcano during the 1888 eruption, in which a debris avalanche buried several villages and formed several large lakes.
Nearly a century ago, the north flank of Mount Bandai collapsed during an eruption quite similar to the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens. After a week of seismic activity, a large earthquake on July 15, 1888, was followed by a tremendous noise and a large explosion. Eyewitnesses heard about 15 to 20 additional explosions and observed that the last one was projected almost horizontally to the north.
Mount Fuji is Japan 's highest and most noted volcano. The modern postglacial stratovolcano is constructed above a group of overlapping volcanoes, remnants of which form irregularities on Fuji 's profile. Growth of the younger Mount Fuji began with a period of voluminous lava flows from 11,000 to 8,000 years ago, accounting for four - fifths of the volume of the younger Mount Fuji. Minor explosive eruptions dominated activity from 8,000 to 4,500 years ago, with another period of major lava flows occurring from 4,500 to 3,000 years ago. Subsequently, intermittent major explosive eruptions occurred, with subordinate lava flows and small pyroclastic flows. Summit eruptions dominated from 3,000 to 2,000 years ago, after which flank vents were active. The extensive basaltic lava flows from the summit and some of the more than 100 flank cones and vents blocked drainage against the Tertiary Misaka Mountains on the north side of the volcano, forming the Fuji Five Lakes. The last eruption of this dominantly basaltic volcano in 1707 ejected andesitic pumice and formed a large new crater on the east flank. Some minor volcanic activity may occur in the next few years.
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo is the world 's second - largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century. Successful predictions of the onset of the climactic eruption led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people from the surrounding areas, saving many lives, but as the surrounding areas were severely damaged by pyroclastic flows, ash deposits, and later, lahars caused by rainwater remobilising earlier volcanic deposits, thousands of houses were destroyed.
Mayon Volcano is the Philippines ' most active volcano. It has steep upper slopes that average 35 -- 40 ° and is capped by a small summit crater. The historical eruptions of this basaltic - andesitic volcano dates back to 1616 and ranges from Strombolian to basaltic Plinian eruptions. Eruptions occur predominately from the central conduit and have also produced lava flows that travel far down the flanks. Pyroclastic flows and mudflows have commonly swept down many of the roughly 40 ravines that radiate from the summit and have often devastated populated lowland areas.
Taal Volcano has had 33 recorded eruptions since 1572. A devastating eruption occurred in 1911, which claimed more than a thousand lives. The deposits of that eruption consist of a yellowish, fairly decomposed (nonjuvenile) tephra with a high sulfur content. The most recent period of activity lasted from 1965 to 1977, and was characterized by the interaction of magma with the lake water, which produced violent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions. Although the volcano has been dormant since 1977, it has shown signs of unrest since 1991, with strong seismic activity and ground - fracturing events, as well as the formation of small mud geysers on parts of the island.
Kanlaon Volcano, the most active volcano in the central Philippines, has erupted 25 times since 1866. Eruptions are typically phreatic explosions of small - to - moderate size that produce minor ash falls near the volcano. On August 10, 1996, Kanlaon erupted without warning, killing British student Julian Green and Filipinos Noel Tragico and Neil Perez, who were among 24 mountain climbers who were trapped near the summit.
The volcanoes in Indonesia are among the most active of the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are formed due to subduction zones of three main active tectonic plates namely the Eurasian Plate, Pacific Plate, and Indo - Australian Plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatau for its global effects in 1883, Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 BP, which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter, and Mount Tambora, for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815. The eruption of Mount Tambora caused widespread harvest failures in Northern Europe, the Northeastern United States, and eastern Canada in 1816, which was known as the Year Without a Summer.
The most active volcanoes are Kelud and Mount Merapi on Java island, which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelud has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, while Merapi has erupted more than 80 times. The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior has named Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity. Another active volcano is Sinabung which erupted since 2013 until now.
GNS Science was known as the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences from 1992 to 2005. GNS Science was partially commercialised, and now operates as a government - owned company rather than as a government department.
Originally part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), it was established as an independent organisation when the Crown Research Institutes were created in 1992.
As well as undertaking basic research, and operating the national geological hazards monitoring network, GNS Science is employed, both in New Zealand and overseas, by various private groups (notably energy companies), as well as central and local government agencies, to provide scientific advice and information.
GNS Science is based in Avalon, Lower Hutt, with facilities in Dunedin and Wairakei.
New Zealand contains the world 's strongest concentration of youthful rhyolitic volcanoes, and voluminous sheets blanket much of the North Island. The earliest historically - dated eruption was at Whakaari / White Island in 1826, followed in 1886 by the country 's largest historical eruption at Mount Tarawera. Much of the region north of New Zealand 's North Island is made up of seamounts and small islands, including 16 submarine volcanoes. In the last 1.6 million years, most of New Zealand 's volcanism is from the Taupo Volcanic Zone.
Mount Ruapehu, at the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, is one of the most active volcanoes. It began erupting at least 250,000 years ago. In recorded history, major eruptions have been about 50 years apart, in 1895, 1945, and 1995 -- 1996. Minor eruptions are frequent, with at least 60 since 1945. Some of the minor eruptions in the 1970s generated small ash falls and lahars that damaged ski fields. Between major eruptions, a warm acidic crater lake forms, fed by melting snow. Major eruptions may completely expel the lake water. Where a major eruption has deposited a tephra dam across the lake 's outlet, the dam may collapse after the lake has refilled and risen above the level of its normal outlet, the outrush of water causing a large lahar. The most notable lahar caused the Tangiwai disaster on December 24, 1953, when 151 people aboard a Wellington to Auckland express train were killed after the lahar destroyed the Tangiwai rail bridge just moments before the train was due. In 2000, the ERLAWS system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities.
The Auckland volcanic field on the North Island of New Zealand has produced a diverse array of explosive craters, scoria cones, and lava flows. Currently dormant, the field is likely to erupt again with the next "hundreds to thousands of years '', a very short timeframe in geologic terms. The field contains at least 40 volcanoes, most recently active about 600 years ago at Rangitoto Island, erupting 2.3 km of lava.
The Pacific Ring of Fire is completed in the south by the continent of Antarctica, which includes many large volcanoes. The makeup and structure of the volcanoes in Antarctica change largely from the other places around the ring. In contrast, the Antarctic Plate is almost completely surrounded by extensional zones, with several mid-ocean ridges which encircle it, with only a small subduction zone at the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, reaching eastward to the remote South Sandwich Islands. The most well known volcano in Antarctica is Mount Erebus, which is also the world 's southernmost active volcano. In many respects the geology of the Antarctic Peninsula is an extension of the Andes, hence the name sometimes used by geologists: "Antarctandes ''. At the opposite side of the continent, the volcanoes of Victoria Land may be seen as the ' other end ' of the Antarctandes, thus completing the Pacific Ring of Fire and continuing up through the Balleny Islands to New Zealand.
Mount Erebus is the second - highest volcano in Antarctica (after Mount Sidley) and the southernmost active volcano on earth. It is the sixth - highest ultra mountain on an island. With a summit elevation of 3,794 m (12,448 ft), it is located on Ross Island, which is also home to three inactive volcanoes, Mount Terror, Mount Bird, and Mount Terra Nova.
The volcano has been observed to be continuously active since 1972 and is the site of the Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory run by the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. Mount Erebus is currently the most active volcano in Antarctica and is the current eruptive zone of the Erebus hotspot.
The volcanoes of the Victoria Land area are the most well known in Antarctica, most likely because they are the most accessible. Much of Victoria Land is mountainous, developing the eastern section of the Transantarctic Mountains, and the several scattered volcanoes include Mount Overlord and Mount Melbourne in the northern part. Farther south are two more well - known volcanoes, Mount Discovery and Mount Morning, which are on the coast across from Mount Erebus and Mount Terror on Ross Island. The volcanism in this area is caused by rifting along a number of rift zones increasing mainly north - south similar to the coast.
Marie Byrd Land contains the largest volcanic region in Antarctica, covering a length of almost 600 mi (970 km) along the Pacific coast. The volcanism is the result of rifting along the vast West Antarctic Rift, which extends from the base of the Antarctic Peninsula to the surrounding area of Ross Island, and the volcanoes are found along the northern edge of the rift. Protruding up through the ice are a large number of major shield volcanoes, including Mount Sidley, which is the highest volcano in Antarctica. Although a number of the volcanoes are relatively young and are potentially active (Mount Berlin, Mount Takahe, Mount Waesche, and Mount Siple), others such as Mount Andrus and Mount Hampton are over 10 million years old, yet maintain uneroded constructional forms. The desert - like surroundings of the Antarctic interior, along with a very thick and stable ice sheet which encloses and protects the bases of the volcanoes, which decreases the speed of erosion by an issue of perhaps a thousand relative to volcanoes in moist temperate or tropical climates.
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ministry of foreign affairs of the republic of latvia | Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Latvia) - wikipedia
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Latvian: Latvijas Republikas Ārlietu ministrija) is responsible for maintaining the Republic of Latvia 's external relations and the management of its international diplomatic missions. The actual Minister of Foreign Affairs is Edgars Rinkēvičs, a member of the Reform Party and former State Secretary within Latvia 's Ministry of Defence.
The ministry directs Latvia 's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organizations, including the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, and its participation in the Schengen Area. It oversees visas, cooperation with expatriates, international human rights policy, transatlantic defense policy and various global trade concerns. The ministry also contributes to Latvia 's international trade and economic development, in collaboration with the Ministry of Economics (Latvia) and the Investment and Development Agency of Latvia.
The Inspector General for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia is appointed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The current Inspector General for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia is Māris Riekstiņš.
Coordinates: 56 ° 57 ′ 16 '' N 24 ° 06 ′ 28 '' E / 56.954427 ° N 24.107876 ° E / 56.954427; 24.107876
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what is meant by cyst in the ovary | Ovarian cyst - wikipedia
An ovarian cyst is a fluid - filled sac within the ovary. Often they cause no symptoms. Occasionally they may produce bloating, lower abdominal pain, or lower back pain. The majority of cysts are harmless. If the cyst either breaks open or causes twisting of the ovary, it may cause severe pain. This may result in vomiting or feeling faint.
Most ovarian cysts are related to ovulation, being either follicular cysts or corpus luteum cysts. Other types include cysts due to endometriosis, dermoid cysts, and cystadenomas. Many small cysts occur in both ovaries in polycystic ovarian syndrome. Pelvic inflammatory disease may also result in cysts. Rarely, cysts may be a form of ovarian cancer. Diagnosis is undertaken by pelvic examination with an ultrasound or other testing used to gather further details.
Often, cysts are simply observed over time. If they cause pain, medications such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) or ibuprofen may be used. Hormonal birth control may be used to prevent further cysts in those who are frequently affected. However, evidence does not support birth control as a treatment of current cysts. If they do not go away after several months, get larger, look unusual, or cause pain, they may be removed by surgery.
Most women of reproductive age develop small cysts each month. Large cysts that cause problems occur in about 8 % of women before menopause. Ovarian cysts are present in about 16 % of women after menopause and if present are more likely to be cancer.
Some or all of the following symptoms may be present, though it is possible not to experience any symptoms:
Other symptoms may depend on the cause of the cysts:
The effect of cysts not related to PCOS on fertility is unclear.
A ruptured ovarian cyst is usually self - limiting, and only requires keeping an eye on the situation and pain medications. The main symptom is abdominal pain, which may last a few days to a several weeks, but they can also be asymptomatic. Rupture of large ovarian cysts can cause bleeding inside the abdominal cavity and in some cases shock.
Ovarian cysts increase the risk for ovarian torsion; cysts larger than 4 cm are associated with approximately 17 % risk. The torsion can cause obstruction of blood flow and lead to infarction.
Ovarian cysts are usually diagnosed by ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and correlated with clinical presentation and endocrinologic tests as appropriate.
Follow - up imaging in women of reproductive age for incidentally discovered simple cysts on ultrasound is not needed until 5 cm, as these are usually normal ovarian follicles. Simple cysts 5 to 7 cm in premenopausal females should be followed yearly. Simple cysts larger than 7 cm require further imaging with MRI or surgical assessment. Because they are large, they can not be reliably assessed by ultrasound alone because it may be difficult to see the soft tissue nodularity or thickened septation at their posterior wall due to limited penetrance of the ultrasound beam. For the corpus luteum, a dominant ovulating follicle that typically appears as a cyst with circumferentially thickened walls and crenulated inner margins, follow up is not needed if the cyst is less than 3 cm in diameter. In postmenopausal patients, any simple cyst greater than 1 cm but less than 7 cm needs yearly follow - up, while those greater than 7 cm need MRI or surgical evaluation, similar to reproductive age females.
For incidentally discovered dermoids, diagnosed on ultrasound by their pathognomonic echogenic fat, either surgical removal or yearly follow up is indicated, regardless of patient age. For peritoneal inclusion cysts, which have a crumpled tissue - paper appearance and tend to follow the contour of adjacent organs, follow up is based on clinical history. Hydrosalpinx, or fallopian tube dilation, can be mistaken for an ovarian cyst due to its anechoic appearance. Follow - up for this is also based on clinical presentation.
For multiloculate cysts with thin septation less than 3 mm, surgical evaluation is recommended. The presence of multiloculation suggests a neoplasm, although the thin septation implies that the neoplasm is benign. For any thickened septation, nodularity, or vascular flow on color doppler assessment, surgical removal should be considered due to concern for malignancy.
There are several systems to assess risk of an ovarian cyst of being an ovarian cancer, including the RMI (risk of malignancy index), LR2 and SR (simple rules). Sensitivities and specificities of these systems are given in tables below:
Ovarian cysts may be classified according to whether they are a variant of the normal menstrual cycle, referred to as a functional or follicular cyst.
Ovarian cysts are considered large when they are over 5 cm and giant when they are over 15 cm. In children, ovarian cysts reaching above the level of the umbilicus are considered giant.
Functional cysts form as a normal part of the menstrual cycle. There are several types of cysts:
Non-functional cysts may include the following:
In juvenile hypothyroidism multicystic ovaries are present in about 75 % of cases, while large ovarian cysts and elevated ovarian tumor marks are one of the symptoms of the Van Wyk and Grumbach syndrome.
The CA - 125 marker in children and adolescents can be frequently elevated even in absence of malignancy and conservative management should be considered.
Polycystic ovarian syndrome involves the development of multiple small cysts in both ovaries due to an elevated ratio of leutenizing hormone to follicle stimulating hormone, typically more than 25 cysts in each ovary, or an ovarian volume of greater than 10 mL.
Larger bilateral cysts can develop as a result of fertility treatment due to elevated levels of HCG, as can be seen with the use of clomifene for follicular induction, in extreme cases resulting in a condition known as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Certain malignancies can mimic the effects of clomifene on the ovaries, also due to increased HCG, in particular gestational trophoblastic disease. Ovarian hyperstimulation occurs more often with invasive moles and choriocarcinoma than complete molar pregnancies.
A widely recognised method of estimating the risk of malignant ovarian cancer based on initial workup is the risk of malignancy index (RMI). It is recommended that women with an RMI score over 200 should be referred to a centre with experience in ovarian cancer surgery.
The RMI is calculated as follows:
There are two methods to determine the ultrasound score and menopausal score, with the resultant RMI being called RMI 1 and RMI 2, respectively, depending on what method is used:
Ultrasound abnormalities:
An RMI 2 of over 200 has been estimated to have a sensitivity of 74 to 80 %, a specificity of 89 to 92 % and a positive predictive value of around 80 % of ovarian cancer. RMI 2 is regarded as more sensitive than RMI 1.
Cysts associated with hypothyroidism or other endocrine problems are managed by treating the underlying condition.
About 95 % of ovarian cysts are benign, not cancerous.
Functional cysts and hemorrhagic ovarian cysts usually resolve spontaneously. However, the bigger an ovarian cyst is, the less likely it is to disappear on its own. Treatment may be required if cysts persist over several months, grow, or cause increasing pain.
Cysts that persist beyond two or three menstrual cycles, or occur in post-menopausal women, may indicate more serious disease and should be investigated through ultrasonography and laparoscopy, especially in cases where family members have had ovarian cancer. Such cysts may require surgical biopsy. Additionally, a blood test may be taken before surgery to check for elevated CA - 125, a tumour marker, which is often found in increased levels in ovarian cancer, although it can also be elevated by other conditions resulting in a large number of false positives.
Pain associated with ovarian cysts may be treated in several ways:
Although most cases of ovarian cysts involve monitoring, some cases require surgery. This may involve removing the cyst, or one or both ovaries. Technique is typically laparoscopic, unless the cyst is particularly large, or if pre-operative imaging suggests malignancy or complex anatomy. In certain situations, the cyst is entirely removed, while with cysts with low recurrence risk, younger patients, or which are in anatomically eloquent areas of the pelvis, they can be drained. Features that may indicate the need for surgery include:
Most women of reproductive age develop small cysts each month, and large cysts that cause problems occur in about 8 % of women before menopause. Ovarian cysts are present in about 16 % of women after menopause and if present are more likely to be cancer.
Benign ovarian cysts are common in asymptomatic premenarchal girls and found in approximately 68 % of ovaries of girls 2 -- 12 years old and in 84 % of ovaries of girls 0 -- 2 years old. Most of them are smaller than 9 mm while about 10 - 20 % are larger macrocysts. While the smaller cysts mostly disappear within 6 months the larger ones appear to be more persistent.
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how many times did the first russian orbit the earth | Yuri Gagarin - wikipedia
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (Russian: Ю́рий Алексе́евич Гага́рин, IPA: (ˈjʉrjɪj ɐljɪˈksjejɪvjɪtɕ ɡɐˈɡarjɪn); 9 March 1934 -- 27 March 1968) was a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into outer space when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961.
Gagarin became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, the nation 's highest honour. Vostok 1 marked his only spaceflight, but he served as backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission (which ended in a fatal crash). Gagarin later became deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre outside Moscow, which was later named after him. Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG - 15 training jet he was piloting crashed. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale awards the Yuri A. Gagarin Gold Medal in his honor.
Yuri Gagarin was born in the village of Klushino, near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death), on 9 March 1934. His parents worked on a collective farm: Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and bricklayer, and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a milkmaid. Yuri was the third of four children: older brother Valentin, older sister Zoya, and younger brother Boris.
Like millions of people in the Soviet Union, the Gagarin family suffered during Nazi occupation in World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow, and an officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family was allowed to build a mud hut, approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside, on the land behind their house, where they spent a year and nine months until the end of the occupation. His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943, and did not return until after the war in 1945. In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.
In 1950, Gagarin entered into an apprenticeship at age 16 as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy Steel Plant near Moscow, and also enrolled at a local "young workers '' school for seventh grade evening classes. After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in moldmaking and foundry work, he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors. While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet at a local flying club, where he learned to fly -- at first in a biplane and later in a Yak - 18 trainer. He also earned extra money as a part - time dock laborer on the Volga River.
After graduating from the technical school in 1955, the Soviet Army drafted Gagarin. On a recommendation, Gagarin was sent to the First Chkalov Air Force Pilot 's School in Orenburg, and soloed in a MiG - 15 in 1957. After graduation, he was assigned to the Luostari airbase in Murmansk Oblast, close to the Norwegian border, where terrible weather made flying risky. He became a Lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces on 5 November 1957; on 6 November 1959 he received the rank of Senior Lieutenant.
In 1960, after an extensive search and selection process, Gagarin was chosen with 19 other pilots for the Soviet space program. Gagarin was further selected for an elite training group known as the Sochi Six, from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. Gagarin and other prospective candidates were subjected to experiments designed to test physical and psychological endurance; he also underwent training for the upcoming flight. Out of the twenty selected, the eventual choices for the first launch were Gagarin and Gherman Titov due to their performance during training sessions as well as their physical characteristics -- space was limited in the small Vostok cockpit, and both men were rather short. Gagarin was 1.57 metres (5 ft 2 in) tall.
In August 1960, when Gagarin was one of 20 possible candidates, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far - ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well - developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.
Gagarin was also a favoured candidate by his peers. When the 20 candidates were asked to anonymously vote for which other candidate they would like to see as the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin. One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused, and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.
Gagarin kept physically fit throughout his life, and was a keen sportsman. Cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky wrote:
Service in the Air Force made us strong, both physically and morally. All of us cosmonauts took up sports and PT seriously when we served in the Air Force. I know that Yuri Gagarin was fond of ice hockey. He liked to play goal keeper... I do n't think I am wrong when I say that sports became a fixture in the life of the cosmonauts.
In addition to being a keen ice hockey player, Gagarin was also a basketball fan, and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.
On 12 April 1961, the Vostok 3KA - 3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft with Gagarin aboard was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Gagarin thus became both the first human to travel into space, and the first to orbit the Earth. His call sign was Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).
The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: "Preliminary stage... intermediate... main... lift off! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right. ''
Gagarin: "Поехали! '' (Poyekhali! -- Let 's go!).
Gagarin 's informal poyekhali! became a historical phrase in the Eastern Bloc, used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age in human history.
In his post-flight report, Gagarin recalled his experience of spaceflight, having been the first human in space:
The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended.
Following the flight, Gagarin told the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that during reentry he had whistled the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows '' (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает ''). The first two lines of the song are: "The Motherland hears, the Motherland knows / Where her son flies in the sky ''. This patriotic song was written by Dmitri Shostakovich in 1951 (opus 86), with words by Yevgeniy Dolmatovsky.
Some sources have claimed that Gagarin commented during the flight, "I do n't see any God up here. '' However, no such words appear in the verbatim record of his conversations with Earth - based stations during the spaceflight. In a 2006 interview, Gagarin 's friend Colonel Valentin Petrov stated that the cosmonaut never said such words, and that the quote originated from Nikita Khrushchev 's speech at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU about the state 's anti-religion campaign, saying "Gagarin flew into space, but did n't see any god there. '' Petrov also said that Gagarin had been baptised into the Orthodox Church as a child, and a 2011 Foma magazine article quoted the rector of the Orthodox church in Star City saying, "Gagarin baptized his elder daughter Yelena shortly before his space flight; and his family used to celebrate Christmas and Easter and keep icons in the house. ''
Gagarin 's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program. The announcement on the Soviet radio was made by Yuri Levitan, the same speaker who announced all major events in the Great Patriotic War. Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, and a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. Moscow and other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to World War II Victory Parades. Gagarin was escorted in a long motorcade of high - ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, he was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, by Nikita Khrushchev.
Later on, Gagarin toured widely abroad. He visited Italy, Germany, Canada, Brazil, Japan, Egypt and Finland to promote the Soviet Union 's accomplishment of putting the first human in space. He visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.
The sudden rise to fame took its toll on Gagarin. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker '', his touring schedule placed him in social situations where he was always expected to drink. Gagarin was also reportedly caught by his wife in a room with another woman, a nurse named Anna who had aided him after a boating incident earlier in the day, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961. He attempted to escape by leaving through a window and jumping off her second floor balcony, hitting his face on a kerbstone and leaving a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.
In 1962, he began serving as a Deputy to the Soviet of the Union, and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963. Soviet officials tried to keep him away from any flights, being worried of losing their hero in an accident. Gagarin was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov in the Soyuz 1 flight, which was launched despite Gagarin 's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary. When Komarov 's flight ended in a fatal crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.
On 20 December 1963, Gagarin had become Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base. Two years later he was re-elected as a deputy to the SSSU, but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities. Next year he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot. On 17 February 1968 he successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration, passing with flying colors.
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, he and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died in a MiG - 15UTI crash near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and the ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin on Red Square.
Gagarin is survived by his wife Valentina, and daughters Yelena and Galina.
The cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is not entirely certain, and has been subject to speculation about conspiracy theories over the ensuing decades.
Soviet documents declassified in March 2003 showed that the KGB had conducted their own investigation of the accident, in addition to one government and two military investigations. The KGB 's report dismissed various conspiracy theories, instead indicating that the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information, and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin 's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded that Gagarin 's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out - of - date weather report, the crew believed their altitude to be higher than it actually was, and could not react properly to bring the MiG - 15 out of its spin.
Another theory, advanced by the original crash investigator in 2005, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft. A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said that they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.
In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. Those documents revealed that the commission 's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had maneuvered sharply either to avoid a weather balloon, leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions, '' or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover ''.
In his 2004 book Two Sides of the Moon, Alexey Leonov, who was part of a State Commission established to investigate the death in 1968, recounts that he was flying a helicopter in the same area that day when he heard "two loud booms in the distance. '' Corroborating other theories, his conclusion is that a Sukhoi jet (which he identifies as a Su - 15 ' Flagon ') was flying below its minimum allowed altitude, and "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin 's plane while breaking the sound barrier. '' The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov believes the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier, and the second was Gagarin 's plane crashing. In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said that a declassified report on the incident revealed the presence of a second, "unauthorized '' Su - 15 flying in the area. Leonov states that this aircraft had descended to 450 metres (1,480 ft) and that, while running afterburners, "the aircraft reduced its echelon at a distance of 10 -- 15 meters in the clouds, passing close to Gagarin, turning his plane and thus sending it into a tailspin -- a deep spiral, to be precise -- at a speed of 750 kilometers per hour. '' As a condition of being allowed to discuss the report, however, Leonov was required to not disclose the name of the other pilot, who was reported to be 80 years old (as of 2013) and in poor health.
In 1957, while at the First Chkalov Air Force Pilot 's School in Orenburg, Gagarin met Valentina Ivanovna Goryacheva, a medical technician graduate of the Orenburg Medical School. They were married on 7 November 1957, the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they have two daughters.
Yelena Yurievna Gagarina is an art historian who has worked as the Director - General of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001.
Galina Yurievna Gagarina is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.
Aside from his short stature at 1.57 metres (5 ft 2 in), one of Gagarin 's most notable traits was his smile. Many commented on how Gagarin 's smile gained the attention of crowds on the frequent tours he did in the months after the Vostok 1 mission success.
Gagarin also garnered a reputation as an adept public figure. When he visited Manchester in the United Kingdom, it was pouring rain. However, Gagarin insisted that the convertible top remain down so that the cheering crowds could catch a glimpse of him. Gagarin stated, "If all these people have turned out to welcome me and can stand in the rain, so can I. '' Gagarin refused an umbrella and remained standing in his open - top Bentley so that the cheering crowds could still see him.
Sergei Korolev, one of the masterminds behind the early years of the Soviet space program, later said that Gagarin possessed a smile "that lit up the darkness of the Cold War ''.
12 April, the date of Gagarin 's space flight, has been commemorated as a special date. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and later in Russia and other post-Soviet states as the Cosmonautics Day. In 2011 it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.
Since 2001, Yuri 's Night, an international celebration, is held every 12 April to commemorate milestones in space exploration.
A number of buildings and other sites on Earth have been named for Gagarin. The Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City was named in 1969. The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched, is now known as Gagarin 's Start. Gagarin Raion in the Sevastopol city (Ukraine) was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.
Gagarin has been honored on the Moon by both astronauts and astronomers. He was honored by the American space program during Apollo 11 in 1969 when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the surface. In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the Fallen Astronaut at their landing site as a memorial to all the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race, with Yuri Gagarin listed among 14 others. He is memorialized by the official naming of a 265 km crater on the Far Side after him.
Gagarin is memorialized in music, including a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Alexandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970 -- 1971. The most famous of these songs referred to Gagarin 's poyekhali!: He said "let 's go! '' He waved his hand. He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin '' by Jean Michel Jarre (on Métamorphoses), "Gagarin '' by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you '' by Undervud.
Vessels have been named for him. Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971. Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in Gagarin 's honour in 2011.
There were two commemorative coins issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: 1 ruble coin (1981, copper - nickel) and 3 ruble coin (1991, silver). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin 's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia: 2 ruble coin (copper - nickel), 3 ruble coin (silver), 10 ruble coin (brass - copper, nickel), and 100 ruble coin (silver). In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000 ruble coin (gold) and 3 ruble coin (silver) to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.
In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup. In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the # 6 most popular space hero, tied with Star Trek 's fictional Capt. James T. Kirk. The Russian docudrama, Gagarin: First in Space, was released in 2013.
Several statues have been erected in his honor.
On 4 June 1980, a monument to Gagarin was opened on Gagarin Square in Leninsky Avenue, Moscow. The monument is 42.4 m tall and constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used by Gagarin.
In 2011 a statue, Yuri Gagarin, was unveiled at the Admiralty Arch end of The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin 's former school in Lyubertsy. In 2013 the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory in Greenwich.
In 2012 a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA 's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture, completed in 2011 by artist / cosmonaut Alexsei Leonov, was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.
In April 2018 a bust of Gagarin, erected on the street which bears his name in the Serbian capital Belgrade, was removed, after less than week, following an outcry over the size of its head. Locals said that the tribute, was an "insult '' to Gagarin. A new work will be commissioned. It was revealed that the city had had no prior knowledge of the design, and neither had the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation which had financed it.
Apart from these, Gagarin has also statues and monuments for example in Karaganda, Orenburg, Izhevsk, Gagarin - Smolensk Oblast, Yoshkar - Ola, Cheboksary, Druzhkivka, Tiraspol, Irkutsk, Komsomolsk - on - Amur and Nicosia.
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin 's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining the original flight audio with footage of the route taken by Gagarin. The Russian, American, and Italian Expedition 27 crew aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri 's Night '', wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.
Swiss - based German watchmaker Bernhard Lederer created a limited edition of 50 Gagarin Tourbillons to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin 's flight.
The launch of Soyuz TMA - 21 on 4 April 2011 was devoted to the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.
and others.
Yuri Gagarin was elected an honorary citizen of the following cities:
He was also awarded the golden keys to the gates of the Egyptian cities Cairo and Alexandria.
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where was the parks and rec unity concert filmed | Parks and Recreation (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of Parks and Recreation originally aired in the United States on the NBC television network, from September 26, 2013 with an hour long premiere, and concluded on April 24, 2014 with an hour - long finale. It premiered in its new Thursday 8: 00 pm timeslot. This season consisted of 22 episodes. The show moved to Thursdays at 8: 30 pm beginning with its 100th episode.
Much like the other seasons, Season 6 followed Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler) and her co-workers in local government of fictional Indiana town, Pawnee. The season chronicled Leslie facing the recall vote from City Council, Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones) and Chris Traeger (Rob Lowe) 's move to Michigan to start their family, Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt) 's career in London, and the city merger of Eagleton and Pawnee, resulting in the Unity Concert organized by Leslie.
On July 31, 2013, it was reported by BuzzFeed that Rob Lowe and Rashida Jones would be leaving the series around the middle of the season. Their final episode was episode 13, "Ann and Chris ''. Due to the departure of Jones and Lowe, longtime regulars Jim O'Heir and Retta were added to the show 's opening credit sequence starting with episode 14, "Anniversaries ''. Jones appears as a special guest star in episode 16 when Ann has her baby.
Chris Pratt was absent for much of the early part of the season, due to him filming Guardians of the Galaxy in London. Executive producer Michael Schur stated the show went to London for the first two episodes in order for Pratt 's character Andy to make an appearance. Pratt made a brief return in the sixth episode, with Schur adding that Pratt would return to the series in the tenth episode, the series ' 100th episode.
In February 2014, NBC announced a digital tie - in for the show, titled "The Hapley Group '', which aired on February 20. Created "to help viewers remain engaged with their favorite programs '' while NBC broadcasts the 2014 Winter Olympics, it featured Jay Jackson, Matt Besser, Nick Kroll and Mo Collins reprising their roles as Perd Hapley, Crazy Ira, The Douche, and Joan Callamezzo, respectively, with Seth Morris as Mike Patterson, a new character who recurred on the TV show as well. The tie - in, directed by Morgan Sackett and written by Greg Levine, features the characters in a heated, political round - table discussion of Pawnee 's hot topics.
Retta tweeted on February 27, 2014 that filming for the season had finished.
denotes an extended episode. denotes an hour - long episode.
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who is the top most richest person in the world | The world 's billionaires - Wikipedia
The World 's Billionaires is an annual ranking by documented net worth of the world 's wealthiest billionaires compiled and published in March annually by the American business magazine Forbes. The list was first published in March 1987. The total net worth of each individual on the list is estimated and is cited in United States dollars, based on their documented assets and accounting for debt. Royalty and dictators whose wealth comes from their positions are excluded from these lists. This ranking is an index of the wealthiest documented individuals, excluding and ranking against those with wealth that is not able to be completely ascertained.
In 2018, there was a record of 2,208 people on the list, that included 259 newcomers mostly from China and the U.S.; there were 63 people under 40 and it had a record number of 256 women. The average net worth of the list came in at US $ 4.1 billion, up US $350 million from 2017. Added together, the total net worth for 2018 's billionaires was US $9.1 trillion, up from US $7.67 trillion in 2017. As of 2018, Microsoft founder Bill Gates has topped the list 18 of the past 24 years, while Amazon founder Jeff Bezos is ranked at the top for the first time and he became the first to reach the $100 billion mark.
In 2017, 500 of the richest people in the world became richer by $1 trillion, according to a report by Bloomberg News. According to a 2017 Oxfam report, the top eight billionaires own as much combined wealth as "half the human race ''.
Each year, Forbes employs a team of more than 50 reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world 's wealthiest individuals. Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list. According to Forbes, they received three types of responses -- some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions. Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets -- land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc. -- are made. Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and improve the estimate of an individual 's holdings. Finally, positions in a publicly traded stock are priced to market on a date roughly a month before publication. Privately held companies are priced by the prevailing price - to - sales or price - to - earnings ratios. Known debt is subtracted from assets to get a final estimate of an individual 's estimated worth in United States dollars. Since stock prices fluctuate rapidly, an individual 's true wealth and ranking at the time of publication may vary from their situation when the list was compiled.
Family fortunes dispersed over a large number of relatives are included only if those individuals ' holdings are worth more than a billion dollars. However, when a living individual has dispersed his or her wealth to immediate family members, it is included under a single listing provided that individual is still living. Royal families and dictators that have their wealth contingent on a position are always excluded from these lists.
The rankings are published annually in March, so the net worth listed are snapshots taken at that time. These lists only show the top 10 wealthiest billionaires for each year.
On the 32nd list of world 's billionaires, the gap between the top 1 % and the rest of the billionaires continues to widen. A record of 2,208 billionaires were in the ranking and the total wealth is $9.1 trillion, up 18 % since 2017. For the first time, Jeff Bezos was listed as the top billionaire due to Amazon 's rising stock price that resulted in one person 's biggest one year gain in wealth since Forbes started tracking in 1987. The U.S. continues to have the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 585 while China is catching up with 476 (when including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan).
On the 30th anniversary of the Forbes ' list of the world 's billionaires, for the fourth year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world. In 2017, there was a record of 2,043 people on the list, which is the first time over 2,000 people were listed, that included 195 newcomers that included 76 from China and 25 from the U.S.; there were 56 people under 40 and it had a record of 227 women. The number of billionaires increased 13 % to 2,043 from 1,810 in 2016; this is the biggest change in over 30 years of tracking billionaires globally. Added together, the total net worth for 2017 's billionaires was US $7.67 trillion, up from US $7.1 trillion in 2015. This is the first time after 12 years that Carlos Slim was not within the top five. The U.S. had the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 565. China has 319 (not including Hong Kong or Macau), Germany has 114, and India has the fourth most with 101; India has reached over 100 billionaires for its first time.
For the third year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes 's 2016 list of the world 's billionaires. This is the 17th time that the founder of Microsoft has claimed the top spot. Amancio Ortega rose from last year 's position of number four to second. Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway came in third for the second consecutive time, while Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim slipped down from last year 's second position to fourth. Jeff Bezos of Amazon, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook and Michael Bloomberg of Bloomberg L.P., appear for the first time on the Forbes top 10 billionaires list, coming at fifth, sixth and eighth position, respectively. Zuckerberg became the youngest top 10 billionaire this year at the age of 31. Larry Ellison, Charles Koch and David Koch also slipped down from their last year 's positions, with Ellison dropping to seventh from fifth and the Kochs falling to ninth position from sixth, respectively.
In the 29th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, a record 1,826 billionaires were named with an aggregated net worth of $7.1 trillion compared to $6.4 trillion last year. 46 of the billionaires in this list are under the age of 40. A record number of 290 people joined the list for the first time, of whom 25 percent hail from China, which produced a world - leading 71 newcomers. The United States came in second, with 57, followed by India, with 28, and Germany, with 23. The United States has the largest number of billionaires with 526. Russia went down to 88 from 111 in 2014. Russia was placed behind China, Germany and India by the number of billionaires. Self - made billionaires made up the largest number of people on the list with 1,191 positions (over 65 percent) while just 230 (under 13 percent) have wealth through inheritance. The number of billionaires who inherited a portion but are still working to increase their fortunes is 405.
Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes 's annual list of the world 's billionaires. This was the 16th time that the founder of Microsoft claimed the top spot. Carlos Slim came in second for the second consecutive time. Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway was placed third, while Amancio Ortega of Spain, slipped down a position from last year to number four. Larry Ellison, the founder of Oracle rounded off the top five. Christy Walton was the highest - ranking female at number eight. America 's Evan Spiegel, co-founder of photo messaging app Snapchat became the youngest billionaire this year at the age of 24. At age 99, David Rockefeller maintained his position as the oldest billionaire to be included in the list. Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook, rose to number 16 with $33.4 billion. Iceland had a billionaire, Thor Bjorgolfsson, in the list after a gap of five years. Guatemala had a billionaire, Mario Lopez Estrada, for the first time in its history.
Bill Gates added $9 billion to his fortune since 2013 and topped the Forbes 2014 billionaire list. He has topped the list 15 of the previous 20 years, but his previous number one ranking was in 2009. Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim came in second place after being number one the previous four years. Zara founder Amancio Ortega placed third for the second consecutive year. American investor Warren Buffett was in the top five for the 20th consecutive year, placing fourth. America 's Christy Walton was the highest ranking woman, placing ninth overall. Aliko Dangote of Nigeria became the first African ever to enter the top 25, with an estimated net worth of $25 billion.
A total of 1,645 people made the 2014 billionaire list, representing combined wealth of $6.4 trillion. Of those, a record 268 were newcomers, surpassing 2008 's 226 newcomers. One hundred people listed in 2013 failed to make the list. The number of women on the list rose to a record 172 in 2014. Approximately 66 percent of the list was self - made, 13 percent achieved their wealth through inheritance alone, and 21 percent through a mixture of the two.
The United States had 492 billionaires on the list, the most of any country. The country also had the most newcomers with 50, and women with 54. China had the second most billionaires with 152, while Russia was third with 111. Algeria, Lithuania, Tanzania, and Uganda were all represented on the list for the first time. Turkey saw the most people drop off the list, 19, due to a period of high inflation in the country.
Carlos Slim topped the 2013 billionaire list, marking his fourth consecutive year at the top. Bill Gates remained in second, while Amancio Ortega moved up to third. Ortega 's gain of $19.5 billion was the largest of anyone on the list. Warren Buffett failed to make the top three for the first time since 2000, placing fourth. Diesel founder Renzo Rosso was among the top newcomers, debuting with an estimate net worth of $3 billion.
A global rise in asset prices, led Forbes editor Randall Lane to declare "It (was) a very good year to be a billionaire ''. However, it was not a good year to be Eike Batista who fell from seventh to 100th, suffering the largest net loss of anyone on the list. Overall, net gainers outnumbered net losers by 4: 1.
A record total of 1,426 people made the 2013 list, representing $5.4 trillion of assets. Of those, 442 billionaires hailed from the United States. The Asian - Pacific region had 386 billionaires and Europe 366. The list also featured a record number of newcomers, 210, representing 42 different countries. Sixty people from the 2012 list fell below a billion dollar of assets in 2013 and eight others from the 2012 list died. The Asia - Pacific region had the most drop - offs, with 29, followed by the United States with 16. The 2013 list featured 138 women, of which 50 came from the United States. A majority of the list (961 individuals, 67 percent) was entirely self - made; 184 (13 percent) inherited their wealth, and 281 (20 percent) achieved their fortune through a combination of inheritance and business acumen.
Carlos Slim topped the 2012 list, marking this third consecutive year at the top. Bill Gates placed second, but narrowed the gap from 2011 as Slim 's fortune fell $5 billion while Gates ' rose $5 billion. Warren Buffett remained in third place. Bernard Arnault of France was the top - ranking European on the list, placing fourth. Ricardo Salinas Pliego was the greatest gainer in terms of dollars, adding $9.2 billion to his fortune and moving up to number 37 overall. Making her debut on the list at age 27, Spanx founder Sara Blakely became the youngest self - made female billionaire ever. Colombia 's Alejandro Santo Domingo was the highest - ranked newcomer, inheriting a $9.5 billion stake in Santo Domingo Group from his father. India 's Lakshmi Mittal was the largest loser as his fortune dropped from $31.1 billion to $20.7 billion as the price of steel maker ArcelorMittal fell sharply. As a result, he failed to make the top 10 for the first time since 2004 and lost his title of richest Asian to Hong Kong 's Li Ka - shing.
A record total of 1,226 people made the 2012 list, representing 58 different countries. Of those, 126 were newcomers to the list and 104 were women. The United States had the greatest number of billionaires with 425. Russia had 96 people on the list, while China had 95. Georgia, Morocco, and Peru were newly represented on the list. Falling stock prices in Asia contributed to 117 former billionaires falling from the list worldwide. Twelve others listed in 2011 died. Overall, net gainers (460) barely outnumbered net losers (441).
To coincide with the release of the 2012 list, Forbes announced a new "Billionaire Real - Time Ticker '' updating the wealth of the world 's top fifty billionaires in real time.
In the 25th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, Carlos Slim added $20.5 billion to his fortune, the most of anyone, and retained his number one ranking with a total fortune of $74 billion. Bill Gates remained in second place with $56 billion, while Warren Buffett was third with $50 billion. The top 10 had a combined wealth of $406 billion, up from $342 billion in 2010. According to Forbes editor Kerry Dolan, "media and technology billionaires definitely benefited from a stronger stock market and a growing enthusiasm for all things social '' since the 2010 list. However, Nigerian commodity mogul Aliko Dangote was the greatest gainer on a percentage basis as his fortune increased 557 percent to $13.5 billion. Mark Zuckerberg was one of seven Facebook - related billionaires on the list, as he $9.5 billion to his fortune to move up to 52nd. Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz was the youngest person on the list. Aged 26, eight days younger than Zuckerberg, he debuted at number 420 with an estimated fortune of $2.7 billion. IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad was the largest loser as he saw his fortune plummet from $23 billion to $6 billion, dropping him from 11th to 162nd overall.
A record 1,210 billionaires made the 2011 list, representing a combined wealth of $4.5 trillion, up from $3.6 trillion the previous year. One third of the world 's billionaires, 413, came from the United States. China had the second most billionaires with 115, while Russia was third with 101. Asia moved up to 332 billionaires, passing Europe as a region for the first time since the 1990s. The 2011 list included 214 newcomers and the average net worth of those on it increased to $3.7 billion.
Carlos Slim narrowly eclipsed Bill Gates to top the billionaire list for the first time. Slim saw his estimated worth surge $18.5 billion to $53.5 billion as shares of America Movil rose 35 percent. Gates ' estimated wealth rose $13 billion to $53 billion, placing him second. Warren Buffett was third with $47 billion. Christy Walton was the highest - ranking woman, placing 12th overall, with an inherited fortune of $22.5 billion. At age 25, Mark Zuckerberg continued to be the world 's youngest self - made billionaire. American Isaac Perlmutter was among the newcomers with an estimated fortune of $4 billion largely acquired in his sale of Marvel Entertainment to Disney.
A total of 1,011 people made the 2010 list. The United States accounted for 403 billionaires, followed by China with 89 and Russia with 62. It was the first time China, while including Hong Kong, placed second. A total of 55 countries were represented on the 2010 list, including Finland and Pakistan which claimed their first billionaires. Eighty - nine women made the list, but only 14 of them were self - made. The combined net worth of the list was $3.6 trillion, up 50 percent from 2009 's $2.4 trillion, while the average net worth was $3.5 billion.
The 2010 list featured 164 re-entries and 97 true newcomers. Asia accounted for more than 100 of the new entrants. Overall, just 12 percent of the list lost wealth since 2009, and 30 people fell off the list. Thirteen others died. Of the 89 women, 12 were newcomers in 2010. Steve Forbes said the growing number of billionaires was clear sign that the world 's economy was recovering from 2009 's global financial crisis.
In June 2010, Warren Buffett and Bill Gates announce The Giving Pledge that is a promise to give the majority of their wealth to philanthropy. As of 2017, the pledge has 158 signatories, but some of the signatories have since died. Most of the signers of the pledge are billionaires, and their pledges total to over $365 billion.
In the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, the world 's billionaires lose $2 trillion in net worth and the list becomes 30 % smaller than the previous year 's list.
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, four years after starting the company, joins the list at 23 to become the youngest self - made billionaire.
Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction, known as the real estate bubble created a total of nearly $5 trillion in 2005, contributing to economic growth worldwide.
The founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, become billionaires at age 30.
Oprah Winfrey becomes the first female African American billionaire.
As a result of the market crash caused by the Dot - com bubble, 83 billionaires drop off the list from the previous year.
In 2001, BET founder Robert L. Johnson became the first ever African - American billionaire.
Bill Gates became the first American to take the top spot of the World 's Billionaires in 1995 with a net worth of $12.5 billion and he remained there during the Dot - com bubble 's height in 1999 when Gates ' fortune peaked at $90 billion. After the dot - com bubble started to collapse in 2000, his wealth dropped to $60 billion although he remained at the top of the list.
The dot - com bubble created the most paper wealth for some billionaires. However, once the dotcom bubble burst the new rich saw their fortunes disappear. Billionaires ' fortunes were hit even harder by the global financial crisis; 2009 was the first time in five years that the world had a net loss in the number of billionaires. The strong performance of the financial markets and global economic recovery have erased financial assets losses. Most of the richest people in the world have seen their fortunes soar in the early 2010s.
Source: Forbes.
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