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where were the two atomic bombs dropped in japan | Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - wikipedia
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During the final stage of World War II, the United States detonated two nuclear weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively. The United States dropped the bombs after obtaining the consent of the United Kingdom, as required by the Quebec Agreement. The two bombings killed at least 129,000 people, most of whom were civilians. They remain the only use of nuclear weapons in the history of warfare.
In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a bloody invasion of the Japanese mainland. This undertaking was preceded by a conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities. The war in Europe had concluded when Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945. As the Allies turned their full attention to the war in the Pacific War, the Japanese faced the same fate. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945 -- the alternative being "prompt and utter destruction ''. The Japanese ignored the ultimatum and the war continued.
By August 1945, the Allies ' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bomb, and the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands. Orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. On August 6, one of its B - 29s dropped a Little Boy uranium gun - type bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, on August 9, a Fat Man plutonium implosion - type bomb was dropped by another B - 29 on Nagasaki. The bombs immediately devastated their targets. Over the next two to four months, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000 -- 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000 -- 80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. Large numbers of people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition, for many months afterward. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison.
Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war. On September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The ethical and legal justification for the bombings is still debated to this day.
In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by the United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action. Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all - time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. America 's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war - weary, and demanding that long - serving servicemen be sent home.
In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, and invaded Borneo. Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5: 1 in the Philippines to 2: 1 on Okinawa. Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99 % of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April -- June 1945, 94 % were killed; 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedented large number.
As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan 's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 % of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan 's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan 's production of 70,000 for the entire war. By the middle of 1944, the U.S. had almost a hundred aircraft carriers in the Pacific, far more than Japan 's twenty - five for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate.
Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall, the Allied invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū. Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First, Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass.
Japan 's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all - out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan, and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths.
A study from June 15, 1945, by the Joint War Plans Committee, who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Olympic would result in between 130,000 and 220,000 U.S. casualties, of which U.S. dead would be in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on June 15, 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan 's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General of the Army George Marshall, and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate.
The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley. Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk, and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million.
Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon that was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives '': poison gas. Quantities of phosgene, mustard gas, tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan.
While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long - ranged Boeing B - 29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India - based B - 29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber 's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities.
Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B - 29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B - 29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on November 18, 1944. The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China - based B - 29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so - called high - altitude precision bombing, aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action.
Hansell 's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay, assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low - level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries. Like most strategic bombing during World War II, the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy 's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale.
Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 67 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo, codenamed Operation Meetinghouse, on March 9 -- 10 killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 16 square miles (41 km) of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B - 29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 % of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan 's "paper cities ''. By mid-June, Japan 's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka, the U.S. fire - bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. These raids were devastating.
The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country 's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and antiaircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids in order to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B - 29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, in order to conserve supplies of fuel. In July 1945, the Japanese had 1,156,000 US barrels (137,800,000 l) of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About 604,000 US barrels (72,000,000 l) had been consumed in the home islands area in April, May and June 1945. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids.
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein - Szilard letter. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium - 235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water.
The 1943 Quebec Agreement merged the nuclear weapons projects of the United Kingdom and Canada, Tube Alloys and the Montreal Laboratory, with the Manhattan Project, under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out. Two types of bombs were eventually developed, both named by Robert Serber. Little Boy was a gun - type fission weapon that used uranium - 235, a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The other, known as a Fat Man device, was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion - type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington.
There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program, but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb.
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on December 9, 1944, and activated on December 17, 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets. Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite '' rather than a "bombardment '' unit. Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas, and Mountain Home, Idaho, because of its remoteness. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat - ready.
The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta, known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B - 29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel - injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible - pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements.
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on April 26, 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men flew by C - 54 to North Field on Tinian, between May 15 and May 22. There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs ''.
In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann, Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on April 27; at Los Alamos on May 10, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on May 28, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project 's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman.
The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura, the site of one of Japan 's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima, an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama, an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata, a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto, a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria:
These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target. ''
The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that a large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor 's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value. ''
Edwin O. Reischauer, a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service, was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim:
... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier.
On May 30, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On July 25, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan 's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance.
In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy. During the meetings on May 31 and June 1, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that:
It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all - too - long intervals. We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan 's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war.
The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use. '' Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target.
Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a dud since the Trinity test was of a stationary device, not an air - dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at the start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive.
For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 % destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area - bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots ''.
In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer - led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership. No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was July 27, and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it was July 30. The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on July 27, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on July 30. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on August 1 and August 4. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "... we can not promise that only these cities will be among those attacked... '' Hiroshima was not listed.
Under the Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom, nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee was held at the Pentagon on July 4, 1945. Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, at the upcoming Potsdam Conference, as this also required British concurrence.
Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on July 25 under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting Chief of Staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. It read:
That day, Truman noted in his diary that:
This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the leader of the world for the common welfare can not drop that terrible bomb on the old capital (Kyoto) or the new (Tokyo). He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one.
The July 16 success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. On July 26, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland ''. The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué.
On July 28, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash (yakinaoshi) of the Cairo Declaration and that the government intended to ignore it (mokusatsu, "kill by silence ''). The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position. Japan 's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands, Korea or Formosa, and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government.
At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal to Wilson.
The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. There were two uranium - 235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile was completed on June 15, and the target insert on July 24. The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on July 16 aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis, and arrived on Tinian on July 26. The target insert followed by air on July 30, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta. Responding to concerns expressed by the 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B - 29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight.
The first plutonium core, along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator, was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C - 54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on July 26, and arrived at North Field July 28. Three Fat Man high - explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on July 28 by three B - 29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on August 2.
At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army, which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle. Hata 's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army, the 5th Division and the 224th Division, a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 7 - cm and 8 - cm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city.
Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military. The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops. It was a beehive of war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns. The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage. It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command 's priority target. On July 3, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto.
The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000 -- 350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks. These continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6, 1945.
Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on August 6, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. The 393d Bombardment Squadron B - 29 Enola Gay, named after Tibbets ' mother and piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian, about six hours ' flight time from Japan. Enola Gay was accompanied by two other B - 29s. The Great Artiste, commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, which carried instrumentation, and a then - nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt, which served as the photography aircraft.
After leaving Tinian the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05: 55 at 9,200 feet (2,800 m), and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 31,060 feet (9,470 m). Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb in flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B - 29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B - 29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.
During the night of August 5 -- 6, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi, 261 en route to Nishinomiya, 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all - clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00: 05. About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay. It read: "Cloud cover less than 3 / 10th at all altitudes. Advice: bomb primary. '' The all - clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07: 09.
At 08: 09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee. The release at 08: 15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg (141 lb) of uranium - 235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 31,000 feet (9,400 m) to a detonation height of about 1,900 feet (580 m) above the city. Enola Gay traveled 11.5 mi (18.5 km) before it felt the shock waves from the blast.
Due to crosswind, the bomb missed the aiming point, the Aioi Bridge, by approximately 800 ft (240 m) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic. It released the equivalent energy of 16 kilotons of TNT (67 TJ), ± 2 kt. The weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7 % of its material fissioning. The radius of total destruction was about 1 mile (1.6 km), with resulting fires across 4.4 square miles (11 km).
Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was ten miles away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. "It was hard to believe what we saw '', Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said "the whole thing was tremendous and awe - inspiring... the men aboard with me gasped ' My God ' ''. He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to "a close burst of ack - ack fire ''.
People on the ground reported a pika (ピカ) -- a brilliant flash of light -- followed by a don (ドン) -- a loud booming sound. Some 70,000 -- 80,000 people, or around 30 % of the population of Hiroshima, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 were injured. Perhaps as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed. U.S. surveys estimated that 4.7 square miles (12 km) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 -- 7 % damaged.
Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall, now commonly known as the Genbaku (A-bomb) dome. This building was designed and built by the Czech architect Jan Letzel, and was only 150 m (490 ft) from ground zero. The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective. The bombing started fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes. As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective. The intense fires started gutted everything in a 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) radius.
The air raid warning had been cleared at 07: 31, and many people were outside, going about their activities. Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, being in the basement of a reinforced concrete building (it remained as the Rest House after the war) only 170 metres (560 ft) from ground zero (the hypocenter) at the time of the attack. He died in 1982, aged 84. Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She was in the solidly built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters (980 ft) from ground - zero at the time of the attack.
Over 90 % of the doctors and 93 % of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured -- most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage. The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki, remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital. Nonetheless, by early afternoon, the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library.
Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were at physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle, barely 900 yards (820 m) from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground. The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been mobilized to serve as a communications officer had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi, when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters (some 100 kilometres (62 mi) away) that "Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near - total destruction. ''
Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Hata, who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including a Korean prince of the Joseon Dynasty, Yi Wu, who was serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Japanese Army. Hata 's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto, who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used suicide boats, intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina. Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city.
Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters, about 1,300 feet (400 m) from the hypocenter of the blast. Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai, where they were stoned to death. Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up.
The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed. About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within 16 km (10 mi) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff.
Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor.
The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km (100 mi) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb. After circling the city in order to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo 's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman 's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later.
After the Hiroshima bombing, Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon. He stated, "We may be grateful to Providence '' that the German atomic bomb project had failed, and that the United States and its allies had "spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history -- and won ''. Truman then warned Japan: "If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware. '' This was a widely broadcast speech picked up by Japanese news agencies.
The 50,000 - watt standard wave station on Saipan, the OWI radio station, broadcast a similar message to Japan every 15 minutes about Hiroshima, stating that more Japanese cities would face a similar fate in the absence of immediate acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and emphatically urged civilians to evacuate major cities. Radio Japan, which continued to extoll victory for Japan by never surrendering, had informed the Japanese of the destruction of Hiroshima by a single bomb. Prime Minister Suzuki felt compelled to meet the Japanese press, to whom he reiterated his government 's commitment to ignore the Allies ' demands and fight on.
Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact on August 5. At two minutes past midnight on August 9, Tokyo time, Soviet infantry, armor, and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Four hours later, word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's official declaration of war. The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation, with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami, in order to stop anyone attempting to make peace.
On August 7, a day after Hiroshima was destroyed, Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city, and carefully examined the damage. They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by an atomic bomb. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, the Chief of the Naval General Staff, estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied, so they decided to endure the remaining attacks, acknowledging "there would be more destruction but the war would go on ''. American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet 's messages.
Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9. Parsons agreed to try to do so.
The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan, and was of great wartime importance because of its wide - ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards, Electrical Shipyards, Arms Plant, and Steel and Arms Works, which employed about 90 % of the city 's labor force, and accounted for 90 % of the city 's industry. Although an important industrial city, Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN / APQ - 13 radar.
Unlike the other target cities, Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's July 3 directive, and was bombed on a small scale five times. During one of these raids on August 1, a number of conventional high - explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. By early August, the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm (2.8 in) anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries.
In contrast to Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings were of old - fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber - framed buildings with timber walls (with or without plaster) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki.
Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets. Scheduled for August 11 against Kokura, the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five - day period of bad weather forecast to begin on August 10. Three bomb pre-assemblies had been transported to Tinian, labeled F - 31, F - 32, and F - 33 on their exteriors. On August 8, a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane. Assembly F - 33 was expended testing the components and F - 31 was designated for the August 9 mission.
At 03: 49 on the morning of August 9, 1945, Bockscar, flown by Sweeney 's crew, carried Fat Man, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission, with two B - 29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B - 29s in Sweeney 's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission. Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged.
During pre-flight inspection of Bockscar, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 l; 530 imp gal) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission.
This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission, flying as observers on the third plane, Big Stink, flown by the group 's operations officer, Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear. When Sweeney 's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan, Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous. According to Cheshire, Hopkins was at varying heights including 9,000 feet (2,700 m) higher than he should have been, and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock, who was piloting the support B - 29 The Great Artiste. Instead, Hopkins was flying 40 - mile (64 km) dogleg patterns. Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes, Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink for forty minutes. Before leaving the rendezvous point, Sweeney consulted Ashworth, who was in charge of the bomb. As commander of the aircraft, Sweeney made the decision to proceed to the primary, the city of Kokura.
After exceeding the original departure time limit by nearly a half - hour, Bockscar, accompanied by The Great Artiste, proceeded to Kokura, thirty minutes away. The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B - 29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. Additionally, the Yawata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar, to produce black smoke. The clouds and smoke resulted in 70 % of the area over Kokura being covered, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses around Kokura, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser, who was monitoring Japanese communications, reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.
After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump, Bockscar and The Great Artiste headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa, which had become entirely Allied - occupied territory only six weeks earlier. After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary, Ashworth agreed with Sweeney 's suggestion that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured. At about 07: 50 Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the "all clear '' signal was given at 08: 30. When only two B - 29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10: 53, the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given.
A few minutes later at 11: 00, The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes. These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane, a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California, Berkeley, urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction. The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later. In 1949, one of the authors of the letter, Luis Alvarez, met with Sagane and signed the document.
At 11: 01, a last - minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscar 's bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, to visually sight the target as ordered. The Fat Man weapon, containing a core of about 5 kg (11 lb) of plutonium, was dropped over the city 's industrial valley. It exploded 47 seconds later at 1,650 ± 33 ft (503 ± 10 m), above a tennis court, halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north. This was nearly 3 km (1.9 mi) northwest of the planned hypocenter; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills. The resulting explosion released the equivalent energy of 21 ± 2 kt (87.9 ± 8.4 TJ). Big Stink spotted the explosion from a hundred miles away, and flew over to observe.
Bockscar flew on to Okinawa, arriving with only sufficient fuel for a single approach. Sweeney tried repeatedly to contact the control tower for landing clearance, but received no answer. He could see heavy air traffic landing and taking off from Yontan Airfield. Firing off every flare on board to alert the field to his emergency landing, the Bockscar came in fast, landing at 140 miles per hour (230 km / h) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour (190 km / h). The number two engine died from fuel starvation as he began the final approach. Touching down midway down the landing strip, Bockscar bounced up into the air again for about 25 feet (7.6 m) before slamming back down hard. The heavy B - 29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B - 24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. Its reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately, and with both pilots standing on the brakes, Bockscar made a swerving 90 - degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off it. A second engine died from fuel exhaustion before the plane came to a stop. The flight engineer later measured fuel in the tanks and concluded that less than five minutes total remained.
Following the mission, there was confusion over the identification of the plane. The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock, reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste. He also noted its "Victor '' number as 77, which was that of Bockscar. Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew, and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste. Except for Enola Gay, none of the 393d 's B - 29s had yet had names painted on the noses, a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account. Unaware of the switch in aircraft, Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste, which was in fact, Victor 89.
Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, the effect was confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including "mobilized '' students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000 -- 22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000 to 75,000. At least 35,000 -- 40,000 people were killed and 60,000 others injured. In the days and months following the explosion, more people died from their injuries. Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers, and a number of military personnel in transit, there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945; a range of 39,000 to 80,000 can be found in various studies.
Unlike Hiroshima 's military death toll, only 150 Japanese soldiers were killed instantly, including thirty - six from the 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division. At least eight known POWs died from the bombing and as many as 13 may have died, including a British prisoner of war, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw, and seven Dutch POWs. One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived.
The radius of total destruction was about 1 mi (1.6 km), followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi (3.2 km) south of the bomb. About 58 % of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78 % of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10 % structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast. Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, the ambient wind at the time pushed the fire spread along the valley.
As in Hiroshima, the bombing badly dislocated the city 's medical facilities. A makeshift hospital was established at the Shinkozen Primary School, which served as the main medical centre. The trains were still running, and evacuated many victims to hospitals in nearby towns. A medical team from a naval hospital reached the city in the evening, and fire - fighting brigades from the neighboring towns assisted in fighting the fires. Takashi Nagai was a doctor working in the radiology department of Nagasaki Medical College Hospital. He received a serious injury that severed his right temporal artery, but joined the rest of the surviving medical staff in treating bombing victims.
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19, with three more in September and a further three in October. On August 10, he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that "the next bomb... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August. '' Marshall endorsed the memo with the hand - written comment, "It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President '', something Truman had requested that day. This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs "as made ready ''. There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall, and Marshall suggested to Stimson that the remaining cities on the target list be spared attack with atomic bombs.
Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on August 11 and 14, and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to collect them. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until August 16. Therefore, it could have been ready for use on August 19. Unable to reach Marshall, Groves ordered on his own authority on August 13 that the core should not be shipped.
Until August 9, Japan 's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender. The full cabinet met on 14: 30 on August 9, and spent most of the day debating surrender. Anami conceded that victory was unlikely, but argued in favour of continuing the war nonetheless. The meeting ended at 17: 30, with no decision having been reached. Suzuki went to the palace to report on the outcome of meeting, where he met with Kōichi Kido, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan. Kido informed him that the emperor had agreed to hold an imperial conference, and gave a strong indication that the emperor would consent to surrender on condition that kokutai be preserved. A second cabinet meeting was held at 18: 00. Only four ministers supported Anami 's position of adhering to the four conditions, but since cabinet decisions had to be unanimous, no decision was reached before it ended at 22: 00.
Calling an imperial conference required the signatures of the prime minister and the two service chiefs, but the Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu had already obtained signatures from Toyoda and General Yoshijirō Umezu in advance, and he reneged on his promise to inform them if a meeting was to be held. The meeting commenced at 23: 50. No consensus had emerged by 02: 00, but the emperor gave his "scared decision '', authorizing the Foreign Minister, Shigenori Tōgō, to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration "does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler. ''
On August 12, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved. Hirohito simply replied, "Of course. '' As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender.
In his declaration, Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings, and did not explicitly mention the Soviets as a factor for surrender:
Despite the best that has been done by every one -- the gallant fighting of military and naval forces, the diligence and assiduity of Our servants of the State and the devoted service of Our one hundred million people, the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan 's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest. Moreover, the enemy now possesses a new and terrible weapon with the power to destroy many innocent lives and do incalculable damage. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.
Such being the case, how are we to save the millions of our subjects, or to atone ourselves before the hallowed spirits of our imperial ancestors? This is the reason why we have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the joint declaration of the powers.
In his "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors '' delivered on August 17, however, he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion on his decision to surrender.
On August 10, 1945, the day after the Nagasaki bombing, Yōsuke Yamahata, correspondent Higashi, and artist Yamada arrived in the city with orders to record the destruction for maximum propaganda purposes, Yamahata took scores of photographs, and on August 21, they appeared in Mainichi Shimbun, a popular Japanese newspaper. Wilfred Burchett was the first western journalist to visit Hiroshima after the bombing, arriving alone by train from Tokyo on September 2. His Morse code dispatch, "The Atomic Plague '', was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on September 5, 1945, and was the first public report to mention the effects of radiation and nuclear fallout. His reporting was unpopular with the U.S. military, who accused Burchett of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda, and suppressed a supporting story submitted by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News. Laurence dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale, ignoring his own account published one week earlier.
A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Lieutenant Daniel McGovern, used a film crew to document the effects of the bombings in early 1946. The film crew shot 90,000 ft (27,000 m) of film, resulting in a three - hour documentary titled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb; it showed burned - out buildings and cars, and rows of skulls and bones on the ground. It was classified "secret '' for the next 22 years.
Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On October 24, 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha 's reels were confiscated by the American authorities, but they were requested by the Japanese government, and declassified. The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan, but the Hiroshima - based magazine, Chugoku Bunka, in its first issue published on March 10, 1946, devoted itself to detailing the damage from the bombing.
The book Hiroshima, written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey, which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker, on August 31, 1946, is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947, and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949. It narrated the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior to, and months after, the dropping of the Little Boy bomb. Beginning in 1974, a compilation of drawings and artwork made by the survivors of the bombings began to be compiled, with completion in 1977, and under both book and exhibition format, it was titled The Unforgettable Fire.
The bombing amazed Otto Hahn and other German atomic scientists, whom the British held at Farm Hall in Operation Epsilon. Hahn stated that he had not believed an atomic weapon "would be possible for another twenty years ''; Werner Heisenberg did not believe the news at first. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker said "I think it 's dreadful of the Americans to have done it. I think it is madness on their part '', but Heisenberg replied, "One could equally well say ' That 's the quickest way of ending the war ' ''. Hahn was grateful that the German project had not succeeded in developing "such an inhumane weapon ''; Karl Wirtz observed that even if it had, "we would have obliterated London but would still not have conquered the world, and then they would have dropped them on us ''.
The Vatican agreed; L'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb 's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity. Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse, the Dean of St Albans, prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war 's end, calling the use of atomic weapons "an act of wholesale, indiscriminate massacre ''. Nonetheless, news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S.; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans (22.7 %) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan. The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public (mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud). During this time in America, it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films, magazines, and newspapers.
Frequent estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima (38.9 % of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28.0 % of the population) died in 1945, though the number which died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20 -- 30 days. The average radiation dose that will kill approximately 50 % of adults, the LD50, was approximately halved when the individual experienced concurrent blast or burn effect injuries, conventional skin injuries that cover a large area, frequently result in bacterial infection, the risk of which is increased when a usually non-lethal radiation dose, moderately suppresses the white blood cell count.
In the spring of 1948, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences -- National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
As cancers do not immediately emerge after exposure to radiation instead radiation - induced cancer has a minimum latency period of some 5 + years. An epidemiology study by the RERF estimates that from 1950 to 2000, 46 % of leukemia deaths and 11 % of solid cancers of unspecificed lethality, could be due to radiation from the bombs, with the statistical excess being 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality. Both of these statistics being derived from the observation of approximately half of the total survivors, strictly those who took part in the study.
While during the preimplantation period, that is 1 -- 10 days following conception, interuterine radiation exposure of "at least 0.2 Gy '' can cause complications of implantation and death of the embryo. The number of miscarriages caused by the radiation from the bombings, during this radiosensitive period, is not known.
One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and in a control city, Kure, located 18 mi (29 km) south of Hiroshima, in order to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure. James V. Neel led the study which found that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings. He also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later.
The National Academy of Sciences questioned Neel 's procedure which did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure. Overall, while a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure, were approximately 20 cases were observed in a similar sample size.
In 1985, Johns Hopkins University geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel 's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) were still looking for possible birth defects or other causes among the survivors decades later, but found no evidence that they were more common among the survivors.
Despite the small sample size of 1600 to 1800 persons who came forth as prenatally exposed at the time of the bombings, that were both within a close proximity to the two hypocenters, to survive the In utero absorption of a substantial dose of radiation and then the malnourished post-attack environment, data from this cohort does support the increased risk of severe mental retardation (SMR), that was observed in some 30 individuals, with SMR being a common outcome of the aforementioned microencephaly. While a lack of statistical data, with just 30 individuals out of 1800, prevents a definitive determination of a threshold point, the data collected suggests a threshold interuterine or fetal dose for SMR, at the most radiosensitive period of cognitive development, when there is the largest number of undifferentiated neural cells (8 to 15 weeks post-conception) to begin at a threshold dose of approximately "0.09 '' to "0.15 '' Gy, with the risk then linearly increasing to a 43 % rate of SMR when exposed to a fetal dose of 1 Gy at any point during these weeks of rapid Neurogenesis.
However either side of this radiosensitive age, none of the prenatally exposed to the bombings at an age less than 8 weeks, that is prior to synaptogenesis or at a gestational age more than 26 weeks "were observed to be mentally retarded '', with the condition therefore being isolated to those solely of 8 -- 26 weeks of age and who absorbed more than approximately "0.09 '' to "0.15 '' Gy of radiation energy.
Examination of the prenatally exposed in terms of IQ performance and school records, determined the beginning of a statistically significant reduction in both, when exposed to greater than 0.1 to 0.5 Gray, during the same gestational period of 8 -- 25 weeks. However outside this period, at less than 8 weeks and greater than 26 after conception, "there is no evidence of a radiation - related effect on scholastic performance. ''
The reporting of doses in terms of absorbed energy (Gy and rad) rather than the use of the biologically significant, biologically weighted Sievert, in both the SMR and cognitive performance data is typical. The reported threshold dose variance, between the two cities is sometimes explained due to Little Boy emitting substantially more neutron flux, whereas the Baratol that surrounded the core of Fat Man, filtered or shifted the absorbed radiation profile, so that the dose of radiation energy received in Nagasaki, is mostly that from exposure to gamma rays, in contrast to the environment within 1500 meters of the hypocenter at Hiroshima, were instead the dose was primarily due to absorbed neutrons, which have a higher biological effect per unit of energy absorbed.
Many other investigations into cognitive outcomes, such as Schizophrenia as a result of prenatal exposure, have been conducted with "no statistically significant linear relationship seen '', there is a suggestion that in the most extremely exposed, those who survived within a kilometer or so of the hypocenters, a trend emerges akin to that seen in SMR, though the sample size is too small to determine with any significance.
The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha (被爆 者, Japanese pronunciation: (çibakɯ̥ɕa)), a Japanese word that literally translates to "explosion - affected people ''. The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha. As of March 31, 2017, 164,621 were still alive, mostly in Japan. The government of Japan recognizes about 1 % of these as having illnesses caused by radiation. The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, as of August 2017 the memorials record the names of almost 485,000 hibakusha; 308,725 in Hiroshima and 175,743 in Nagasaki.
Hibakusha and their children were (and still are) victims of severe discrimination in Japan due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness, with much of the public believing it to be hereditary or even contagious. This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects or congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A study of the long - term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17 -- 20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms.
Perhaps as many as 200 people from Hiroshima sought refuge in Nagasaki. The 2006 documentary Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha (lit. double explosion - affected people), nine of whom claimed to be in the blast zone in both cities. On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha. He was confirmed to be 3 km (1.9 mi) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when the bomb was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, the day before the bombing, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings. He died on January 4, 2010, at the age of 93, after a battle with stomach cancer.
During the war, Japan brought as many as 670,000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor. About 5,000 -- 8,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and another 1,500 -- 2,000 died in Nagasaki. For many years, Korean survivors had a difficult time fighting for the same recognition as Hibakusha as afforded to all Japanese survivors, a situation which resulted in the denial of the free health benefits to them in Japan. Most issues were eventually addressed in 2008 through lawsuits.
Hiroshima was subsequently struck by Typhoon Ida on September 17, 1945. More than half the bridges were destroyed, and the roads and railroads were damaged, further devastating the city. The population increased from 83,000 soon after the bombing to 146,000 in February 1946. The city was rebuilt after the war, with help from the national government through the Hiroshima Peace Memorial City Construction Law passed in 1949. It provided financial assistance for reconstruction, along with land donated that was previously owned by the national government and used for military purposes. In 1949, a design was selected for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, the closest surviving building to the location of the bomb 's detonation, was designated the Hiroshima Peace Memorial. The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was opened in 1955 in the Peace Park. Hiroshima also contains a Peace Pagoda, built in 1966 by Nipponzan - Myōhōji.
Nagasaki was also rebuilt after the war, but was dramatically changed in the process. The pace of reconstruction was initially slow, and the first simple emergency dwellings were not provided until 1946. The focus on redevelopment was the replacement of war industries with foreign trade, shipbuilding and fishing. This was formally declared when the Nagasaki International Culture City Reconstruction Law was passed in May 1949. New temples were built, as well as new churches owing to an increase in the presence of Christianity. Some of the rubble was left as a memorial, such as a torii at Sannō Shrine, and an arch near ground zero. New structures were also raised as memorials, such as the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, which was opened in the mid-1990s.
The role of the bombings in Japan 's surrender, and the ethical, legal, and military controversies surrounding the United States ' justification for them have been the subject of scholarly and popular debate. On one hand, it has been argued, that the bombings caused the Japanese surrender, thereby preventing casualties that an invasion of Japan would have involved. Stimson talked of saving one million casualties. The naval blockade might have starved the Japanese into submission without an invasion, but this would also have resulted in many more Japanese deaths. It has also been pointed out that the conventional bombing of Japan caused just as much destruction as the atomic bombs, if not more so. Indeed, Operation Meetinghouse, known as the Great Tokyo Air Raid in Japan, was the single most devastating air raid of the war, with a higher death toll than either of the two atomic bombings.
Japanese historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa argued that the entry of the Soviet Union into the war against Japan "played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow 's mediation ''. A view among critics of the bombings, that was popularized by American historian Gar Alperovitz in 1965, is the idea of atomic diplomacy: that the United States used nuclear weapons in order to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War. Although not accepted by mainstream historians, this became the position in Japanese school history textbooks.
Those who oppose the bombings, give other reasons for their view; among them: a belief, that atomic bombing is fundamentally immoral, that the bombings counted as war crimes, that they constituted state terrorism, and that they involved racism against and the dehumanization of the Japanese people.
Like the way it began, the manner in which World War II ended cast a long shadow over international relations for decades to come. By June 30, 1946, there were components for only nine atomic bombs in the US arsenal, all Fat Man devices identical to the one used in the bombing of Nagasaki. The nuclear weapons were handmade devices, and a great deal of work remained to improve their ease of assembly, safety, reliability and storage before they were ready for production. There were also many improvements to their performance that had been suggested or recommended, but that had not been possible under the pressure of wartime development. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy had decried the use of the atomic bombs as adopting "an ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages '', but in October 1947, he reported a military requirement for 400 bombs.
The American monopoly on nuclear weapons lasted only four years before the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb in September 1949. The United States responded with the development of the hydrogen bomb, a nuclear weapon a thousand times as powerful as the bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Such ordinary fission bombs would henceforth be regarded as small tactical nuclear weapons. By 1986, the United States would have 23,317 nuclear weapons, while the Soviet Union had 40,159. By 2017, nine nations had nuclear weapons, but Japan was not one of them. Japan reluctantly signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in February 1970, but it still sheltered under the American nuclear umbrella. American nuclear weapons were stored on Okinawa, and sometimes in Japan itself, albeit in contravention of agreements between the two nations. Lacking the resources to fight the Soviet Union using conventional forces, the Western Alliance came to depend on the use of nuclear weapons to defend itself during the Cold War, a policy that became known in the 1950s as the New Look. In the decades after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the United States would threaten to use its nuclear weapons many times.
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which is true of a person’s basal metabolic rate (bmr) | Basal metabolic rate - wikipedia
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the minimal rate of energy expenditure per unit time by endothermic animals at rest. It is reported in energy units per unit time ranging from watt (joule / second) to ml O / min or joule per hour per kg body mass J / (h kg). Proper measurement requires a strict set of criteria be met. These criteria include being in a physically and psychologically undisturbed state, in a thermally neutral environment, while in the post-absorptive state (i.e., not actively digesting food). In bradymetabolic animals, such as fish and reptiles, the equivalent term standard metabolic rate (SMR) is used. It follows the same criteria as BMR, but requires the documentation of the temperature at which the metabolic rate was measured. This makes BMR a variant of standard metabolic rate measurement that excludes the temperature data, a practice that has led to problems in defining "standard '' rates of metabolism for many mammals.
Metabolism comprises the processes that the body needs to function. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy expressed in calories that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are breathing, blood circulation, controlling body temperature, cell growth, brain and nerve function, and contraction of muscles. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 60 to 75 % of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. BMR typically declines by 1 -- 2 % per decade after age 20, mostly due to loss of fat - free mass, although the variability between individuals is high.
The body 's generation of heat is known as thermogenesis and it can be measured to determine the amount of energy expended. BMR generally decreases with age and with the decrease in lean body mass (as may happen with aging). Increasing muscle mass has the effect of increasing BMR. Aerobic (resistance) fitness level, a product of cardiovascular exercise, while previously thought to have effect on BMR, has been shown in the 1990s not to correlate with BMR when adjusted for fat - free body mass. But anaerobic exercise does increase resting energy consumption (see "aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise ''). Illness, previously consumed food and beverages, environmental temperature, and stress levels can affect one 's overall energy expenditure as well as one 's BMR.
BMR is measured under very restrictive circumstances when a person is awake. An accurate BMR measurement requires that the person 's sympathetic nervous system not be stimulated, a condition which requires complete rest. A more common measurement, which uses less strict criteria, is resting metabolic rate (RMR).
BMR may be measured by gas analysis through either direct or indirect calorimetry, though a rough estimation can be acquired through an equation using age, sex, height, and weight. Studies of energy metabolism using both methods provide convincing evidence for the validity of the respiratory quotient (R.Q.), which measures the inherent composition and utilization of carbohydrates, fats and proteins as they are converted to energy substrate units that can be used by the body as energy.
Basal metabolism is usually by far the largest component of total caloric expenditure. However, the Harris -- Benedict equations are only approximate and variation in BMR (reflecting varying body composition), in physical activity levels, and in energy expended in thermogenesis make it difficult to estimate the dietary consumption any particular individual needs in order to maintain body weight.
The early work of the scientists J. Arthur Harris and Francis G. Benedict showed that approximate values for BMR could be derived using body surface area (computed from height and weight), age, and sex, along with the oxygen and carbon dioxide measures taken from calorimetry. Studies also showed that by eliminating the sex differences that occur with the accumulation of adipose tissue by expressing metabolic rate per unit of "fat - free '' or lean body mass, the values between sexes for basal metabolism are essentially the same. Exercise physiology textbooks have tables to show the conversion of height and body surface area as they relate to weight and basal metabolic values.
The primary organ responsible for regulating metabolism is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located on the diencephalon and forms the floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle of the cerebrum. The chief functions of the hypothalamus are:
All of these functions taken together form a survival mechanism that causes us to sustain the body processes that BMR measures.
Several prediction equations exist. Historically, the most notable one was the Harris -- Benedict equation, which was created in 1919.
In each of the formulas:
The Original Harris - Benedict Equation:
The difference in BMR for men and women is mainly due to differences in body weight. For example, a 55 - year - old woman weighing 130 lb (59 kg) and 5 feet 6 inches (168 cm) tall would have a BMR of 1272 kcal per day.
In 1984, the original Harris - Benedict equations were revised using new data. In comparisons with actual expenditure, the revised equations were found to be more accurate.
The Revised Harris - Benedict Equation:
It was the best prediction equation until 1990, when Mifflin et al. introduced the equation:
The Mifflin St Jeor Equation:
According to this formula, the woman in the example above has a BMR of 1204 kcal per day. During the last 100 years, lifestyles have changed and Frankenfield et al. showed it to be about 5 % more accurate.
These formulas are based on body weight, which does not take into account the difference in metabolic activity between lean body mass and body fat. Other formulas exist which take into account lean body mass, two of which are the Katch - McArdle formula, and Cunningham formula. The Katch - McArdle formula is used to predict Resting Daily Energy Expenditure (RDEE). The Cunningham formula is commonly attributed as being used to predict RMR instead of BMR, however the formulas provided by Katch - McArdle and Cunningham are the same.
The Katch - McArdle Formula (Resting Daily Energy Expenditure):
According to this formula, if the woman in the example has a body fat percentage of 30 %, her RDEE (the authors use the term of basal and resting metabolism interchangeably) would be 1262 kcal per day.
The basal metabolic rate varies between individuals. One study of 150 adults representative of the population in Scotland reported basal metabolic rates from as low as 1027 kcal per day (4301 kJ / day) to as high as 2499 kcal / day (10455 kJ / day); with a mean BMR of 1500 kcal / day (6279 kJ / day). Statistically, the researchers calculated that 62.3 % of this variation was explained by differences in fat free mass. Other factors explaining the variation included fat mass (6.7 %), age (1.7 %), and experimental error including within - subject difference (2 %). The rest of the variation (26.7 %) was unexplained. This remaining difference was not explained by sex nor by differing tissue size of highly energetic organs such as the brain.
Differences in BMR have been observed when comparing subjects with the same lean body mass. In one study, when comparing individuals with the same lean body mass, the top 5 % of BMRs are 28 - 32 % higher than the lowest 5 % BMR. Additionally, this study reports a case where two individuals with the same lean body mass of 43 kg had BMRs of 1075 kcal / day (4.5 MJ / day) and 1790 kcal / day (7.5 MJ / day). This difference of 715 kcal / day (67 %) is equivalent to one of the individuals completing a 10 kilometer run every day. However, this study did not account for the sex, height, fasting - state, or body fat percentage of the subjects.
About 70 % of a human 's total energy expenditure is due to the basal life processes within the organs of the body (see table). About 20 % of one 's energy expenditure comes from physical activity and another 10 % from thermogenesis, or digestion of food (postprandial thermogenesis). All of these processes require an intake of oxygen along with coenzymes to provide energy for survival (usually from macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) and expel carbon dioxide, due to processing by the Krebs cycle.
For the BMR, most of the energy is consumed in maintaining fluid levels in tissues through osmoregulation, and only about one - tenth is consumed for mechanical work, such as digestion, heartbeat, and breathing.
What enables the Krebs cycle to perform metabolic changes to fats, carbohydrates, and proteins is energy, which can be defined as the ability or capacity to do work. The breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules -- associated with release of energy -- is catabolism. The building up process is termed anabolism. The breakdown of proteins into amino acids is an example of catabolism, while the formation of proteins from amino acids is an anabolic process.
Exergonic reactions are energy - releasing reactions and are generally catabolic. Endergonic reactions require energy and include anabolic reactions and the contraction of muscle. Metabolism is the total of all catabolic, exergonic, anabolic, endergonic reactions.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the intermediate molecule that drives the exergonic transfer of energy to switch to endergonic anabolic reactions used in muscle contraction. This is what causes muscles to work which can require a breakdown, and also to build in the rest period, which occurs during the strengthening phase associated with muscular contraction. ATP is composed of adenine, a nitrogen containing base, ribose, a five carbon sugar (collectively called adenosine), and three phosphate groups. ATP is a high energy molecule because it stores large amounts of energy in the chemical bonds of the two terminal phosphate groups. The breaking of these chemical bonds in the Krebs Cycle provides the energy needed for muscular contraction.
Because the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in all carbohydrates is always the same as that in water -- that is, 2 to 1 -- all of the oxygen consumed by the cells is used to oxidize the carbon in the carbohydrate molecule to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, during the complete oxidation of a glucose molecule, six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water are produced and six molecules of oxygen are consumed.
The overall equation for this reaction is:
(38 ATP molecules)
Because the gas exchange in this reaction is equal, the respiratory quotient (R.Q.) for carbohydrate is unity or 1.0:
The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in proportion to atoms of carbon and hydrogen. When listed on nutritional information tables, fats are generally divided into six categories: total fats, saturated fatty acid, polyunsaturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acid, dietary cholesterol, and trans fatty acid. From a basal metabolic or resting metabolic perspective, more energy is needed to burn a saturated fatty acid than an unsaturated fatty acid. The fatty acid molecule is broken down and categorized based on the number of carbon atoms in its molecular structure. The chemical equation for metabolism of the twelve to sixteen carbon atoms in a saturated fatty acid molecule shows the difference between metabolism of carbohydrates and fatty acids. Palmitic acid is a commonly studied example of the saturated fatty acid molecule.
The overall equation for the substrate utilization of palmitic acid is:
Thus the R.Q. for palmitic acid is 0.696:
Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen arranged in a variety of ways to form a large combination of amino acids. Unlike fat the body has no storage deposits of protein. All of it is contained in the body as important parts of tissues, blood hormones, and enzymes. The structural components of the body that contain these amino acids are continually undergoing a process of breakdown and replacement. The respiratory quotient for protein metabolism can be demonstrated by the chemical equation for oxidation of albumin:
The R.Q. for albumin is 63 CO / 77 O = 0.818
The reason this is important in the process of understanding protein metabolism is that the body can blend the three macronutrients and based on the mitochondrial density, a preferred ratio can be established which determines how much fuel is utilized in which packets for work accomplished by the muscles. Protein catabolism (breakdown) has been estimated to supply 10 % to 15 % of the total energy requirement during a two - hour aerobic training session. This process could severely degrade the protein structures needed to maintain survival such as contractile properties of proteins in the heart, cellular mitochondria, myoglobin storage, and metabolic enzymes within muscles.
The oxidative system (aerobic) is the primary source of ATP supplied to the body at rest and during low intensity activities and uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates. Protein is not normally metabolized significantly, except during long term starvation and long bouts of exercise (greater than 90 minutes.) At rest approximately 70 % of the ATP produced is derived from fats and 30 % from carbohydrates. Following the onset of activity, as the intensity of the exercise increases, there is a shift in substrate preference from fats to carbohydrates. During high intensity aerobic exercise, almost 100 % of the energy is derived from carbohydrates, if an adequate supply is available.
Studies published in 1992 and 1997 indicate that the level of aerobic fitness of an individual does not have any correlation with the level of resting metabolism. Both studies find that aerobic fitness levels do not improve the predictive power of fat free mass for resting metabolic rate.
Anaerobic exercise, such as weight lifting, builds additional muscle mass. Muscle contributes to the fat - free mass of an individual and therefore effective results from anaerobic exercise will increase BMR. However, the actual effect on BMR is controversial and difficult to enumerate. Various studies suggest that the resting metabolic rate of trained muscle is around 55kJ per kilogram, per day. Even a substantial increase in muscle mass, say 5 kg, would make only a minor impact on BMR.
In 1926, Raymond Pearl proposed that longevity varies inversely with basal metabolic rate (the "rate of living hypothesis ''). Support for this hypothesis comes from the fact that mammals with larger body size have longer maximum life spans (large animals do have higher total metabolic rates, but the metabolic rate at the cellular level is much lower, and the breathing rate and heartbeat are slower in larger animals) and the fact that the longevity of fruit flies varies inversely with ambient temperature. Additionally, the life span of houseflies can be extended by preventing physical activity. This theory has been bolstered by several new studies linking lower basal metabolic rate to increased life expectancy, across the animal kingdom -- including humans. Calorie restriction and reduced thyroid hormone levels, both of which decrease the metabolic rate, have been associated with higher longevity in animals.
However, the ratio of total daily energy expenditure to resting metabolic rate can vary between 1.6 and 8.0 between species of mammals. Animals also vary in the degree of coupling between oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production, the amount of saturated fat in mitochondrial membranes, the amount of DNA repair, and many other factors that affect maximum life span.
In allometric scaling, maximum potential life span (MPLS) is directly related to metabolic rate (MR), where MR is the recharge rate of a biomass made up of covalent bonds. That biomass (W) is subjected to deterioration over time from thermodynamic, entropic pressure. Metabolism is essentially understood as redox coupling, and has nothing to do with thermogenesis. Metabolic efficiency (ME) is then expressed as the efficiency of this coupling, a ratio of amperes captured and used by biomass, to the amperes available for that purpose. MR is measured in watts, W is measured in grams. These factors are combined in a power law, an elaboration on Kleiber 's law relating MR to W and MPLS, that appears as MR = W ^ (4ME - 1) / 4ME. When ME is 100 %, MR = W ^ 3 / 4; this is popularly known as quarter power scaling, a version of allometric scaling that is premised upon unrealistic estimates of biological efficiency.
The equation reveals that as ME drops below 20 %, for W < one gram, MR / MPLS increases so dramatically as to endow W with virtual immortality by 16 %. The smaller W is to begin with, the more dramatic is the increase in MR as ME diminishes. All of the cells of an organism fit into this range, i.e., less than one gram, and so this MR will be referred to as BMR.
But the equation reveals that as ME increases over 25 %, BMR approaches zero. The equation also shows that for all W > one gram, where W is the organization of all of the BMRs of the organism 's structure, but also includes the activity of the structure, as ME increases over 25 %, MR / MPLS increases rather than decreases, as it does for BMR. An MR made up of an organization of BMRs will be referred to as an FMR. As ME decreases below 25 %, FMR diminishes rather than increases as it does for BMR.
The antagonism between FMR and BMR is what marks the process of aging of biomass W in energetic terms. The ME for the organism is the same as that for the cells, such that the success of the organism 's ability to find food (and lower its ME), is key to maintaining the BMR of the cells driven, otherwise, by starvation, to approaching zero; while at the same time a lower ME diminishes the FMR / MPLS of the organism.
A person 's metabolism varies with their physical condition and activity. Weight training can have a longer impact on metabolism than aerobic training, but there are no known mathematical formulas that can exactly predict the length and duration of a raised metabolism from trophic changes with anabolic neuromuscular training.
A decrease in food intake will typically lower the metabolic rate as the body tries to conserve energy. Researcher Gary Foster estimates that a very low calorie diet of fewer than 800 calories a day would reduce the metabolic rate by more than 10 percent.
The metabolic rate can be affected by some drugs, such as antithyroid agents, drugs used to treat hyperthyroidism, such as propylthiouracil and methimazole, bring the metabolic rate down to normal and restore euthyroidism. Some research has focused on developing antiobesity drugs to raise the metabolic rate, such as drugs to stimulate thermogenesis in skeletal muscle.
The metabolic rate may be elevated in stress, illness, and diabetes. Menopause may also affect metabolism.
Heart rate is determined by the medulla oblongata and part of the pons, two organs located inferior to the hypothalamus on the brain stem. Heart rate is important for basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate because it drives the blood supply, stimulating the Krebs cycle. During exercise that achieves the anaerobic threshold, it is possible to deliver substrates that are desired for optimal energy utilization. The anaerobic threshold is defined as the energy utilization level of heart rate exertion that occurs without oxygen during a standardized test with a specific protocol for accuracy of measurement, such as the Bruce Treadmill protocol (see metabolic equivalent). With four to six weeks of targeted training the body systems can adapt to a higher perfusion of mitochondrial density for increased oxygen availability for the Krebs cycle, or tricarboxylic cycle, or the glycolitic cycle. This in turn leads to a lower resting heart rate, lower blood pressure, and increased resting or basal metabolic rate.
By measuring heart rate we can then derive estimations of what level of substrate utilization is actually causing biochemical metabolism in our bodies at rest or in activity. This in turn can help a person to maintain an appropriate level of consumption and utilization by studying a graphical representation of the anaerobic threshold. This can be confirmed by blood tests and gas analysis using either direct or indirect calorimetry to show the effect of substrate utilization. The measures of basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate are becoming essential tools for maintaining a healthy body weight.
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where did the calendar month names come from | History of calendars - wikipedia
The history of calendars, means that people creating and using methods for keeping track of days and larger divisions of time, covers a practice with ancient roots.
Archeologists have reconstructed methods of timekeeping that go back to prehistoric times at least as old as the Neolithic. The natural units for timekeeping used by most historical societies are the day, the solar year and the lunation. Calendars are explicit schemes used for timekeeping. The first historically attested and formulized calendars date to the Bronze Age, dependent on the development of writing in the Ancient Near East. The Sumerian calendar was the earliest, followed by the Egyptian, Assyrian and Elamite calendars.
A larger number of calendar systems of the ancient Near East appear in the Iron Age archaeological record, based on the Assyrian and Babylonian calendars. This includes the calendar of the Persian Empire, which in turn gave rise to the Zoroastrian calendar as well as the Hebrew calendar.
Calendars in antiquity were usually lunisolar, depending on the introduction of intercalary months to align the solar and the lunar years. This was mostly based on observation, but there may have been early attempts to model the pattern of intercalation algorithmically, as evidenced in the fragmentary 2nd - century Coligny calendar. Nevertheless, the Roman calendar contained very ancient remnants of a pre-Etruscan 10 - month solar year.
The Roman calendar was reformed by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE. The Julian calendar was no longer dependent on the observation of the new moon but simply followed an algorithm of introducing a leap day every four years. This created a dissociation of the calendar month from the lunation.
In the 11th century in Persia, a calendar reform led by Khayyam was announced in 1079, when the length of the year was measured as 365.24219858156 days. Given that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person 's lifetime, this is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while today it is 365.242190 days.
The Gregorian calendar was introduced as a refinement of the Julian calendar in 1582, and is today in worldwide use as the de facto calendar for secular purposes.
The term calendar itself is taken from the calends, the term for the first day of the month in the Roman calendar, related to the verb calare "to call out '', referring to the calling or the announcement that the new moon was just seen. Latin calendarium meant "account book, register '', as accounts were settled and debts were collected on the calends of each month.
The Latin term was adopted in Old French as calendier and from there in Middle English as calender by the 13th century. The spelling calendar is from Early Modern English.
An alternative hypothesis connects "calendar '' with Koledari in Slavic, pre-Christian tradition, which was later incorporated into Christmas. Kolo means "circle, cycle '' and dar means "a gift ''.
A number of prehistoric structures have been proposed as having had the purpose of timekeeping (typically keeping track of the course of the solar year). This includes many megalithic structures, and reconstructed arrangements going back far into the Neolithic period.
A ceramic artefact from Bulgaria, known as the Slatino furnace model, has been pronounced by local archeologists and media to be the oldest known calendar representation, a claim not endorsed in mainstream views.
A mesolithic arrangement of twelve pits and an arc found in Warren Field, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, dated to roughly 10,000 years ago, has been described as a lunar calendar and was dubbed the "world 's oldest known calendar '' in 2013.
The Oldest European calendar is found near to Vukovar in modern - day Croatia. It is a ceramic vessel bearing inscribed ideograms of celestial objects.
The ancient Sumerian calendar divided a year into 12 lunar months of 29 or 30 days. Each month began with the sighting of a new moon. Sumerian months had no uniform name throughout Sumer because of the religious diversity. This resulted in scribes and scholars referring to them as "the first month '', "the fifth month '' etc. To keep the lunar year of 354 days in step with the solar year of 365.242 days an extra month was added periodically, much like a Gregorian leap year. There were no weeks in the Sumerian calendar. Holy days and time off from work were usually celebrated on the first, seventh and fifteenth of each month. In addition to these holy days, there were also feast days which varied from city to city.
Although the earliest evidence of Iranian calendrical traditions is from the second millennium BCE, predating the appearance of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, the first fully preserved calendar is that of the Achaemenids. Throughout recorded history, Persians have been keen on the idea and importance of having a calendar. They were among the first cultures to use a solar calendar and have long favoured a solar over lunar and lunisolar approaches. The sun has always been a symbol in Iranian culture and is closely related to the folklore regarding Cyrus the Great.
Old Persian inscriptions and tablets indicate that early Iranians used a 360 - day calendar based on the solar observation directly and modified for their beliefs. Days were not named. The months had two or three divisions depending on the phase of the moon. Twelve months of 30 days were named for festivals or activities of the pastoral year. A 13th month was added every six years to keep the calendar synchronized with the seasons.
The first calendars based on Zoroastrian cosmology appeared in the later Achaemenid period (650 to 330 BCE). They evolved over the centuries, but month names changed little until now.
The unified Achaemenid Empire required a distinctive Iranian calendar, and one was devised in Egyptian tradition, with 12 months of 30 days, each dedicated to a yazata (Eyzad), and four divisions resembling the Semitic week. Four days per month were dedicated to Ahura Mazda and seven were named after the six Amesha Spentas. Thirteen days were named after Fire, Water, Sun, Moon, Tiri and Geush Urvan (the soul of all animals), Mithra, Sraosha (Soroush, yazata of prayer), Rashnu (the Judge), Fravashi, Bahram (yazata of victory), Raman (Ramesh meaning peace), and Vata, the divinity of the wind. Three were dedicated to the female divinities, Daena (yazata of religion and personified conscious), Ashi (yazata of fortune) and Arshtat (justice). The remaining four were dedicated to Asman (lord of sky or Heaven), Zam (earth), Manthra Spenta (the Bounteous Sacred Word) and Anaghra Raocha (the ' Endless Light ' of paradise).
The Parthians (Arsacid dynasty) adopted the same calendar system with minor modifications, and dated their era from 248 BCE, the date they succeeded the Seleucids. Their names for the months and days are Parthian equivalents of the Avestan ones used previously, differing slightly from the Middle Persian names used by the Sassanians. For example, in Achaemenid times the modern Persian month ' Day ' was called Dadvah (Creator), in Parthian it was Datush and the Sassanians named it Dadv / Dai (Dadar in Pahlavi).
When in April of AD 224 the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid, the new king, Ardashir I, abolished the official Babylonian calendar and replaced it with the Zoroastrian. This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar, which had slipped back in the seasons since they were fixed. These were placed eight months later, as were the epagemonai, the ' Gatha ' or ' Gah ' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name. Other countries, such as the Armenians and Choresmians, did not accept the change.
Toghril Beg, the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, had made Esfahan the capital of his domains and his grandson Malik - Shah was the ruler of that city from 1073. An invitation was sent to Khayyam from Malik - Shah and from his vizier Nizam al - Mulk asking Khayyam to go to Esfahan to set up an Observatory there. Other leading astronomers were also brought to the Observatory in Esfahan and for 18 years Khayyam led the scientists and produced work of outstanding quality. During this time Khayyam led work on compiling astronomical tables and he also contributed to calendar reform in 1079.
Cowell quotes The Calcutta Review No 59: - When the Malik Shah determined to reform the calendar, Omar was one of the eight learned men employed to do it, the result was the Jalali era (so called from Jalal - ud - din, one of the king 's names) - ' a computation of time, ' says Gibbon, ' which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style. '
Khayyam measured the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days. Two comments on this result. Firstly it shows an incredible confidence to attempt to give the result to this degree of accuracy. We know now that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person 's lifetime. Secondly it is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while today it is 365.242190 days.
The Greeks, as early as the time of Homer, appear to have been familiar with the division of the year into the twelve lunar months but no intercalary month Embolimos or day is then mentioned. Independent of the division of a month into days, it was divided into periods according to the increase and decrease of the moon. Thus, the first day or new moon was called Noumenia. The month in which the year began, as well as the names of the months, differed among the states, and in some parts even no names existed for the months, as they were distinguished only numerically, as the first, second, third, fourth month, etc.
The ancient Athenian calendar was a lunisolar calendar with 354 - day years, consisting of twelve months of alternating length of 29 or 30 days. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year of 365.242 days, an extra, intercalary month was added in every other year. The Athenian months were called Hekatombion, Metageitnion, Boedromion, Pyanepsion, Maimakterion, Poseidon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, Elaphebolion, Munychion, Thargelion, and Skirophorion. The intercalary month usually came after Poseidon, and was called second Poseidon.
In addition to their regular, "festival '' calendar, the Athenians maintained a second, political calendar. This "conciliar '' calendar divided the year into "prytanies '', one for each of the "phylai '', the subdivisions of Athenian citizens. The number of phylai, and hence the number of prytanies, varied over time. Until 307 BC, there were 10 phylai. After that the number varies between 11 and 13 (usually 12). Even more confusing, while the conciliar and festival years were about the same length in the 4th century BC, such was not regularly the case earlier or later. Documents dated by prytany are frequently very difficult to assign to a particular equivalent in the Julian calendar.
The table of Greek Olympiads, following the four - year cycles between the Olympic Games from 1 July 776 BC, continued until the end of the 4th century AD. The Babylonian Era of Nabonassar, beginning on 26 February 747 BC, was used by the Greeks of Alexandria. It was later known in the Middle Ages from the works of Ptolemy.
The Greek calendars were greatly diversified by the Hellenistic period, with separate traditions in every Greek state. Of primary importance for the reconstruction of the regional Greek calendars is the calendar of Delphi, because of the numerous documents found there recording the manumission of slaves, many of which are dated both in the Delphian and in a regional calendar.
The Macedonian Era of the Seleucids, which began with the conquest of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator in 312 BC. It became widely used in the Levant. The Jews knew it as the "era of contracts '', and used it in Europe until the 15th century.
The Roman Republican calendar numbered years based on the sitting consuls. References to the year of consulship were used in both conversation and official records. Romans from the same family often had the same praenomen, which sometimes makes it difficult to distinguish them, and there were two consuls at any one time, each of whom might sometimes hold the appointment more than once, meaning that it was (and is) necessary to be well educated in history to understand the references. The Romans had an eight - day week, with the market - day falling every eight days. It was called a nundinum or ' nine - day ' in inclusive counting.
Most of the regional Hindu calendars are inherited from a system standardized in classical Hindu astronomy as adopted via Indo - Greek transmission in the final centuries BCE, and reformed by Gupta era astronomers such as Āryabhaṭa and Varāhamihira.
Before the Spring and Autumn period (before 770 BC), the Chinese Calendars were solar calendars. In the so - called five - phase calendar, the year consists of 10 months and a transition, each month being 36 days long, and the transitions 5 or 6 days. During the Warring States period (~ 475 - 220 BC), the primitive lunisolar calendars were established under the Zhou Dynasty, known as the six ancient calendars (simplified Chinese: 古 六 历; traditional Chinese: 古 六 曆). The months of these calendars begin on the day with the new moon, with 12 or 13 months (lunations) in a year. The intercalary month is placed at the end of the year. In Qin China, the Qin calendar (simplified Chinese: 秦 历; traditional Chinese: 秦 曆) was introduced. It follows the rules of Zhuanxu 's calendar, but the months order follows the Xia 's calendar.
Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals. This study was one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas -- the scriptures of Hinduism.
Hindu calendar, sometimes referred to as Panchanga, is a collective term for the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in Hinduism. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle, the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. The ancient Hindu calendar is similar in conceptual design to the Jewish calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to lunar month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but insert an extra full month by complex rules, every few years, to ensure that the festivals and crop related rituals fall in the appropriate season.
The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, and remains in use by the Hindus in India and Nepal particularly to set the Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist and Jain communities of India adopted the ancient Hindu calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist and Jain festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system in the luni - solar calendar.
The old Roman year had 304 days divided into 10 months, beginning with March. However the ancient historian Livy gave credit to the second early Roman king Numa Pompilius for devising a calendar of 12 months. The extra months Ianuarius and Februarius had been invented, supposedly by Numa Pompilius, as stop - gaps. Julius Caesar realized that the system had become inoperable, so he effected drastic changes in the year of his third consulship. The New Year in 709 AUC began on 1 January and ran over 365 days until 31 December. Further adjustments were made under Augustus, who introduced the concept of the "leap year '' in 757 AUC (AD 4). The resultant Julian calendar remained in almost universal use in Europe until 1582, and in some countries until as late as the twentieth century.
Marcus Terentius Varro introduced the Ab urbe condita epoch, assuming a foundation of Rome in 753 BC. The system remained in use during the early Middle Ages until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period.
In the Roman Empire, the AUC year could be used alongside the consular year, so that the consulship of Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius could be determined as 707 AUC (or 47 BC), the third consulship of Caius Julius Caesar, with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, as 708 AUC (or 46 BC), and the fourth consulship of Gaius Julius Caesar as 709 AUC (or 45 BC).
The seven - day week has a tradition reaching back to the ancient Near East, but the introduction of the "planetary week '' which remains in modern use dates to the Roman Empire period (see also names of the days of the week).
For the first six centuries since the birth of Jesus Christ, European countries used various local systems to count years, most usually regnal years, modeled on the Old Testament. In some cases, Creation dating was also used. In the 6th century, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised the Anno Domini system, dating from the Incarnation of Jesus. In the 8th century, the Anglo - Saxon historian Bede the Venerable used another Latin term, "ante uero incarnationis dominicae tempus '' ("the time before the Lord 's true incarnation '', equivalent to the English "before Christ ''), to identify years before the first year of this era.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, even Popes continued to date documents according to regnal years, and usage of AD only gradually became common in Europe from the 11th to the 14th centuries. In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to adopt the Anno Domini system.
In 1267, the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths (horae, minuta, secunda, tertia, and quarta) after noon on specified calendar dates. Although a third for ⁄ of a second remains in some languages, for example Arabic ثالثة, the modern second is further divided decimally.
Rival calendar eras to Anno Domini remained in use in Christian Europe. In Spain, the "Era of the Caesars '' was dated from Octavian 's conquest of Iberia in 39 BC. It was adopted by the Visigoths and remained in use in Catalonia until 1180, Castille until 1382 and Portugal until 1415.
For chronological purposes, the flaw of the Anno Domini system was that dates have to be reckoned backwards or forwards according as they are BC or AD. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "in an ideally perfect system all events would be reckoned in one sequence. The difficulty was to find a starting point whence to reckon, for the beginnings of history in which this should naturally be placed are those of which chronologically we know least. '' For both Christians and Jews, the prime historical date was the Year of Creation, or Annus Mundi. The Eastern Orthodox Church fixed the date of Creation at 5509 BC. This remained the basis of the ecclesiastical calendar in the Greek and Russian Orthodox world until modern times. The Coptic Church fixed on 5500 BC. Later, the Church of England, under Archbishop Ussher in 1650, would pick 4004 BC.
The Bulgar calendar was a calendar system used by the Bulgars, a seminomadic people, originally from Central Asia, who from the 2nd century onwards dwelled in the Eurasian steppes north of the Caucasus and around the banks of river Volga. In 681 part of the Bulgars settled in the Balkan peninsula and established Bulgaria. The main source of information used for reconstruction of the Bulgar calendar is a short 15th century transcript, which contains 10 pairs of calendar terms, the same dating system being found in a marginal note of a manuscript from the 10th c. According to the reconstructed calendar, the Bulgars used a 12 - year cyclic calendar similar to the one adopted by Turkic peoples from the Chinese calendar, with names and numbers that are deciphered as in Bulgar language.
The Islamic calendar is based on the prohibition of intercalation (nasi ') by Muhammad, in Islamic tradition dated to a sermon held on 9 Dhu al - Hijjah AH 10 (Julian date: 6 March 632). This resulted in an observationally based lunar calendar shifting relative to the seasons of the solar year.
In medieval Iceland, a calendar was introduced in the 10th century. While the ancient Germanic calendars were based on lunar months, the new Icelandic calendar introduced a purely solar reckoning, with a year having a fixed number of weeks (52 weeks or 364 days). This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks '' instead of the Julian leap days.
During the Mughal rule, land taxes were collected from Bengali people according to the Islamic Hijri calendar. This calendar was a lunar calendar, and its new year did not coincide with the solar agricultural cycles. According to some sources, Mughal Emperor Akbar asked his royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi to create a new calendar by combining the lunar Islamic calendar and solar Hindu calendar already in use, and this was known as Fasholi shan (harvest calendar). According to Amartya Sen, Akbar 's official calendar "Tarikh - ilahi '' with the zero year of 1556 CE was a blend of pre-existing Hindu and Islamic calendars. It was not used much in India outside of Akbar 's Mughal court, and after his death the calendar he launched was abandoned. However, adds Sen, there are traces of the "Tarikh - ilahi '' that survive in the Bengali calendar. Some historians attribute the Bengali calendar to the 7th century Hindu king Shashanka.
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex. The Mayan calendar had 2 years, the 260 - day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365 - day Vague Year, or haab.
The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names: Imix, Ik, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. The Sacred Round was used to determine important activities related to the gods and humans: name individuals, predict the future, decide on auspicious dates for battles, marriages, and so on.
The two cycles of 13 and 20 intermesh and are repeated without interruption: the cycle would begin with 1 Imix, then 2 Ik, then 3 Akbal and so on until the number 13 was reached, at which point the number cycle was restarted so 13 Ben would be followed by 1 Ix, 2 Men and so on. This time Imix would be numbered 8. The cycle ended after 260 days, with the last day being 13 Ahau.
The Vague Year of 365 days is similar to our modern calendar, consisting of 18 months of 20 days each, with an unlucky five - day period at the end. The Vague Year had to do primarily with the seasons and agriculture, and was based on the solar cycle. The 18 Maya months are known, in order, as: Pop, Uo, Zip, Zotz, Tzec, Xuc, Yaxkin, Mol, Chen, Yax, Zac, Ceh, Mac, Kankin, Maun, Pax, Kayab and Cumku. The unlucky five - day period was known as Uayeb, and was considered a time which could hold danger, death and bad luck.
The Vague Year began with the month of Pop. The Maya 20 - day month always begins with the seating of the month, followed by days numbered 1 to 19, then the seating of the following month, and so on. This ties in with the Maya notion that each month influences the next. The Maya new year would start with 1 Pop, followed by 2 Pop, all the way through to 19 Pop, followed by the seating of the month of Uo, written as 0 Uo, then 1 Uo, 2 Uo and so on. These two cycles coincided every 52 years. The 52 - year period of time was called a "bundle '' and was similar to a modern - day century.
While the Gregorian calendar is now in worldwide use for secular purposes, various medieval or ancient calendars remain in regional use for religious or social purposes, including the Julian calendar, the Hebrew calendar, the Islamic calendar, various Hindu calendars, the Zoroastrian calendar etc.
There are also various modern calendars that see limited use, either created for the use of new religious movements or reformed versions of older religious calendars, or calendars introduced by regionalist or nationalist movements.
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who did aiden marry in sex and the city | List of Sex and the City characters - wikipedia
Sex and the City is an American cable television program based on the book of the same name by Candace Bushnell. It was originally broadcast on the HBO network from 1998 until 2004. Set in New York City, the show focuses on the sex lives of four female best friends, three of whom are in their mid-to - late thirties, and one of whom is in her forties. Along with these four women, there were numerous minor and recurring characters, including their current and ex-boyfriends / husbands / lovers, as well as many cameo appearances.
There are also the film adaptations Sex and the City: The Movie (2008) and Sex and the City 2 (2010).
Carrie Bradshaw (born October 10, 1966), is the literal voice of the show, as each episode is structured around her train of thought while writing her weekly column, "Sex and the City '', for the fictitious newspaper, The New York Star. A member of the New York glitterati, she is a club / bar / restaurant staple known for her unique fashion sense; yoking together various styles into one outfit (she often pairs inexpensive vintage clothing with high - end couture). A self - proclaimed shoe fetishist, she focuses most of her attention and finances on designer footwear, primarily Manolo Blahnik, though she has been known to wear Christian Louboutin and Jimmy Choo. She often goes on shopping sprees, and pays much attention to her evolving and bold dress style, which is not fettered by professional dress codes. Although her only income is from her freelance weekly newspaper column, she often overspends her limit and maxes out her credit card in a single shopping trip. To some viewers, her lack of shoe - shopping self - control and overall seemingly immature spending might be a flaw, and her money management misadventures follow her through a few episodes. However, her priorities are later brought into perspective when she is forced to buy her once rent - controlled apartment to avoid moving out when the building goes co-op; she acquires a mortgage by supplementing her income with other writing assignments, and takes a sizeable loan from Charlotte in the form of Charlotte 's engagement ring to Trey. Her apartment is her home for the entire series and is another source of pride; it is an open - planned studio in an Upper East Side brownstone that is enviable for its stabilized rent, space, large closet, and good location. She eventually purchases back the apartment from Aidan in the fourth season. In later seasons, her essays are collected as a book, and she begins taking assignments from other publications, like Vogue and New York, as well.
Charlotte York (born May, 1967), is an art dealer and graduate of Smith College with a wealthy Connecticut blue - blooded upbringing. She is the most conservative and traditional of the group, the one who places the most emphasis on emotional love as opposed to lust, and is always searching for her "knight in shining armor ''. As the youngest of the group, she is also the most idealistic about romance and love. Presenting a more straightforward attitude about relationships, usually based on "the rules '' of love and dating, she often scoffs at the lewder, more libertine antics that the show presents (primarily by way of Samantha), but despite her conservative outlook, she makes concessions (while married) that even surprise her sexually freer girlfriends (such as her level of dirty talk, oral sex in public and "tuchus - lingus ''). She gives up her career soon after her first marriage, divorces upon irreconcilable differences around in vitro fertilization and receives a Park Avenue apartment in the divorce settlement. She eventually remarries to her less than perfect, but good - hearted divorce lawyer, Harry Goldenblatt, after converting to Judaism. In the final episode, they adopt a daughter from China, Lily, and in the first movie, Charlotte gives birth to daughter Rose, with Harry proclaiming, "now we have a Lily and a Rose! ''.
Miranda Hobbes (born July, 1966), is a career - minded lawyer with extremely cynical views on relationships and men. A Harvard University graduate from Philadelphia, she is Carrie 's confidante and voice of reason. In the early seasons, she is portrayed as masculine and borderline misandric, but this image softens over the years, particularly after she becomes pregnant by her on again - off again boyfriend, Steve Brady, whom she eventually marries. The birth of her son, Brady, brings up new issues for her Type A, workaholic personality, but she soon finds a way to balance career, being single and motherhood. Of the four women, she is the first to purchase an apartment, (an indicator of her success), which she leaves in the final season, and moves to a tenement apartment in a nearby Downtown neighborhood. She is separating from Steve, after he admits to having cheating once recently. It was during a recent, six - month period of work / life overwhelm, and a resultant loss of interest in sex on Miranda 's part.
Samantha Jones (born April 28, 1958), the oldest of the group, is an independent publicist and a seductress who avoids emotional involvement at all costs, while satisfying every possible carnal desire imaginable. She believes that she has had "hundreds '' of soulmates and insists that her sexual partners leave "an hour after I climax. '' In Season 3, she moves from her full - service Upper East Side apartment to an expensive loft in the then - burgeoning Meatpacking District. Over the course of the show, she does have a handful of real relationships, but they are more unconventional than those of her friends, including a lesbian relationship with Brazilian painter played by Sonia Braga.
Mr Big (Chris Noth) is Carrie 's central relationship. They first meet in season one but then have a nasty break up because he does n't say what she wants to hear (' You 're the one '). In season two they start to date again but it, again, ends badly due to Mr Big moving to Paris with work and not telling Carrie until a few days prior. When Big returns, Carrie discovers that, whilst in Paris, he got engaged to a 25 - year - old woman named Natasha, whom he later married. In season 3 she meets Aidan Shaw (see below) who she cheats on with Big while he is still with Natasha. The relationship is on and off through all the 6th season and in the final series, Carrie is in Paris with Aleksandr Petrovsky (see below) and Big declares his love for her and chases her down. He finds her in the hotel after her fight with Aleksandr and they go back to NY together. They go on to marry at the end of the first film.
Aidan Shaw (John Corbett) is one of Carrie 's long - term boyfriends. He is a sweet, good - natured furniture designer and Mr. Big 's emotional opposite. At first Carrie questions their seemingly perfect relationship, but over time accepts his sincerity. However, Aidan ends their relationship after her confession of an affair with Big. They get back together six months later at Carrie 's urging, eventually moving in together. When her apartment building goes co-op, he buys the apartment and proposes. Despite her initial misgivings, she accepts his marriage proposal but then becomes panicked and feels suffocated by the relationship, and realizes he still does not fully trust her, given her past affair with Big, and they break up for good.
Six years later, Carrie runs into Aidan in Abu Dhabi at a market. Aidan is there to buy some samples for his furniture company. They resolve to meet for dinner to catch up. It 's revealed that Aidan has married Kathy, a fellow furniture designer and has three sons: Homer, Wyatt, and Tate. In a moment of passion, they kiss. Carrie stops herself and runs away. After this, Aidan is not seen again.
Jack Berger (Ron Livingston) is Carrie 's intellectual counterpart, a sardonic humorist writer. Hailing from Downer 's Grove, Carrie first meets him when he walks into a meeting between her and her publisher. Theirs is a relationship of witty banter and common thoughts, and honesty. Berger 's advice to Miranda when she questions the lack of a phone call after a first date, "He 's just not that into you, '' became a pop culture catchphrase. Berger 's and Carrie 's relationship is then strained by their career issues; a book deal of his falls through just as her columns are being published as such. He memorably breaks up with her on a Post-It: "I 'm sorry, I ca n't, do n't hate me. ''
Aleksandr Petrovsky (Mikhail Baryshnikov), referred to by Carrie occasionally as "The Russian '' or "My Lover '' is a famous conceptual artist who becomes Carrie 's lover in the final season. He sweeps her off her feet with huge romantic gestures and shows her the foreign pockets of New York that she has never seen before. Her relationship with him brings up all sorts of questions in Carrie 's mind about finding love past "a certain age '' and whether or not she wants children. When he 's preparing to return to Paris for a solo exhibit he invites Carrie to come live with him, which, after several deliberations (and one fight) with her friends, she does. After spending some time with him in Paris, she realizes that he will never reciprocate the level of emotional involvement that she offers because his life and career will always come first. (Casting Baryshnikov as Petrovsky was noteworthy because in real life, Candace Bushnell, the author on whom Bradshaw is based, married real life ballet dancer Charles Askegard of the New York City Ballet.)
James (James Goodwin) is a man Samantha meets while out by herself at a jazz club. She makes a conscious effort to not sleep with him until she gets to know him first. When they finally do have sex, she discovers that he is under - endowed to the point that she can not enjoy herself (his fully erect penis is 3 inches long.) She begins pulling away physically and can not bring herself to tell him -- until she is faced with the prospect of couples counseling.
Maria Diega Reyes (Sônia Braga) is a Brazilian sensual lesbian artist that Samantha meets at a solo exhibit while admiring her work. Maria is immediately attracted to her, but since Samantha does n't believe in relationships they try to maintain a friendship. The chemistry proves to be too strong and it is n't too long before Samantha is introducing her lesbian lover to her stunned friends. At first, Samantha has a great time "getting an education '' as Maria teaches her about lesbian sex and how to make an emotional connection while making love. Unfortunately, Samantha begins to grow uncomfortable when the relationship talk starts to replace the sexual activity and Maria is equally uncomfortable with Samantha 's sexual history, and they separate.
Richard Wright (James Remar) is a successful hotel magnate who does n't believe in monogamy until he meets Samantha. He seduces her, and when their no - strings - attached sexual relationship begins to escalate, both parties struggle to keep their emotional distance. Eventually, they give in and attempt exclusivity, but Samantha becomes suspicious that he is cheating on her. When she does catch him cheating, after putting on a wig and spying on him, she breaks up with him, but eventually takes him back after he begs for her forgiveness. In the end, Samantha still has her doubts about his fidelity, and she breaks up with him, saying "I love you Richard, but I love me more. '' Towards the end of the series, Richard re-surfaces, admitting that Samantha was the best thing that ever happened to him. But after having sex with him again, she realizes how empty his emotions are and she rejects him for Smith Jerrod.
Jerry Jerrod / Smith Jerrod (Jason Lewis) is a young waiter Samantha seduces in a trendy restaurant called "Raw. '' She tries to maintain her usual sex - only relationship with him, but he slowly pushes for something more. He is a wannabe actor whose career Samantha jump starts using her PR connections (including changing his name from "Jerry Jerrod '' to "Smith Jerrod ''), getting him a modeling job that turns into a film role. Just when she thinks Smith 's age and experiences are n't enough for her, he gives her unconditional support during her fight with breast cancer. In the final episode, Smith flies back from a film set in Canada just to tell her that he loves her, which she counters with "You have meant more to me than any man I 've ever known, '' which, for Samantha, is a far greater statement.
In the first Sex and the City movie, she breaks up with him in the end after having relocated her business to LA but missing New York City and Carrie, Miranda, and Charlotte.
Dr. Trey MacDougal (Kyle MacLachlan) is Charlotte 's knight in shining armour archetype. It was a fairytale beginning when Trey 's cab screeched to a stop in the street to avoid hitting her as she was fleeing a bad date. Charlotte was a damsel in distress, he, a knight in a yellow cab.
Trey is a Park Avenue cardiologist with blue blood and deep brown eyes. With his pedigree comes social status, a country house and lots of money. Add to that chiseled chin his perfectly coiffed hair and he is the stuff that dreams (especially Charlotte 's) are made of. He also has exceptional manners and is always considerate in an old - fashioned way. However, despite Trey being exactly the perfect model of what Charlotte looks for in a husband, she finds the reality to be quite different. While on the surface, Trey seems Charlotte 's perfect match, behind closed doors the couple faces some real - life problems: Trey is impotent, and his overbearing mother tries to maintain her power over Trey and drive a wedge between the married couple. They try to work things out, and do succeed in conquering his sexual dysfunctions. But when they start to have problems conceiving, Trey ultimately becomes too overwhelmed. On the day when Charlotte succeeds in projecting the ultimate in connubial bliss -- a photo spread in a magazine featuring her Park Avenue apartment -- she and Trey split up and he moves back in with his mother.
Harry Goldenblatt (Evan Handler) is Charlotte 's divorce lawyer and second love, helping bring an end to her marriage to Trey. When beginning divorce proceedings, she found herself unable to be cold - blooded and severe around her extremely attractive lawyer, so she asks to switch to a different lawyer in the same firm: Harry Goldenblatt, the antithesis of what she seeks in a man. He was bald, pudgy, messy, sweaty, crude, had poor manners, and had an excess of body hair. But Harry was very attracted to Charlotte, and seduced her. She declared it "the best sex of my life '' and began what she thought to be a meaningless sexual affair with him. However, she began falling for him. Initially, she tried to change him to suit her image of what a man should be, but ultimately she accepted him as he was and the two were married.
Skipper Johnston (Ben Weber) is a geeky, sensitive twenty - something web designer whom Carrie introduces to Miranda. From the moment they meet, Skipper is enamored of her, but Miranda is unimpressed and irritated by him, calling him "Skippy ''. They date for a short time, before Miranda breaks up with him due to their "being in different places ''.
Dr. Robert Leeds (Blair Underwood) is a sports medicine doctor who moves into Miranda 's building during season six. He is the seemingly perfect man: successful, sexy, attentive to Brady, and utterly devoted to her. Robert and Miranda have lots of fun and great chemistry, but when the time comes she is unable to declare her love for him, in part because she still loves Steve.
Stanford Blatch (Willie Garson), often referred to as the show 's "Fifth Lady, '' is Carrie 's best friend outside of the three women. A gay talent agent from an aristocratic family with a sense of style paralleled only by Carrie 's, viewers receive the impression that they have a long - standing relationship built within their younger, wilder days in the New York City club and bar scene in the 1980s. He had said that they have been friends since Carrie was riding the subways and wearing Candie 's. The only supporting character to receive his own storylines on occasion, Stanford represents the show 's most constant gay point of view to sex on the show, generally based around the physical insecurities and inadequacies of someone who does not "have that gay look. '' In the last two seasons of the show, he is partnered with Broadway dancer Marcus Adente (Sean Palmer). We are led to believe this relationship does not last, however, as in the film he arrives at a New Year 's party alone and has no one else to kiss except long - time rival Anthony Marentino, whom he weds in the sequel.
Anthony Marentino (Mario Cantone) is a Sicilian - American event planner who becomes close to Charlotte after styling her first wedding -- he goes on to style Charlotte 's H&G photo shoot, her second wedding and Carrie 's book release party. He is not self - effacing like Stanford and freely doles out blunt, sometimes bawdy, advice to Charlotte. (For instance: Upon hearing that she had n't had sex since her divorce, he exclaims: "If you do n't put something ' in there ' soon, it 'll grow over! ''). In Season 4, Episode 2, Charlotte tries to set up Anthony and Stanford. Anthony snubs Stanford, which results in resentment and competition ensues for the entire show run. However, in the first film, the two are seen kissing at a New Year 's Eve party, and then get married in the sequel, with Anthony proclaiming at their wedding that Stanford is "the first man to accept me for the man that I actually am. ''
Magda (Lynn Cohen), the Ukrainian housekeeper / nanny who was introduced in the third season becomes an ersatz mother figure and a thorn in Miranda 's side. Her attempts to push traditional marriage / motherhood attitudes on Miranda are both subtle (buying her a rolling pin "To make pies. It 's good for a woman to make pies. '') and intrusive (replacing her vibrator with a statuette of The Virgin Mary). She is friendly to Steve even before he and Miranda are back together, and adores Brady to the point of making a collage of his pictures. Magda comes to accept Miranda 's lifestyle choices and continues working for Miranda, even when she and Steve move to Brooklyn. Although Miranda is reluctant to accept help, Magda makes life manageable for Miranda after the birth of Brady by serving as both a housekeeper and a nanny.
During the last episode of Season 5, the girls meet aging socialite Bitsy von Muffling (Julie Halston) right before and during her Hamptons wedding to flamboyant, and presumably gay, cabaret entertainer Bobby Fine (Nathan Lane). We see her again in the middle of Season 6 pregnant with Bobby 's baby. She advises Charlotte, who 's also had trouble becoming pregnant, to try acupuncture like she did. In the movie, we do see a brief reappearance of Bitsy, seated halfway down the table (right next to Stanford) during the dinner party.
As Sex and the City gained popularity, a number of celebrities had cameo appearances on the show, some playing themselves and some playing characters. These include the following:
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where does the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve originate | Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh - Wikipedia
The lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh (also called the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve) is a cutaneous nerve that innervates the skin on the lateral part of the thigh.
The lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh is a nerve of the lumbar plexus. It arises from the dorsal divisions of the second and third lumbar nerves (L2 - L3). It emerges from the lateral border of the psoas major at about its middle, and crosses the iliacus muscle obliquely, toward the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS). It then passes under the inguinal ligament, through the lacuna musculorum and then over the sartorius muscle into the thigh, where it divides into an anterior and a posterior branch.
The anterior branch becomes superficial about 10 cm below the inguinal ligament, and divides into branches which are distributed to the skin of the anterior and lateral parts of the thigh, as far as the knee. The terminal filaments of this nerve frequently communicate with the anterior cutaneous branches of the femoral nerve, and with the infrapatellar branch of the saphenous nerve, forming with them the peripatellar plexus.
The posterior branch pierces the fascia lata, and subdivides into filaments which pass backward across the lateral and posterior surfaces of the thigh, supplying the skin from the level of the greater trochanter to the middle of the thigh.
Entrapment is caused by compression of the nerve near the ASIS and inguinal ligament and is commonly known as Meralgia paraesthetica or Bernhardt - Roth syndrome.
Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh and other structures passing behind the inguinal ligament
The great saphenous vein and its tributaries at the fossa ovalis.
The lumbar plexus and its branches.
Deep and superficial dissection of the lumbar plexus.
Diagram of segmental distribution of the lateral cutaneous nerve (shaded) and other nerves of the right leg. Front view.
Cutaneous nerves of the right lower extremity. Front and posterior views.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 953 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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what time does school start in the dominican republic | Education in the Dominican Republic - wikipedia
In the Dominican Republic, education is free and compulsory at the elementary level, and free but non-mandatory at the secondary level. It is divided into four stages:
Literacy rates and school participation in the Dominican Republic has risen over the past years. Through these efforts, women have reported fast upward movement in social class partially due to increased education. There have been numerous efforts to evaluate teachers, students, and facilities through examinations. Teachers in the Dominican Republic rate higher in multiple aspects than other countries in Latin America, however, still rank below many other countries. The school conditions vary based on whether the school is private, polytechnic, or public non-polytechnic, with decreasing quality facilities respectively. A very similar trend has been found in student performance. Despite advances in the education system, there are still issues in regards to gender inequality, participation in the education system, and involvement of outside organizations.
Literacy is defined by the NCES as having the ability to use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one 's goals, and to develop one 's knowledge and potential. According to the CIA World Factbook, 91.8 % of the population over the age of 15 is considered literate. Literacy for females is listed at 92.3 % while literacy for males is listed at 91.2 %. Compared to the world, these numbers are higher than the average. Worldwide literacy is at 86.1 %. For males, worldwide literacy is at 89.9 % and for females world literacy is at 82.2 %. The CIA world factbook also shows data on the school life expectancy of students in the Dominican Republic. For males, this life expectancy is at 13 years old which is slightly lower than the female school life expectancy of 14 years old. The Dominican Republic National Education Profile reflects this showing higher levels of completion for both primary as well as secondary schools.
A report by the United States Agency for International Development, ranks the Dominican Republic 143rd in quality of primary education and 137th in quality of the education system. This ranking is out of 144 countries worldwide. In 1980, the percent of the Dominican Republic 's GDP that went towards education was 2 %. This value dropped to 0.88 % in 1990. The education spending has since gone back up to around 4 % of the GDP.
The Dominican Republic Education System is governed by four government organizations: the State Secretariat for Education (part of the executive branch of the government), in charge of the management and orientation of the education system; the Ministry of Education; the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology; and the National Institute of Professional and Technical Training.
The school year in Dominican Republic begins in mid-August and classes are held from Monday to Friday. The school year consists of two terms, which are separated by Christmas holidays in winter season, and an eight - week - long summer break. The year structure is summarized in the table below.
The pre-primary stage of education in the Dominican Republic includes children under 6 years of age. There are three cycles of the pre-primary stage. The first cycle is for children ages 0 -- 2 years old, the second cycle is for children 2 -- 4 years old, and the third cycle is for children 4 -- 6 years old. The Dominican Republic provides the last year of pre-primary education for families and this year is considered compulsory. The earlier years are not paid for by the Dominican Republic and are thus not compulsory.
The Primary school stage of the Dominican Republic education system is eight years long and is designated for children ages 6 -- 14. Primary education is compulsory and universal in the Dominican Republic. This is split up into two different cycles. The first cycle is grades 1 - 4 for children 6 -- 10 years old and the second cycle is grades 5 - 8 ad is for children 10 -- 14 years old. Each grade level encompasses 10 months of teaching.
Secondary school is provided by the Dominican Republic, however, this level of education is not compulsory. There are four years of schooling required to complete secondary school and it is for children age 14 - 18. The four years are split up into two cycles lasting two years each. The first cycle encompasses general and compulsory education. The second cycle has much more flexible curriculum and allows students to focus on either vocational and technical education or on the arts. The vocational and technical track prepares students for entry into certain professions and activities. This track focuses on teaching students about industry, agriculture, and other services. The arts education track focuses on developing the creativity of the students. Students can specialize into music, visual arts, performing arts, and applied arts. To graduate from secondary school, students must obtain a passing grade on national exams, their classes, and participate in a community service program.
The Dominican Republic has both public institutions as well as private institutions for higher education. There are 5 total public institutions: Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD), El Instituto Superior de Formación de Maestros Salomé Ureña, Fuerzas Armadas, Instituto Tecnológico de las Américas, and the Instituto Politécnico Loyola. The Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo is considered the state university while the other four public institutions are for more specialized areas. Beyond the public institutions, there are also 39 private institutions. Within these institutions, there are several tracks that students are able to take. Students can pursue Technical Studies which requires 2 years of schooling with a minimum of 85 credits. Graduate Studies requires a minimum of 140 credits. For students wishing to pursue a specialty in Graduate Studies, there is often an increased credit requirement. For architecture, veterinary, law, dentistry, pharmacy, and engineering, the requirement is 200 credits and at least four years of schooling. For medicine, the requirement is 5 years of schooling plus a one - year internship. After graduate studies, students also have the ability to pursue post-graduate education. For most specializations, there is a one - year and 20 credit minimum. To obtain a master 's degree, students are generally required to complete 2 years of schooling encompassing 40 credits. For most students, their studies are generally extended by a half year to a year and a half of the required years of schooling.
The Dominican Republic provides specialized education programs for children with special needs or physical disabilities to accommodate these needs. While this service is provided, reports have found that 70 % of children with a disability were currently not in school.
The adult education system provides education for adults who were unable to complete their education through the traditional route. This program encompasses literacy and primary schooling as well as secondary education. The track generally lasts about four years and can include professional training to provide adults with better skills for entering the workforce.
From a study looking at sexual health of men in the Dominican Republic, 11 % of males surveyed were found to have HIV antibodies. Female sex workers are also at an increased risk of STI infections. Kerrigan identifies that there is a need for the development of educational resources regarding sex education in order to decrease the prevalence of STIs. In a separate study in the Dominican Republic, those who received sex education were 1.72 times more likely to report having high HIV / AIDS knowledge. Additionally, those who received sex education were also 2.52 times more likely to use condoms during sex. A study on sex education in developing countries noted that when developing resources for sex education, the context of the country and the local areas, such as literacy rates and school attendance, needs to be taken into consideration to ensure the effectiveness of the program.
The United States has donated money to the Dominican Republic education system to help fund civic education classes. These classes were designed to increase students knowledge of civil society and democracy. The classes were found to increase positive feelings in students towards norms related to democracy. The study also found that the classes led students to foster feelings of distrust towards governmental bodies, especially the army and judicial system.
A study instituted a 3 - month course in human rights to a school in the Dominican Republic. The course focused both on global issues as well as local issues such as discrimination against Haitians. Bajaj notes that the course was not perfect, however, 100 % of the students were able to explain what human rights were. Additionally, students were found to be more likely to be willing to stand up for others.
A study by Sucre and Fiszbein compared four countries in Central America on three indices concerning teachers and teacher quality. Of these four countries, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and the Dominican Republic, the Dominican Republic in general had higher ratings for their teachers, however, the article notes that there is much work that is needed to be done. The first index that was measured was whether the teachers were prepared for effective teaching. The study found that there were standards set for teachers. However, the study notes that the teachers in the Dominican Republic lacked an awareness of these standards and were thus unable to properly use them. In the Dominican Republic, there are 25 institutions that are dedicated towards training teachers. There is no structured system for the certification of teachers. Teachers are not required to obtain classroom practice prior to becoming a teachers.
The second index studied was the process of attracting, hiring, and retaining teachers. It was found that there was a job application process that encompasses a logical reasoning exam, an exam on pedagogical knowledge and planning skills, and either an interview or oral exam. After being hired, teachers are coached during their first year of teaching. The education system collects data on student performance is often collected. The study does note that there is no usage of this knowledge towards increasing the quality of education. The researchers also found that teachers are paid a competitive salary. Part - time teachers are paid 32 % higher than the average full - time worker and full - time teachers are paid 53 % higher than the average university graduate who is working full - time.
The third index researched whether schools managed for good performance. The researchers found that there were no regular teacher assessments and no incentives for teachers to teach in underprivileged areas. These underprivileged areas encompass rural and / or low income areas. There is a policy in place for poor performing teachers to undergo a year of training and re-evaluation, however, the researchers noted that this policy is rarely implemented in practice.
In 2005, a test was administered to students at grade levels 3, 4, and 5 to assess their competency in reading comprehension and mathematics curriculum from grade levels 1, 2, and 3. This test was called the Concorcio de Evaluación e Investigación Educativa (CEIE). In reading comprehension, the students were given 21 questions. Students were able to answer, on average, 7.37 questions on the test. The exam also found that girls performed better on the reading comprehension test than boys. In mathematics, students were given 35 questions. On average, the third grade students were able to answer 5.9 questions, the fourth grade students were able to answer 9.02 questions, and the fifth grade students were able to answer 11.94 questions. The researchers studying the exams claim that the results show that students were not learning the basics of reading comprehension and mathematics that they should be learning grades 1 - 3. The study also found that students at private schools performed better than students at public schools. Over 80 % of children attend public schools.
Public schools are often overcrowded, lacking in textbooks and other instructional resources. The buildings themselves often have broken light fixtures, cracked walls, and other damage to the physical building. Polytechnic schools are considered public, however, they are also aided by another organization, usually a religious group. Polytechnic schools generally have higher quality facilities than public schools not linked to a secondary organization. Many schools in rural areas lack more infrastructure than public schools. Additionally, many schools in rural areas do not teach grades past the 6th grade. Private school s in general are of higher quality than public schools and often have resources and advantages that are not available to public schools. Private schools are able to pay their teachers a higher salary and provide higher quality learning resources such as textbooks for the students. These private schools generally serve students with parents from the upper middle class.
School conditions have improved over the past years. Yovanny Gomez, who teaches at a school in the Dominican Republic, discusses in an interview how the school used to be filled with trash and lacking in air conditioning. This interview shows how there have been improvements in the school conditions.
Studies have shown that many students have not been well prepared to face the challenges of university courses. This is shown by a large dropout rate of students who attend a university as well as a need for intense remedial work to prepare students for the rigor of college courses.
Some parent education programs have been implemented into the Dominican Republic to help improve the healthy development of children. Farrelly and McLennan produced a research study looking at the participation rates of parents in parent education programs as well as barriers that lead parents to not participate or be unable to complete the program. Their research found that, on average, parents only complete 59 % of the course. However, they did find that reducing the time commitment and focusing on an intensive child nutrition component lead to higher completion rates. Common barriers that participants noted were a lack of money for transportation to the class, lack of childcare while the parent was at the class, and mothers who worked and were unable to take time off.
McLennan produced a second research paper documenting efforts to implement a Canadian parent education program in the Dominican Republic. This program was focused on training parents on how to support the development of their children and focused on health, safety, and behavioral topics. The researchers trained local workers at a hospital to teach the program and adapted the curriculum that was used in Canada to be more relevant towards topics in the Dominican Republic.
Educational opportunity in the Dominican Republic is important not only for increasing social status but also for health outcomes. De Tavarez and Andrade discuss how higher educational attainment in the Dominican Republic is negatively associated with the use of both alcohol and tobacco. This association is especially profound in tobacco use as there is a significant social gradient in tobacco use. Those with higher socioeconomic status, are less likely to smoke and education plays an important factor in socioeconomic status.
Children in the Dominican Republic have listed education as one of their greatest concerns. Inequality in access to education is a primary concern for those living in the Dominican Republic as well as outside organizations such as UNICEF. UNICEF discusses how children in rural zones are much more likely to have a high rate of repetition and dropout. This is partially due to the distance that some children must travel to arrive at school.
The average years of schooling of the adult population older than 15 is 7.43 years old. This value is less than the number of years required to complete primary schooling. One policy that was implemented to increase participation was to provide three different shifts of school that students could attend. Schools would provide a shift during the morning, afternoon, and evening to allow for students to continue working while also attending school. With these efforts, 75 % of students complete grade 4, 63 % complete grade 6, and 52 % complete the full eight years of primary school. The Dominican Republic has higher levels of participation in the education system than many other Latin America n countries. Beyond attending school, the school days are 5 hours long, however, according to reports students learn for two hours and 40 minutes of those 5 hours. Thus, almost half of the school time is spent with children hanging "out in class while they 're supposed to be studying. ''
Gender inequality for girls in the education system is not a significant issue in terms of participation. Attendance rates are slightly higher for girls between age 6 - 13 (87 %) than for boys of the equivalent age (84 %). As age increases, this difference becomes clearer as 40 % of females aged 14 -- 17 are enrolled and only 29 % of males of the same age are enrolled. Thus, males are more likely than females to drop out of school.
MLB scouts are especially prevalent in the Dominican Republic. Wasch et al. conducted a study looking into the effects that MLB recruiters have on boys in the Dominican Republic. The prospect of going into the MLB is often seen as the only way that boys, and consequently their families, can leave the Dominican Republic. Wasch discusses how many boys are pulled out of schooling to train with MLB recruiters and trainers to potentially make it into the MLB. However, only 1 in 40 every actually make it to an academy and of those who do make it only 3 - 5 % get chosen to move up into the MLB. This system pulls boys out of the education system early and leaves them lacking a full education. Thus, these boys are less able to enter the workforce as productive members. Wasch offers two solutions for this problem, one is to create an international draft and hold international players to the same high school requirements that American players are held to. The second solution is for the MLB to create a child labor corporate code of conduct to ensure that teams are held accountable for the education of players and possible recruits.
The World Bank has made steps to help fund improvements in the Dominican Republic education system. The World Bank has financed the Dominican Republic Early Childhood Education Project. This project has led to the construction of hundreds of new schools and technology centers, thousands of new classrooms, increased training for teachers as well as an increase in the number of teachers, and provision of resources to reinforce and enhance the quality of classrooms. The project is estimated to have directly benefited 52,000 children and 106,000 children indirectly.
In 2015, The World Bank approved $50 million to help finance efforts to improve pre-university education. The money is aimed to "recruit and train primary and secondary school teachers; assess student learning in primary and secondary schools; evaluate early childhood development services and help decentralize public school management. '' The money is part of a National Pact for Education and the project will be implemented by the Ministry of Education (MINERD).
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who wrote the song look what you made me do | Look What You Made Me Do - wikipedia
"Look What You Made Me Do '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift from her upcoming sixth studio album, Reputation (2017). The song was released on August 25, 2017, as the lead single from the album. Swift wrote the song with Jack Antonoff. The song samples the melody of the 1991 song "I 'm Too Sexy '' by the band Right Said Fred, therefore Fred Fairbrass, Richard Fairbrass, and Rob Manzoli of the band are credited as songwriters.
The song received a mixed response from music critics, with division over Swift 's stylistic change. The music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and became the most - watched music video within 24 hours. The song broke a string of records, including the record for the most plays in a single day on Spotify. It has topped the charts in fifteen countries and received Platinum certifications in both Australia and Canada.
On August 18, 2017, Swift cleared all her social media accounts, which sparked rumours of new music arriving soon. On August 21, Swift shared a 10 - second video featuring the tail of a snake on all her social platforms; a second part appeared the next day and on August 23, she uploaded a third teaser, showing the snake 's head. On the same day, Swift announced that the first single of her upcoming sixth album, titled Reputation, would come out the following night. The song was released to streaming services on August 24, and earned over eight million streams within twenty - four hours of its Spotify release, breaking the record for the highest first - day streaming for a single track. It impacted American contemporary hit radio on August 29, 2017, through Big Machine Records.
A lyric video heavily based on the Saul Bass imagery used in the film Vertigo was released through Swift 's official Vevo account on August 25, 2017. The video was produced by Swift and Joseph Kahn. It gained more than 19 million views during its first 24 hours on YouTube, surpassing "Something Just like This '' by The Chainsmokers and Coldplay as the most viewed lyric video within that time period. As of September 2017, the lyric video on YouTube has amassed over 70 million views.
Music critics have described "Look What You Made Me Do '' as a hybrid of electroclash and pop, as well as a dance - pop and an electro - pop song. It emphasizes the blame that is placed on an enemy, in special in the line, "I 've got a list of names, and yours is in red, underlined ''. The middle eight of the song features Swift saying, "I 'm sorry, the old Taylor ca n't come to the phone right now / Why? / Oh, ' cause she 's dead! ''
"Look What You Made Me Do '' is performed in the key of A minor with a tempo of 128 beats per minute. Swift 's vocals span from G to F.
Critic Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone noted a "nightmarish aesthetic '' present in the song, and believed it to be a continuation of the "antagonistic persona '' from "Bad Blood ''.
Richard Fairbrass, Fred Fairbrass and Rob Manzoli, the members of the British dance - pop group Right Said Fred, are credited as songwriters because the song interpolates the melody of their song "I 'm Too Sexy ''. According to Fred Fairbrass, he and his brother were contacted one week before the release of "Look What You Made Me Do '' and were asked whether a "big, contemporary female artist who has n't released anything for a while '' -- whose identity they were not told -- would be able to use a portion of their song for her latest single. Although the brothers agreed to a deal, they did not officially find out that the artist in question was Swift until the morning after the song was released, but had deduced that it was her based on the description they were given. Both of the Fairbrass brothers said that they enjoyed "Look What You Made Me Do ''; Fred Fairbrass told Rolling Stone, "I like the cynical aspect of the lyric, because ' I 'm Too Sexy ' is a cynical song, and I think she channeled that quite well. '' A representative for Swift confirmed that the song interpolated the melody from "I 'm Too Sexy '', but did not include sampled audio from the earlier song.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' received a polarized reception from critics, with some praising the song as a welcomed dark departure from her earlier work, and others writing it off as petty and vengeful. USA Today said that the polarizing reaction to the song illustrated Swift 's position as a "ubiquitous cultural force ''. The Telegraph Randy Lewis praised the song, deeming Swift and Antonoff 's work as "blow (ing) past the production clichés of clap tracks and hiccuped syllabic hooks that have proliferated across Top 40 fare in recent years with boldly inventive textures and fresh melodic, rhythmic and sonic accents ''. He also added how the track musically and sonically shifted alongside the lyrics. Sarah Carson of the Los Angeles Times wrote a positive review of the song, saying: "The reverberating crescendo builds and ever more delicious is the wickedness of Swift 's menacing protagonist '', praising Swift for her successful embrace of the villain character the media has portrayed her as previous to the song 's release. Variety 's Chris Willman also praised Swift 's embrace of a darker - styled pop music and the stylistic conflict between the song 's pre-chorus and chorus.
Mark Harris, in New York magazine 's pop culture blog, thought of Swift 's song as a pop art anthem for the Trump era in how she reappropriates her public feuds as empowering badges of honor without acknowledging her own responsibility or blame.
In the United States, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number seventy - seven on the Billboard Hot 100, powered by its first three days of airplay. It also sold slightly under 200,000 digital copies within its first day of sales in the country, where it became the fastest selling download since Ed Sheeran 's "Shape of You ''. One week later, the song ascended from 77 to one on the Hot 100 after its first full week of tracking, becoming the fifth largest rise to the top position and Swift 's fifth number - one single in the United States. It also topped the nation 's Streaming Songs chart with 84.4 million streams, becoming its most streamed song within a week by a female artist and second overall behind the 103 million that Baauer 's "Harlem Shake '' gained in 2013. The track also had more weekly streams in the US than any other song in 2017. With 353,000 copies sold in its first week, "Look What You Made Me Do '' opened atop the US Digital Songs chart and had the country 's biggest sales opening since Justin Timberlake 's "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '' in 2016 as well as the best weekly sales for a song by a female artist since Adele 's "Hello '' in 2015. The track also became the country 's first number - one song with a female artist since Halsey was featured on "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers and the first song with a female lead artist since Sia 's "Cheap Thrills '' with Sean Paul (both in 2016). It additionally was the first solo song by a female to top the US charts since Adele 's "Hello ''. It remained atop the Hot 100 and Streaming Songs charts for a second week with 114,000 copies sold and 61.2 million streams, though descended to number two on the Digital Songs chart when another Reputation track titled "... Ready for It? '' debuted at number one with 135,000 digital copies sold and opened at number four on the Hot 100. As a result, Swift became the first artist to have two tracks sell over 100,000 digital copies in the nation within a week since Sheeran with "Shape of You '' and "Castle on the Hill ''. It also became the first time a female had two songs within the top five of the Hot 100 since 2015 when Swift 's previous tracks "Shake It Off '' and "Blank Space '' respectively were at numbers four and five on the chart.
In the United Kingdom, "Look What You Made Me Do '' sold 20,000 copies and was streamed 2.4 million times in less than a week. The song debuted at the top the UK Singles Chart on September 1, 2017 - for the week ending date September 7, 2017 - with opening sales of 30,000 copies and 5.3 million streams within the week and becoming Swift 's first chart - topping song in Britain. After two weeks at the top spot, it was displaced by Sam Smith 's "Too Good at Goodbyes ''.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' also opened at number one in Australia, becoming her fifth track to top the ARIA Charts. It spent another week at the nation 's summit before "Too Good at Goodbyes '' took the top position there as well. The song has been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units. After debuting at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, "Look What You Made Me Do '' was also certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 80,000 units on September 14, 2017. It additionally topped the charts in the Czech Republic, Ireland, New Zealand, and Slovakia.
In the Philippines, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number 7 spot on the BillboardPH Hot 100 on its first week. A week later, it soared to the number 1 spot, ending the 10 - week reign of "Despacito '' by Luis Fonsi & Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber.
The official music video premiered on August 27, 2017 at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards. The song 's music video broke the record for most - watched video within 24 hours by achieving 43.2 million views on YouTube in its first day. It topped the 27.7 million Vevo views Adele 's "Hello '' attracted in that timeframe, as well as the 36 million YouTube views of Psy 's "Gentleman '' video. It was viewed at an average 30,000 times per minute in its first 24 hours, with views reaching over 3 million views per hour.
Preparation for the music video began in January, while the shooting took place in May. The dance was choreographed by Tyce Diorio, who had worked with Swift on "Shake It Off '' before. Swift 's make - up as a zombie was done by Bill Corso. Post-production of the video lasted until the morning of its release. A 20 - second music video teaser was released on Good Morning America on August 25. The teaser, upon release, was criticized on Twitter due to similarities to Beyoncé 's "Formation '' video. Kahn turned to Twitter to dismiss the claims, stated that he had "worked with Beyoncé a few times '', and that the music video is not in the way of her "art space ''. Kahn also remarked that the video is derived from "(an) obscene K Pop video made in (a) North Korean prison in 2006 '', referencing to when he was accused for plagiarizing 2NE1 's "Come Back Home '' video with "Bad Blood '' in 2015.
It was also revealed that the diamonds used in a scene were authentic. The diamonds, loaned from celebrity jeweler Neil Lane, were said to be worth over $10 million, hence triggering tight security measures. As of September 26, 2017, the video has over 465 million views. The video is the 36th most liked video on YouTube
The video begins with a zombie Swift crawling out of a grave, where the headstone reads "Here Lies Taylor Swift 's reputation '', and digging another grave for herself. The next scene shows Swift in a bathtub filled with diamonds. She is then seen seated on a throne while snakes surround her and serve tea. Swift later crashes her car on a post and sings the song 's chorus holding a Grammy as the paparazzi take photos. She is also seen swinging inside a cage, robbing a bank, and leading a motorcycle gang. Afterwards, she gathers a group of women at "Squad U '' and dances with a group of men in another room. At the end of the video, various iterations of Swift 's public image bicker with one another, describing each other as "so fake '' and "playing the victim '', ending with one saying "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative '' after which the other iterations yell at her to "shut up! '' in unison, while the version of Swift in the background watches in silence.
The video contains numerous hidden meanings and references. In the opening scene, there is a subtle "Nils Sjöberg '' tombstone shown when Swift is digging up a grave, referencing the pseudonym she used for a songwriting credit on Calvin Harris ' 2016 single "This Is What You Came For ''. Similarly, Swift -- masked as a cadaveric version of herself in the "Out of the Woods '' music video -- was shown digging a grave for herself in a 2014 Met Gala gown, an event that characterized her first public appearance with short hair. A single dollar bill in the bathtub full of diamonds that she bathes in was also speculated to symbolize the dollar she was awarded for winning a sexual assault trial. Interpretations for the bathtub scene were contrasting. Some believe that it is a response to media statement teasing that she "cries in a marble bathtub surrounded by pearls '', while others viewed it as a mockery to Kim Kardashian 's 2016 gunpoint robbery.
In a separate scene, Swift is shown sitting atop a golden throne, where a carving of a phrase "Et tu, Brute? '' could be seen on the armrest, a reference to Shakespeare 's drama Julius Caesar. Swift 's infamous title as a "snake '' during her hiatus was also represented when a snake slithers onto the throne to serve Swift some tea. When Swift 's car crashes, some speculated that it may be a jab at Katy Perry as Swift 's hairdo is similar to Perry 's in the scene. The sports car is also reminiscent of a car in Perry 's "Waking Up in Vegas '' video. She is also holding a Grammy Award in the scene, a possible reference to the fact that Perry has never won any Grammys despite multiple nominations. Swift 's withdrawal of her entire music catalog from streaming services were hinted when Swift and her crew walked out of a streaming company in the video.
Swift gathering at "Squad U '' was also said to be a reply to the media dubbing her close friends as a "squad ''. During the second chorus, Swift can be seen with eight men, each of which revealed an "I Heart TS '' crop top after unbuttoning a jacket. This scene is an apparent tribute to her ex-boyfriend Tom Hiddleston, who was seen wearing an "I Heart TS '' tank top when they were a couple. The eight backup dancers may also have been a possible reference to the idea that Swift has had eight ex-boyfriends during her career. Swift was also seen standing on a pile of her other iterations, reiterating the idea that she is leaving her past self behind. The shirt that an iteration of Swift wore in the "You Belong with Me '' video was also different, with her close friends ' names scribbled on it this time.
In June 2016, discussing the relationship between her and Kanye West after West 's song "Famous '', Swift wrote on Instagram, "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative. '' The same line is spoken by one of Swift 's iterations at the end of the video. She is wearing the same outfit Swift had worn during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, when West interrupted her award - winning speech for Best Female Video.
ABC used the song in a promotional video for its Shonda Rhimes ' Thursday line - up an hour after its release. Sister network ESPN used it in its college football telecast advertisements for the season opening game between Alabama and Florida State, which was aired on ABC on September 2.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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which level of the court system hears the most cases in a year | Courts of England and Wales - wikipedia
The Judiciary of England and Wales within Her Majesty 's Courts and Tribunals Service (2) are the civil and criminal courts responsible for the administration of justice in England and Wales.
The United Kingdom does not have a single unified legal system -- England and Wales has one system, Scotland another, and Northern Ireland a third. There are exceptions to this rule; for example in immigration law, the Asylum and Immigration Tribunal 's jurisdiction covers the whole of the United Kingdom, while in employment law there is a single system of employment tribunals for England, Wales, and Scotland but not Northern Ireland. Additionally, the Military Court Service has jurisdiction over all members of the armed forces of the United Kingdom in relation to offences against military law.
The Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Crown Court, the County Court, and the magistrates ' courts are administered by Her Majesty 's Courts and Tribunals Service, an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice.
The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court in almost all cases in England and Wales. Before the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 this role was held by the House of Lords. The Supreme Court is also the highest court of appeal for devolution matters, a role previously held by the Privy Council.
The Senior Courts of England and Wales were originally created by the Judicature Acts as the "Supreme Court of Judicature ''. It was renamed the "Supreme Court of England and Wales '' in 1981, and again to the "Senior Courts of England and Wales '' by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (to distinguish it from the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom). It consists of the following courts:
The Court of Appeal deals only with appeals from other courts or tribunals. The Court of Appeal consists of two divisions: the Civil Division hears appeals from the High Court and County Court and certain superior tribunals, while the Criminal Division may only hear appeals from the Crown Court connected with a trial on indictment (i.e., for a serious offence). Its decisions are binding on all courts, including itself, apart from the Supreme Court.
The High Court of Justice functions both as a civil court of first instance and a criminal and civil appellate court for cases from the subordinate courts. It consists of three divisions: the Queen 's Bench, the Chancery and the Family divisions. The divisions of the High Court are not separate courts, but have somewhat separate procedures and practices adapted to their purposes. Although particular kinds of cases will be assigned to each division depending on their subject matter, each division may exercise the jurisdiction of the High Court. However, beginning proceedings in the wrong division may result in a costs penalty.
The formation of The Business and Property Courts of England & Wales within the High Court was announced in March 2017, and launched in London in July 2017. The courts would in future administer the specialist jurisdictions that had previously been administered in the Queen 's Bench Division under the names of the Admiralty Court, the Commercial Court, and the Technology & Construction Court, and under the Chancery Division 's lists for Business, Company and Insolvency, Competition, Intellectual Property, Revenue, and Trusts and Probate.
The Crown Court is a criminal court of both original and appellate jurisdiction which in addition handles a limited amount of civil business both at first instance and on appeal. It was established by the Courts Act 1971. It replaced the assizes whereby High Court judges would periodically travel around the country hearing cases, and quarter sessions which were periodic county courts. The Old Bailey is the unofficial name of London 's most famous criminal court, which is now part of the Crown Court. Its official name is the "Central Criminal Court ''. The Crown Court also hears appeals from magistrates ' courts.
The Crown Court is the only court in England and Wales that has the jurisdiction to try cases on indictment and when exercising such a role it is a superior court in that its judgments can not be reviewed by the Administrative Court of the Queen 's Bench Division of the High Court.
The Crown Court is an inferior court in respect of the other work it undertakes, viz. inter alia, appeals from the magistrates ' courts and other tribunals.
The most common subordinate courts in England and Wales are
The County Court is a national court with a purely civil jurisdiction, sitting in 92 different towns and cities across England and Wales. As from 22 April 2014 there has been a single County Court for England and Wales where previously there was a series of courts. The County Court is so named after the ancient sheriff 's court held in each county, but it has no connection with it nor indeed was the jurisdiction of the county courts based on counties.
A County Court hearing is presided over by either a district or circuit judge and, except in a small minority of cases such as civil actions against the police, the judge sits alone as trier of fact and law without assistance from a jury. The old county courts ' divorce and family jurisdiction was passed on 22 April 2014 to the single Family Court.
Until unification in 2014, county courts were local courts in the sense that each one has an area over which certain kinds of jurisdiction, for example, proceedings for possession of land had to be started in the county court in whose district the property lay, but in general any county court in England and Wales could hear any action and claims were frequently transferred from court to court.
The Family Court is a national Court and has jurisdiction to hear all Family cases in England and Wales. Local jurisdictional boundaries have disappeared and there is only one single jurisdiction for all family proceedings. The Family Court sits at many locations in England and Wales, and it usually sits at the County Courts and Magistrates Courts where family work was previously heard by county courts or family proceedings courts. Family Court judges are now more categories of judges who will be eligible to hear family cases including lay magistrates, district judges, circuit judges, and High Court judges from the Family Division.
Magistrates ' courts are the criminal court where all criminal proceedings are commenced. They are presided over by a bench of lay magistrates (a.k.a. justices of the peace), or a legally trained district judge (formerly known as a stipendiary magistrate), sitting in each local justice area. There are no juries. They have jurisdiction to hear minor criminal cases, as well as certain licensing appeals. Youth courts are run on similar lines to adult magistrates ' courts but deal with offenders aged between the ages of ten and seventeen inclusive. Youth courts are presided over by a specially trained subset of experienced adult magistrates or a district judge. Youth magistrates have a wider catalogue of disposals available to them for dealing with young offenders and often hear more serious cases against youths (which for adults would normally be dealt with by the Crown Court). Youth courts are not open to the public for observation, only the parties involved in a case being admitted.
Prior to the enactment of the Crime and Courts Act 2013, some magistrates ' courts were also a family proceedings court and heard Family law cases including care cases and they had the power to make adoption orders. Family cases is no longer heard by the Magistrates ' courts, and instead be heard by the single Family Court established by the 2013 Act.
In addition, there are many other specialist courts. These are often described as "tribunals '' rather than courts, but the difference in name is meaningless. For example, an Employment Tribunal is an inferior court of record for the purposes of the law of contempt of court. In many cases there is a statutory right of appeal from a tribunal to a particular court or specially constituted appellate tribunal. In the absence of a specific appeals court, the only remedy from a decision of a tribunal may be via judicial review to the High Court, which will often be more limited in scope than an appeal.
Examples of specialist courts are:
The post of coroner is ancient, dating from the 11th century, and coroners still sit today to determine the cause of death in situations where people have died in potentially suspicious circumstances, abroad, or in the care of central authority. They also have jurisdiction over treasure trove.
The Church of England is an established church (i.e. it is the official state church) and formerly had exclusive or non-exclusive subject matter jurisdiction over marriage and divorce cases, testamentary matters, defamation, and several other areas. Since the 19th century, the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts has narrowed principally to matters of church property and errant clergy. Each Diocese has a ' Chancellor ' (either a barrister or solicitor) who acts as a judge in the consistory court of the diocese. The Bishop no longer has the right to preside personally, as he formerly did. Appeals lie to the Arches Court (in Canterbury) and the Chancery Court (in York), and from them to the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved (CECR). From the CECR appeals lie to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
There are two kinds of criminal trial: ' summary ' and ' on indictment '. For an adult, summary trials take place in a magistrates ' court, while trials on indictment take place in the Crown Court. Despite the possibility of two venues for trial, almost all criminal cases, however serious, commence in a magistrates ' courts. It is possible to start a trial for an indictable offence by a voluntary bill of indictment, and go directly to the Crown Court, but that would be unusual.
A criminal case that starts in the magistrates ' courts may begin either by the defendant being charged and then being brought forcibly before magistrates, or by summons to the defendant to appear on a certain day before the magistrates. A summons is usually confined to very minor offences. The hearing (of the charge or summons) before the magistrates is known as a "first appearance ''.
Offences are of three categories: indictable only, summary and either way. Indictable only offences such as murder and rape must be tried on indictment in the Crown Court. On first appearance, the magistrates must immediately refer the defendant to the Crown Court for trial, their only role being to decide whether to remand the defendant on bail or in custody.
Summary offences, such as most motoring offences, are much less serious and most must be tried in a magistrates ' court, although a few may be sent for trial to the Crown Court along with other offences that may be tried there (for example assault). The vast majority of offences are also concluded in a magistrates ' court (over 90 % of cases).
Either way offences are intermediate offences such as theft and, with the exception of low - value criminal damage, may be tried either summarily (by magistrates) or by judge and jury in the Crown Court. If the magistrates consider that an either way offence is too serious for them to deal with, they may "decline jurisdiction '' which means that the defendant will have to appear in the Crown Court. Conversely, even if the magistrates accept jurisdiction, an adult defendant has a right to compel a jury trial. Defendants under eighteen years of age do not have this right and will be tried in a youth court (similar to a magistrates ' court) unless the case is homicide or else is particularly serious.
A magistrates ' court is made up in two ways. Either a group (known as a ' bench ') of ' lay magistrates ', or a district judge, will hear the case. A lay bench must consist of at least three magistrates. Alternatively, a case may be heard by a district judge (formerly known as a stipendiary magistrate), who will be a qualified lawyer and will sit singly, but has the same powers as a lay bench. District judges usually sit in the more busy courts in cities or hear complex cases (e.g. extradition). Magistrates have limited sentencing powers.
In the Crown Court, the case is tried before a recorder (part - time judge), circuit judge or a High Court judge, and a jury. The seniority of the judge depends on the seriousness and complexity of the case. The jury is involved only if the defendant enters a plea of "not guilty ''.
From the magistrates ' courts, an appeal can be taken to the Crown Court on matters of fact and law or, on matters of law alone, to the Administrative Court of Queen 's Bench Division of the High Court, which is called an appeal "by way of case stated ''. The magistrates ' courts are also inferior courts and are therefore subject to judicial review.
The Crown Court is more complicated. When it is hearing a trial on indictment (a jury trial) it is treated as a superior court, which means that its decisions may not be judicially reviewed and appeal lies only to the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal.
In other circumstances (for example when acting as an appeal court from a magistrates ' court) the Crown Court is an inferior court, which means that it is subject to judicial review. When acting as an inferior court, appeals by way of case stated on matters of law may be made to the Administrative Court.
Appeals from the High Court, in criminal matters, lie only to the Supreme Court. Appeals from the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) may also only be taken to the Supreme Court.
Appeals to the Supreme Court are unusual in that the court from which appeal is being made (either the High Court or the Court of Appeal) must certify that there is a point of law of general public importance. This additional control mechanism is not present with civil appeals and means that far fewer criminal appeals are heard by the Supreme Court.
Under the Civil Procedure Rules 1998, civil claims under £ 10,000 are dealt with in a county court under the ' small claims track '. This is generally known to the lay public as ' small claims court ' but does not exist as a separate court. Claims between £ 10,000 and £ 25,000 that are capable of being tried within one day are allocated to the ' fast track ' and claims over £ 25,000 to the ' multi track '. These ' tracks ' are labels for the use of the court system -- the actual cases will be heard in a county court or the High Court depending on their value.
For personal injury, defamation cases and in some landlord and tenant disputes the thresholds for each track have different values.
For nearly 300 years, from the time of the Norman Conquest until 1362, French was the language of the courts, rather than English. Until the twentieth century, many legal terms were still expressed in Latin. The Supreme Court of Judicature was formed in 1875 from the merging of various courts then existing, such as the
Other historical courts include:
The Courts of Session of the County Palatine of Chester and the Principality of Wales were abolished section 14 of by the Law Terms Act 1830.
The Court of the County of Durham was abolished by section 2 of the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836.
The Stannary Court was abolished by the Stannaries Court (Abolition) Act 1896.
The following courts were merged into the High Court by section 41 of the Courts Act 1971:
Section 42 replaced the Mayor 's and City of London Court with a county court of the same name.
Section 43 abolished:
Section 221 of the Local Government Act 1972 abolished the borough civil courts listed in Schedule 28 to that Act.
Part II of Schedule 4 to the Administration of Justice Act 1977 curtailed the jurisdiction of certain other anomalous local courts.
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way down in new orleans house of the rising sun | The House of the Rising Sun - wikipedia
"The House of the Rising Sun '' is a traditional folk song, sometimes called "Rising Sun Blues ''. It tells of a life gone wrong in New Orleans; many versions also urge a sibling or parents and children to avoid the same fate. The most successful commercial version, recorded in 1964 by British rock group The Animals, was a number one hit on the UK Singles Chart and also in the United States and France. As a traditional folk song recorded by an electric rock band, it has been described as the "first folk rock hit ''.
Like many classic folk ballads, "The House of the Rising Sun '' is of uncertain authorship. Musicologists say that it is based on the tradition of broadside ballads, and thematically it has some resemblance to the 16th - century ballad The Unfortunate Rake. According to Alan Lomax, "Rising Sun '' was used as the name of a bawdy house in two traditional English songs, and it was also a name for English pubs. He further suggested that the melody might be related to a 17th - century folk song, "Lord Barnard and Little Musgrave '', also known as "Matty Groves '', but a survey by Bertrand Bronson showed no clear relationship between the two songs. Lomax proposed that the location of the house was then relocated from England to New Orleans by white southern performers. However, Vance Randolph proposed an alternative French origin, the "rising sun '' referring to the decorative use of the sunburst insignia dating to the time of Louis XIV, which was brought to North America by French immigrants.
"House of Rising Sun '' was said to have been known by miners in 1905. The oldest published version of the lyrics is that printed by Robert Winslow Gordon in 1925, in a column "Old Songs That Men Have Sung '' in Adventure magazine. The lyrics of that version begin:
There is a house in New Orleans, it 's called the Rising Sun
It 's been the ruin of many a poor girl
Great God, and I for one
The oldest known recording of the song, under the title "Rising Sun Blues '', is by Appalachian artists Clarence "Tom '' Ashley and Gwen Foster, who recorded it in 1928. Ashley said he had learned it from his grandfather, Enoch Ashley. Roy Acuff, an "early - day friend and apprentice '' of Ashley 's, learned it from him and recorded it as "Rising Sun '' on November 3, 1938. Several older blues recordings of songs with similar titles are unrelated, for example, "Rising Sun Blues '' by Ivy Smith (1927) and "The Risin ' Sun '' by Texas Alexander (1928).
The song was among those collected by folklorist Alan Lomax, who, along with his father, was a curator of the Archive of American Folk Song for the Library of Congress. On an expedition with his wife to eastern Kentucky, Lomax set up his recording equipment in Middlesboro, Kentucky, in the house of the singer and activist Tilman Cadle. In 1937, he recorded a performance by Georgia Turner, the 16 - year - old daughter of a local miner. He called it The Rising Sun Blues. Lomax later recorded a different version sung by Bert Martin and a third sung by Daw Henson, both eastern Kentucky singers. In his 1941 songbook Our Singing Country, Lomax credits the lyrics to Turner, with reference to Martin 's version.
In 1941, Woody Guthrie recorded a version. A recording made in 1947 by Libby Holman and Josh White (who is also credited with having written new words and music that have subsequently been popularized in the versions made by many other later artists) was released by Mercury Records in 1950. White learned the song from a "white hillbilly singer '', who might have been Ashley, in North Carolina in 1923 -- 1924. Lead Belly recorded two versions of the song, in February 1944 and in October 1948, called "In New Orleans '' and "The House of the Rising Sun '', respectively; the latter was recorded in sessions that were later used on the album Lead Belly 's Last Sessions (1994, Smithsonian Folkways).
In 1957, Glenn Yarbrough recorded the song for Elektra Records. The song is also credited to Ronnie Gilbert on an album by The Weavers released in the late 1940s or early 1950s. Pete Seeger released a version on Folkways Records in 1958, which was re-released by Smithsonian Folkways in 2009. Andy Griffith recorded the song on his 1959 album Andy Griffith Shouts the Blues and Old Timey Songs. In 1960, Miriam Makeba recorded the song on her eponymous RCA album.
Joan Baez recorded it in 1960 on her self - titled debut album; she frequently performed the song in concert throughout her career. Nina Simone recorded her first version for the album Nina at the Village Gate in 1962. Tim Hardin sang it on This is Tim Hardin, recorded in 1964 but not released until 1967. The Chambers Brothers recorded a version on Feelin ' the Blues, released on Vault records (1970).
In late 1961, Bob Dylan recorded the song for his debut album, released in March 1962. That release had no songwriting credit, but the liner notes indicate that Dylan learned this version of the song from Dave Van Ronk. In an interview for the documentary No Direction Home, Van Ronk said that he was intending to record the song and that Dylan copied his version. Van Ronk recorded it soon thereafter for the album Just Dave Van Ronk.
I had learned it sometime in the 1950s, from a recording by Hally Wood, the Texas singer and collector, who had got it from an Alan Lomax field recording by a Kentucky woman named Georgia Turner. I put a different spin on it by altering the chords and using a bass line that descended in half steps -- a common enough progression in jazz, but unusual among folksingers. By the early 1960s, the song had become one of my signature pieces, and I could hardly get off the stage without doing it.
Then, one evening in 1962, I was sitting at my usual table in the back of the Kettle of Fish, and Dylan came slouching in. He had been up at the Columbia studios with John Hammond, doing his first album. He was being very mysterioso about the whole thing, and nobody I knew had been to any of the sessions except Suze, his lady. I pumped him for information, but he was vague. Everything was going fine and, "Hey, would it be okay for me to record your arrangement of ' House of the Rising Sun? ' '' Oh, shit. "Jeez, Bobby, I 'm going into the studio to do that myself in a few weeks. Ca n't it wait until your next album? '' A long pause. "Uh - oh. '' I did not like the sound of that. "What exactly do you mean, ' Uh - oh '? '' "Well, '' he said sheepishly, "I 've already recorded it. ''
An interview with Eric Burdon revealed that he first heard the song in a club in Newcastle, England, where it was sung by the Northumbrian folk singer Johnny Handle. The Animals were on tour with Chuck Berry and chose it because they wanted something distinctive to sing.
The Animals ' version transposes the narrative of the song from the point of view of a woman led into a life of degradation to that of a man whose father was now a gambler and drunkard, rather than the sweetheart in earlier versions.
The Animals had begun featuring their arrangement of "House of the Rising Sun '' during a joint concert tour with Chuck Berry, using it as their closing number to differentiate themselves from acts that always closed with straight rockers. It got a tremendous reaction from the audience, convincing initially reluctant producer Mickie Most that it had hit potential, and between tour stops the group went to a small recording studio on Kingsway in London to capture it.
The song was recorded in just one take on May 18, 1964, and it starts with a now - famous electric guitar A minor chord arpeggio by Hilton Valentine. According to Valentine, he simply took Dylan 's chord sequence and played it as an arpeggio. The performance takes off with Burdon 's lead vocal, which has been variously described as "howling, '' "soulful, '' and as "... deep and gravelly as the north - east English coal town of Newcastle that spawned him. '' Finally, Alan Price 's pulsating organ part (played on a Vox Continental) completes the sound. Burdon later said, "We were looking for a song that would grab people 's attention. ''
As recorded, "House of the Rising Sun '' ran four and a half minutes, regarded as far too long for a pop single at the time. Producer Most, who initially did not really want to record the song at all, said that on this occasion: "Everything was in the right place... It only took 15 minutes to make so I ca n't take much credit for the production ''. He was nonetheless now a believer and declared it a single at its full length, saying "We 're in a microgroove world now, we will release it. ''
In the United States, however, the original single (MGM 13264) was a 2: 58 version. The MGM Golden Circle reissue (KGC 179) featured the unedited 4: 29 version, although the record label gives the edited playing time of 2: 58. The edited version was included on the group 's 1964 U.S. debut album The Animals, while the full version was later included on their best - selling 1966 U.S. greatest hits album, The Best of the Animals. However, the very first American release of the full - length version was on a 1965 album of various groups entitled Mickie Most Presents British Go - Go (MGM SE - 4306), the cover of which, under the listing of "House of the Rising Sun '', described it as the "Original uncut version ''. Americans could also hear the complete version in the movie Go Go Mania in the spring of 1965.
"House of the Rising Sun '' was not included on any of the group 's British albums, but it was reissued as a single twice in subsequent decades, charting both times, reaching number 25 in 1972 and number 11 in 1982, using the famous Wittelsbach organ.
The Animals version was played in 6 / 8 meter, unlike the 4 / 4 of most earlier versions. Arranging credit went only to Alan Price. According to Burdon, this was simply because there was insufficient room to name all five band members on the record label, and Alan Price 's first name was first alphabetically. However, this meant that only Price received songwriter 's royalties for the hit, a fact that has caused bitterness ever since, especially with Valentine.
"House of the Rising Sun '' was a trans - Atlantic hit: after reaching the top of the UK pop singles chart in July 1964, it topped the U.S. pop singles chart two months later, on September 5, 1964, where it stayed for three weeks, and became the first British Invasion number one unconnected with The Beatles. It was the group 's breakthrough hit in both countries and became their signature song. The song was also a hit in a number of other countries, including Ireland, where it reached No. 10 and dropped off the charts one week later.
According to John Steel, Bob Dylan told him that when he first heard The Animals ' version on his car radio, he stopped to listen, "jumped out of his car '' and "banged on the bonnet '', inspiring him to go electric. Dave Van Ronk said that The Animals ' version -- like Dylan 's version before it -- was based on his arrangement of the song.
Dave Marsh described the Animals ' take on "The House of the Rising Sun '' as "... the first folk - rock hit, '' sounding "... as if they 'd connected the ancient tune to a live wire. '' Writer Ralph McLean of the BBC agreed that "It was arguably the first folk rock tune, '' calling it "a revolutionary single '', after which "the face of modern music was changed forever. ''
The Animals ' rendition of the song is recognized as one of the classics of British pop music. Writer Lester Bangs labeled it "a brilliant rearrangement '' and "a new standard rendition of an old standard composition. '' It ranked number 122 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of "500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. It is also one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll ''. The RIAA ranked it number 240 on their list of "Songs of the Century ''. In 1999 it received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award. It has long since become a staple of oldies and classic rock radio formats. A 2005 Channel Five poll ranked it as Britain 's fourth - favorite number one song.
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In 1969, the Detroit band Frijid Pink recorded a psychedelic version of "House of the Rising Sun '', which became an international hit in 1970. Their version is in 4 / 4 time (like Van Ronk 's and most earlier versions, rather than the 6 / 8 used by the Animals) and was driven by Gary Ray Thompson 's distorted guitar with fuzz and wah - wah effects, set against the frenetic drumming of Richard Stevers.
According to Stevers, the Frijid Pink recording of "House of the Rising Sun '' was done impromptu when there was time left over at a recording session booked for the group at the Tera Shirma Recording Studios. Stevers later played snippets from that session 's tracks for Paul Cannon, the music director of Detroit 's premier rock radio station, WKNR; the two knew each other, as Cannon was the father of Stevers 's girlfriend. Stevers recalled, "we went through the whole thing and (and Cannon) did n't say much. Then ' House (of the Rising Sun) ' started up and I immediately turned it off because it was n't anything I really wanted him to hear. '' However, Cannon was intrigued and had Stevers play the complete track for him, then advising Stevers, "Tell Parrot (Frijid Pink 's label) to drop "God Gave Me You '' (the group 's current single) and go with this one. ''
Frijid Pink 's "House of the Rising Sun '' debuted at # 29 on the WKNR hit parade dated January 6, 1970, and broke nationally after some seven weeks -- during which the track was re-serviced to radio three times -- with a number 73 debut on the Hot 100 in Billboard dated February 27, 1970 (number 97 Canada 1970 / 01 / 31) with a subsequent three - week ascent to the Top 30 en route to a Hot 100 peak of number 7 on April 4, 1970. The certification of the Frijid Pink single "House of the Rising Sun '' as a gold record for domestic sales of one million units was reported in the issue of Billboard dated May 30, 1970.
The Frijid Pink single of "House of the Rising Sun '' would give the song its most widespread international success, with Top Ten status reached in Austria (number 3), Belgium (Flemish region, number 6), Canada (number 3), Denmark (number 3), Germany (two weeks at number 1), Greece, Ireland (number 7), Israel (number 4), the Netherlands (number 3), Norway (seven weeks at number 1), Poland (number 2), Sweden (number 6), Switzerland (number 2), and the UK (number 4). The single also charted in Australia (number 14), France (number 36), and Italy (number 54).
The song has twice been a hit record on Billboard 's country chart.
In 1973, Jody Miller 's version reached number 29 on the country charts and number 41 on the adult contemporary chart.
Recorded by Brian Johnson 's band Geordie for their 1974 album Do n't Be Fooled By The Name, Johnson went on to become vocalist for AC / DC.
The song was recorded as an electric but fairly mellow instrumental on the Deep Purple tribute album recorded by Thin Lizzy circa 1972, Funky Junction Play a Tribute to Deep Purple. Here it was simply called "Rising Sun '', and credited to Leo Muller (producer), the German businessman and label - owner.
In September 1981, Dolly Parton released a cover of the song as the third single from her album 9 to 5 and Odd Jobs. Like Miller 's earlier country hit, Parton 's remake returns the song to its original lyric of being about a fallen woman. The Parton version makes it quite blunt, with a few new lyric lines that were written by Parton. Parton 's remake reached number 14 on the U.S. country singles chart and crossed over to the pop charts, where it reached number 77 on the Billboard Hot 100; it also reached number 30 on the U.S. adult contemporary chart. Parton has occasionally performed the song live, including on her 1987 -- 88 television show, in an episode taped in New Orleans.
The American heavy metal band Five Finger Death Punch released a cover of "House of the Rising Sun '' on their fifth studio album, The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell, Volume 2, which was later released as the album 's second single and the band 's third single of the Wrong Side era. The references to New Orleans have been changed to Sin City, a reference to the negative effects of gambling in Las Vegas. The song was a top ten hit on mainstream rock radio in the United States. It was also featured in the video game Guitar Hero Live.
The song was covered in French by Johnny Hallyday. His version (titled "Le Pénitencier '') was released in October 1964 and spent one week at no. 1 on the singles sales chart in France (from October 17 to 23). In Wallonia (French Belgium) his single spent 28 weeks on the chart, also peaking at number 1.
He performed the song during his 2014 USA tour.
Various places in New Orleans have been proposed as the inspiration for the song, with varying plausibility. The phrase "House of the Rising Sun '' is often understood as a euphemism for a brothel, but it is not known whether the house described in the lyrics was an actual or a fictitious place. One theory is that the song is about a woman who killed her father, an alcoholic gambler who had beaten his wife. Therefore, the House of the Rising Sun may be a jailhouse, from which one would be the first person to see the sunrise (an idea supported by the lyric mentioning "a ball and chain, '' though that phrase has been slang for marital relationships for at least as long as the song has been in print). Because women often sang the song, another theory is that the House of the Rising Sun was where prostitutes were detained while being treated for syphilis. Since cures with mercury were ineffective, going back was very unlikely.
Only three candidates that use the name Rising Sun have historical evidence -- from old city directories and newspapers. The first was a small, short - lived hotel on Conti Street in the French Quarter in the 1820s. It burned down in 1822. An excavation and document search in early 2005 found evidence that supported this claim, including an advertisement with language that may have euphemistically indicated prostitution. Archaeologists found an unusually large number of pots of rouge and cosmetics at the site.
The second possibility was a "Rising Sun Hall '' listed in late 19th - century city directories on what is now Cherokee Street, at the riverfront in the uptown Carrollton neighborhood, which seems to have been a building owned and used for meetings of a Social Aid and Pleasure Club, commonly rented out for dances and functions. It also is no longer extant. Definite links to gambling or prostitution (if any) are undocumented for either of these buildings.
A third was "The Rising Sun '', which advertised in several local newspapers in the 1860s, located on what is now the lake side of the 100 block of Decatur Street. In various advertisements it is described as a "Restaurant, '' a "Lager Beer Salon, '' and a "Coffee House. '' At the time, New Orleans businesses listed as coffee houses often also sold alcoholic beverages.
Dave Van Ronk claimed in his biography "The Mayor of MacDougal Street '' that at one time when he was in New Orleans someone approached him with a number of old photos of the city from the turn of the century. Among them "was a picture of a foreboading stone doorway with a carving on the lintel of a stylized rising sun... It was the Orleans Parish women 's prison. ''
Bizarre New Orleans, a guidebook on New Orleans, asserts that the real house was at 1614 Esplanade Avenue between 1862 and 1874 and was said to have been named after its madam, Marianne LeSoleil Levant, whose surname means "the rising sun '' in French.
Another guidebook, Offbeat New Orleans, asserts that the real House of the Rising Sun was at 826 -- 830 St. Louis St. between 1862 and 1874, also purportedly named for Marianne LeSoleil Levant. The building still stands, and Eric Burdon, after visiting at the behest of the owner, said, "The house was talking to me. ''
There is a contemporary B&B called the House of the Rising Sun, decorated in brothel style. The owners are fans of the song, but there is no connection with the original place.
Not everyone believes that the house actually existed. Pamela D. Arceneaux, a research librarian at the Williams Research Center in New Orleans, is quoted as saying:
I have made a study of the history of prostitution in New Orleans and have often confronted the perennial question, "Where is the House of the Rising Sun? '' without finding a satisfactory answer. Although it is generally assumed that the singer is referring to a brothel, there is actually nothing in the lyrics that indicate that the "house '' is a brothel. Many knowledgeable persons have conjectured that a better case can be made for either a gambling hall or a prison; however, to paraphrase Freud: sometimes lyrics are just lyrics.
An alternative view proposed by Drew Maloney is that the ' House of the Rising Sun ' refers to a place of worship such as a Masonic Temple, Christian Church or perhaps a Pagan Roman Temple.
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who has attended all three round table conference | Round Table conferences (India) - wikipedia
The three Round Table Conferences of 1930 -- 32 were a series of conferences organized by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were conducted as per the recommendation of Jinnah to Lord Irwin viceroy and his friend Ramsay MacDonald then Prime Minister of Great Britain, and by the report submitted by the Simon Commission in May 1930. Demands for swaraj, or self - rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards dominion status. However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British political parties that the Conferences would not resolve.
The Round Table Conference officially inaugurated by His Majesty George V on November 12, 1930 in Royal Gallery House of Lords at London and chaired by the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald.
The three British political parties were represented by sixteen delegates. There were fifty - eight political leaders from British India and sixteen delegates from the princely states. In total 89 delegates from India attended the Conference. However, the Indian National Congress, along with Indian business leaders, kept away from the conference. Many of them were in jail for their participation in Civil Disobedience Movement.
The conference started with 6 plenary meetings where delegates put forward their issues 9 sub committees were formed to deal with several different matters including federal structure, provincial constitution, province of Sindh and NWFP, defense services and minorities e.t.c. These were followed by discussions on the reports of the sub-committees on Federal Structure, Provincial Constitution, Minorities, Burma, North West Frontier Province, Franchise, Defense services and Sindh. These were followed by 2 more plenary meetings and a final concluding session. It was difficult for progress to be made in the absence of the Indian National Congress but some advances were made.
The idea of an All - India Federation was moved to the centre of discussion by Tej Bahadur Sapru. All the groups attending the conference supported this concept. The princely states agreed to the proposed federation provided that their internal sovereignty was guaranteed. The Muslim League also supported the federation as it had always been opposed to a strong Centre. The British agreed that representative government should be introduced on provincial level.
Other important discussions were the responsibility of the executive to the legislature and a separate electorate for the so - called Untouchables as demanded by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
The Congress had boycotted the first conference was requested to come to a settlement by Sapru, M.R. Jayakar and V.S. Srinivasa Sastri. A settlement between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin known as the Gandhi -- Irwin Pact was reached and Gandhi was appointed as the sole representative of the Congress to the second Round Table Conference. By this time, there was a coalition Government in Britain with a Conservative majority. It was held in London in September 1931. The discussion led to the passing of the Government Of India act of 1935
The second session opened on September 7, 1931. There were three major differences between the first and second Round Table Conferences. By the second:
During the Conference, Gandhi could not reach agreement with the Muslims on Muslim representation and safeguards. At the end of the conference Ramsay MacDonald undertook to produce a Communal Award for minority representation, with the provision that any free agreement between the parties could be substituted for his award.
Gandhi took particular exception to the treatment of untouchables as a minority separate from the rest of the Hindu community. He clashed with the leader of depressed classes, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, over this issue: the two eventually resolved the situation with the Poona Pact of 1932.
The third and last session assembled on November 17, 1932. Only forty - six delegates attended since most of the main political figures of India were not present. The Labour Party from Britain and the Indian National Congress refused to attend.
From September 1931 until March 1933, under the supervision of the Secretary of State for India, Sir Samuel Hoare, the proposed reforms took the form reflected in the Government of India Act 1935.
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who scored fastest century for rr in ipl history | List of Indian Premier League centuries - wikipedia
In cricket, a batsman reaches a century when he scores 100 more runs in a single innings. A century is regarded as a landmark score for a batsman, and his number of centuries is generally recorded in his career statistics. The Indian Premier League (IPL) is a professional league for Twenty20 cricket in India, which has been held annually since its first edition in 2008. In the ten seasons played, 48 centuries have been scored by 30 different batsmen. Players from ten of the thirteen franchises have scored centuries; the only franchises that have not had a player score a century for them are Pune Warriors India, Kochi Tuskers Kerala and Gujarat Lions.
The first century in the IPL was scored in the first match on 18 April 2008 at M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore by Brendon McCullum for Kolkata Knight Riders against Royal Challengers Bangalore. The highest score in the competition was made by Chris Gayle, who scored 175 runs not out for Royal Challengers Bangalore against Pune Warriors India. The fastest century in terms of strike rate was scored by Chris Gayle, who scored 100 runs in 30 balls while playing for Royal Challengers Bangalore. The slowest century was scored by Sachin Tendulkar for Mumbai Indians against Kochi Tuskers Kerala. He scored 100 runs not out in 66 balls at a strike rate of 151.51.
The highest number of centuries have been scored by Chris Gayle with 6 centuries, followed by Virat Kohli and Shane Watson who have four centuries each. AB de Villiers and David Warner have three centuries each while Brendon McCullum, Adam Gilchrist, Virender Sehwag, Murali Vijay and Hashim Amla have scored two centuries each. Twelve centuries have been made by players of Royal Challengers Bangalore, which is more than any other team. Kolkata Knight Riders have conceded the highest number of centuries, with seven, followed by Kings XI Punjab who have conceded six centuries.
The first part of this list includes all IPL centuries organised in a chronological order. The second part of the list provides an overview of centuries by IPL seasons, and the third part provides an overview of centuries by IPL teams. Teams are initially listed in alphabetical order. In a single season, the most centuries scored by an individual was 4, by Virat Kohli in 2016.
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what are the most common snakes in florida | List of snakes of Florida - wikipedia
This list of snakes of Florida includes all snakes in the U.S. state of Florida.
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who does alex karev date in grey's anatomy | Alex Karev - wikipedia
Chief of Pediatric Surgery M.D. F.A.C.S.
Alexander "Alex '' Michael Karev, M.D. is a fictional character on the ABC television series Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actor Justin Chambers. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. Karev eventually obtained the position of resident, later becoming a pediatric surgical fellow. His relationships with colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), and George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) formed a focal point of the series.
The character is initially disliked by his fellow interns, and is often accused of being brusque and dismissive with his patients and co-workers. As a resident, Karev 's negative attitude, temper and rudeness has occasionally earned the ire of the attendings, with former neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery requesting him on her service as punishment for his rudeness to her and neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd, amongst others, throwing him out of their service for his inappropriate comments about patients. He demonstrates profound skill for the specialty which prompts praise from Montgomery and contributes to Karev 's interest in pediatric surgery for the rest of the series. As the character developed, he displayed more empathy for patients and is shown to have a gift for connecting with young children, despite his repeated claims to dislike them.
Although Karev and Stevens had an on - off romantic history in previous seasons, it was not until the fifth season that the two formed a lasting relationship. Despite Stevens ' advanced skin cancer, the two marry. Justin Chambers commented on his character 's inability to tell Stevens that he loves her in the beginning of their relationship, saying that Karev has difficulty expressing himself. Though Stevens departs in season 6, series creator Shonda Rhimes has said that she would like the chance to create closure for both Karev and Stevens. Rhimes later retracted her comments and stated that she has no plans to ever re-approach Izzie 's storyline again. In the ninth season, Karev befriends intern Jo Wilson. They begin a relationship in the tenth season until their break - up in the twelfth season. However, they get back together again and marry in the fourteenth season.
His mother had a mental illness, and his father was often absent, as well as often becoming violent towards Alex and his mother. Alex began wrestling in high school, and eventually physically confronted his father - after this, his father did not return. Alex has a younger brother, Aaron, and a younger sister, Amber; they were all placed in foster care for 5 years. Though Aaron and Amber only had a few foster families, Alex went through 17 foster families in 5 years before he reunited with his siblings. It is revealed in later seasons that Aaron was diagnosed with schizophrenia and tried to kill Amber. Alex was present when Aaron had to be committed to a psychiatric ward.
Alex secured a position in the surgical residency program at Seattle Grace Hospital after graduating from the University of Iowa. He initially makes a poor impression on his fellow interns meeting fellow interns Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), and Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) whom he later taunts when he discovers she used to be a lingerie model. After initial disagreements, Alex reveals to Izzie that his father was a heroin addict who used to beat his mother. He became a wrestler so he could defend his mother, and attended university on a wrestling scholarship. He and Izzie begin a friendship. At the end of the first season, George contracts syphilis from Alex through nurse Olivia Harper, causing animosity between the two.
Alex asks Izzie out on a date, but he is thrown by the news that he has failed his medical board exams. Izzie is offended since he pays no attention to her during their date and so informs him that she no longer wants to go out with him. He later freezes during an emergency operation, needing George to take over from him. Alex 's relationship with Izzie is damaged when he experiences erectile dysfunction with her. He goes on to sleep with Olivia again, and is caught by Izzie and they break up. After retaking his exams, Alex manages a pass, and reunites with Izzie after a bomb scare in the hospital. They break up again, however, when Izzie falls for cardiothoracic patient Denny Duquette.
Alex helps Izzie recover from Denny 's death and advances Izzie but Izzie backs away since she is still in the process of getting over her loss and they remain friends. Alex spends a period of time working under neonatal surgeon Dr. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), and though he is later released to work for plastic surgeon Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), he finds his interest returning to Addison 's firm. Addison is attracted to Alex, and the two share a kiss and later sleep together. In the aftermath of a ferry accident, Alex rescues a pregnant woman (Elizabeth Reaser) who awakes with amnesia, and grows close to Alex as he helps her forging an identity for herself, picking out the name Ava. After she gives birth to her daughter, Ava 's memory eventually returns, although she tries to hide it from Alex as she had recently left a bad marriage. He convinces her to tell him her true identity, and she reveals herself to be Rebecca Pope. Alex turns her down after realizing she 's married, feeling that he is not good enough for her.
Rebecca returns and she and Alex sleep together before she goes back to her husband. Alex has a brief relationship with intern Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), but chooses to be with Rebecca when she returns and tells him she is pregnant. After Rebecca attempted suicide, Izzie convinces Alex to admit her for psychiatric help due to Rebecca 's hallucinations of her pregnancy. Alex later breaks down in Izzie 's arms, and the two kiss.
Later in their relationship, Izzie begins hallucinating about Denny, and uncovers the fact she has metastatic melanoma (Stage IV) with an estimated chance of 5 % survival. It is revealed that Izzie 's hallucinations of Denny are, in fact, caused by her tumor. Alex is shocked by the news, but finds the strength to stay by her side. Izzie plans a wedding for Meredith and Derek, but when Derek finds Izzie has another inoperable tumor in her brain, they give the wedding to Izzie and Alex, who marry in front of all their friends. Izzie debates whether or not she should undergo a risky surgery to remove her tumor and Alex supports her, but eventually insists that she should have the surgery. Alex performs CPR on Izzie after she flatlines.
Izzie regains a heartbeat but is soon fired leaving Alex a Dear John letter and no clue as to her whereabouts. She later returns to the hospital and says to Alex, thinking he had a hand in getting her fired, that she could not forgive him for talking to the Chief. Alex says he could not forgive her either for not giving him the benefit of the doubt and leaving without talking to him first. Alex re-kindles an old flame with Lexie. Alex seems to have recently found that his calling is actually Peds and not Plastics as he had decided in the earlier seasons. Seeing Alex 's ability to handle child patients, Dr. Arizona Robbins shows an interest in mentoring him for that specialization. Alex 's brother Aaron comes to Seattle Grace for surgery, and lots of painful memories resurface because of this. Meredith discovers Alex, along with Aaron and their sister Amber, had been in foster care for five years when their mother could not take care of them. Alex is also served with divorce papers from Izzie. Alex is shot in the hospital by a deceased patient 's husband, but survives with the help of Lexie and Mark. While undergoing treatment, he mistakes Lexie for Izzie.
Following the shooting, Lexie has a mental breakdown in front of Alex and he walks away. Dr. Bailey bars Alex from surgery until he has the bullet removed, which he later allows her to do. Alex realizes that his passion lies in Pediatric Surgery. He is further shown to be excellent with children, comforting with a young patient while growing her a new trachea. He immediately gets on the wrong side of new Pediatric attending Stark while Arizona is on leave. Alex then attempts to sleep with virgin April Kepner after visiting his mom in Iowa when his brother was diagnosed schizophrenia. Alex and Meredith perform an emergent surgery on a young boy by themselves during the night shift, dealing with the angry fallout from Stark (who would not answer his pager) but gaining the wordless approval of the Chief. Alex is thrilled when Arizona returns from Africa and hopes she will come to work for the hospital again. In the meantime, Alex falls for the new OBGYN attending, Lucy Fields, and they start a relationship after she kisses him. Alex finds out about Meredith sabotaging her Alzheimer 's clinical trial and rats her out in attempt to get Chief Resident.
The adoption counselor takes away Zola, the child Meredith wanted to adopt. Realizing his mistake, Alex apologizes to Meredith who forgives him shortly after. As the end of the fifth year of residency is near, the surgical residents, including Alex, prepare for their board exams for the different fellowships they plan on joining. Though Alex is late for his exam because he had to treat a patient, he ends up passing. Dr. Webber tells him that Johns Hopkins Hospital, which has the top program in the country, has been very impressed with him and has decided to create a position in pediatrics surgery for him and accepts the position. After finding out his decision, his current boss, Dr. Arizona Robbins, yells at him and takes his place on a plane that later crashes.
Following the rescue of his colleagues, Robbins ' health deteriorates and amputates her leg. He extends his stay at Seattle Grace until a replacement for Robbins is found, but when he learns that the replacement will send the exchange program to UCLA, he decides not to leave. Karev buys Meredith 's old house from her, and Cristina becomes his roommate. Karev forms a friendship with new intern, Jo Wilson that eventually develops into romantic feelings towards each other. Alex admits his love for Jo, and the two kiss and become a couple.
Alex 's estranged father, Jimmy, who he has n't seen in 18 years, is admitted to the ER as a patient. After being discharged, Jimmy plays with his band at a bar, and Alex spends several nights watching his father perform onstage. Unknowing that Alex is his son, Jimmy confides in Alex that he had another family that he has n't seen in years. This made Alex upset and he punched Jimmy at the bar. Once returning home, Alex unleashes his hurt and anger on Jo for having encouraged him to reconnect with his father. His father returns suffering from symptoms of withdrawal and hallucinations of the past where more is revealed about Alex 's childhood. Jimmy tells Alex he knows that he is his son and Alex yells at his dad stating that "I WAS THE DAD ''. His dad later goes into cardiac arrest and is brought into surgery, fate unknown. Alex kisses Jo at April 's wedding wanting to start a family with her. That night his dad died, due to a mistake by intern, Shane Ross, and Alex is upset. He punches Ross and is later comforted by Meredith.
Upon the completion of his fellowship in Pediatric Surgery, Alex is given an offer to work at Dr. Oliver Lebackes ' private practice office, claiming that he will have more flexible hours and "a big fat paycheck ''. Alex takes this offer happily. Robbins is initially angered by this decision and thinks that Alex is choosing money over substance. Eventually she realizes that he has become a wonderful surgeon and that she is happy to see him go. He later discovers that he is n't happy working at the private practice and expresses a desire to return full - time to Grey Sloan. When Cristina leaves for Switzerland, she leaves Alex her share of the board, including her seat.
Alex is fired by Dr. Lebackes when Maggie Pierce accidentally reveals to him that Karev was thinking about leaving the job. Webber recommended Bailey to fill Yang 's board seat after she left, so Bailey and Alex fight over the chair. They both make presentations to the board and eventually Bailey wins, with a unanimous vote in her favor. He is hired back as an attending Peds surgeon and takes over full - time as Arizona pursues a fellowship with Dr. Herman. Alex continues to date Jo and his friendship with Meredith grows stronger than ever, with him taking on the role of her new person. When Derek dies and Meredith runs away, Alex is upset by her leaving without telling him where she went and calls her everyday. Eventually she calls him, tells him she is okay, and to stop calling. When she goes into labor and gives birth to Ellis Shepherd, Alex goes to see her since he is her emergency contact. He brings Meredith and her kids back to her house. She asks to move back in with him in her old house. Alex sells Meredith back the house and he and Jo rent a loft.
Alex and Jo continue to struggle with their relationship. Alex wants to settle down, marry Jo, and have kids. However, Jo continues to resist. When Karev proposes to her, Jo tells him she ca n't marry him, so he breaks up with her. Later, Alex realizes that he misses Jo and gets her back. They seem to be doing well for some time, until Alex brings up marriage again and the two fight, as Jo still continues to argue that she can not marry him. Alex storms out, leaving their relationship uncertain. During Owen and Amelia 's wedding, Alex realizes that even though she wo n't marry him, he loves Jo and goes back to her again. However, when he arrives at their loft, he finds Jo highly intoxicated, wearing nothing but her bra and underwear, and surgical intern, Andrew Deluca lying on top of her. Alex assumes that Deluca was attempting to take advantage of Jo while she was inebriated and is filled with rage. He beats Deluca to a pulp with his bare hands.
Andrew is badly injured, with his face bruised beyond recognition. He is unconscious and on the verge of dying. Alex realizes what he 's done and quickly rushes Deluca to the hospital. There, the doctors call the police as they struggle to save Andrew and discover who did this to him. Alex lies to everyone and says that he found Andrew in this state and brought him to Grey Sloan. However, Ben Warren is suspicious of Karev. Meredith also quickly realizes that Alex was in fact the one who beat Deluca. She covers for him and the two continue to lie to everyone in the hospital about Alex 's actions. Soon, Karev learns that Andrew was n't doing anything wrong and that he had beaten up a good guy. Meredith decides that even though she loves Alex, she needs to turn him in. She goes to Bailey and tells her the truth. But, when the two rush to the police they find Alex being arrested for aggravated assault, as he had turned himself in. He is taken to jail and Meredith bails him out. While they wait for a trial, Bailey suspends Alex as an attending and makes him work in the clinic. Eventually, Jo finally tells Alex that the reason she could n't marry Alex is because she is already married. Her husband is abusive and so she ran away and changed her name to Jo Wilson so that he would n't find her. Alex realizes that when Jo is called to the stand as a witness in the trial, this information about her past and lack of records under the name Jo Wilson may be revealed, and when the information goes public, her husband may find her. To keep her safe, he decides to take the plea deal without a trial, ensuring that he goes to jail for 2 years. However, when Alex tells Meredith this, she begs him not to and tells him that she ca n't lose him too because she 's already lost everyone else important in her life. Alex struggles to decide whether or not to take the plea deal.
Meredith searches for Alex 's case online, to find that the trial had been put off indefinitely. She assumes that he took the plea, and began calling and visiting various local jails to find him. After a full day of searching without finding him, she goes home to sleep, and discovers him sleeping in her bed. He explains he slept there all day. He explains that during his meeting with the D.A. Deluca came in and dropped all charges. Alex was then free to continue being Alex.
After returning to work, Alex and Jo try to ignore each other and eventually build up a tolerance of sorts towards each other. Deluca and Alex continue to be at odds, especially when he becomes closer to Jo. However, nothing comes of it and they both keep their distance. At the end of the season, Alex hires an investigator to look for Jo 's abusive husband. The investigator finds him and tells Alex that he will be at a conference. Meredith tells him it 's a horrible idea and that he should n't go, especially considering Jo does n't know about the situation. Alex flies out to the conference with the intention of telling him to get out of her life, no matter the means. When he meets him, Alex decides against confronting him over Jo, avoiding exposing her current identity and location and potentially stopping himself from assaulting someone yet again. He returns to Seattle, leaving the convention early.
At the start of season 14, Alex and Jo start to warm to each other. Jo tells Deluca that she is still in love with Alex. Because Stephanie has left the hospital after an explosion that almost killed her, Jo turns to Warren to confide in. After she tells him her true feelings about whole situation with Alex, Warren tells him that Jo is scared that he might hurt her. Alex goes to Jo and tells her that he could never abuse her like her husband did because he dealt with the same trauma as a kid as his father was abusive. He then tells her that he found her husband. Jo is taken back by this but when Alex tells her that he did n't kill or injure him in anyway, she is relieved and finally trusts him again. They then restart their relationship and Jo is now encouraged to file for divorce against her abusive husband.
The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) characterized Karev as "honest '', "always tells it like it is '', while also citing his mouth, his punctuality and him being a "smart - ass '' as his weaknesses. Shonda Rhimes said of Karev: "I love that we have a character who can do something wonderful but still be a selfish cranky ass about it. Alex gets to be complex in ways most characters do n't because even though he 's got a moral code, his moral code is totally twisted and dark. But he 's essentially good -- deep down inside. '' Carolina Paiz, one of the writers of the series, wrote: "He has so much going on inside... you think you 've got him figured out but then he just reveals this whole other side to him. ''
"He is superficial sleazeball who turns out to be a nice guy and a talented doctor with an amazing bedside manner, as well as the budding love interest of Katherine Heigl 's character Isobel. '' DVD Verdict wrote of the character 's development in the fourth season: "Love him, hate him, or both, Karev speaks his mind, rough edges and all. But ultimately his cold heart seems to be softened by his blossoming relationship with Jane Doe / Ava / Rebecca. '' Rhimes felt that the 100th episode during which Karev marries Stevens showed how he had grown up: "Look at him. Standing at the altar and saying those vows like a man. (...) He 's become a man who can step up. And I love him for it. ''
Analyzing Alex Karev, Rachel Simon called him "underrated; '' she pointed out that Alex 's personal growth never seems to get acknowledged, as "Alex begins Grey 's as an arrogant, obnoxious intern who pushes away anyone who tries to care about him. He breaks Izzie 's heart 1,000 times, and then acts surprised when she falls for someone else. He sleeps with any girl who will have him, insults everyone who does n't, and generally enjoys being the hospital asshole. Yet, over the course of 10 seasons Alex has evolved, slowly and realistically, into a genuinely good person whose faults do n't miraculously disappear, but take a backseat to much better qualities. ''
Former television columnist for The Star - Ledger Alan Sepinwall disapproved of Karev 's flirt with Addison as "he should take interest in a woman 's speciality and respect his boss without getting in her pants. '' Reviewing the fifth season, Chris Monfette of IGN wrote: "Alex, who 'd become simply the cast 's angry outcast, was uplifted as his relationship with Izzie became more and more substantial, and his bedside scenes with her toward the end were some of his character 's best material yet. ''
On his career path as a Pediatric Surgeon Examiner wrote, "Despite his rough exterior, Alex has a certain child - like innocence and need for acceptance. He is keen in recognizing these traits in kids, as well. He reaches out to kids on many levels. '' and added, "Alex has major trust issues. Maybe it was the constant beatings from his father. Or, his mother 's mental illness. Or, being shuffled through 17 foster homes over a 5 year period. Who would n't have issues with a childhood like that? ''
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how much horsepower is in a dodge charger rt | Dodge Charger (LX) - wikipedia
The Dodge Charger (LX) is a rear - wheel drive four - door automobile introduced in February 2005. Built by Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, the car was created to continue the Dodge Charger line, and replaced the Dodge Intrepid as Dodge 's full - size sedan. The Charger shared the LX platform with the Chrysler 300, the newer fourth generation Dodge Challenger, and the discontinued Dodge Magnum.
The first Charger was a 1964 show car, based on the Dodge Polara and fitted with a 426 Wedge V8 engine. The first production Charger, based on the Dodge Coronet, was introduced as a 1966 model. There were several different vehicles bearing the Charger nameplate built on three different platforms and sizes, all bearing the Charger nameplate. Although the name is associated with the late - 1960s performance model in the Dodge range, it was also used on personal luxury coupes during the late - 1970s and on front - wheel drive subcompact hatchbacks during the 1980s.
In 1999, Dodge introduced a new Charger R / T concept car. It took many styling cues from the 1960s Chargers, sharing their long nose and rearward cab, but was shorter at 187 in (4,750 mm), compared to 203 in (5,156 mm) for the 1966 Charger. It was also 650 lb (295 kg) lighter. It featured a four - door sedan body design, whereas all the previous production Chargers had two doors.
It was a return to a rear wheel drive platform Dodge had not offered since the Dodge St. Regis which stopped production in 1981. The smaller Dodge Diplomat continued to be a rear wheel drive sedan, until front wheel drive was the only platform offered with the Dodge Monaco of 1990.
Both the SXT and R / T models were also available as AWD (All Wheel Drive) starting in 2007. The All - Wheel Drive system is derived from the Mercedes - Benz 4MATIC technology. From 2007 to 2008, the AWD system is engaged all the time, routing approximately 60 % of the power to the rear wheels and 40 % of the power to the front wheels. The 2009 Charger AWD utilized the Torque - on - Demand system manufactured by Borg Warner which disconnects the front axles until extra traction is needed. This results in a slight boost in fuel economy while retaining the same maximum power split to the front wheels.
After three years of production, an update for 2009 models was made. This included moving the decklid 's "CHARGER '' badge from the left to the right, making way for "DODGE '' at the left. Tail lamps were also revised. 2008 models had seen minor revisions to the interior (a new center console and switchgear changes).
The 2006 Charger Daytona R / T debuted at the Chicago Auto Show. It featured a high output 350 hp (261 kW) version of the 5.7 L (345 cu in) Hemi as well as an updated suspension and tires. Visual additions included a special front fascia with a chin spoiler and a black rear spoiler. In a retro touch, the Daytona R / T featured black "Hemi '' decals on the hood and rear fender and retro high impact colors.
In 2007, larger 20 - inch chrome - clad wheels were introduced. In 2008, a revised stripe package was adopted. In 2009, horsepower was increased to 372 hp (277 kW) by the addition of Variable Camshaft Timing.
An SRT - 8 version of the Charger debuted at the 2005 New York International Auto Show. Powered by a 425 hp (317 kW) version of the 6.1 L (370 cu in) Hemi, it also featured upgraded Brembo brakes, and interior and exterior updates. The engine produces 420 lb ft (569 N m) of torque. The 425 net horsepower of the modern 6.1 L Hemi makes it even more powerful than the legendary Chrysler Hemi engines of the muscle car era, the biggest of which was rated at 425 gross horsepower. This made the 6.1 L Hemi engine the most powerful V8 engine that Chrysler had ever put in a production vehicle up to that point. Its best published sprint from 0 -- 60 mph (0 -- 97 km / h) has been 4.8 seconds (5.0 average).
2006 Dodge Charger SRT - 8 in Brilliant Black
2007 Dodge Charger SRT8 in Brilliant Black
A new Super Bee version of the Charger debuted at the 2006 New York International Auto Show for the 2007 model year. It shared the SRT - 8 's 425 hp (317 kW) 6.1 L (370 cu in) Hemi engine, but was available in a special "Detonator Yellow '' paint with black decals. It is a limited edition with only 1,000 being produced. A B5 Blue version of the Super Bee was shown at the 2007 North American International Auto Show and went on sale in early 2008, also with a limited run of 1,000. A total of 425 Hemi Orange Super Bees were built in 2009. In 2011, it was announced that the Super Bee will be returning as a 2012 model on the redesigned Dodge Charger with the 392 HEMI engine in "Stinger Yellow '' and "Pitch Black ''
2007 Dodge Charger Super Bee # 711
2007 Dodge Charger Super Bee # 711
Created with DUB Magazine, this version is based on the Charger SXT. It includes a body - colour spoiler and fog lamps, 20 - inch alloy wheels with 245 / 45R20 tires, MyGIG Multimedia Infotainment System with 13 - speaker PUNCHER surround - sound system, a 322w KICKER amplifier, a 100w KICKER subwoofer, and upgraded brakes from an R / T that use dual piston calipers in the front. Exterior colors are red, black, silver, cool vanilla, and dark titanium.
A total of 2,180 Charger DUB Edition cars were produced for the U.S. market. They carried a MSRP of $30,999.
Racecars based on the Charger were campaigned by several NASCAR Sprint Cup teams starting in 2005 thru to 2012. Although NASCAR stock cars bear only a slight resemblance to actual street cars, Dodge 's 2005 and 2006 NASCAR entries were based on the Charger silhouette, replacing the previous Dodge Intrepid. Unlike the Intrepid, the Charger shares rear - wheel drive and a V8 engine with its NASCAR counterparts.
During the 2007 NASCAR season the Charger was used in all non Car of Tomorrow races and the Dodge Avenger was used in all Car of Tomorrow races. The Car of Tomorrow was used exclusively in 2008. However, the Avenger Car of Tomorrow was redesignated as a Charger R / T through the use of different decals. The decals have been revised again for 2011 -- 2012 to reflect the updated nose and tail styling of the production Charger, including the full - width taillight panel.
Though the car was successful in Sprint Cup competition fewer teams were running Dodge 's from 2007 and on. This would lead Dodge and Ram abandoning it 's NASCAR (Sprint, Nationwide, and Camping World Truck - series) factory support efforts at the end of the 2012 season. For the 2012 NASCAR season, Penske Racing was the only full - time team champaigning Dodges (the # 2 and # 22 Chargers) in the Sprint Cup, and their # 2 Miller Lite Dodge (driven by Brad Kesolowski) won the NASCAR Sprint Cup Championship. Despite winning the Sprint Cup and producing the new 2013 version of the NASCAR Charger, Penske Racing switched to Ford for the 2013 season.
The Charger SE and SXT are equipped with Chrysler 's 3.5 L V6. The 3.5 L V6 produces 250 hp (186 kW) and 250 lb ft (339 N m) of torque. In Canada, the base model Charger has a 2.7 L V6, which produces 178 hp (133 kW) and 190 lb ft (258 N m) of torque. In 2006, the 2.7 L V6 was also available in the U.S. for fleet sales only. For 2007, the SE package could be had with the 2.7 L engine for all buyers. The Canadian SXT model included the 3.5 L V6.
The R / T version uses the 5.7 L (345 cu in) Hemi V8. From 2006 to 2008, this engine produced 340 hp (254 kW) and 390 lb ft (529 N m) of torque. For 2009, Variable Camshaft Timing was added, raising power levels to 368 hp (274 kW) and 395 lb ft (536 N m) of torque respectively.
The SRT - 8 model comes with the 6.1 L (370 cu in) Hemi V8. The 6.1 L Hemi produces 425 hp (317 kW) and 420 lb ft (569 N m) of torque.
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety gives the Charger an overall Good score in frontal crash tests. In side impacts Charger models equipped with optional side airbags are given a Marginal score overall, and models without side airbags are given the lowest overall Poor score.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration gives the Charger five stars on passenger, driver, and rear passenger crash test ratings and four stars in regard to side impact rating.
All models come standard with Electronic Stability Program (ESP) (except in 2.7 L V6 cars where it is optional) with ABS and all speed traction control.
The 2011 LD Charger underwent both exterior and interior changes, taking some styling cues from the 1968 -- 1970 models. It features a completely new body with the most striking changes being the redesigned fascia and hood section, modified "racetrack '' vintage - style taillights and a new dashboard. Chrome aluminum wheels became standard equipment over plastic hubcaps. The new 3.6 L Pentastar V6 Engine replaces the 2.7 L V6 Engine as well as the 3.5 L High - Output V6 Engine. It is built alongside the 2011 Challenger SRT8 392 and 300C.
Engines are available with both the 5 - speed and 8 - speed automatic transmissions. In 2015, the 8 - spd autos are standard on the retail cars. The Charger Pursuit retains it Severe Duty A580 5 - spd.
(353 N m) at 4800 rpm
(200km / h)
(limited)
(224kW) at
6350 rpm
(358 N m) at 4800 rpm
(220km / h)
(limited)
Eagle
Apache
Hellcat
From 2012 model year the 3.6 L engine is available with an 8 - speed automatic that improves fuel economy by 4 - mpg on the highway. The 3.6 liter Pentastar V6 produces 292 horsepower (218 kW) and 260 lb ft (353 N m) of torque, the 5.7 liter V - 8 delivers 370 horsepower (276 kW) and 395 lb ft (536 N m) of torque, and the new 6.4 liter V - 8 produces 470 hp (350 kW) and 470 lb ft (640 N m). of torque. According to the October 2011 issue of Motor Trend, the Dodge Charger SRT - 8, weighing 4,361 lb (1,978 kg), sprints from 0 - 60 mph (97 km / h) in 4.3 seconds, and clears the quarter mile (~ 400 m) in 12.8 seconds at 110 mph (180 km / h). It is mechanically identical to the Chrysler 300 SRT - 8.
The Charger SRT8 returns as 2012 model, which was previewed at the 2011 Chicago Auto Show. Chrysler began putting the Dodge logo with slanted red rectangles on the grilles of 2012.5 Charger models.
In 2011 Dodge introduced the Dodge Charger R / T Mopar Designs Edition. In the Mopar Edition, there are several appearance and performance changes to set it apart from the rest of the production models that year. The Mopar edition came only in the '' Pitch Black "exterior color with a Mopar blue driver side stripe and a Mopar grille badge instead of an "R / T '' badge. The interior is finished in the same black as seen on the outside except for a splash of chrome and carbon fiber dash and center console, along with a carbon fiber pistol grip shifter. The Mopar blue stripe is carried to the interior as a part of the driver 's front seat and the left side rear passenger seat. The performance of the Mopar edition Charger is improved with the Super Track Pack, a 3.92 final drive gear ratio, a 3 mode sport suspension, heavy duty brakes, larger stability bars, and a sport tuned steering rack.
9,688 2011 and 2012 Dodge Charger police vehicles were recalled for overheated lighting harness connector causing low beams to fail, and an overheated power distribution center could result in a loss of the vehicle 's anti-lock braking and stability control systems.
Penske Racing built two Sprint Cup Series race cars based on the appearance of 2013 Dodge Charger, and the cars were unveiled in Las Vegas Motor Speedway. About the time the car was unveiled, Penske Racing, the sole Dodge team in Sprint Cup announced it was switching to Ford based racecars for the 2013 season. Although the new cars received positive reviews by the Automotive press and in track testing, attempts by Dodge Motorsports to get other teams to switch to the new Charger for 2013 came to naught, and Dodge folded its NASCAR racing efforts.
Dodge Charger Juiced is based on Dodge Charger, with Viper V - 10 Mopar (650hp) crate engine, Mopar cold air intake and Mopar cat - back exhaust, Mopar front chin spoiler, Mopar Performance prototype hood (with a functional forward - facing intake), roof in a darker matte version of the custom Metallic "Copperhead '' body colour, unique Mopar matte black hood graphics and decklid graphics, body - color split cross hair grille with a Mopar grille badge, Mopar - exclusive 20 - inch lightweight wheels trimmed in matte black with an accent "Copperhead '' stripe, unique black Katzkin leather seats with touches of "Copperhead '' color, "Copperhead '' color stitching at the steering wheel, shifter and armrest; a "Copperhead '' embroidered on the seatbacks, aluminum instrument panel bezel in matte black, Mopar logo door - sill guards, Mopar logo premium carpet floor mats, Mopar pistol - grip shifter.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2012 SEMA Show.
Available for Charger R / T and R / T Plus, it includes a choice of 6 body colours (Pitch Black, Billet Metallic, Granite Crystal, Bright White, Redline Red Tri-coat and Phantom Black Tri-coat), Gloss Black 20 - inch aluminum wheels, Gloss Black center caps, Gloss Black front grille, body - color rear spoiler, steering wheel - mounted paddle shifters, Sport Mode, 3.06 rear axle, Beats Audio (10 speakers with subwoofer and 552 - Watt amplifier). The Blacktop Package was also available in model years 2012 and 2013 for the Charger V6 model. Horsepower was increased to 300 through the use of cold air intake and less restrictive exhaust systems.
The Charger Daytona a limited (2500 units) version of 2013 Charger R / T and Charger R / T Road & Track with a choice of 4 body colours (Daytona Blue, Bright White, Billet Silver, Pitch Black), dark trim, Satin Black front crosshair grille with heritage "R / T '' badge, custom vinyl hood graphic, roof wrap, rear R / T spoiler; "DAYTONA '' graphic on the rear quarter panels, exclusive 20 - inch five - spoke polished aluminum wheels with Gloss Black painted pockets, ' Daytona Blue ' engine cover, performance 3.06 rear axle ratio, high - speed engine controller, paddle shifters with sport mode, performance steering and suspension, black heated and ventilated seats with Daytona Blue stitching and piping in cloth (R / T) or Nappa leather and suede (R / T Road & Track) upholstery, blue "DAYTONA '' embroidery at the upper front seat backs, unique dark brushed aluminum trim surrounds the 8.4 - inch Uconnect Touch screen and gauges on the instrument panel, as well as the trim around the shifter and cup holders on the center console; a Mopar bright pedal kit, a 552 - watt 10 - speaker Beats Audio System, a special numbered "DAYTONA '' badge on the instrument panel that features the build number of that specific Charger Daytona model.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2012 Los Angeles International Auto Show. US models arrived at Dodge dealerships nationwide in the first quarter of 2013.
Available for Dodge Charger SXT AWD, SXT Plus AWD, Charger R / T AWD, and R / T Plus AWD, the Charger AWD Sport package includes a unique Gloss Black painted split - crosshair grille and grille surround, 19 - inch polished aluminum wheels with Gloss Black pockets, all - season performance tires, steering - wheel mounted paddle shifters, sport mode transmission calibration, rear body - color spoiler, sport seats in black cloth (SXT and R / T) or premium black or red heated Nappa leather (SXT Plus and R / T Plus) upholstery, Beats Audio technology (a 12 - channel amplifier integrating Beats proprietary equalizer algorithm, three 3.5 - inch speakers located in the instrument panel, two 3.5 - inch speakers located in the rear doors, two 6 x 9 - inch front - door woofers, two 6 x 9 - inch speakers and a center - mounted 8 - inch speaker located in the rear - shelf area), active transfer case and front - axle - disconnect system.
The US model arrived at Dodge dealerships nationwide in the first quarter of 2013.
Available for 2013 and 2014 model years, this appearance package is a limited (392 units total) version of Dodge Charger SRT8 with custom - designed gloss black "392 HEMI '' fender badges with a charcoal grey metallic insert, center section of power bulge hood painted in Pitch Black, roof painted in Pitch Black, new satin black SRT lower - body side stripe with heavy band and accent tracer stretching from front fascia, through doors to rear fascias; side mirrors painted in Pitch Black, 20 - inch split five - spoke Black Vapor Chrome wheels, rear spoiler painted in Pitch Black, choice of 5 body colors (Bright White Clear Coat, Billet Silver Metallic Clear Coat, Plum Crazy Pearl Coat, HEMI Orange Pearl Coat and TorRed Clear Coat), ' 392 ' engine beauty covers under the hood, exclusive serialized dash plaque showing production build number / 392, expanded adaptive damping suspension with three - mode selectable suspension tuning, standard launch control.
Ordering of US model began at April 2013.
Changes for 2014 included Uconnect 8.4 N with integrated Garmin navigation, 3 new body colors (Header Orange, TorRed, Plum Crazy), and re-introduction of the Blacktop and Rallye Appearance Packages.
The Redline Package is based on 2014 Dodge Charger SXT and SXT Plus models, with 20 - inch Black Chrome wheels with a Redline Red lip and inner backbone, all - season performance tires, performance - tuned suspension, sport seats, rear body - color spoiler, exclusive Beats by Dre audio system, eight - speed automatic transmission with steering - wheel - mounted paddle shifters and Sport Mode.
The 20 - inch Wheel Sport Appearance Group is based on Charger SXT models, with 20 - inch chrome - clad wheels, performance - tuned suspension and all - season tires, and a body - color rear spoiler.
Dodge Charger AWD Sport includes unique Gloss Black split - crosshair grille, polished 19 - inch aluminum wheels with Gloss Black pockets; steering - wheel mounted paddle shifters with sport - mode, rear spoiler, sport seats, 300 horsepower V - 6 or 370 horsepower V8 engine, Beats Audio.
The US model was set to appear in Dodge showrooms in fall 2013. Early models include SE, SXT, SXT Plus, R / T, R / T Plus, R / T Road & Track, R / T Max.
The police car version of Dodge Charger was made available with a choice of 3.6 - liter Pentastar V - 6 (292hp) or 5.7 - liter HEMI V - 8 (370hp) engine, larger 14.5 - inch front brake discs, increased front - caliper swept area to 388 sq.in. from 289 sq.in., increased rear - caliper swept area to 296 sq.in. from 291 sq.in., Police - specific Secure Park (prevents idling vehicle from being driven without key fob present in the vehicle), revised rear fascia and exhaust tips, new camber link change to the rear suspension to further enhance high - speed and aggressive braking performance, upgraded fuel pump for added durability, variable - displacement air conditioner compressor for added efficiency, factory - installed Mopar horizontal or vertical vinyl graphics for customer convenience, optional ParkSense rear - park assist.
The Charger Pursuit V - 8 AWD model includes segment - exclusive active transfer case and front - axle disconnect (late availability). The Dodge Charger Pursuit AWD became available to law enforcement customers in the Spring of 2014 through Chrysler Group 's Fleet Operations.
Scat Package 1 includes Mopar cold air intake, Mopar cat - back exhaust, Scat Package 1 badge, all - new performance calibrated engine controller "optimized '' to the 5.7 - liter HEMI engine.
Scat Package 2 adds a customized, optimized performance calibration feature tailored for Scat Package 2, a new Mopar performance camshaft works in conjunction with the components of the Scat Package 1 kit, ' Scat Package 2 ' badge.
Scat Package 3 adds optimized performance calibration tailored for Scat Package 3, new Mopar performance CNC ported and polished cylinder heads, Mopar performance camshaft, Mopar hi - flow performance headers, Scat Package 3 badge.
The SEMA concept car includes 20 x 9 - inch unique lightweight wheels withblack Mopar center caps and a Hyperblack II finish, a side valence, a unique new front splitter and Redline rear spoiler, a Scat Pack hard badge in the rear quarter window, Katzkin black performance leather seats, black leather door panel inserts featuring red leather Dodge stripes and red accent stitching, red seat - belt webbing, red carpet bindings, red embroidered Dodge Charger logo in the front seats, gloss - black steering - wheel spokes, black chrome on the door handles, cluster rings, instrument panel bezels, center console trim, and steering - wheel center ring; added bright pedal kit, pistol - grip shifter, door - sill guards, and a wireless charging pad.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2013 SEMA Show.
The 100th Anniversary Edition is a version of 2014 Dodge Charger SXT Plus with Pentastar V - 6 engine or R / T Plus with HEMI V - 8 engine, commemorating the 100th anniversary of brothers Horace Elgin Dodge and John Francis Dodge introducing the Dodge Model 30, with choice of 8 body colors (Pitch Black, Bright White, Billet Silver, Granite Crystal, Ivory Tri-Coat, Phantom Black Tri-Coat, Header Orange and an exclusive High Octane Red pearl), 20x8 - inch polished five - spoke aluminum wheels, Granite Crystal pockets and a matching Granite Crystal Dodge split - crosshair grille, "Dodge Est. 1914 '' bar - style front - fender badges, Dodge "100 '' logo on the center caps, a body - color rear spoiler, a red "R / T '' heritage grille badge on R / T Plus model, sport seats with all - new Molten Red or Foundry Black Nappa leather upholstery, a custom cloud overprint at sport seats, center console armrest and door armrests; a unique three - spoke flat - bottom performance steering wheel with die - cast paddle shifters, brass - colored accent stitching on leather - wrapped surfaces, Dark Brushed Graphite center console bezels, Liquid Graphite steering - wheel accents, die - cast "Dodge Est. 1914 '' circular badges on front seatbacks, an embroidered anniversary logo on floor mats, all - new instrument panel cluster graphics (unique black - face gauges with white indication, stand - out red "100 '' mph indication), Electronic Vehicle Information Center and Uconnect 8.4 - inch touchscreen with unique startup image, Uconnect 8.4 - inch touchscreen with Beats by Dr. Dre audio technology (10 - speakers and a 12 - channel 552 watt amplifier that integrates Beats proprietary equalizer algorithm), eight - speed automatic transmission with sport mode (SXT Plus), sport mode calibration, performance - tuned suspension, two unique key fobs with 100th Anniversary Edition jeweled logo on the back side, a customized owner 's kit, a special commemorative book celebrating the 100 years of Dodge heritage.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2013 LA Auto Show. The vehicle was set to appear in Dodge showrooms during the first quarter of 2014. The Canadian model was set to appear in Dodge showrooms during the first quarter of 2014.
2014 Dodge Charger Pursuit AWD records fastest lap time during Michigan State Police 's 2014 Vehicle Evaluation Test (1: 33.85), and fastest average lap time (1: 34.75) at Grattan Raceway.
As part of 2014 Dodge Charger launch in the US, Dodge Chargers appeared as hero vehicles driven by main character Nolan (Grant Bowler) in a 2013 episode of US television series Defiance. The co-branded TV commercial, titled ' Dodge Charger Defiance ' debuted on May 20, 2013. The 30 - second commercial shows the endurance of the Charger as it survives obstacles in a changing world, ending with a transformed planet Earth in the year 2046 where ' only the defiant survive. ' In addition, the Dodge Defiance Arkfall Sweepstakes features fans of Dodge and Defiance competing against each other, vying for the grand prize of a trip for two to the world 's largest pop culture event taking place in California in summer 2013. Weekly prizes were awarded, including gaming systems, the "Defiance '' video game and Dodge brand merchandise.
Unveiled at the 2014 New York Auto Show, the 2015 Dodge Charger received a substantial makeover, the most noticeable change coming in the new front grille and rounded LED headlights. Retaining its Coke bottle styling Dodge claims to have reworked just about every panel on the car; made to look leaner and more athletic than its previous look while keeping the same dimensions.
Dodge is reported to have used the 1969 Charger as its inspiration for the remodeling. The engines include the 370 hp (276 kW; 375 PS) Chrysler 5.7 liter Hemi V8 and the 292 hp (218 kW; 296 PS) 3.6 liter V6. The V6 model is EPA - rated at 31MPG or 7.6 L / 100km which is claimed by the manufacturer to be the best in its class. The only transmission is the Chrysler eight - speed automatic, coupled with optional all - wheel drive. The all - wheel drive system will automatically remove drive to the front axle when not required, giving an improvement in fuel economy. The new electronic gearshift with optional paddle shift gives shift times of as little as 0.25 seconds in sport mode.
The reworked interior includes new materials for the door, console and dash panels, a new steering wheel and seats, and a wide range of trim packages with both leather and cloth seating. The refreshed interior also features a new instrument cluster featuring a 7 - inch (180mm) TFT (Thin Film Transistor) display. The available 8.4 inch UConnect touchscreen radio with available navigation has been revised, now including UConnect Apps. Mechanically, the 3.6 L Pentastar V6 and the 5.7 L / 6.4 L HEMI engines remained the same. All engines are now backed by the ZF 8HP 8 - Speed Automatic transmissions co-produced by ZF (previously only V6 models used the ZF 8 - speed). There have been revisions to the chassis components, including Electric Assist Power Steering, which replaces the previous models Electro - Hydraulic Assist Power Steering. New aluminum rear differentials now use 4 mounting bolts for rigidity. AWD is no longer available on 5.7 LR / T models.
The 2015 Dodge Charger went on sale starting December 2014 in the US and Canada.
The 2015 Dodge Charger SRT Hellcat was revealed on 13 August 2014 prior to being shown at the Woodward Dream Cruise, and was unveiled at the 2014 Kuala Lumpur International Motor Show in November, were launched by Sandra Bullock, Mizz Nina, Michelle Yeoh and Fan Bingbing. It includes the same 707 hp (527 kW; 717 PS), 650 pound force - feet (880 N m), supercharged 6.2 L Hemi V8 present in the Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat. The Charger Hellcat features a redesigned front fascia with a larger lower grille similar to the current generation Dodge Viper.
The Hellcat is claimed to be the fastest factory four - door sedan ever built.
Test results for a stock Hellcat Charger from 2014 and 2015
Test results from 2016 in Road & Track 's six - car 0 - to - 200 - mph comparison test
The SRT 392 Hemi is a 6.4 liter V8 making 485 hp (362 kW; 492 PS) and 475 pound force - feet (644 N m) of torque. The Charger SRT 392 also comes with 20 - inch forged aluminum wheels, 15.4 - inch brake rotors out front, and 13.8 - inch rear brake rotors.
The Charger R / T Scat Pack essentially takes the place of the former SRT8 Super Bee in the Charger lineup. The powertrain of the SRT 392 is present, as are the front and rear bumpers, but leather upholstery is optional (as opposed to standard), the suspension uses fixed rate Bilstein shocks, the brakes are slightly smaller, and the wheel and tire package is narrower.
In early 2006, DaimlerChrysler released a new police version of the Charger. It made its debut at the 2005 New York International Auto Show. Unlike the civilian version, the police version features upgraded heavy - duty brakes, a severe - duty cooling system, police - performance Electronic Stability Program, police performance - tuned steering, and a gear shifter that is mounted on the steering column instead of in the center console. In place of the center console, Dodge has equipped the police edition with an aluminum plate appropriate for mounting radio equipment, computers, and controllers for lights and sirens. The vehicle 's electrical system is specifically designed for integration of siren and light controls, and other police vehicle accessories. The Charger is in use with many American, Canadian, and Mexican police organizations.
The 340 hp (254 kW) Hemi V8 is powerful enough to accelerate the car from 0 to 60 mph (97 km / h) in 6.0 seconds and to a top speed of 152 mph (245 km / h). In Michigan State Police testing, the Charger V8 easily outperformed all other pursuit vehicles in acceleration, cornering, and braking (except the Dodge Magnum and V6 Charger, which stopped slightly faster in some tests) in the first five years since its introduction.
Chargers are in use with numerous police agencies in North America as both marked and unmarked patrol cars. Law enforcement agencies outside of the U.S. have also purchased the Charger, including police services in Canada, Mexico, Chile, the Czech Republic and the Middle East, including Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon, and the United Arab Emirates. Both V6 and V8 models are being adopted, with highway patrols favoring the 5.7 L (345 cu in) Hemi V8 engine and cities more likely to purchase the base police package with the 3.5 L V6 fuel - efficient engine. The Charger is also in service with U.S. Federal and military police services.
For 2009, the base Charger police car came with the 3.5 L V6 and a 5 - speed automatic transmission. The rear is slightly updated, moving the "CHARGER '' badge to the right, and replacing the left with the badge reading "DODGE. '' The V8 version uses the Charger Daytona R / T engine, rated 370 horsepower (280 kW) and 395 lb ft (536 N m) of torque.
When the Charger was redesigned for 2011 the police package version was renamed Dodge Charger Pursuit. In mid-2014, All Wheel Drive (with a mandatory 5.7 Hemi V8) became optional, along with a huge BR9 brake package. For 2015, the Dodge Charger has been refreshed like its regular version.
In 2012, Dodge replaced the Ford Crown Victoria as the # 1 police sedan in North America, with the AWD Ford Explorer Interceptor soon becoming the # 1 selling police vehicle. By 2017, however, the Charger Pursuit and Explorer Interceptor essentially shared the sales award, as sales of the ultra high performance AWD Charger rapidly increased.
Dodge Charger of the Michigan State Police.
Dodge Charger of the Colorado State Patrol
Dodge Charger of the New York City Police Department.
Dodge Charger of the Amherst, Ohio police force.
Charger in use by NASA as an ER - 2 chase vehicle
Rear view of the Dodge Charger.
New York State Court Officers Dodge Charger in Times Square.
Dodge Charger of the California Highway Patrol with a non-standard paint scheme. Mainly used for recruitment.
Dodge Charger of the Memphis Police Department.
A Charger Pursuit police vehicle at the 2012 Montreal Auto Show.
2013 Dodge Charger Pursuit at the Montreal International Auto Show
Dodge Charger of the Yucatán State Police
Dodge Charger, used by Carabineros de Chile.
On May 7, 2012, a recall announcement was made by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) regarding loss of anti-lock brakes and stability control as a result of an overheated fuse in the PCD. This failure could lead to loss of vehicle control, which increases crash risk. Over 127,350 Chrysler 300s and Dodge Chargers were recalled.
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where are trucks allowed on the garden state parkway | Garden State parkway - wikipedia
New Jersey State Highway Routes
The Garden State Parkway (GSP) is a 172.4 - mile (277.5 km) limited - access toll parkway that stretches the length of New Jersey from the New York line at Montvale to Cape May at the state 's southernmost tip. Its name refers to New Jersey 's nickname, the "Garden State ''. Most New Jerseyans refer to it as simply "the Parkway ''. The parkway 's official, but unsigned, designation is Route 444. At its north end, the parkway becomes the Garden State Parkway Connector, a component of the New York State Thruway system that connects to the Thruway mainline in Ramapo. The Parkway is primarily for passenger vehicle use, with trucks weighing over 10,000 pounds prohibited north of Exit 105. The Parkway has been ranked as the busiest toll highway in the country based on the number of toll transactions. At roughly 172 miles, the Parkway is the longest highway in the state.
The Garden State Parkway begins in Lower Township at an interchange with Route 109 (traffic light at the southbound terminus, which is signed as exit 0 on the southbound portion).
For the first 3 ⁄ miles (5.6 km), the parkway crosses over streams. At 3.48 miles (5.60 km), the parkway crosses over Taylor Creek and enters Middle Township. Exit 4 is for Route 47 north to Rio Grande and south to Wildwood and Wildwood Crest. At 6.54 miles (10.53 km), parkway exit 6, for Route 147 and North Wildwood, leaves to the right of the southbound lanes; there is no northbound exit, only an entrance, and no southbound entrance.
Previously, there were three at - grade interchanges (traffic lights) for exits 9, 10, and 11. Construction on overpasses began in 2013 and was completed in 2016. The first is at exit 9 to Shellbay Avenue. The second is exit 10 to County Route 657 (CR 657), also known as Stone Harbor Boulevard. The Cape Regional Medical Center, the county 's only hospital, is at this exit. Exit 11 is for U.S. Route 9 (US 9) at the Cape May County Park & Zoo. An unsigned southbound exit and entrance at East Mechanics Street was removed in August 2011, between exits 9 and 10. In May 2009, guardrails were installed in between the northbound and southbound lanes from mile markers 7 to 11.5, due to the previous year 's many fatal head - on crashes resulting from cars crossing the median. The at - grade interchanges were reconstructed to put the parkway on overpasses above those roads, completed in July 2015. Because this work is finished, there are no longer any traffic lights or other intersections on the entire length of the parkway.
Exit 13 is for Avalon Boulevard. At 14.85 miles (23.90 km), the parkway enters Dennis Township after crossing Uncle Aaron 's Creek. At 17.5 miles (28.2 km), exit 17 leaves to the right for CR 625. At milepost 19.38, the parkway enters its first toll, the Cape May Toll Plaza. A little more than 20 miles (32 km) in, exit 20 leaves for Route 50. In Upper Township, exit 25 leaves for CR 623. At 27.77 miles (44.69 km), the parkway enters Atlantic County.
Just before exit 29 (northbound only) for US 9, the parkway enters the Great Egg Toll Plaza. Exit 30 (southbound only) leaves to the right at milepost 30 for Laurel Road in Somers Point which leads to Ocean City via the Route 52 causeway. Now in Egg Harbor Township, exit 36 opens onto CR 563 southbound and CR 651 northbound. The northbound exit 36 serves as (indirect) access to the Black Horse Pike (US 40 / US 322). Exit 37 (southbound) is the parkway 's interchange with CR 608. This exit serves as (indirect) access from the southbound parkway to the Black Horse Pike (US 40 / US 322) and the northbound direction of CR 563. Exit 38 connects with the Atlantic City Expressway. Eastbound travelers on the expressway take the last few miles to Atlantic City. Westbound travelers head for Camden and Philadelphia. Now entering Galloway Township, US 30 connects with the parkway at exit 40. Exit 41 is next, connecting to CR 561. Exit 44 follows after Exit 41, leading to CR 561 Alternate (CR 561 Alt.) and CR 575. Just after exit 48 for US 9 near the Mullica River and Bass River State Forest, the parkway enters Burlington County. Exit 50 is for US 9 as well, while exit 52 is for CR 654.
Now in Ocean County, exit 58 is for CR 539, exit 63 is for Route 72, and exit 67 is for CR 554. Exit 69 leaves to the right in both directions at milepost 70.45. Exit 74 leaves to the right, which heads to Forked River. Exit 77 is for Bayville. Exits 80 (southbound only) is for county roads and US 9. US 9 then merges in for a few miles.
Between exits 80 and 83, the parkway runs concurrently with US 9 just south of the Toms River Toll Plaza. It was from here that the Driscoll Expressway was to start (south of exit 83) and run to the New Jersey Turnpike.
CR 527 connects with the parkway at exit 81. Route 37 connects with the parkway at exits 82 and 82A in Toms River. At exit 83 (northbound only), US 9 leaves the parkway and heads north. Exit 89 comes at 89.4 miles (143.9 km) for Route 70 and CR 528. In Brick Township, exit 90 (northbound) and exit 91, leave for CR 549. At this point the road is in Monmouth County. Exit 98 leads to Interstate 195 (I - 195), Route 34 and Route 138. Exit 100 leaves southbound for Route 33. Route 66 also exits northbound. Exit 102, a southbound - only exit leaves for Neptune Township.
Exit 105 for Route 18 (northbound only) and Route 36 leading to Long Branch is the point at which all trucks are forced to leave the parkway. At exit 105, the parkway divides into a local -- express lane configuration. The express lanes have no direct access to any exits, except for exit 105 in Tinton Falls (southbound only) and exit 117 in Hazlet. Exits 109 and 114 are for Red Bank and Holmdel. The next exit, exit 116, is for the PNC Bank Arts Center in Holmdel. Exit 117 is for Route 35 and Route 36. Exit 118 (formerly Exit 117A, southbound only) is for Lloyd Road in Aberdeen. Exit 120 is for Laurence Harbor Road and Cheesequake State Park.
At this point, the road enters Middlesex County in Old Bridge Township. Southbound exits 123 and 124 leave to the right, but only on the local lanes. The express and local lanes merge and become one highway again shortly after. Northbound exit 125 makes a sudden exit for Route 35. Afterwards, the route crosses the Driscoll Bridge over the Raritan River. After the bridge, exit 127 leaves for Route 9, Route 440 and I - 287. At milepost 129.5, the New Jersey Turnpike leaves to the right at exit 129. Southbound exits 127 and 129 are merged into one exit, which is marked as exit 129. A southbound - only exit, exit 130 is for US 1. The next three exits are marked 132 (complete), 131A (complete), and 131B (northbound only). The lettered ones are for Metropark, while exit 132 is for Route 27.
Exit 135 is for Clark Township in Union County. Exits 136 and 137 are for Cranford Township and Route 28. Exit 138 is in Kenilworth for CR 509. Exits 139A and 139B are northbound exits only for a local road (Chestnut Street) and US 22. Exits 140 and 140A are for US 22 and Route 82. Exit 141 is for Vauxhall Road and the 142s are for I - 78. The 143s are for Lyons Avenue, exit 144 is for Irvington and 145 is for I - 280. Exit 147 is for Springdale Avenue in East Orange, and exit 148 is for Bloomfield Avenue in Bloomfield. Exits 149, 150, and 151 are for Essex County roads. Exits 153A and 153B are for Route 3 and US 46 in Passaic County.
As the parkway leaves Clifton, it heads into Elmwood Park by crossing the Passaic River. Exit 156, which comes before the river, is for US 46 and Route 20. There is also access to Route 21 just south of the interchange. Cedar Lawn Cemetery is also located northbound along Route 20 from exit 156. As the parkway continues to the northeast, it connects with US 46 again in Garfield. Riverside Cemetery is accessible off exit 157 by going east along US 46. At exit 159, the parkway connects with I - 80 in Saddle Brook. Going southbound, there is also access to CR 67 (Midland Avenue). The Bergen Toll Plaza is next, before crossing over Saddle River County Park.
Exit 160 comes next, as the parkway enters Paramus and connects with West Passaic Street, which heads to Route 208. Not far afterwards, at exit 161 (northbound) is Route 4. Westfield Garden State Plaza is visible from the parkway and is off exit 161. Exit 163 is for Route 17 in Paramus, which heads north to Ridgewood, Saddle River, Upper Saddle River, Ramsey and Mahwah before entering Rockland County, New York (on the southbound side of the parkway, the exit is for Route 17 south toward the Meadowlands area and Hudson County). The parkway goes between Paramus Park Mall and Bergen Regional Medical Center as it heads north. Just after, exit 165 intersects for CR 80 (Oradell Avenue and East Ridgewood Avenue) in Paramus. The parkway turns to the northwest and heads into the Pascack Valley Toll Plaza going northbound. There is a plaza southbound along the parkway as well as exit 166 for CR 110 (Linwood Avenue).
As the parkway inches closer and closer to New York, exit 168 comes along, connecting to CR 502, which heads towards Ho - Ho - Kus and Alpine. Three miles (4.8 km) later, at exit 171, the parkway connects with Glen Road, which terminates soon after at Chestnut Ridge Road (CR 73). The parkway 's Montvale Service Area comes at milepost 171 after exit 172 which is for CR 94. There is also access to CR 94 from the Montvale Service Area 's service road. At 172.4 miles (277.5 km), the parkway becomes the Garden State Parkway Connector at the New York state line.
Two short spurs are given numbers by the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT). Route 444R is the connector at exit 117 (in Hazlet) to Route 35 at the north end of Route 36 in Keyport. Route 444S is the connector at exit 105 to the south end of Route 36 at Hope Road (CR 51) near Eatontown.
On the Garden State Parkway, the emergency assistance number is # GSP, which is # 477 in number form. New Jersey State Police are the primary police agency that handles calls for service on the parkway. Other emergency services such as fire and first aid are usually handled by the jurisdictions in which that section of the parkway passes.
Route S101 was a northern extension of Route 101 planned from Hackensack through Paramus to the New York state line near Montvale. The section from Hackensack to Paramus was never built; the section from Paramus to the state line would become part of the Garden State Parkway.
The parkway was originally designated as the Route 4 Parkway when it was started in 1947 in Union County, but, due to lack of funds, only 11 miles (18 km) were completed by 1950. The solution was for the state to establish the New Jersey Highway Authority in 1952 to oversee construction and operation as a self - liquidating toll road. Much of the original section, between exits 129 and 140, was long administered by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and has always been untolled. The segment can be distinguished by the stone facing on the overpasses.
The parkway was constructed between 1946 and 1957 to connect suburban northern New Jersey with resort areas along the Atlantic coast and to alleviate traffic on traditional north -- south routes running through each town center, such as US 1, US 9, and Route 35. Unofficially, it has two sections: the "metropolitan section '' north of the Raritan River and the "shore section '' between the Raritan River and Cape May. Only 18 miles (29 km) had been constructed by 1950, but taking a cue from the successful New York State Thruway, on April 14, 1952, the New Jersey Legislature created the New Jersey Highway Authority, empowered to construct, operate, and maintain a self - sufficient toll parkway from Paramus to Cape May.
The landscape architect and engineer in charge of the newly named Garden State Parkway was Gilmore David Clarke, of the architectural firm of Parsons, Brinkerhof, Hall and MacDonald, who had worked with Robert Moses on the parkway systems around New York City. Clarke 's design prototypes for the parkway combined the example of the Pennsylvania Turnpike, a model of efficiency with parallels in the German Autobahn routes of the 1930s, with the Merritt Parkway model that stressed a planted "green belt '' for beauty. Both design models featured wide planted medians to prevent head - on collisions and mask the glare of oncoming headlights. The Garden State Parkway was designed to have a natural feel. Many trees were planted, and the only signs were those for exits -- there were no distracting billboards. Most of the signs were constructed from wood, or a dark - brown metal, instead of the chrome bars used on most other highways. The guardrails were also made from wood and dark metal. Most early overpasses were stone, but then changed to concrete, with green rails and retro etchings, popular around the 1950s and 1960s. These are now in decay and being replaced by sleek, new bridges. The parkway was designed to curve gently throughout its length so that drivers would remain alert and not fall asleep at the wheel.
Most of the metropolitan section is like any other expressway built in the 1950s through heavily populated areas. The shore section parallels US 9 and runs through unspoiled wilderness in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. In Cape May County, the parkway had three traffic lights (at exits 9, 10, and 11), but these were eliminated in 2015, with construction of three overpasses in Cape May Court House and Stone Harbor.
The parkway had an old alignment before the Great Egg Harbor Bridge was completed. It was detoured onto US 9 and over the Beesley 's Point Bridge. That bridge is currently under demolition.
The Garden State Parkway was off - limits to motorcycles until Malcolm Forbes pushed successfully for legislation to allow them.
On July 9, 2003, Governor Jim McGreevey 's plan to merge the operating organizations of the Garden State Parkway and the New Jersey Turnpike into one agency was completed.
Literature from the time of the parkway 's construction indicates that the parkway would become toll - free once bonds used for its construction were paid off. However, additional construction projects, plus the expectation that the parkway will pay for its own maintenance and policing (and the massive E-ZPass project) make it unlikely it will become toll - free in the foreseeable future.
The parkway was also planned to be the southern terminus for Route 55 at milemarker 19. This was cancelled after the conclusion that the highway ran through too many wetland areas. The idea is still being revisited after frequent traffic jams on Route 47.
On July 22, 2014, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority filed a federal lawsuit against Jersey Boardwalk Pizza, a pizza chain in Florida, for using a logo too similar to the signs for the Garden State Parkway. Federal Judge William Martini dismissed the suit on March 26, 2015.
The speed limit on the parkway is 65 mph (105 km / h) with the following exceptions: 55 mph (90 km / h) between mileposts 123.5 and 163.3, 55 mph (90 km / h) between mileposts 80.0 and 85.2, and 45 mph (70 km / h) between mileposts 27 and 29, approaching and traversing the Great Egg Harbor Bridge, and between milepost 126.7 and 127.7, approaching and traversing the Driscoll Bridge.
Commercial trucks with a registered weight of over 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) are not allowed to use the northern parts of the parkway.
All trucks must exit at exit 105, just past the Asbury Park toll plaza. From Tinton Falls to the southern end of the parkway at Cape May, trucks are allowed, but must pay additional tolls. Buses are allowed for the entire length of the parkway. In April 2011, New Jersey Transportation Commissioner James Simpson announced the NJTA was looking into the possibility of allowing trucks on the northern portion of the Garden State Parkway. However, the idea was quickly abandoned after the agency found the road had engineering concerns that would make the consideration of allowing trucks on this segment impossible.
While the New Jersey Turnpike uses a system of long - distance tickets, obtained once by a motorist upon entering and surrendered upon exiting at toll gates (a "closed '' system), the Garden State Parkway uses no tickets but collects tolls at toll plazas at somewhat regular intervals along its length and at certain exits (an "open '' system). As of 2014, the standard car toll is $0.75 on the main road at two - way toll plazas and $1.50 at one - way toll plazas. Some individual exits require a toll of either $0.50, $0.75, or $1.50.
The parkway has implemented the E-ZPass electronic toll collection system; the first plaza opened in December 1999, and the system was completed on September 19, 2000. Parkway tokens continued to be available until January 1, 2002, and were invalidated effective January 1, 2009. Drivers using exact change lanes are now required to pay with coins only in all toll baskets. The Union Toll Plaza was the first to use an automated toll - collection machine. A plaque commemorating this event includes the first quarter collected at its toll booths.
Tokens originally cost $10 for a roll of 40 tokens (the toll was 25 cents when tokens were introduced), but when the toll was increased to 35 cents, rolls were 30 tokens for $10. Before invalidating the tokens, the NJHA gave several months ' warning and gave motorists the opportunity to redeem tokens. Tokens were originally brass, but were changed to a bimetallic composition with an outer silver - colored ring and a brass core. There were also larger bus tokens that existed in each composition, primarily for the use of Atlantic City - bound buses. These were sold in rolls of 20 for $20.
To reduce congestion, some toll plazas on the roadway were converted into one - way plazas between September 2004 and February 2010, dubbed "one - way tolling ''. Under this program, a $1.50 toll (70 cents or two tokens when first implemented from September 2004 to November 2008 and $1.00 was implemented from December 2008 to December 2011 which was the first phase of the toll increase) is collected in one direction, and the other direction is toll - free. The Cape May (in Upper Township), Great Egg (in Somers Point), New Gretna (in Bass River Township), Barnegat (in Barnegat Township), Asbury Park (in Tinton Falls), Raritan (in Sayreville), Union (in Hillside Township), Essex (in Bloomfield Township), Bergen (in Saddle Brook Township), and Pascack Valley (in Washington Township) toll plazas had been converted to one - way toll plazas. The Toms River (in Toms River Township) Toll Plaza is the only $0.75 toll barrier plaza that is collected in both directions.
Beginning on November 19, 2001, E-ZPass customers were charged the approximate token rate, that is 33 cents (peak travel) or 30 cents (off - peak travel), instead of 35 cents. Due to tremendous cost overruns in implementing the E-ZPass system on New Jersey 's toll highways the discount was eliminated the next year. NJHA E-ZPass customers were charged a $1 - per - month account fee, causing many customers to turn in their NJHA E-ZPass transponders in favor of a transponder from an out - of - state authority which did not charge a monthly fee.
On January 8, 2008, New Jersey Governor Jon Corzine proposed increases of fifty percent in tolls on the parkway and turnpike effective in 2010, to be followed by similar 50 percent increases every four years through 2022. Each time tolls increased, there would be an additional increase for inflation since the last toll increase (for the first, since 2006). This increase in tolls, which would take place on all three of New Jersey 's toll roads, would, according to Corzine, help pay the state 's debt. The roads would be maintained by a nonprofit "public benefit corporation '' which would pay back bonds to the state. Without considering inflation, the proposal would have increased the standard 35 - cent toll on the Garden State Parkway to approximately $1.80 by 2022, with tolls for the entire length of the northbound Garden State Parkway rising from $4.55 to $30.10 in 2022. It was considered possible that commuters will receive discounts from the higher toll rates. The proposal was not enacted due to fierce opposition from the state of New Jersey. On September 5, 2008, a proposal to increase parkway tolls substantially was reported. The first phase of the toll increase on the Garden State Parkway went into effect on December 1, 2008. As of January 1, 2012, toll rates on the Garden State Parkway are $0.50 for ramp tolls, $0.75 for two - way toll barriers, and $1.50 for one - way toll barriers.
There are three types of toll lanes at the toll plazas, however not all plazas have every type of lane at all times. The first are E-ZPass only, which only accept vehicles with E-ZPass tags. The speed limit in these lanes is 15 mph (24 km / h), or 55 -- 65 mph (89 -- 105 km / h) for Express E-ZPass lanes.
The second type of lane is exact change. Although they previously accepted both parkway tokens or exact change, the tokens were no longer sold after January 1, 2002, and were no longer accepted on the parkway after January 1, 2009. Drivers using exact change lanes are now required to pay with coins only. In these lanes, motorists deposit coins in a toll basket and each coin is mechanically counted. Payment of tolls is enforced by photo, a system that went into effect on October 17, 2011.
The third type of toll lane is cash receipts. These lanes are manned; toll collectors can provide change and receipts to drivers. E-ZPass is also accepted.
One of the objectives of the parkway was to become a state park its entire length, and its users would enjoy park - like aesthetics with minimal intrusion of urban scenery. Along the ride, users were permitted to stop and picnic along the roadway to further enjoy the relaxation qualities the parkway had to offer. All picnic areas had tall trees that provided shade and visual isolation from the roadway. Grills, benches, running water and restrooms were provided. Over time as the parkway transformed into a road of commerce, the picnic areas were being closed for a variety of reasons. Their ramp terminals became insufficient to accommodate the high - speed mainline traffic and in addition to the decreasing amount of users, the picnic areas were becoming more effective as maintenance yards and were converted as such or closed altogether.
The history of the picnic areas includes an infamous story in the murder of Maria Marshall orchestrated by her husband Robert O. Marshall in the Oyster Creek picnic area on the night of September 7, 1984. The story was made into a novel and television movie on NBC.
The three remaining picnic areas are closed from dusk to dawn. Posted signs within the picnic area prohibit fires and camping.
There were ten operational picnic areas:
All service areas are located in the center median, unless otherwise noted.
The first service area to open was Cheesequake on May 1, 1955. Prior to that grand opening, the New Jersey Highway Authority had constructed and operated two temporary service areas that offered only gasoline and other vehicular essentials.
In the 1950s, four petroleum companies were hired to provide gasoline and vehicular necessities -- Esso, Texaco, Atlantic and Cities Service. The Cities Service company was the petroleum provider at Monmouth, Forked River, Atlantic City (Absecon at the time) and Ocean View (Seaville at the time) and offered a service where female employees were hired for those service area showrooms, wore uniforms and were known as the Park - ettes. Their duties included providing directions and other information to motorists as well as rendering odd bits of service such as sewing a missing button on a patron 's coat.
Many entrances and exits have tolls. In general, exits have tolls when they precede a barrier toll, and exits are free when they follow a barrier toll. Conversely, entrances that precede a barrier toll are free; and tolls are paid at entrances just beyond a barrier toll. This avoids double tolling (e.g., paying a barrier toll and then immediately paying again to exit) and under - tolling (e.g., driving a long distance and then exiting for free just before a barrier toll).
There are no tolls between exits 127 and 141, inclusive, as this was the original road segment that predates the New Jersey Highway Authority.
Route map: Google
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what impact did the triangular trade have on the caribbean | Triangular trade - wikipedia
Triangular trade or triangle trade is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come. Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions.
Historically the particular routes were also shaped by the powerful influence of winds and currents during the age of sail. For example, from the main trading nations of Western Europe, it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of 30 N latitude and reaching the so - called "trade winds ''; thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland. Returning from North America, it is easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies. A similar triangle to this, called the volta do mar was already being used by the Portuguese, before Christopher Columbus ' voyage, to sail to the Canary Islands and the Azores. Columbus simply expanded this triangle outwards, and his route became the main way for Europeans to reach, and return from, the Americas.
The best - known triangular trading system is the transatlantic slave trade, that operated from the late 16th to early 19th centuries, carrying slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between West Africa, Caribbean or American colonies and the European colonial powers, with the northern colonies of British North America, especially New England, sometimes taking over the role of Europe. The use of African slaves was fundamental to growing colonial cash crops, which were exported to Europe. European goods, in turn, were used to purchase African slaves, who were then brought on the sea lane west from Africa to the Americas, the so - called Middle Passage.
A classic example is the colonial molasses trade. Sugar (often in its liquid form, molasses) from the Caribbean was traded to Europe or New England, where it was distilled into rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe, restarting the cycle. The trip itself took five to twelve weeks.
The first leg of the triangle was from a European port to Africa, in which ships carried supplies for sale and trade, such as copper, cloth, trinkets, slave beads, guns and ammunition. When the ship arrived, its cargo would be sold or bartered for slaves. On the second leg, ships made the journey of the Middle Passage from Africa to the New World. Many slaves died of disease in the crowded holds of the slave ships. Once the ship reached the New World, enslaved survivors were sold in the Caribbean or the American colonies. The ships were then prepared to get them thoroughly cleaned, drained, and loaded with export goods for a return voyage, the third leg, to their home port, from the West Indies the main export cargoes were sugar, rum, and molasses; from Virginia, tobacco and hemp. The ship then returned to Europe to complete the triangle.
However, because of several disadvantages that slave ships faced compared to other trade ships, they often returned to their home port carrying whatever goods were readily available in the Americas and filled up a large part or all of their capacity with ballast. Other disadvantages include the different form of the ships (to carry as many humans as possible, but not ideal to carry a maximum amount of produce) and the variations in the duration of a slave voyage, making it practically impossible to pre-schedule appointments in the Americas, which meant that slave ships often arrived in the Americas out - of - season. When the ships did reach their intended ports, only about 90 % of the passengers survived the journey across the middle passage. Due to the slaves being transported in tight, confined spaces, a small percentage of the group that started perished at the hands of disease and lack of nourishment. Cash crops were transported mainly by a separate fleet which only sailed from Europe to the Americas and back mitigating the impact the slaves involvement brought forth. The Triangular trade is a trade model, not an exact description of the ship 's route.
A 2017 study provides evidence for the hypothesis that the export of gunpowder technology to Africa increased the transatlantic slave trade by making it easier for Africans to enslave each other: "A one percent increase in gunpowder set in motion a 5 - year gun - slave cycle that increased slave exports by an average of 50 %, and the impact continued to grow over time. ''
New England also benefited from the trade, as many merchants from New England, especially the state of Rhode Island, replaced the role of Europe in the triangle. New England also made rum from Caribbean sugar and molasses, which it shipped to Africa as well as within the New World. Yet, the "triangle trade '' as considered in relation to New England was a piecemeal operation. No New England traders are known to have completed a sequential circuit of the full triangle, which took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton. The concept of the New England Triangular trade was first suggested, inconclusively, in an 1866 book by George H. Moore, was picked up in 1872 by historian George C. Mason, and reached full consideration from a lecture in 1887 by American businessman and historian William B. Weeden. The song "Molasses to Rum '' from the musical 1776 vividly describes this form of the triangular trade.
The term "triangular trade '' also refers to a variety of other trades.
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who labeled the seven years as the first world war | Great Depression - wikipedia
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the United States. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations; in most countries it started in 1929 and lasted until the late - 1930s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the world 's economy can decline.
The Great Depression started in the United States after a major fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 (known as Black Tuesday). Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide gross domestic product (GDP) fell by an estimated 15 %. By comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1 % from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. However, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II.
The Great Depression had devastating effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50 %. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25 % and in some countries rose as high as 33 %.
Cities around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60 %. Facing plummeting demand with few alternative sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most.
Economic historians usually attribute the start of the Great Depression to the sudden devastating collapse of U.S. stock market prices on October 29, 1929, known as Black Tuesday. However, some dispute this conclusion and see the stock crash as a symptom, rather than a cause, of the Great Depression.
Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time. John D. Rockefeller said "These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come and gone. Prosperity has always returned and will again. '' The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April. This was still almost 30 % below the peak of September 1929.
Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the corresponding period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered severe losses in the stock market the previous year, cut back their expenditures by 10 %. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U.S.
By mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928. Prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930. Then a deflationary spiral started in 1931. Farmers faced a worse outlook; declining crop prices and a Great Plains drought crippled their economic outlook. At it 's peak, the Great Depression saw nearly 10 % of all Great Plains farms change hands despite federal assistance.
The decline in the U.S. economy was the factor that pulled down most other countries at first; then, internal weaknesses or strengths in each country made conditions worse or better. Frantic attempts to shore up the economies of individual nations through protectionist policies, such as the 1930 U.S. Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act and retaliatory tariffs in other countries, exacerbated the collapse in global trade. By 1933, the economic decline had pushed world trade to one - third of its level just four years earlier.
Change in economic indicators 1929 -- 32
The two classical competing theories of the Great Depression are the Keynesian (demand - driven) and the monetarist explanation. There are also various heterodox theories that downplay or reject the explanations of the Keynesians and monetarists. The consensus among demand - driven theories is that a large - scale loss of confidence led to a sudden reduction in consumption and investment spending. Once panic and deflation set in, many people believed they could avoid further losses by keeping clear of the markets. Holding money became profitable as prices dropped lower and a given amount of money bought ever more goods, exacerbating the drop in demand. Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but the shrinking of the money supply greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.
Economists and economic historians are almost evenly split as to whether the traditional monetary explanation that monetary forces were the primary cause of the Great Depression is right, or the traditional Keynesian explanation that a fall in autonomous spending, particularly investment, is the primary explanation for the onset of the Great Depression. Today the controversy is of lesser importance since there is mainstream support for the debt deflation theory and the expectations hypothesis that building on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz add non-monetary explanations.
There is consensus that the Federal Reserve System should have cut short the process of monetary deflation and banking collapse. If they had done this, the economic downturn would have been far less severe and much shorter.
British economist John Maynard Keynes argued in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money that lower aggregate expenditures in the economy contributed to a massive decline in income and to employment that was well below the average. In such a situation, the economy reached equilibrium at low levels of economic activity and high unemployment.
Keynes ' basic idea was simple: to keep people fully employed, governments have to run deficits when the economy is slowing, as the private sector would not invest enough to keep production at the normal level and bring the economy out of recession. Keynesian economists called on governments during times of economic crisis to pick up the slack by increasing government spending and / or cutting taxes.
As the Depression wore on, Franklin D. Roosevelt tried public works, farm subsidies, and other devices to restart the U.S. economy, but never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. According to the Keynesians, this improved the economy, but Roosevelt never spent enough to bring the economy out of recession until the start of World War II.
Monetarists follow the explanation given by Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz. They argue that the Great Depression was caused by the banking crisis that caused one - third of all banks to vanish, a reduction of bank shareholder wealth and more importantly monetary contraction by 35 %. This caused a price drop by 33 % (deflation). By not lowering interest rates, by not increasing the monetary base and by not injecting liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling the Federal Reserve passively watched the transformation of a normal recession into the Great Depression. Friedman argued that the downward turn in the economy, starting with the stock market crash, would merely have been an ordinary recession if the Federal Reserve had taken aggressive action.
The Federal Reserve allowed some large public bank failures -- particularly that of the New York Bank of United States -- which produced panic and widespread runs on local banks, and the Federal Reserve sat idly by while banks collapsed. He claimed that, if the Fed had provided emergency lending to these key banks, or simply bought government bonds on the open market to provide liquidity and increase the quantity of money after the key banks fell, all the rest of the banks would not have fallen after the large ones did, and the money supply would not have fallen as far and as fast as it did.
With significantly less money to go around, businesses could not get new loans and could not even get their old loans renewed, forcing many to stop investing. This interpretation blames the Federal Reserve for inaction, especially the New York Branch.
One reason why the Federal Reserve did not act to limit the decline of the money supply was the gold standard. At that time, the amount of credit the Federal Reserve could issue was limited by the Federal Reserve Act, which required 40 % gold backing of Federal Reserve Notes issued. By the late 1920s, the Federal Reserve had almost hit the limit of allowable credit that could be backed by the gold in its possession. This credit was in the form of Federal Reserve demand notes. A "promise of gold '' is not as good as "gold in the hand '', particularly when they only had enough gold to cover 40 % of the Federal Reserve Notes outstanding. During the bank panics a portion of those demand notes were redeemed for Federal Reserve gold. Since the Federal Reserve had hit its limit on allowable credit, any reduction in gold in its vaults had to be accompanied by a greater reduction in credit. On April 5, 1933, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 6102 making the private ownership of gold certificates, coins and bullion illegal, reducing the pressure on Federal Reserve gold.
From the point of view of today 's mainstream schools of economic thought, government should strive to keep the interconnected macroeconomic aggregates money supply and / or aggregate demand on a stable growth path. When threatened by the forecast of a depression central banks should pour liquidity into the banking system and the government should cut taxes and accelerate spending in order to keep the nominal money stock and total nominal demand from collapsing. At the beginning of the Great Depression most economists believed in Say 's law and the self - equilibrating powers of the market and failed to explain the severity of the Depression. Outright leave - it - alone liquidationism was a position mainly held by the Austrian School. The liquidationist position was that a depression is good medicine. The idea was the benefit of a depression was to liquidate failed investments and businesses that have been made obsolete by technological development in order to release factors of production (capital and labor) from unproductive uses so that these could be redeployed in other sectors of the technologically dynamic economy. They argued that even if self - adjustment of the economy took mass bankruptcies, then so be it. An increasingly common view among economic historians is that the adherence of some Federal Reserve policymakers to the liquidationist thesis led to disastrous consequences. Regarding the policies of President Hoover, economists like Barry Eichengreen and J. Bradford DeLong point out that President Hoover tried to keep the federal budget balanced until 1932, when he lost confidence in his Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon and replaced him. Despite liquidationist expectations, a large proportion of the capital stock was not redeployed but vanished during the first years of the Great Depression. According to a study by Olivier Blanchard and Lawrence Summers, the recession caused a drop of net capital accumulation to pre-1924 levels by 1933. Milton Friedman called the leave - it - alone liquidationism "dangerous nonsense ''. He wrote:
The monetary explanation has two weaknesses. First it is not able to explain why the demand for money was falling more rapidly than the supply during the initial downturn in 1930 -- 31. Second it is not able to explain why in March 1933 a recovery took place although short term interest rates remained close to zero and the Money supply was still falling. These questions are addressed by modern explanations that build on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz but add non-monetary explanations.
Irving Fisher argued that the predominant factor leading to the Great Depression was a vicious circle of deflation and growing over-indebtedness. He outlined nine factors interacting with one another under conditions of debt and deflation to create the mechanics of boom to bust. The chain of events proceeded as follows:
During the Crash of 1929 preceding the Great Depression, margin requirements were only 10 %. Brokerage firms, in other words, would lend $9 for every $1 an investor had deposited. When the market fell, brokers called in these loans, which could not be paid back. Banks began to fail as debtors defaulted on debt and depositors attempted to withdraw their deposits en masse, triggering multiple bank runs. Government guarantees and Federal Reserve banking regulations to prevent such panics were ineffective or not used. Bank failures led to the loss of billions of dollars in assets.
Outstanding debts became heavier, because prices and incomes fell by 20 -- 50 % but the debts remained at the same dollar amount. After the panic of 1929, and during the first 10 months of 1930, 744 U.S. banks failed. (In all, 9,000 banks failed during the 1930s). By April 1933, around $7 billion in deposits had been frozen in failed banks or those left unlicensed after the March Bank Holiday. Bank failures snowballed as desperate bankers called in loans which the borrowers did not have time or money to repay. With future profits looking poor, capital investment and construction slowed or completely ceased. In the face of bad loans and worsening future prospects, the surviving banks became even more conservative in their lending. Banks built up their capital reserves and made fewer loans, which intensified deflationary pressures. A vicious cycle developed and the downward spiral accelerated.
The liquidation of debt could not keep up with the fall of prices which it caused. The mass effect of the stampede to liquidate increased the value of each dollar owed, relative to the value of declining asset holdings. The very effort of individuals to lessen their burden of debt effectively increased it. Paradoxically, the more the debtors paid, the more they owed. This self - aggravating process turned a 1930 recession into a 1933 great depression.
Fisher 's debt - deflation theory initially lacked mainstream influence because of the counter-argument that debt - deflation represented no more than a redistribution from one group (debtors) to another (creditors). Pure re-distributions should have no significant macroeconomic effects.
Building on both the monetary hypothesis of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz as well as the debt deflation hypothesis of Irving Fisher, Ben Bernanke developed an alternative way in which the financial crisis affected output. He builds on Fisher 's argument that dramatic declines in the price level and nominal incomes lead to increasing real debt burdens which in turn leads to debtor insolvency and consequently leads to lowered aggregate demand, a further decline in the price level then results in a debt deflationary spiral. According to Bernanke, a small decline in the price level simply reallocates wealth from debtors to creditors without doing damage to the economy. But when the deflation is severe falling asset prices along with debtor bankruptcies lead to a decline in the nominal value of assets on bank balance sheets. Banks will react by tightening their credit conditions, that in turn leads to a credit crunch which does serious harm to the economy. A credit crunch lowers investment and consumption and results in declining aggregate demand which additionally contributes to the deflationary spiral.
Since economic mainstream turned to the new neoclassical synthesis, expectations are a central element of macroeconomic models. According to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romer, the key to recovery and to ending the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management of public expectations. The thesis is based on the observation that after years of deflation and a very severe recession important economic indicators turned positive in March 1933 when Franklin D. Roosevelt took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, and investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turn around. Money supply was still falling and short term interest rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933 people expected further deflation and a recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. But when Roosevelt announced major regime changes people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With these positive expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment just as they were expected to do. Roosevelt 's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crises and small government led endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70 -- 80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free fall in 1933, and output would have been 30 % lower in 1937 than in 1933.
The recession of 1937 -- 38, which slowed down economic recovery from the Great Depression, is explained by fears of the population that the moderate tightening of the monetary and fiscal policy in 1937 would be first steps to a restoration of the pre-March 1933 policy regime.
Theorists of the "Austrian School '' who wrote about the Depression include Austrian economist Friedrich Hayek and American economist Murray Rothbard, who wrote America 's Great Depression (1963). In their view and like the monetarists, the Federal Reserve, which was created in 1913, shoulders much of the blame; but in opposition to the monetarists, they argue that the key cause of the Depression was the expansion of the money supply in the 1920s that led to an unsustainable credit - driven boom.
In the Austrian view it was this inflation of the money supply that led to an unsustainable boom in both asset prices (stocks and bonds) and capital goods. By the time the Fed belatedly tightened in 1928, it was far too late and, in the Austrian view, a significant economic contraction was inevitable. In February 1929 Hayek published a paper predicting the Federal Reserve 's actions would lead to a crisis starting in the stock and credit markets.
According to Rothbard, government support for failed enterprises and keeping wages above their market values actually prolonged the Depression. Hayek, unlike Rothbard, believed since the 1970s, along with the monetarists, that the Federal Reserve further contributed to the problems of the Depression by permitting the money supply to shrink during the earliest years of the Depression. However, in 1932 and 1934 Hayek had criticised the FED and the Bank of England for not taking a more contractionary stance.
Hans Sennholz argued that most boom and busts that plagued the American economy in 1819 -- 20, 1839 -- 43, 1857 -- 60, 1873 -- 78, 1893 -- 97, and 1920 -- 21, were generated by government creating a boom through easy money and credit, which was soon followed by the inevitable bust. The spectacular crash of 1929 followed five years of reckless credit expansion by the Federal Reserve System under the Coolidge Administration. The passing of the Sixteenth Amendment, the passage of The Federal Reserve Act, rising government deficits, the passage of the Hawley - Smoot Tariff Act, and the Revenue Act of 1932, exacerbated the crisis, prolonging it.
Ludwig von Mises wrote in the 1930s: "Credit expansion can not increase the supply of real goods. It merely brings about a rearrangement. It diverts capital investment away from the course prescribed by the state of economic wealth and market conditions. It causes production to pursue paths which it would not follow unless the economy were to acquire an increase in material goods. As a result, the upswing lacks a solid base. It is not a real prosperity. It is illusory prosperity. It did not develop from an increase in economic wealth, i.e. the accumulation of savings made available for productive investment. Rather, it arose because the credit expansion created the illusion of such an increase. Sooner or later, it must become apparent that this economic situation is built on sand. ''
Karl Marx saw recession and depression as unavoidable under free - market capitalism as there are no restrictions on accumulations of capital other than the market itself. In the Marxist view, capitalism tends to create unbalanced accumulations of wealth, leading to over-accumulations of capital which inevitably lead to a crisis. This especially sharp bust is a regular feature of the boom and bust pattern of what Marxists term "chaotic '' capitalist development. It is a tenet of many Marxist groupings that such crises are inevitable and will be increasingly severe until the contradictions inherent in the mismatch between the mode of production and the development of productive forces reach the final point of failure. At which point, the crisis period encourages intensified class conflict and forces societal change.
Two economists of the 1920s, Waddill Catchings and William Trufant Foster, popularized a theory that influenced many policy makers, including Herbert Hoover, Henry A. Wallace, Paul Douglas, and Marriner Eccles. It held the economy produced more than it consumed, because the consumers did not have enough income. Thus the unequal distribution of wealth throughout the 1920s caused the Great Depression.
According to this view, the root cause of the Great Depression was a global over-investment in heavy industry capacity compared to wages and earnings from independent businesses, such as farms. The proposed solution was for the government to pump money into the consumers ' pockets. That is, it must redistribute purchasing power, maintaining the industrial base, and re-inflating prices and wages to force as much of the inflationary increase in purchasing power into consumer spending. The economy was overbuilt, and new factories were not needed. Foster and Catchings recommended federal and state governments to start large construction projects, a program followed by Hoover and Roosevelt.
It can not be emphasized too strongly that the (productivity, output and employment) trends we are describing are long - time trends and were thoroughly evident prior to 1929. These trends are in nowise the result of the present depression, nor are they the result of the World War. On the contrary, the present depression is a collapse resulting from these long - term trends.
The first three decades of the 20th century saw economic output surge with electrification, mass production and motorized farm machinery, and because of the rapid growth in productivity there was a lot of excess production capacity and the work week was being reduced.
The dramatic rise in productivity of major industries in the U.S. and the effects of productivity on output, wages and the work week are discussed by Spurgeon Bell in his book Productivity, Wages, and National Income (1940).
The gold standard was the primary transmission mechanism of the Great Depression. Even countries that did not face bank failures and a monetary contraction first hand were forced to join the deflationary policy since higher interest rates in countries that performed a deflationary policy led to a gold outflow in countries with lower interest rates. Under the gold standard 's price -- specie flow mechanism, countries that lost gold but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation).
There is also consensus that protectionist policies such as the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act helped to worsen the depression.
Some economic studies have indicated that just as the downturn was spread worldwide by the rigidities of the Gold Standard, it was suspending gold convertibility (or devaluing the currency in gold terms) that did the most to make recovery possible.
Every major currency left the gold standard during the Great Depression. Great Britain was the first to do so. Facing speculative attacks on the pound and depleting gold reserves, in September 1931 the Bank of England ceased exchanging pound notes for gold and the pound was floated on foreign exchange markets.
Great Britain, Japan, and the Scandinavian countries left the gold standard in 1931. Other countries, such as Italy and the U.S., remained on the gold standard into 1932 or 1933, while a few countries in the so - called "gold bloc '', led by France and including Poland, Belgium and Switzerland, stayed on the standard until 1935 -- 36.
According to later analysis, the earliness with which a country left the gold standard reliably predicted its economic recovery. For example, Great Britain and Scandinavia, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost avoided the depression entirely. The connection between leaving the gold standard as a strong predictor of that country 's severity of its depression and the length of time of its recovery has been shown to be consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This partly explains why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.
Many economists have argued that the sharp decline in international trade after 1930 helped to worsen the depression, especially for countries significantly dependent on foreign trade. In a 1995 survey of American economic historians, two - thirds agreed that the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act at least worsened the Great Depression. Most historians and economists partly blame the American Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act (enacted June 17, 1930) for worsening the depression by seriously reducing international trade and causing retaliatory tariffs in other countries. While foreign trade was a small part of overall economic activity in the U.S. and was concentrated in a few businesses like farming, it was a much larger factor in many other countries. The average ad valorem rate of duties on dutiable imports for 1921 -- 25 was 25.9 % but under the new tariff it jumped to 50 % during 1931 -- 35. In dollar terms, American exports declined over the next four (4) years from about $5.2 billion in 1929 to $1.7 billion in 1933; so, not only did the physical volume of exports fall, but also the prices fell by about 1 / 3 as written. Hardest hit were farm commodities such as wheat, cotton, tobacco, and lumber.
Governments around the world took various steps into spending less money on foreign goods such as: "imposing tariffs, import quotas, and exchange controls ''. These restrictions formed a lot of tension between trade nations, causing a major deduction during the depression. Not all countries enforced the same measures of protectionism. Some countries raised tariffs drastically and enforced severe restrictions on foreign exchange transactions, while other countries condensed "trade and exchange restrictions only marginally '':
The consensus view among economists and economic historians is that the passage of the Smoot - Hawley Tariff exacerbated the Great Depression, although there is disagreement as to how much. In the popular view, the Smoot - Hawley Tariff was a leading cause of the depression. However, many economists hold the opinion that the tariff act did not greatly worsen the depression.
The financial crisis escalated out of control in mid-1931, starting with the collapse of the Credit Anstalt in Vienna in May. This put heavy pressure on Germany, which was already in political turmoil. With the rise in violence of Nazi and communist movements, as well as investor nervousness at harsh government financial policies. Investors withdrew their short - term money from Germany, as confidence spiraled downward. The Reichsbank lost 150 million marks in the first week of June, 540 million in the second, and 150 million in two days, June 19 -- 20. Collapse was at hand. U.S. President Herbert Hoover called for a moratorium on Payment of war reparations. This angered Paris, which depended on a steady flow of German payments, but it slowed the crisis down and the moratorium, was agreed to in July 1931. International conference in London later in July produced no agreements but on August 19 a standstill agreement froze Germany 's foreign liabilities for six months. Germany received emergency funding from private banks in New York as well as the Bank of International Settlements and the Bank of England. The funding only slowed the process; it 's nothing. Industrial failures began in Germany, a major bank closed in July and a two - day holiday for all German banks was declared. Business failures more frequent in July, and spread to Romania and Hungary. The crisis continued to get worse in Germany, bringing political upheaval that finally led to the coming to power of Hitler 's Nazi regime in January 1933.
The world financial crisis now began to overwhelm Britain; investors across the world started withdrawing their gold from London at the rate of £ 21⁄2 millions a day. Credits of £ 25 millions each from the Bank of France and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and an issue of £ 15 millions fiduciary note slowed, but did not reverse the British crisis. The financial crisis now caused a major political crisis in Britain in August 1931. With deficits mounting, the bankers demanded a balanced budget; the divided cabinet of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald 's Labour government agreed; it proposed to raise taxes, cut spending and most controversially, to cut unemployment benefits 20 %. The attack on welfare was totally unacceptable to the Labour movement. MacDonald wanted to resign, but King George V insisted he remain and form an all - party coalition "National government. '' The Conservative and Liberals parties signed on, along with a small cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the gold standard, and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as Prime Minister for a largely Conservative coalition.
In most countries of the world, recovery from the Great Depression began in 1933. In the U.S., recovery began in early 1933, but the U.S. did not return to 1929 GNP for over a decade and still had an unemployment rate of about 15 % in 1940, albeit down from the high of 25 % in 1933.
There is no consensus among economists regarding the motive force for the U.S. economic expansion that continued through most of the Roosevelt years (and the 1937 recession that interrupted it). The common view among most economists is that Roosevelt 's New Deal policies either caused or accelerated the recovery, although his policies were never aggressive enough to bring the economy completely out of recession. Some economists have also called attention to the positive effects from expectations of reflation and rising nominal interest rates that Roosevelt 's words and actions portended. It was the rollback of those same reflationary policies that led to the interruption of a recession beginning in late 1937. One contributing policy that reversed reflation was the Banking Act of 1935, which effectively raised reserve requirements, causing a monetary contraction that helped to thwart the recovery. GDP returned to its upward trend in 1938.
According to Christina Romer, the money supply growth caused by huge international gold inflows was a crucial source of the recovery of the United States economy, and that the economy showed little sign of self - correction. The gold inflows were partly due to devaluation of the U.S. dollar and partly due to deterioration of the political situation in Europe. In their book, A Monetary History of the United States, Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz also attributed the recovery to monetary factors, and contended that it was much slowed by poor management of money by the Federal Reserve System. Former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke agreed that monetary factors played important roles both in the worldwide economic decline and eventual recovery. Bernanke also saw a strong role for institutional factors, particularly the rebuilding and restructuring of the financial system, and pointed out that the Depression should be examined in an international perspective.
Women 's primary role were as housewives; without a steady flow of family income, their work became much harder in dealing with food and clothing and medical care. Birthrates fell everywhere, as children were postponed until families could financially support them. The average birthrate for 14 major countries fell 12 % from 19.3 births per thousand population in 1930, to 17.0 in 1935. In Canada, half of Roman Catholic women defied Church teachings and used contraception to postpone births.
Among the few women in the labor force, layoffs were less common in the white - collar jobs and they were typically found in light manufacturing work. However, there was a widespread demand to limit families to one paid job, so that wives might lose employment if their husband was employed. Across Britain, there was a tendency for married women to join the labor force, competing for part - time jobs especially.
In rural and small - town areas, women expanded their operation of vegetable gardens to include as much food production as possible. In the United States, agricultural organizations sponsored programs to teach housewives how to optimize their gardens and to raise poultry for meat and eggs. In American cities, African American women quiltmakers enlarged their activities, promoted collaboration, and trained neophytes. Quilts were created for practical use from various inexpensive materials and increased social interaction for women and promoted camaraderie and personal fulfillment.
Oral history provides evidence for how housewives in a modern industrial city handled shortages of money and resources. Often they updated strategies their mothers used when they were growing up in poor families. Cheap foods were used, such as soups, beans and noodles. They purchased the cheapest cuts of meat -- sometimes even horse meat -- and recycled the Sunday roast into sandwiches and soups. They sewed and patched clothing, traded with their neighbors for outgrown items, and made do with colder homes. New furniture and appliances were postponed until better days. Many women also worked outside the home, or took boarders, did laundry for trade or cash, and did sewing for neighbors in exchange for something they could offer. Extended families used mutual aid -- extra food, spare rooms, repair - work, cash loans -- to help cousins and in - laws.
In Japan, official government policy was deflationary and the opposite of Keynesian spending. Consequently, the government launched a nationwide campaign to induce households to reduce their consumption, focusing attention on spending by housewives.
In Germany, the government tried to reshape private household consumption under the Four - Year Plan of 1936 to achieve German economic self - sufficiency. The Nazi women 's organizations, other propaganda agencies and the authorities all attempted to shape such consumption as economic self - sufficiency was needed to prepare for and to sustain the coming war. The organizations, propaganda agencies and authorities employed slogans that called up traditional values of thrift and healthy living. However, these efforts were only partly successful in changing the behavior of housewives.
The common view among economic historians is that the Great Depression ended with the advent of World War II. Many economists believe that government spending on the war caused or at least accelerated recovery from the Great Depression, though some consider that it did not play a very large role in the recovery. It did help in reducing unemployment.
The rearmament policies leading up to World War II helped stimulate the economies of Europe in 1937 -- 39. By 1937, unemployment in Britain had fallen to 1.5 million. The mobilization of manpower following the outbreak of war in 1939 ended unemployment.
When the United States entered into the war in 1941, it finally eliminated the last effects from the Great Depression and brought the U.S. unemployment rate down below 10 %. In the U.S., massive war spending doubled economic growth rates, either masking the effects of the Depression or essentially ending the Depression. Businessmen ignored the mounting national debt and heavy new taxes, redoubling their efforts for greater output to take advantage of generous government contracts.
The majority of countries set up relief programs and most underwent some sort of political upheaval, pushing them to the right. Many of the countries in Europe and Latin America that were democracies saw them overthrown by some form of dictatorship or authoritarian rule, most famously in Germany in 1933. The Dominion of Newfoundland gave up democracy voluntarily.
Australia 's dependence on agricultural and industrial exports meant it was one of the hardest - hit developed countries. Falling export demand and commodity prices placed massive downward pressures on wages. Unemployment reached a record high of 29 % in 1932, with incidents of civil unrest becoming common. After 1932, an increase in wool and meat prices led to a gradual recovery.
Harshly affected by both the global economic downturn and the Dust Bowl, Canadian industrial production had fallen to only 58 % of the 1929 level by 1932, the second lowest level in the world after the United States, and well behind nations such as Britain, which fell to only 83 % of the 1929 level. Total national income fell to 56 % of the 1929 level, again worse than any nation apart from the United States. Unemployment reached 27 % at the depth of the Depression in 1933.
The League of Nations labeled Chile the country hardest hit by the Great Depression because 80 % of government revenue came from exports of copper and nitrates, which were in low demand. Chile initially felt the impact of the Great Depression in 1930, when GDP dropped 14 %, mining income declined 27 %, and export earnings fell 28 %. By 1932, GDP had shrunk to less than half of what it had been in 1929, exacting a terrible toll in unemployment and business failures.
Influenced profoundly by the Great Depression, many national leaders promoted the development of local industry in an effort to insulate the economy from future external shocks. After six years of government austerity measures, which succeeded in reestablishing Chile 's creditworthiness, Chileans elected to office during the 1938 -- 58 period a succession of center and left - of - center governments interested in promoting economic growth by means of government intervention.
Prompted in part by the devastating 1939 Chillán earthquake, the Popular Front government of Pedro Aguirre Cerda created the Production Development Corporation (Corporación de Fomento de la Producción, CORFO) to encourage with subsidies and direct investments an ambitious program of import substitution industrialization. Consequently, as in other Latin American countries, protectionism became an entrenched aspect of the Chilean economy.
China was largely unaffected by the Depression, mainly by having stuck to the Silver standard. However, the U.S. silver purchase act of 1934 created an intolerable demand on China 's silver coins, and so in the end the silver standard was officially abandoned in 1935 in favor of the four Chinese national banks ' "legal note '' issues. China and the British colony of Hong Kong, which followed suit in this regard in September 1935, would be the last to abandon the silver standard. In addition, the Nationalist Government also acted energetically to modernize the legal and penal systems, stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in narcotics and augment industrial and agricultural production. On November 3, 1935, the government instituted the fiat currency (fapi) reform, immediately stabilizing prices and also raising revenues for the government.
The crisis affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43 % per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63 %.
The depression was relatively mild: unemployment peaked under 5 %, the fall in production was at most 20 % below the 1929 output; there was no banking crisis.
However, the depression had drastic effects on the local economy, and partly explains the February 6, 1934 riots and even more the formation of the Popular Front, led by SFIO socialist leader Léon Blum, which won the elections in 1936. Ultra-nationalist groups also saw increased popularity, although democracy prevailed into World War II.
France 's relatively high degree of self - sufficiency meant the damage was considerably less than in nations like Germany.
The Great Depression hit Germany hard. The impact of the Wall Street Crash forced American banks to end the new loans that had been funding the repayments under the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. The financial crisis escalated out of control and mid-1931, starting with the collapse of the Credit Anstalt in Vienna in May. This put heavy pressure on Germany, which was already in political turmoil. With the rise in violence of Nazi and communist movements, as well as investor nervousness at harsh government financial policies. Investors withdrew their short - term money from Germany, as confidence spiraled downward. The Reichsbank lost 150 million marks in the first week of June, 540 million in the second, and 150 million in two days, June 19 -- 20. Collapse was at hand. U.S. President Herbert Hoover called for a moratorium on Payment of war reparations. This angered Paris, which depended on a steady flow of German payments, but it slowed the crisis down and the moratorium, was agreed to in July 1931. International conference in London later in July produced no agreements but on August 19 a standstill agreement froze Germany 's foreign liabilities for six months. Germany received emergency funding from private banks in New York as well as the Bank of International Settlements and the Bank of England. The funding only slowed the process. Industrial failures began in Germany, a major bank closed in July and a two - day holiday for all German banks was declared. Business failures more frequent in July, and spread to Romania and Hungary.
In 1932, 90 % of German reparation payments were cancelled. (In the 1950s, Germany repaid all its missed reparations debts.) Widespread unemployment reached 25 % as every sector was hurt. The government did not increase government spending to deal with Germany 's growing crisis, as they were afraid that a high - spending policy could lead to a return of the hyperinflation that had affected Germany in 1923. Germany 's Weimar Republic was hit hard by the depression, as American loans to help rebuild the German economy now stopped. The unemployment rate reached nearly 30 % in 1932, bolstering support for the Nazi (NSDAP) and Communist (KPD) parties, causing the collapse of the politically centrist Social Democratic Party. Hitler ran for the Presidency in 1932, and while he lost to the incumbent Hindenburg in the election, it marked a point during which both Nazi Party and the Communist parties rose in the years following the crash to altogether possess a Reichstag majority following the general election in July 1932.
Hitler followed an autarky economic policy, creating a network of client states and economic allies in central Europe and Latin America. By cutting wages and taking control of labor unions, plus public works spending, unemployment fell significantly by 1935. Large - scale military spending played a major role in the recovery.
The reverberations of the Great Depression hit Greece in 1932. The Bank of Greece tried to adopt deflationary policies to stave off the crises that were going on in other countries, but these largely failed. For a brief period the drachma was pegged to the U.S. dollar, but this was unsustainable given the country 's large trade deficit and the only long - term effects of this were Greece 's foreign exchange reserves being almost totally wiped out in 1932. Remittances from abroad declined sharply and the value of the drachma began to plummet from 77 drachmas to the dollar in March 1931 to 111 drachmas to the dollar in April, 1931. This was especially harmful to Greece as the country relied on imports from the UK, France and the Middle East for many necessities. Greece went off the gold standard in April, 1932 and declared a moratorium on all interest payments. The country also adopted protectionist policies such as import quotas, which a number of European countries did during the time period.
Protectionist policies coupled with a weak drachma, stifling imports, allowed Greek industry to expand during the Great Depression. In 1939 Greek Industrial output was 179 % that of 1928. These industries were for the most part "built on sand '' as one report of the Bank of Greece put it, as without massive protection they would not have been able to survive. Despite the global depression, Greece managed to suffer comparatively little, averaging an average growth rate of 3.5 % from 1932 to 1939. The dictatorial regime of Ioannis Metaxas took over the Greek government in 1936, and economic growth was strong in the years leading up to the Second World War.
Icelandic post-World War I prosperity came to an end with the outbreak of the Great Depression. The Depression hit Iceland hard as the value of exports plummeted. The total value of Icelandic exports fell from 74 million kronur in 1929 to 48 million in 1932, and was not to rise again to the pre-1930 level until after 1939. Government interference in the economy increased: "Imports were regulated, trade with foreign currency was monopolized by state - owned banks, and loan capital was largely distributed by state - regulated funds ''. Due to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, which cut Iceland 's exports of saltfish by half, the Depression lasted in Iceland until the outbreak of World War II (when prices for fish exports soared).
Frank Barry and Mary E. Daly have argued that:
The Great Depression hit Italy very hard. As industries came close to failure they were bought out by the banks in a largely illusionary bail - out -- the assets used to fund the purchases were largely worthless. This led to a financial crisis peaking in 1932 and major government intervention. The Industrial Reconstruction Institute (IRI) was formed in January 1933 and took control of the bank - owned companies, suddenly giving Italy the largest state - owned industrial sector in Europe (excluding the USSR). IRI did rather well with its new responsibilities -- restructuring, modernising and rationalising as much as it could. It was a significant factor in post-1945 development. But it took the Italian economy until 1935 to recover the manufacturing levels of 1930 -- a position that was only 60 % better than that of 1913.
The Great Depression did not strongly affect Japan. The Japanese economy shrank by 8 % during 1929 -- 31. Japan 's Finance Minister Takahashi Korekiyo was the first to implement what have come to be identified as Keynesian economic policies: first, by large fiscal stimulus involving deficit spending; and second, by devaluing the currency. Takahashi used the Bank of Japan to sterilize the deficit spending and minimize resulting inflationary pressures. Econometric studies have identified the fiscal stimulus as especially effective.
The devaluation of the currency had an immediate effect. Japanese textiles began to displace British textiles in export markets. The deficit spending proved to be most profound and went into the purchase of munitions for the armed forces. By 1933, Japan was already out of the depression. By 1934, Takahashi realized that the economy was in danger of overheating, and to avoid inflation, moved to reduce the deficit spending that went towards armaments and munitions.
This resulted in a strong and swift negative reaction from nationalists, especially those in the army, culminating in his assassination in the course of the February 26 Incident. This had a chilling effect on all civilian bureaucrats in the Japanese government. From 1934, the military 's dominance of the government continued to grow. Instead of reducing deficit spending, the government introduced price controls and rationing schemes that reduced, but did not eliminate inflation, which remained a problem until the end of World War II.
The deficit spending had a transformative effect on Japan. Japan 's industrial production doubled during the 1930s. Further, in 1929 the list of the largest firms in Japan was dominated by light industries, especially textile companies (many of Japan 's automakers, such as Toyota, have their roots in the textile industry). By 1940 light industry had been displaced by heavy industry as the largest firms inside the Japanese economy.
Because of high levels of U.S. investment in Latin American economies, they were severely damaged by the Depression. Within the region, Chile, Bolivia and Peru were particularly badly affected.
Before the 1929 crisis, links between the world economy and Latin American economies had been established through American and British investment in Latin American exports to the world. As a result, Latin Americans export industries felt the depression quickly. World prices for commodities such as wheat, coffee and copper plunged. Exports from all of Latin America to the U.S. fell in value from $1.2 billion in 1929 to $335 million in 1933, rising to $660 million in 1940.
But on the other hand, the depression led the area governments to develop new local industries and expand consumption and production. Following the example of the New Deal, governments in the area approved regulations and created or improved welfare institutions that helped millions of new industrial workers to achieve a better standard of living.
From roughly 1931 to 1937, the Netherlands suffered a deep and exceptionally long depression. This depression was partly caused by the after - effects of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 in the U.S., and partly by internal factors in the Netherlands. Government policy, especially the very late dropping of the Gold Standard, played a role in prolonging the depression. The Great Depression in the Netherlands led to some political instability and riots, and can be linked to the rise of the Dutch national - socialist party NSB. The depression in the Netherlands eased off somewhat at the end of 1936, when the government finally dropped the Gold Standard, but real economic stability did not return until after World War II.
New Zealand was especially vulnerable to worldwide depression, as it relied almost totally on agricultural exports to the United Kingdom for its economy. The drop in exports led to a lack of disposable income from the farmers, who were the mainstay of the local economy. Jobs disappeared and wages plummeted, leaving people desperate and charities unable to cope. Work relief schemes were the only government support available to the unemployed, the rate of which by the early 1930s was officially around 15 %, but unofficially nearly twice that level (official figures excluded Māori and women). In 1932, riots occurred among the unemployed in three of the country 's main cities (Auckland, Dunedin, and Wellington). Many were arrested or injured through the tough official handling of these riots by police and volunteer "special constables ''.
Already under the rule of a dictatorial junta, the Ditadura Nacional, Portugal suffered no turbulent political effects of the Depression, although António de Oliveira Salazar, already appointed Minister of Finance in 1928 greatly expanded his powers and in 1932 rose to Prime Minister of Portugal to found the Estado Novo, an authoritarian corporatist dictatorship. With the budget balanced in 1929, the effects of the depression were relaxed through harsh measures towards budget balance and autarky, causing social discontent but stability and, eventually, an impressive economic growth.
In the years immediately preceding the depression, negative developments in the island and world economies perpetuated an unsustainable cycle of subsistence for many Puerto Rican workers. The 1920s brought a dramatic drop in Puerto Rico 's two primary exports, raw sugar and coffee, due to a devastating hurricane in 1928 and the plummeting demand from global markets in the latter half of the decade. 1930 unemployment on the island was roughly 36 % and by 1933 Puerto Rico 's per capita income dropped 30 % (by comparison, unemployment in the United States in 1930 was approximately 8 % reaching a height of 25 % in 1933). To provide relief and economic reform, the United States government and Puerto Rican politicians such as Carlos Chardon and Luis Munoz Marin created and administered first the Puerto Rico Emergency Relief Administration (PRERA) 1933 and then in 1935, the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration (PRRA).
As world trade slumped, demand for South African agricultural and mineral exports fell drastically. The Carnegie Commission on Poor Whites had concluded in 1931 that nearly one third of Afrikaners lived as paupers. The social discomfort caused by the depression was a contributing factor in the 1933 split between the "gesuiwerde '' (purified) and "smelter '' (fusionist) factions within the National Party and the National Party 's subsequent fusion with the South African Party.
The Soviet Union was the world 's sole communist state with very little international trade. Its economy was not tied to the rest of the world and was only slightly affected by the Great Depression. Its forced transformation from a rural to an industrial society succeeded in building up heavy industry, at the cost of millions of lives in rural Russia and Ukraine.
At the time of the Depression, the Soviet economy was growing steadily, fuelled by intensive investment in heavy industry. The apparent economic success of the Soviet Union at a time when the capitalist world was in crisis led many Western intellectuals to view the Soviet system favorably. Jennifer Burns wrote:
As the Great Depression ground on and unemployment soared, intellectuals began unfavorably comparing their faltering capitalist economy to Russian Communism... More than ten years after the Revolution, Communism was finally reaching full flower, according to New York Times reporter Walter Duranty, a Stalin fan who vigorously debunked accounts of the Ukraine famine, a man - made disaster that would leave millions dead. ''
Despite all of this, The Great Depression caused mass immigration to the Soviet Union, mostly from Finland and Germany. Soviet Russia was at first happy to help these immigrants settle, because they believed they were victims of capitalism who had come to help the Soviet cause. However, when the Soviet Union entered the war in 1941, most of these Germans and Finns were arrested and sent to Siberia, while their Russian - born children were placed in orphanages. Their fate is unknown.
Spain had a relatively isolated economy, with high protective tariffs and was not one of the main countries affected by the Depression. The banking system held up well, as did agriculture.
By far the most serious negative impact came after 1936 from the heavy destruction of infrastructure and manpower by the civil war, 1936 -- 39. Many talented workers were forced into permanent exile. By staying neutral in the Second World War, and selling to both sides, the economy avoided further disasters.
By the 1930s, Sweden had what America 's Life magazine called in 1938 the "world 's highest standard of living ''. Sweden was also the first country worldwide to recover completely from the Great Depression. Taking place in the midst of a short - lived government and a less - than - a-decade old Swedish democracy, events such as those surrounding Ivar Kreuger (who eventually committed suicide) remain infamous in Swedish history. The Social Democrats under Per Albin Hansson formed their first long - lived government in 1932 based on strong interventionist and welfare state policies, monopolizing the office of Prime Minister until 1976 with the sole and short - lived exception of Axel Pehrsson - Bramstorp 's "summer cabinet '' in 1936. During forty years of hegemony, it was the most successful political party in the history of Western liberal democracy.
In Thailand, then known as the Kingdom of Siam, the Great Depression contributed to the end of the absolute monarchy of King Rama VII in the Siamese revolution of 1932.
The World Depression broke at a time when the United Kingdom was still far from having recovered from the effects of the First World War more than a decade earlier. The country was driven off the gold standard in 1931.
The world financial crisis began to overwhelm Britain in 1931; investors across the world started withdrawing their gold from London at the rate of £ 21⁄2 millions a day. Credits of £ 25 millions each from the Bank of France and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and an issue of £ 15 millions fiduciary note slowed, but did not reverse the British crisis. The financial crisis now caused a major political crisis in Britain in August 1931. With deficits mounting, the bankers demanded a balanced budget; the divided cabinet of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald 's Labour government agreed; it proposed to raise taxes, cut spending and most controversially, to cut unemployment benefits by 20 %. The attack on welfare was totally unacceptable to the Labour movement. MacDonald wanted to resign, but King George V insisted he remain and form an all - party coalition "National Government ''. The Conservative and Liberals parties signed on, along with a small cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the gold standard, and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election, the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as Prime Minister for a largely Conservative coalition.
The effects on the northern industrial areas of Britain were immediate and devastating, as demand for traditional industrial products collapsed. By the end of 1930 unemployment had more than doubled from 1 million to 2.5 million (20 % of the insured workforce), and exports had fallen in value by 50 %. In 1933, 30 % of Glaswegians were unemployed due to the severe decline in heavy industry. In some towns and cities in the north east, unemployment reached as high as 70 % as shipbuilding fell by 90 %. The National Hunger March of September -- October 1932 was the largest of a series of hunger marches in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s. About 200,000 unemployed men were sent to the work camps, which continued in operation until 1939.
In the less industrial Midlands and Southern England, the effects were short - lived and the later 1930s were a prosperous time. Growth in modern manufacture of electrical goods and a boom in the motor car industry was helped by a growing southern population and an expanding middle class. Agriculture also saw a boom during this period.
Hoover 's first measures to combat the depression were based on voluntarism by businesses not to reduce their workforce or cut wages. But businesses had little choice and wages were reduced, workers were laid off, and investments postponed.
In June 1930 Congress approved the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act which raised tariffs on thousands of imported items. The intent of the Act was to encourage the purchase of American - made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers. Other nations increased tariffs on American - made goods in retaliation, reducing international trade, and worsening the Depression.
In 1931 Hoover urged bankers to set up the National Credit Corporation so that big banks could help failing banks survive. But bankers were reluctant to invest in failing banks, and the National Credit Corporation did almost nothing to address the problem.
By 1932, unemployment had reached 23.6 %, peaking in early 1933 at 25 %. Drought persisted in the agricultural heartland, businesses and families defaulted on record numbers of loans, and more than 5,000 banks had failed. Hundreds of thousands of Americans found themselves homeless, and began congregating in shanty towns -- dubbed "Hoovervilles '' -- that began to appear across the country. In response, President Hoover and Congress approved the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, to spur new home construction, and reduce foreclosures. The final attempt of the Hoover Administration to stimulate the economy was the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act (ERA) which included funds for public works programs such as dams and the creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) in 1932. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was a Federal agency with the authority to lend up to $2 billion to rescue banks and restore confidence in financial institutions. But $2 billion was not enough to save all the banks, and bank runs and bank failures continued. Quarter by quarter the economy went downhill, as prices, profits and employment fell, leading to the political realignment in 1932 that brought to power Franklin Delano Roosevelt. It is important to note, however, that after volunteerism failed, Hoover developed ideas that laid the framework for parts of the New Deal.
Shortly after President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was inaugurated in 1933, drought and erosion combined to cause the Dust Bowl, shifting hundreds of thousands of displaced persons off their farms in the Midwest. From his inauguration onward, Roosevelt argued that restructuring of the economy would be needed to prevent another depression or avoid prolonging the current one. New Deal programs sought to stimulate demand and provide work and relief for the impoverished through increased government spending and the institution of financial reforms.
During a "bank holiday '' that lasted five days, the Emergency Banking Act was signed into law. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under Treasury supervision, with federal loans available if needed. The Securities Act of 1933 comprehensively regulated the securities industry. This was followed by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 which created the Securities and Exchange Commission. Though amended, key provisions of both Acts are still in force. Federal insurance of bank deposits was provided by the FDIC, and the Glass -- Steagall Act.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act provided incentives to cut farm production in order to raise farming prices. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) made a number of sweeping changes to the American economy. It forced businesses to work with government to set price codes through the NRA to fight deflationary "cut - throat competition '' by the setting of minimum prices and wages, labor standards, and competitive conditions in all industries. It encouraged unions that would raise wages, to increase the purchasing power of the working class. The NRA was deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1935.
These reforms, together with several other relief and recovery measures, are called the First New Deal. Economic stimulus was attempted through a new alphabet soup of agencies set up in 1933 and 1934 and previously extant agencies such as the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. By 1935, the "Second New Deal '' added Social Security (which was later considerably extended through the Fair Deal), a jobs program for the unemployed (the Works Progress Administration, WPA) and, through the National Labor Relations Board, a strong stimulus to the growth of labor unions. In 1929, federal expenditures constituted only 3 % of the GDP. The national debt as a proportion of GNP rose under Hoover from 20 % to 40 %. Roosevelt kept it at 40 % until the war began, when it soared to 128 %.
By 1936, the main economic indicators had regained the levels of the late 1920s, except for unemployment, which remained high at 11 %, although this was considerably lower than the 25 % unemployment rate seen in 1933. In the spring of 1937, American industrial production exceeded that of 1929 and remained level until June 1937. In June 1937, the Roosevelt administration cut spending and increased taxation in an attempt to balance the federal budget. The American economy then took a sharp downturn, lasting for 13 months through most of 1938. Industrial production fell almost 30 per cent within a few months and production of durable goods fell even faster. Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in 1937 to 19.0 % in 1938, rising from 5 million to more than 12 million in early 1938. Manufacturing output fell by 37 % from the 1937 peak and was back to 1934 levels.
Producers reduced their expenditures on durable goods, and inventories declined, but personal income was only 15 % lower than it had been at the peak in 1937. As unemployment rose, consumers ' expenditures declined, leading to further cutbacks in production. By May 1938 retail sales began to increase, employment improved, and industrial production turned up after June 1938. After the recovery from the Recession of 1937 -- 38, conservatives were able to form a bipartisan conservative coalition to stop further expansion of the New Deal and, when unemployment dropped to 2 % in the early 1940s, they abolished WPA, CCC and the PWA relief programs. Social Security remained in place.
Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditure tripled, and Roosevelt 's critics charged that he was turning America into a socialist state. The Great Depression was a main factor in the implementation of social democracy and planned economies in European countries after World War II (see Marshall Plan). Keynesianism generally remained the most influential economic school in the United States and in parts of Europe until the periods between the 1970s and the 1980s, when Milton Friedman and other neoliberal economists formulated and propagated the newly created theories of neoliberalism and incorporated them into the Chicago School of Economics as an alternative approach to the study of economics. Neoliberalism went on to challenge the dominance of the Keynesian school of Economics in the mainstream academia and policy - making in the United States, having reached its peak in popularity in the election of the presidency of Ronald Reagan in the United States, and Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom.
-- John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath
The Great Depression has been the subject of much writing, as authors have sought to evaluate an era that caused both financial and emotional trauma. Perhaps the most noteworthy and famous novel written on the subject is The Grapes of Wrath, published in 1939 and written by John Steinbeck, who was awarded both the Nobel Prize for literature and the Pulitzer Prize for the work. The novel focuses on a poor family of sharecroppers who are forced from their home as drought, economic hardship, and changes in the agricultural industry occur during the Great Depression. Steinbeck 's Of Mice and Men is another important novella about a journey during the Great Depression. Additionally, Harper Lee 's To Kill a Mockingbird is set during the Great Depression. Margaret Atwood 's Booker prize - winning The Blind Assassin is likewise set in the Great Depression, centering on a privileged socialite 's love affair with a Marxist revolutionary. The era spurred the resurgence of social realism, practiced by many who started their writing careers on relief programs, especially the Federal Writers ' Project in the U.S.
A number of works for younger audiences are also set during the Great Depression, among them the Kit Kittredge series of American Girl books written by Valerie Tripp and illustrated by Walter Rane, released to tie in with the dolls and playsets sold by the company. The stories, which take place during the early to mid 1930s in Cincinnati, focuses on the changes brought by the Depression to the titular character 's family and how the Kittredges dealt with it. A theatrical adaptation of the series entitled Kit Kittredge: An American Girl was later released in 2008 to positive reviews. Similarly, Christmas After All, part of the Dear America series of books for older girls, take place in 1930s Indianapolis; while Kit Kittredge is told in a third - person viewpoint, Christmas After All is in the form of a fictional journal as told by the protagonist Minnie Swift as she recounts her experiences during the era, especially when her family takes in an orphan cousin from Texas.
The term "The Great Depression '' is most frequently attributed to British economist Lionel Robbins, whose 1934 book The Great Depression is credited with formalizing the phrase, though Hoover is widely credited with popularizing the term, informally referring to the downturn as a depression, with such uses as "Economic depression can not be cured by legislative action or executive pronouncement '' (December 1930, Message to Congress), and "I need not recount to you that the world is passing through a great depression '' (1931).
The term "depression '' to refer to an economic downturn dates to the 19th century, when it was used by varied Americans and British politicians and economists. Indeed, the first major American economic crisis, the Panic of 1819, was described by then - president James Monroe as "a depression '', and the most recent economic crisis, the Depression of 1920 -- 21, had been referred to as a "depression '' by then - president Calvin Coolidge.
Financial crises were traditionally referred to as "panics '', most recently the major Panic of 1907, and the minor Panic of 1910 -- 11, though the 1929 crisis was called "The Crash '', and the term "panic '' has since fallen out of use. At the time of the Great Depression, the term "The Great Depression '' was already used to refer to the period 1873 -- 96 (in the United Kingdom), or more narrowly 1873 -- 79 (in the United States), which has retroactively been renamed the Long Depression.
Other economic downturns have been called a "great depression '', but none had been as widespread, or lasted for so long. Various nations have experienced brief or extended periods of economic downturns, which were referred to as "depressions '', but none have had such a widespread global impact.
The collapse of the Soviet Union, and the breakdown of economic ties which followed, led to a severe economic crisis and catastrophic fall in the standards of living in the 1990s in post-Soviet states and the former Eastern Bloc, which was even worse than the Great Depression. Even before Russia 's financial crisis of 1998, Russia 's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s, and some populations are still poorer as of 2009 than they were in 1989, including Moldova, Central Asia, and the Caucasus.
Some journalists and economists have taken to calling the late - 2000s recession the "Great Recession '' in allusion to the Great Depression.
The causes of the Great Recession seem similar to the Great Depression, but significant differences exist. The previous chairman of the Federal Reserve, Ben Bernanke, had extensively studied the Great Depression as part of his doctoral work at MIT, and implemented policies to manipulate the money supply and interest rates in ways that were not done in the 1930s. Generally speaking, the recovery of the world 's financial systems tended to be quicker during the Great Depression of the 1930s as opposed to the late - 2000s recession.
If we contrast the 1930s with the Crash of 2008 where gold went through the roof, it is clear that the U.S. dollar on the gold standard was a completely different animal in comparison to the fiat free - floating U.S. dollar currency we have today. Both currencies in 1929 and 2008 were the U.S. dollar, but in an analogous way it is as if one was a Saber - toothed tiger and the other is a Bengal tiger; they are two completely different animals. Where we have experienced inflation since the Crash of 2008, the situation was much different in the 1930s when deflation set in. Unlike the deflation of the early 1930s, the U.S. economy currently appears to be in a "liquidity trap, '' or a situation where monetary policy is unable to stimulate an economy back to health. In terms of the stock market, nearly three years after the 1929 crash, the DJIA dropped 8.4 % on August 12, 1932. Where we have experienced great volatility with large intraday swings in the past two months, in 2011, we have not experienced any record - shattering daily percentage drops to the tune of the 1930s. Where many of us may have that ' 30s feeling, in light of the DJIA, the CPI, and the national unemployment rate, we are simply not living in the ' 30s. Some individuals may feel as if we are living in a depression, but for many others the current global financial crisis simply does not feel like a depression akin to the 1930s.
1928 and 1929 were the times in the 20th century that the wealth gap reached such skewed extremes; half the unemployed had been out of work for over six months, something that was not repeated until the late - 2000s recession. 2007 and 2008 eventually saw the world reach new levels of wealth gap inequality that rivalled the years of 1928 and 1929.
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a groovy kind of love by the mindbenders | A Groovy Kind of Love - wikipedia
"A Groovy Kind of Love '' is a pop song written by Toni Wine and Carole Bayer Sager and published by the Screen Gems music publishing company. It is heavily based on the Rondo movement of Sonatina in G major, op. 36 no. 5, by Muzio Clementi. The song was released first by Diane & Annita in 1965, and several covers have since appeared on worldwide music charts.
The song title was an early use of the then - new slang word "groovy ''. Wine, who was 17 years old when she wrote the song, said, "Carole came up with "Groovy kinda... groovy kinda... groovy... '' and we 're all just saying, ' Kinda groovy, kinda groovy, kinda... ' and I do n't exactly know who came up with "Love '', but it was ' Groovy kind of love '. And we did it. We wrote it in 20 minutes. It was amazing. Just flew out of our mouths, and at the piano, it was a real quick and easy song to write. '' The song was recorded and covered by other bands and artists such as The Turtles and Phil Collins.
Jack McGraw, who ran the London Screen Gems offices, thought the Wine / Bayer - Sager song was a perfect match for the new group The Mindbenders (previously the backing group for Wayne Fontana, who had recently left the band) and especially their Guitarist, who now became their new Lead Vocalist, Eric Stewart. The band recorded their version of "A Groovy Kind of Love '' in 1965. They liked the result so much that they included the song on their first album without Fontana, The Mindbenders (US title "A Groovy Kind of Love '') and released the song to radio as their debut single. It reached # 2 in the UK the week of January 19 -- 26, 1966 and it also hit # 2 in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 for 2 weeks in late May and early June 1966. The song features a female backing chorus, and they sing the words "You and me '' and the repeated title towards the end of each verse of the song. Eric Stewart went on to co-found the British Art / Pop band, 10cc.
Phil Collins recorded a new version of "A Groovy Kind of Love '' in 1988. He had originally suggested the song as a good one for collaborator Stephen Bishop to record, with Collins producing. Collins originally recorded his demo version as a suggestion for the film Buster, then found out later that the demo was actually used in the film. He later decided to record it himself when he took the starring role in the film, which had a 1960s setting. The song was originally released on Buster: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. A live version appeared on his Serious Hits... Live! album.
Unlike the Mindbenders ' version, which was an upbeat guitar - based pop song, Collins ' version was a slow ballad with a prominent keyboard and strings. This version hit No. 1 on both the U.S. and UK charts, and remains Collins ' only single to top the charts in both countries; it was his last No. 1 single in the UK. The single was certified silver in the UK by the British Phonographic Industry. It also reached No. 1 on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart. The song earned Collins a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male in 1989.
Other cover versions include the following:
In 1979, Italian artist Ivan Graziani recorded "Agnese '', his own adaptation of Clementi 's Rondo, which has the same song structure.
In 1989, Hong Kong singer Sandy Lam covered this song in Cantonese.
In 1998, ska / punk band My Superhero covered the song as "Groovy '' on their album Solid State 14.
In 2011, a version of the song based on Phil Collins 's slow ballad interpretation was featured in an advert for Walkers crisps featuring Gary Lineker.
In 2011, the TV show New Girl featured the Phil Collins version in the episode "Wedding ''.
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what does the j in sainsbury's stand for | Sainsbury 's - wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 31 ′ 02 '' N 0 ° 06 ′ 30 '' W / 51.51722 ° N 0.10833 ° W / 51.51722; - 0.10833
J Sainsbury plc, trading as Sainsbury 's, is the second largest chain of supermarkets in the United Kingdom, with a 16.9 % share of the supermarket sector in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1869, by John James Sainsbury with a shop in Drury Lane, London, the company became the largest grocery retailer in 1922, was an early adopter of self - service retailing in the United Kingdom, and had its heyday during the 1980s. In 1995, Tesco overtook Sainsbury 's to become the market leader, and Asda became the second largest in 2003, demoting Sainsbury 's to third place for most of the subsequent period until January 2014, when Sainsbury 's regained second place.
The holding company, J Sainsbury plc, is split into three divisions: Sainsbury 's Supermarkets Ltd (including convenience stores), Sainsbury 's Bank and Sainsbury 's Argos. The group 's head office is in the Sainsbury 's Store Support Centre in Holborn Circus, City of London. The group also has interests in property.
As of May 2011, the largest Sainsbury family shareholders are Lord Sainsbury of Turville with 4.99 %, with Judith Portrait the trustee of various Sainsbury settlements and charitable trusts holding 3.92 %. The largest overall shareholder is the sovereign wealth fund of Qatar, the Qatar Investment Authority, who hold 25.999 % of the company. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.
Sainsbury 's was established as a partnership in 1869, when John James Sainsbury and his wife Mary Ann opened a store at 173 Drury Lane in Holborn, London. Sainsbury started as a retailer of fresh foods and later expanded into packaged groceries such as tea and sugar. His trading philosophy, as stated on a sign outside his first shop in Islington, was: "Quality perfect, prices lower ''.
Sainsbury 's was very innovative in that its stores, instead of featuring five own - brand lines as arch - rival Home and Colonial did, offered a wide range of own label lines in comparison. Also, instead of sawdust floors and wooden counters, Sainsbury 's boasted marble counters, mosaic floors, and white - tiled walls. Staff even had a uniform of white aprons. Stores started to look similar, so people could recognise them throughout London, a high cast - iron ' J. SAINSBURY ' sign featured on every store so their stores could be seen on coaches and omnibuses, and round - the - back deliveries started to add extra convenience and not upset rivals due to Sainsbury 's popularity.
In 1922, J Sainsbury was incorporated as a private company, as ' J. Sainsbury Limited ', when it became the United Kingdom 's largest grocery group.
By this time each store had the following departments: dairy, bacon and hams, poultry and game, cooked meats, and fresh meats. Groceries were introduced in 1903, when John James purchased a grocer 's branch at 12 Kingsland High Street, Dalston. Home delivery featured in every store, as there were fewer cars in those days. Sites were carefully chosen, with a central position in a parade selected in preference to a corner shop. This allowed a larger display of products, which could be kept cooler in summer, which was important as there was no refrigeration.
By the time John James Sainsbury died in 1928, there were over 128 shops. His last words were said to be: ' Keep the shops well lit '. He was replaced by his eldest son, John Benjamin Sainsbury, who had gone into partnership with his father in 1915.
During the 1930s and 1940s, with the company now run by John James Sainsbury 's eldest son, John Benjamin Sainsbury, the company continued to refine its product offerings and maintain its leadership in terms of store design, convenience, and cleanliness. The company acquired the Midlands - based Thoroughgood chain in 1936.
Alan Sainsbury, the founder 's grandson (later Lord Sainsbury of Drury Lane) became joint managing director of Sainsbury 's, along with his brother Sir Robert Sainsbury, in 1938, after their father, John Benjamin Sainsbury, had a minor heart attack.
Following the outbreak of World War II, many of the men who worked for Sainsbury 's were called to perform National Service and were replaced by women. The Second World War was a difficult time for Sainsbury 's, as most of its stores were trading in the London area and were bombed or damaged. Turnover fell to half the pre-war level. Food was rationed, and one particular store in East Grinstead was so badly damaged on Friday 9 July 1943 that it had to move to the local church, temporarily, while a new one was built. This store was not completed until 1951.
In 1956, Alan Sainsbury became chairman after the death of his father, John Benjamin Sainsbury. During the 1950s and 1960s, Sainsbury 's was a keen early adopter of self - service supermarkets in the United Kingdom; the first self - service store within the country was a co-operative store opened in 1942. On a trip to the United States of America, Alan Sainsbury realised the benefits of self - service stores and believed the future of Sainsbury 's was self - service supermarkets of 10,000 sq ft (930 m), with eventually the added bonus of a car park for extra convenience. The first self - service branch opened in Croydon in 1950.
Sainsbury 's was a pioneer in the development of own - brand goods; the aim was to offer products that matched the quality of nationally branded goods but at a lower price. It expanded more cautiously than did Tesco, shunning acquisitions, and it never offered trading stamps.
Until the company went public on 12 July 1973, as J Sainsbury plc, the company was wholly owned by the Sainsbury family. It was at the time the largest ever flotation on the London Stock Exchange; the company rewarded the smaller bids for shares in order to create as many shareholders as possible. A million shares were set aside for staff, which led to many staff members buying shares that shot up in value. Within one minute the list of applications was closed: £ 495 million had been offered for £ 14.5 million available shares. The Sainsbury family at the time retained 85 % of the firm 's shares.
Most of the senior positions were held by family members. John Davan Sainsbury (later Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover), a member of the fourth generation of the founding family, took over the chairmanship from his uncle Sir Robert Sainsbury in 1969, who had been chairman for two years from 1967 following Alan Sainsbury 's retirement.
Sainsbury 's started to replace its 10,000 sq ft (930 m) High Street stores with self - service supermarkets above 20,000 sq ft (1,900 m), which were either in out of town locations or in regenerated town centres. Sainsbury 's policy was to invest in uniform, well designed stores with a strong emphasis on quality; its slogan was "good food costs less at Sainsbury 's ''.
During the 1970s, the average size of Sainsbury 's stores rose from 10,000 sq ft (930 m) to around 18,000 sq ft (1,700 m); the first edge of town store, with 24,000 sq ft (2,200 m) of selling space, was opened at Coldhams Lane in Cambridge in 1974. The last counter service branch closed in Peckham in 1982.
To participate in the hypermarket sector, Sainsbury 's formed a joint venture, known as SavaCentre, with British Home Stores. The first SavaCentre store was opened in Washington, Tyne and Wear, in 1977; nearly half the space, amounting to some 35,000 sq ft (3,300 m), was devoted to textiles, electrical goods and hardware. As the hypermarket format became more mainstream, with rivals such as Asda and Tesco launching ever larger stores, it was decided that a separate brand was no longer needed, and the stores were converted to the regular Sainsbury 's superstore format in September 1999.
Another diversification took place in 1979, when Sainsbury 's formed a joint venture with the Belgian retailer, GB - Inno - BM, to set up a chain of do - it - yourself stores under the Homebase name.
Sainsbury 's sold the Homebase chain in December 2000, in an twofold deal worth £ 969 million. Sales of the chain of stores to venture capitalist Schroder Ventures generated £ 750 million and sale of 28 development sites, which had been earmarked for future Homebase stores, were sold for £ 219 million to rival B&Q 's parent company, Kingfisher plc.
In November 1983, Sainsbury 's purchased 21 % of Shaw 's Supermarkets, the second largest grocery group in the northeastern United States (primarily in New England). In June 1987, Sainsbury 's acquired the rest of the company with the intention of creating a high - quality regional food retailing business based on the same principles as the UK - based operation.
In 1985, the chairman reported that over the preceding 10 years profits had grown from £ 15 million to over £ 168 million, a compound annual rise of 30.4 % -- after allowing for inflation a real annual growth rate of 17.6 %.
During the 1980s, the Company invested in new technology: the proportion of sales passing through EPOS scanning checkouts rose from 1 % to 90 %.
With the advent of out of town shopping complexes during the 1980s, Sainsbury 's was one of the many big retail names to open new stores in such complexes -- notably with its store at the Meadowhall Shopping Centre, Sheffield (originally as a SavaCentre) in 1990, which was converted into a regular Sainsbury store in 2005, and was closed in 2006 and the Merry Hill Shopping Centre at Brierley Hill in the West Midlands (part of an Enterprise Zone), which opened in September 1989.
Sainsbury 's expanded its operation into Scotland with a store in Darnley, which opened in January 1992, (the SavaCentre at Cameron Toll in Edinburgh had opened in 1984). In June 1995, Sainsbury 's announced its intention to move into the Northern Ireland market, until that point dominated by local companies.
Between December 1996 and December 1998, the company opened seven stores. Two others at Sprucefield, Lisburn, and Holywood Exchange, Belfast would not open until 2003, due to protracted legal challenges. Sainsbury 's move into Northern Ireland was undertaken in a very different way from that of Tesco. While Sainsbury 's outlets were all new developments, Tesco (apart from one Tesco Metro) instead purchased existing chains from Associated British Foods (see Tesco Ireland).
In 1991, the Sainsbury 's group boasted a twelve - year record of dividend increases, of 20 % or more and earnings per share had risen by as much for nearly as long. Also in 1991, the company raised £ 489 million, in new equity to fund the expansion of superstores.
In 1992, the long time CEO John Davan Sainsbury retired, and was succeeded as chairman and chief executive by his cousin, David Sainsbury (later Lord Sainsbury of Turville); this brought about a change in management style -- David was more consensual and less hierarchical but not in strategy or in corporate beliefs about the company 's place in the market.
Mistakes by David Sainsbury and his successors, Dino Adriano and Peter Davis, included the rejection of loyalty cards, the reluctance to move into non-food retailing, the indecision between whether to go quality or for value, "the sometimes brutal treatment of suppliers '' which led to suppliers favouring Tesco over Sainsbury 's and the unsuccessful John Cleese advertising campaign.
At the end of 1993, it announced price cuts on three hundred of its most popular own label lines. Significantly, this came three months after Tesco had launched its line Tesco Value. A few months later, Sainsbury 's announced that margins had fallen, that the pace of new superstore construction would slow down, and that it would write down the value of some of its properties.
In 1994, Sainsbury 's announced a new town centre format, Sainsbury 's Central, again a response to Tesco 's Metro, which was already established in five locations. Also in 1994, Sainsbury 's lost the takeover battle for William Low (like Tesco, Sainsbury 's had long been under - represented in Scotland). Also that year, David Sainsbury dismissed Tesco 's clubcard initiative as ' an electronic version of Green Shield Stamps '; the company was soon forced to backtrack, introducing its own Reward Card eighteen months later.
For much of the twentieth century, Sainsbury 's had been the market leader in the supermarket sector in the United Kingdom, but in 1995, it lost its place as the country 's largest grocer to Tesco. Some new ventures were successful, notably the launch of a retail bank, Sainsbury 's Bank, in partnership with Bank of Scotland.
In addition to Shaw 's, Sainsbury 's bought a minority stake in another supermarket group, Giant Food, based in Washington, DC, although this shareholding was subsequently sold when Ahold of the Netherlands made a full bid for the company.
An arrangement in late 1995 with Supermarket Direct made Sainsbury 's the first major grocery store in the UK to offer a home delivery service.
Sainsbury 's also trebled the size of its Homebase do it yourself business during 1996, by merging its business with Texas Homecare, which in January 1995, it acquired from Ladbroke for £ 290 million.
In May 1996, the company reported its first fall in profits for twenty two years. David Sainsbury announced management changes, involving the appointment of two chief executives, one in charge of supermarkets within the United Kingdom (Dino Adriano) and the other responsible for Homebase, and the United States (David Bremner).
Finally, in 1998, David Sainsbury himself resigned from the company to pursue a career in politics. He was succeeded as non executive chairman by George Bull, who had been chairman of Diageo, and Adriano was promoted to be Group Chief Executive.
In June 1998, Sainsbury 's unveiled its new corporate identity, which was developed by M&C Saatchi, which consisted of the current company logo, new corporate colours of "living orange '' and blue, Interstate as the company 's new general use lowercase font from the old all uppercase font, the new slogan "Making life taste better '', which replaced its old slogan from the 1960s and new staff uniforms.
The strapline was dropped in May 2005, and replaced in September of that year by "Try something new today. '' This new brand statement was created by Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO. While the Interstate font was used almost exclusively for many years, the company introduced another informal font in 2005, which is used in a wide range of advertising and literature.
In 1999, Sainsbury 's acquired an 80.1 % share of Egyptian Distribution Group SAE, a retailer in Egypt with one hundred stores and 2,000 employees. However, poor profitability led to the sale of this share in April 2001. On 8 October 1999, the CEO Dino Adriano lost control of the core supermarket business within the United Kingdom, instead assuming responsibility for the rest of the group. David Bremner became head of the supermarkets in the United Kingdom. This was "derided '' by the city and described as a "fudge ''. On 14 January 2000 Sainsbury 's reversed this decision by announcing the replacement of Adriano by Sir Peter Davis effective from March.
Between 2000 -- 2004, Sir Peter Davis was chief executive of Sainsbury 's. Davis ' appointment was well received by investors and analysts.
In his first two years, he exceeded profit targets, although by 2004 the group had suffered a decline in performance relative to its competitors and was demoted to third in the grocery market within the United Kingdom. Davis also oversaw an almost £ 3 billion upgrade of stores, distribution and IT equipment, entitled ' Business Transformation Programme ', but his successor would later reveal that much of this investment was wasted and he failed in his key goal -- improving availability. Part of this investment saw the construction of four fully automated depots, which at £ 100 million each cost four times more than standard depots.
In 2001, Sainsbury 's moved into its current headquarters at Holborn, London. Sainsbury 's previously occupied Stamford House and twelve other buildings around Southwark. However the accounting department remained separate at Streatham. The building was designed by architectural firm Foster and Partners, and had been developed on the former Mirror Group site for Andersen Consulting (now Accenture), however, Sainsbury 's acquired the twenty five - year lease when Accenture pulled out.
Sainsbury 's is a founding member of the Nectar loyalty card scheme, which was launched in September 2002, in conjunction with Debenhams, Barclaycard and BP; Debenhams and Barclaycard have subsequently both left the scheme. The Nectar scheme replaced the Sainsbury 's Reward Card; accrued points were transferred over.
In January 2003, Wm Morrison Supermarkets (trading as Morrisons) made an offer for the Safeway group, prompting a bidding war between the major supermarkets. The Trade and Industry Secretary, Patricia Hewitt, referred the various bids to the Competition Commission which reported its findings on 26 September. The Commission found that all bids, with the exception of Morrison 's, would "operate against the public interest ''. As part of the approval Morrison 's was to dispose of fifty three of the combined group 's stores.
In May 2004, Sainsbury 's announced that it would acquire fourteen of these stores, thirteen Safeway stores and one Morrison 's outlet, located primarily in the Midlands and the North of England.
At the end of March 2004, Davis was promoted to chairman and was replaced as CEO by Justin King. King joined Sainsbury 's in from Marks and Spencer plc where he was a director with responsibility for its food division and Kings Super Markets, Inc. subsidiary in the United States. Schooled in Solihull, near Birmingham and a graduate of the University of Bath, where he took a business administration degree, King was also previously a managing director at Asda with responsibility for hypermarkets.
In June 2004, Davis was forced to quit in the face of an impending shareholder revolt, over his salary and bonuses. Investors were angered by a bonus share award of over £ 2 million, despite poor company performance. On 19 July 2004, Davis ' replacement, Philip Hampton, was appointed as chairman.
King ordered a direct mail campaign to one million Sainsbury 's customers as part of his six - month business review, asking them what they wanted from the company and where the company could improve. This reaffirmed the commentary of retail analysts -- the group was not ensuring that shelves are fully stocked, this due to the failure of the IT systems introduced by Peter Davis.
On 19 October 2004, King unveiled the results of the business review and his plans to revive the company 's fortunes -- in a three - year recovery plan entitled ' Making Sainsbury 's Great Again '.
This was generally well received by both the stock market and the media. Immediate plans included laying off over 750 headquarters staff, and the recruitment of around 3,000 shop floor staff, to improve the quality of service and the firm 's main problem: stock availability. The aim would be to increase sales revenue by £ 2.5 billion by the financial year ending March 2008. Another significant announcement was the halving of the dividend to increase funds available for price cuts and quality.
King hired Lawrence Christensen as supply chain director in 2004. Previously he was an expert in logistics at Safeway, but left following its takeover by Morrisons. Immediate supply chain improvements included the reactivation of two distribution centres. At the time of the business review on 19 October 2004, referring to the availability problems, Justin King said "Lawrence had n't seen anything that he had n't seen before. He just had n't seen them all in the same place at the same time ''.
In 2006, Christensen commented on the four automated depots introduced by Davis, saying "not a single day went by without one, if not all of them, breaking down... The systems were flawed. They have to stop for four hours every day for maintenance. But because they were constantly breaking down you would be playing catch up. It was a vicious circle. '' Christensen said a fundamental mistake was to build four such depots at once, rather than building one which could be thoroughly tested before progressing with the others.
In 2007 Sainsbury 's announced a further £ 12 million investment in its depots to keep pace with sales growth and the removal of the failed automated systems from its depots. In addition, it did a deal with IBM to upgrade its Electronic -- Point of Sale systems as a result of increased sales.
Sainsbury 's sold its subsidiary in America, Shaw 's, to Albertsons in March 2004. Also in 2004 Sainsbury 's expanded its share of the convenience store market through acquisitions. Bell 's Stores, a fifty four store chain based in North East England, was acquired in February 2004. Jackson 's Stores, a chain of one hundred and fourteen stores based in Yorkshire and the North Midlands, was purchased in August 2004. JB Beaumont, a chain of six stores in the East Midlands, was acquired in November 2004. SL Shaw Ltd, which owned six stores, was acquired on 28 April 2005 for £ 6 million.
Since the launch of King 's recovery programme, the company has reported nineteen consecutive quarters of sales growth, most recently in October 2009. Early sales increases were credited to solving problems with the company 's distribution system. More recent sales improvements have been put down to price cuts and the company 's focus on fresh and healthy food.
On 2 February 2007, after months of speculation about a private equity bid, CVC Capital Partners, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR) and Blackstone Group announced that they were considering a bid for Sainsbury 's. The consortium grew to include Goldman Sachs and Texas Pacific Group. On 6 March 2007, with a formal bid yet to be tabled, the Takeover Panel issued a bid deadline of 13 April.
On 4 April, KKR left the consortium to focus on its bid for Alliance Boots. On 5 April, the consortium submitted an "indicative offer '' of 562p a share to the company 's board. After discussions between Sir Philip Hampton and the two largest Sainsbury family shareholders Lord Sainsbury of Turville and Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover the offer was rejected. On 9 April, the indicative offer was raised to 582p a share, however this too was rejected. This meant the consortium could not satisfy its own preconditions for a bid, most importantly 75 % shareholder support; the combined Sainsbury family holding at the time was 18 %.
Lord Sainsbury of Turville, who then held 7.75 % of Sainsbury 's, stated that he could see no reason why the Sainsbury 's board would even consider opening its books for due diligence for anything less than 600p per share. Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover, with just under 3 %, was more extreme than his cousin, and refused to sell at any price.
He believed any offer at that stage of Sainsbury 's recovery was likely to undervalue the business, and with private equity seeking high returns on their investments, saw no reason to sell, given that the current management, led by Justin King, could deliver the extra profit generated for the benefit of existing investors.
He claimed the bid ' brought nothing to the business ', and that high levels of debt would significantly weaken the company and its competitive position in the long term, which would have an adverse effect on Sainsbury 's stakeholders. On 11 April, the CVC led consortium abandoned its offer, stating "it became clear the consortium would be unable to make a proposal that would result in a successful offer. ''
In May 2007, Sainsbury 's identified five areas of growth: Growth of non-food ranges; opening of new convenience stores and growth of online home delivery and banking operations; Expansion of supermarket space through new stores and development of the company 's "largely underdeveloped store portfolio ''; and "active property management ''.
On 25 April 2007, Delta Two, a Qatari investment company, bought a 14 % stake in Sainsbury 's causing its share price to rise 7.17 %, which was then upped to 17.6 %. Their interest in Sainsbury 's is thought to centre on its property portfolio. They increased their stake to 25 % in June 2007. On 18 July 2007, BBC News reported that Delta Two had tabled a conditional bid proposal. Paul Taylor, the principal of Delta Two, flew David and John Sainsbury to Sardinia to reveal and discuss the potential bid which amounted to 600p per share.
The family had reservations about the price of the bid. Secondly, they were concerned about the proposed structure which involved splitting the business into an operating company and a highly leveraged property company. Thirdly, they were concerned about adequacy of funding both for the bid and for the company 's pension scheme. On 5 November 2007, it was announced Delta Two had abandoned its takeover bid due to the "deterioration of credit markets '' and concerns about funding the company 's pension scheme.
On 4 October 2007, Sainsbury 's announced plans to relocate its Store Support Centre from Holborn to Kings Cross in 2011. The new office will be part of a new complex, to allow for both cost savings and energy efficiency. These savings will be made through the use of efficient building materials and design, a combined heat and power energy centre and the use of renewable energy sources.
In January 2008, Sainsbury 's brought its number of its supermarkets in Northern Ireland to eleven, with the purchase of two Curley 's Supermarkets in Dungannon and Belfast, which includes those stores ' petrol stations and off licences.
In November 2007, Sainsbury 's centralised its HR department, relocating to the seventeenth and eighteenth floors of the Manchester Arndale Centre to form a Shared Service Centre, which was initially trialled to deal with Recruitment in Scotland and was later rolled out to the whole country. July 2009 saw the HR Shared Service Centre in Manchester expand to include most HR Processes in its Colleague Administration Department and Occupational Health enquiries in an dedicated unit.
Since April 2012, the centre has begun a gradual relocation to its new offices in the centre of Lincoln, along with a rebrand and partial relaunch as Sainsbury 's HR Services.
Further re organisation has seen central finance operations move from the Holborn Head Office to Manchester, and property division move to Ansty Park in Coventry. Most of the remaining Holborn operations are likely to move to Coventry in due course, as Sainsbury 's looks to reduce costs by moving out of Central London.
In March 2009, Sainsbury 's reached an agreement to buy 24 stores from The Co-operative Group, 22 of which were Somerfield stores, which the group were required to sell as a condition of their takeover of Somerfield. A further nine stores were purchased from The Co-operative Group in June 2009. These were concentrated in West Wales, the North of England and Scotland, where Sainsbury 's market share is low.
In May 2010, Sainsbury 's confirmed a multimillion - pound deal with the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games (LOCOG) to be the main sponsor of the 2012 Paralympic Games. Under the deal, Sainsbury 's sold Paralympic merchandise and became involved in high - profile events, such as the torch relay. It became one of only two sponsors able to take advantage of the limited branding allowed within the Games. The promotional rights did not extend to the Olympics. After the Paralympic Games, the company decided to sponsor the British Paralympic Association through to Rio 2016.
On 30 November 2011, Sainsbury 's reached the first milestone in its Vision for 2020, by opening its thousandth store in Irvine, Scotland. To celebrate this, Sainsbury 's doubled its staff discount to 20 % for the first four days of December. In January 2014, Sainsbury 's completed the purchase of the 50 % share in Sainsbury 's Bank, owned by Lloyds Banking Group.
In July 2014, the company began powering one of its stores by converting food waste into bio methane gas to generate electricity. The group became the first retailer to come off the National Grid by its own means. In July 2016, Arcus FM extended its contract with Sainsbury 's, securing a ten - year renewal. Arcus won the initial contract in 2009, and saw the contract extended in 2011.
In September 2016, Sainsbury 's completed the acquisition of Home Retail Group.
Sainsbury 's operates stores under two formats: supermarkets and Sainsbury 's Local convenience stores. It also operates Sainsbury 's Online internet shopping services; and has a property portfolio worth £ 8.6 billion (as of March 2007). It is the second largest supermarket chain in the UK (since 2014), and says it places an emphasis on a higher quality grocery offering compared to its other large rivals.
In June 2015 Sainsbury 's store portfolio was as follows.
According to CACI, as of 2006, Sainsbury 's has market dominance in 8 postcode areas; TQ (Torquay), SN (Swindon), GU (Guildford), RH (Redhill), DA (Dartford), SE (South East London), EN (Enfield) and WV (Wolverhampton).
It is particularly strong in London and the South - East, where it is based, and has powerful positions within many UK cities. The company acquired the Midlands - based Thoroughgood in the 1930s. Expansion since 1945 has given the company national reach, although the chain is not as well - represented in Scotland as Tesco, and Morrisons (as Safeway dominated Scotland before being taken over by them). This is partly due to Sainsbury 's having lost out to Tesco in the bidding war for William Low in the 1990s.
On 29 September 2010, Sainsbury 's opened one of its largest UK stores, an extension of its existing store in Crayford, South East London, which now has over 100,000 sq ft (9,300 m) of retail space and is its largest supermarket to be built in the UK. Bybrook in Ashford Kent, which opened on 16 November 2011 has over 100,000 sq ft (9,300 m).
The refurbished Lincoln, Lincolnshire store opened on 24 November 2010 making it the UK 's second largest Sainsbury 's supermarket after Crayford at 98,712 sq ft (9,170.6 m).
Stores in the ' supermarket ' category all have similar layouts and operations but may vary in their offering to the customer. Most will have a convenience kiosk, produce, meat, fish, groceries and frozen food, and manned and self - service checkouts. However depending on the size of the store they may also have an instore bakery, butcher, fishmonger, delicatessen and pizza counters, a cafe, TU clothing, general merchandise, mobile phone shop, petrol station and online picking department. Some stores also feature a Jessops and / or an Argos concession. Others also feature a "Centre for Dentistry '' where dental treatments are offered and / or an "Explore Learning '' centre where children are offered extra English and maths tuition. Some stores such as Altrincham and Calcot also feature a Starbucks Coffee. A new "department store '' format opened in the new Nine Elms store in October 2016 carrying in store concessions such as Habitat, Argos, a sushi bar and a "Food Hall. ''
Sainsbury 's operates a chain of fuel forecourts located at its supermarkets selling diesel, petrol and CityPetrol. The chain first opened a forecourt in 1974 at its Croydon SavaCentre hypermarket, the forecourts were initially supplied by and marketed as Jet stations. However, from 1980 onwards Sainsbury 's operated its own forecourts and sourced its own fuel. In 2004 BP became the supplier of fuel and operated its forecourts at supermarkets where possible. This deal ended in 2009 and operation of all forecourts and fuel sourcing returned to the control of Sainsbury 's.
Sainsbury 's operate cafes, marketed as Sainsbury 's Cafè, in many of its supermarkets which are open for almost as long as the stores are open.
As well as developing its own sites, Sainsbury 's expanded its convenience portfolio through acquisitions of Bell 's Stores, Jackson 's Stores, JB Beaumont and SL Shaw Ltd. Sainsbury 's initially retained the strong Bells, Jacksons and Beaumont branding. For example, refurbished stores were called Sainsbury 's at Bells. These were effectively Sainsbury 's Local stores with a revised fascia, retaining some features of the former local chain. Unrefurbished stores retained the original brand and logo, but still offered Sainsbury 's own brand products, pricing and some point of sale, without accepting Nectar cards. The old websites were also retained with some Sainsbury 's branding. However all of these acquired stores were fully converted to the Local fascia from 4 May 2007.
In July 2013, chief executive Justin King announced plans to focus on expanding its convenience stores to surpass the number of its supermarket properties by 2014.
Sainsbury 's operates an internet shopping service branded as "Sainsbury 's Online ''. To use this service customers choose their grocery items online, or by phone (which includes a "phone order '' fee). Sainsbury 's also provide the Sainsbury 's Gift Cards and Sainsbury 's Business Direct transactional websites that sell gift cards, gift vouchers and food tokens with credit or value that can be spent at any Sainsbury store. Both products are not valid for buying certain products or services. The Gift Card website promotes the card as an ideal gift due to the large range of products and the number of stores available to spend them in. The Business Direct website, operated by MBL Solutions Ltd, promotes the cards as ideal for rewarding and motivating employees.
Sainsbury 's supply chain operates from 13 regional distribution centres (RDCs), with two national distribution centres for slower moving goods, and two frozen food facilities. In addition, the depot at Tamworth transships general merchandise to the RDCs. Each depot is given a "Depot Code ''.
A planned regional distribution centre (RDC) in Exeter was abandoned, and the land sold to Lidl.
In 1997 Sainsbury 's Bank was established -- a joint venture between J Sainsbury plc and the Bank of Scotland, later a part of the Lloyds Banking Group. Services offered include car, life, home, pet and travel insurance as well as health cover, loans, credit cards, savings accounts and Individual Savings Accounts. On 8 May 2013, Sainsbury 's announced it would buy the 50 % share in the business owned by Lloyds Banking Group.
Founded in 2011, Sainsbury 's Energy is a virtual utility provider in partnership with British Gas who offer gas and electricity. Sainsbury 's no longer have face - to - face salespersons in store but there are leaflets and posters etc. advertising Sainsbury 's Energy in its supermarket stores. Customers no longer receive Nectar points from using the service but promotions from selected companies including Argos.
Sainsbury 's Freezer Centres were a frozen food chain operated between 1974 and 1986, the stores were entirely dedicated to frozen food. Due to competition from specialist frozen food chains such as Bejam, Sainsbury 's converted its original service stores that were too small for modern use to small frozen specialist stores. Despite initial difficulty as only 11 % of the population owned a freezer, the chain expanded to 21 stores at its height. As freezers became more popular, frozen food departments were designed into Sainsbury 's main supermarkets, and the chain was sold to Bejam in 1986, who were ultimately sold to Iceland in 1989.
SavaCentre was a chain of 13 hypermarkets and 7 discount supermarkets operated between 1977 and 2005, initially in a joint venture with BHS. The stores ranged in size between 66,000 sq ft (6,100 m) and 117,000 sq ft (10,900 m), and the discount supermarkets between 31,000 sq ft (2,900 m) and 70,000 sq ft (6,500 m). At the time of its inception it was the only dedicated hypermarket chain in the UK. Store layout consisted of a 50: 50 split between food and non-food shopping, with a complete range of both retailers ' products, and later included input from Habitat and Mothercare as they merged with BHS. Some stores also included features such as a petrol station and in - store cafe. In 1989 Sainsbury 's bought out BHS 's half stake, but still allowed BHS to retail from SavaCentres until they offered its own clothing and merchandise offering.
Sainsbury 's operated one alcohol hypermarket in partnership with Auchan in Calais, France for the lucrative UK booze cruise market. The store closed in 2010 after describing the operation as ' economically unviable '.
In 2002 Sainsbury 's opened an experimental store in the Bluebird Building in Chelsea, London. The concept of the ' Market ' store was to provide a large range of fresh meat, fish, delicatessen items and bread through colleagues serving over counters. Colleagues were specially hired for their skill and passion for their roles in store. The layout also provided a larger than usual area for retailing fresh produce. The store closed in 2004 after poor results. A second, much larger version in Pimlico was designated as a ' Market ' store, but the stores branding and layout was gradually reverted to a standard Sainsbury 's store.
In 2011 Sainsbury 's opened a trial food to go shop in Fleet Street London selling sandwiches, baguettes and hot snacks in an effort to expand its business into new areas of opportunity. The store closed a year later, after the store 's lease was not renewed. Sainsbury 's commented that footfall was too high to offer high standards of quality and service however it was not ruling out performing another trial in another location, explaining that it had learnt a lot.
Sainsbury 's operated a virtual mobile network from 2001 until 2003 which closed due to being commercially unsustainable. In 2013 Sainsbury 's re-entered the UK telecommunications industry when it launched a mobile phone network called Mobile by Sainsbury 's. The virtual network was operated in partnership with Vodafone. The network was promoted heavily in store and most supermarkets started retailing SIM cards and handsets for the network. However, in 2015 Sainsbury 's announced that the service would be closing in January 2016 after a breakdown in the relationship with its provider Vodafone.
Sainsbury 's Compare and Save was a comparison and switching service website that promoted a wide range of television, broadband and telephone deals from a variety of providers. The service, free to Sainsbury 's customers, claimed to list 15,000 different packages. The website and service launched in 2008 and was operated by SimplifyDigital.
Sainsbury 's operated 270 pharmacies within its supermarkets Sainsbury 's was also a provider of outpatient hospital pharmacy services, operating pharmacies at three major UK hospitals: Guy 's Hospital, St Thomas ' Hospital and James Cook University Hospital. In July 2015 Sainsbury 's announced they were selling their 281 pharmacies to Lloydspharmacy for £ 125 million in 2016 with all 2500 pharmacy employees being transferred over and new rent agreements being made.
Sainsbury 's Entertainment was a transactional website which provided films as downloads or for streaming, using Rovi Corporation software. The site arranged to register with ATVOD as a video on demand service. The website also sold MP3 downloads as well as eBooks through aNobii. The site began operating in 2010 and until March 2014 also sold physical products including DVDs, CDs, Blu - ray discs and books. These were posted to the customer by a distributor, which after 2011 was Sainsbury 's subsidiary company: Global Media Vault Ltd. Customers received nectar points from shopping at Sainsbury 's Entertainment. Sainsbury 's announced in September 2016 that it would close the business on 30 November 2016.
A large store typically stocks around 30,000 lines of which around 20 % are "own - label '' goods. These own - brand lines include:
Equivalent to Tesco 's Everyday Value, Asda 's Smart Price and Morrisons ' M Savers.
Additional product lines were added in late 2013, together with new packaging.
Similar to Asda 's Extra Special, Tesco 's Finest and Morrisons ' The Best.
Since 1869 Sainsbury 's used various fascias using the title ' J Sainsbury '. This was replaced in 1999 by simply: ' Sainsbury 's '. The flagship store in Greenwich, South London, first trialled the new look, leading to the term ' Greenwich Blue ', which was used to describe the signature colour of new identity. After its success most stores were refurbished with dark blue walls, bright orange wall panels and grey shelving, as well as new checkouts. Individual counters also had different, brightly coloured panels behind them. Gradually the format was rolled out across the entire Sainsbury 's estate. The ' Greenwich Blue ' look has been phased out and new stores now have a fresher look. Six years later another programme of refurbishment began, with the introduction of the new ' Try Something New Today ' slogan. The entailed cream coloured shelving and checkouts, and a new aubergine - coloured staff uniform for all colleagues. Old external signage bearing the ' J Sainsbury ' name was still to be found in use as recently as summer 2011 in Swindon, Ashbourne in Derbyshire and Blackheath, West Midlands.
Sainsbury 's was a founding member of the UK 's largest retail loyalty scheme called ' Nectar ' in 2002. The scheme allows customers to earn points on almost everything bought from Sainsbury 's as well as from other participating retailers in return for a large range of rewards. For every pound spent the customer earns 1 point - a reward equivalent to 0.5 % of supermarket purchases. Since 2015 Sainsbury 's no longer offers 1 bonus point for every carrier bag the customers reuses.
From April 2015, Sainsbury 's halved the number of points that customers earned for every pound, to one point per pound. Sainsbury 's previously operated Sainsbury 's Reward Scheme between 1995 and 2002 where customers used ' Reward Cards ' or ' Storecards ' to earn and spend points in a similar way, but limited to Sainsbury 's businesses.
Sainsbury 's annually runs a voucher scheme for local organisations to redeem equipment for sports and other activities. Customers earn vouchers from their shopping which they donate to an organisation of their choice, who then redeem the vouchers with Sainsbury 's, which credits their account with points to spend on items from a catalogue.
Since 2000, Jamie Oliver was the public face of Sainsbury 's, appearing on television and radio advertisements and in - store promotional material. The deal earned him an estimated £ 1.2 million every year. In the first two years of these advertisements were estimated to have given Sainsbury 's an extra £ 1 billion of sales or £ 200 million gross profit. Mr Oliver 's deal mutually ended in 2011.
Since 2010, paralympic swimmer Ellie Simmonds has been a Sainsbury 's Active Kids ambassador. Since 2012, former footballer David Beckham has been a Sainsbury 's Active Kids ambassador, in a deal that is claimed to be worth over £ 3.5 million.
Sainsbury 's currently uses the "Live Well For Less '' slogan which was launched on 15 September 2011. Over the years, Sainsbury 's has used many slogans:
Sainsbury 's was a sponsor of the Paralympic Summer Games in London 2012, and it was the largest sponsorship signing in the history of the Games.
In 2013, Sainsbury 's won the Employer of the Year at the Oracle Retail Week Awards.
In 2010, Sainsbury 's opened seven food colleges that teach fishmongery, butchery, breadmaking and confectioning. 21,000 colleagues have been trained at these venues so far. Qualifications can be gained through in house training, and so far 15,400 colleagues have been awarded City and Guild qualifications.
Our Sainsbury 's is a social and information website for colleagues to use to access colleague benefits and information, and to interact with other colleagues.
Sainsbury 's graduate scheme called ' 2020 Leaders ' aims to recruit and develop potential leaders for the most senior roles of the company.
A group exclusively for colleagues aged 25 and under focuses purely the interests of the company 's 47,000 colleagues who fall into this age category.
Sainsbury 's Staff Association was founded in 1947. It is owned and run by the colleagues of Sainsbury 's. Any permanent colleague can join at a cost of £ 1 every 28 days for one person (or £ 1.20 every 28 days for two people). The funds raised are collected into accounts in every store, and spent on whatever the stores SSA colleagues wish, usually social events and experiences out of store. Benefits also include further discounts with other retailers.
Sainsbury 's Veterans Association was started in 1947 by 8 colleagues who wished all colleagues to stay in touch with each other. Today members enjoy a range of benefits including Honorary SSA membership, 10 % discount, newsletters, invitation to an annual reunion, a visitor service, birthday and anniversary gifts, donation upon bereavement and transfer of benefits to spouse upon death. To qualify colleagues have to serve twenty - five years with the company. The association 's presidents are former Sainsbury 's CEO and later Chairman Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover KG and former Sainsbury 's CEO Dino Adriano.
In 2007 Sainsburys was fined for its involvement in a dairy price - fixing cartel along with other large retailers and processors.
A number of companies including Sainsbury 's used a scheme to avoid VAT by forcing customers paying by card to unknowingly pay a 2.5 % ' card transaction fee ', though the total charged to the customer remained the same. Such schemes came to light after HMRC litigated against Debenhams over the scheme during 2005.
In November 2007, Sainsbury 's became the first major British employer to introduce an "internet only '' staff recruitment system. At the time, it was estimated that the move would save the company £ 4 million a year in administration costs. This move came at a time when approximately half of the British adult population was estimated to have access to the internet at home, though by 2010 it was estimated that more than 80 % of the adult population had internet access.
In a 2006 report the British anti-poverty charity War on Want criticised the conditions faced by Kenyan workers supplying Sainsbury 's with cut flowers.
Sainsbury 's supermarkets have been prosecuted, on more than one occasion, for selling food past its use by date. Evidence also showed that some staff were not correctly trained to carry out their duties involving food safety.
In 2014, a photograph surfaced on Twitter showing that the Holborn Sainsbury 's franchise responded to anti-Semitic threats by removing kosher products from its shelves. Complaints began appearing on social media that removing food that is consistent with Jewish dietary restrictions and is produced all over the world was an act of discrimination against Jews. In response to the negative publicity, the kosher products were restored to the shelves and the staffer who removed them was reprimanded. However, in a call by i24news correspondent Jonathan Sacerdoti to the Sainsbury 's Careline, the Sainsbury 's representative defended the store 's actions, calling them prudent in the face of threatened obstruction to the store.
Sainsbury 's won a bidding process in March 2012 and agreed a £ 30m deal to buy Bristol Rovers F.C. 12,000 - capacity Memorial Stadium in north Bristol, and lease it back for a peppercorn rent until the new ground was ready, and then redevelop the old stadium as a new store. The club hoped the money from the sale would largely finance a new UWE Stadium.
However Sainsbury 's ended up locked in a legal battle with Bristol Rovers. After the supermarket pulled out of the deal. Sainsbury 's argued at the High Court in London that it was legally entitled to terminate the contract because conditions linked to the agreement had not been satisfied. Lawyers for the club said that either the contract "is still on foot '' or Sainsbury 's had breached it.
It was claimed in court that Sainsbury 's had been looking for way out of deal for nearly two years. David Matthias QC, for the club, said the proposed Sainsbury 's store had become "less financially viable '' amid a difficult trading climate. He said Sainsbury 's saw the restrictions on delivery times as an opportunity to get out of the contract and "did nothing '' from January 2014 to challenge the restrictions and get suitable planning permission. The club successfully made its own application to lift the restrictions in December that year.
Sainsbury 's won its High Court battle after judge Mrs Justice Proudman ruled that "Sainsbury 's must succeed '' because the construction of a schedule to the agreement "seems like an insuperable barrier '' to the club winning the case.
In a statement, Rovers accused Sainsbury 's of breaking its promises. It described the decision as a ' kick in the teeth ' for the people of Bristol. The club claimed that it was abundantly clear throughout the case that Sainsbury 's reneged on its promises to the local community to invest in the region and showed a flagrant disregard for the terms of the contract.
Sainsbury 's archive of over 16,000 items relating to the business since its foundation is now kept at the Museum of London. The archive is particularly rich in the product packaging, advertising and retail stores areas.
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please please let me get what i want john lewis | Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want - wikipedia
"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want '' is a song by the English rock band the Smiths. It was released as the B - side of "William, It Was Really Nothing '' in 1984 and later featured on the compilation albums Hatful of Hollow and Louder Than Bombs. It has become one of the most well - known songs of the Smiths ' and has been covered by numerous other artists.
The Dream Academy covered "Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want '' in 1984. This version peaked at # 83 in the UK Singles Chart. The instrumental version of the song is the better known cover version, since it was used in the film Ferris Bueller 's Day Off (during the Art Institute scene) along with another Dream Academy song, "The Edge of Forever ''. A similar (but vocal) single later appeared on the compilation album, Somewhere in the Sun... Best of the Dream Academy as well as the "Boutique Chill '' album of various artists from 2005. The instrumental version of "Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want '' has been played during The Weather Channel 's Local on the 8 's.
Version one
Version two
English actress and songwriter Slow Moving Millie released a cover version of the song. It was released on 11 November 2011 as a Digital download from her upcoming debut studio album Renditions. The song was selected as the soundtrack to the John Lewis 2011 Christmas advertisement.
A music video, directed by Nicole Nodland, to accompany the release of "Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want '' was first released onto YouTube on 11 November 2011 at a total length of three minutes and six seconds.
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who plays thomas in the lion the witch and the wardrobe | James McAvoy - wikipedia
James McAvoy (/ ˈmækəvɔɪ /; born 21 April 1979) is a Scottish actor. He made his acting debut as a teen in The Near Room (1995) and made mostly television appearances until 2003, when his feature film career began. His notable television work includes the thriller State of Play and the science fiction mini-series Frank Herbert 's Children of Dune.
Besides screen acting, McAvoy has performed in several West End productions and received three nominations for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor. He has also done voice work for animated films including Gnomeo & Juliet, its sequel, Sherlock Gnomes, and Arthur Christmas.
In 2003, McAvoy appeared in a lead role in Bollywood Queen. This was followed by a supporting role, the faun Mr. Tumnus, in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2005). His performance in Kevin Macdonald 's drama The Last King of Scotland (2006) garnered him several award nominations. The critically acclaimed romantic drama war film Atonement (2007) earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination and his second BAFTA nomination. He appeared as a newly trained assassin in the action thriller Wanted (2008). Since 2011, he has played the young Professor Charles Xavier in the superhero film X-Men: First Class (2011), a role he reprised in X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), X-Men: Apocalypse (2016), Deadpool 2 (2018) and X-Men: Dark Phoenix (2019). McAvoy starred in the crime comedy - drama film Filth (2013) for which he won Best Actor in the British Independent Film Awards. In 2017, he portrayed Kevin, a man with 23 personalities, in M. Night Shyamalan 's Split, for which he received critical acclaim.
McAvoy was born in Glasgow, Scotland on Saturday, 21 April 1979, the son of Elizabeth (née Johnstone), a psychiatric nurse, and James McAvoy, Sr., a builder. He was brought up as a Roman Catholic. His parents divorced when he was seven. McAvoy 's mother suffered from poor health and subsequently decided it was best that he live with his maternal grandparents, Mary and James Johnstone, a butcher who lived in a terraced council house in the nearby Drumchapel area of Glasgow. His mother lived with them intermittently. McAvoy has a sister, Joy, and a younger half - brother, Donald. McAvoy has not been in contact with his father since childhood.
He attended St Thomas Aquinas Secondary in Jordanhill, Glasgow, a Catholic school, and briefly considered joining the Catholic priesthood. In a 2006 interview, McAvoy said that he considered becoming a priest as a child because it seemed to be a way to explore the world via missionary work. During his education, he worked at a local bakery.
McAvoy 's acting debut came at the age of 15 in The Near Room (1995). He later admitted that he was not very interested in acting when joining the film, but was inspired to study acting after developing feelings for his co-star, Alana Brady. He continued to act while still a member of PACE Youth Theatre. McAvoy graduated from the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama in 2000. Throughout the early 2000s, he made guest appearances in television shows and began working in film. In 2001, McAvoy 's performance as a gay hustler in the play Out in the Open impressed director Joe Wright so much that Wright began offering McAvoy parts in his films. McAvoy kept declining them, however, and it was not until six years later that the two worked together.
He starred in Privates on Parade in the Donmar Warehouse, this time catching Sam Mendes ' attention. In 2001, the actor appeared as Private James W. Miller in Band of Brothers, an eleven - hour World War II miniseries by executive producers Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanks. He gained the attention of critics in 2002 's White Teeth, a four - part television drama miniseries adaption based on the novel of the same name by Zadie Smith.
In 2003, McAvoy appeared in the Sci Fi Channel miniseries Frank Herbert 's Children of Dune, adapted from Frank Herbert 's novels. It is one of the highest - rated programmes to be aired on the channel. More cable work came for him when he accepted the role of an unprincipled reporter in 2003 's State of Play. The well - received six - part British drama serial tells the story of a newspaper 's investigation into the death of a young woman and was broadcast on BBC One. Calling the programme a "must - see '', the Chicago Tribune recommended State of Play for its cast 's performance. In 2002, McAvoy shot scenes for Bollywood Queen, described as West Side Story meets Romeo and Juliet with bindis, the movie deals with star - crossed lovers caught in the middle of clashing cultures; it was shown as a special presentation at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival and opened in UK cinemas on 17 October. In 2004, he acted in a supporting role in the romantic comedy Wimbledon, also featuring Kirsten Dunst as a co-lead. His next project was voicing a character named Hal in the 2004 English version of Strings, a mythic fantasy film. Another 2004 release for him was Inside I 'm Dancing, an Irish production directed by Damien O'Donnell starring alongside fellow Scotsman Steven Robertson. In it, the actor was cast as one of the two principal characters: a maverick with duchenne muscular dystrophy. McAvoy ended 2004 by appearing in the first two seasons of Shameless as Steve McBride, the moral hero of the BAFTA - winning Channel 4 programme.
His public profile was raised in 2005 with the release of Walt Disney Pictures 's The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. McAvoy starred in the fantasy adventure film made by Andrew Adamson and based on C.S. Lewis 's children 's novel as Tumnus, a faun who befriends Lucy Pevensie (played by Georgie Henley) and joins Aslan (Liam Neeson) 's forces. It was given a UK release of 9 December. At the UK box office, the film opened at number one, earning around £ 8.7 million at 498 cinemas over the weekend. Worldwide, Narnia grossed £ 463 million, making it the 41st highest - grossing film of all - time worldwide. That succeeding year he also accepted the principal role of Brian Jackson, a nerdy university student who wins a place on a University Challenge quiz team in the mid-1980s, in Starter for 10. He was directed by David Nicholls, who adapted the film 's screenplay from his own book. The British - American production was given distribution in the UK on 10 November. In spite of the positive buzz, the movie flopped at the box office, unable to recover its production costs of £ 5.7 million.
Forest Whitaker had suggested McAvoy to director Kevin Macdonald for the role of Nicholas Garrigan in 2006 's Academy Award - winning low - budgeted The Last King of Scotland. McAvoy portrayed a Scottish doctor who becomes the personal physician to dictator Idi Amin (played by Whittaker) while in Uganda. While the film is based on factual events of Amin 's rule, the details of the story and the character McAvoy played are fictional and adapted from Giles Foden 's 1998 novel. McAvoy assessed his character to be a "completely selfish prick ''. An overwhelmed McAvoy fainted during his first take of what would be the hardest scene for him to shoot, Nicholas 's torture. McAvoy was named Best Actor of the year by Scotland 's own BAFTA Awards, where the film swept the major categories, and received a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. The film received three awards, including the Outstanding British Film of the Year. This was accompanied by praise for McAvoy 's performance.
Following that, he played Irish attorney Tom Lefroy and love - interest to Jane Austen in Becoming Jane, a 2007 historical movie inspired by the author 's early life. Next up was Penelope, which premiered at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival. Also starring co-producer Reese Witherspoon, it generated polarised reviews. The breakthrough role in McAvoy 's career came in Atonement, Joe Wright 's 2007 adaptation of Ian McEwan 's novel of the same title. A romantic war film, it focuses on lovers Cecilia and Robbie 's (Keira Knightley and McAvoy) lives being torn apart after her jealous younger sister, Briony (Saoirse Ronan) falsely accuses him of rape. Upon reading the script, McAvoy said he thought "If I do n't get the part I 'm not reading the book because it 'll be devastating. It 's an amazing role and I really wanted it. '' McAvoy has called the film "incredibly sad '' but considers it an uplifting experience. He also shared that he hoped viewers will be left "absolutely devastated and harrowed. '' Screenings of Atonement were held at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was one of the most acclaimed films present, and Venice Film Festival. Atonement was a big awards contender; it was nominated for fourteen BAFTAs and seven Academy Awards. Both McAvoy and Knightley were nominated for their performances at the 65th Golden Globe Awards, respectively. Additionally, the film was lauded by critics, with Metacritic reporting it to have an approval rating of 85. The Hollywood Reporter writer Ray Bennett said the duo gave "compelling and charismatic performances ''.
His next role saw McAvoy starring with Angelina Jolie and Morgan Freeman in Wanted (2008), an action film where he portrayed Wesley Gibson, a young American slacker who learns he is heir to a legacy of assassins. When McAvoy screen - tested for the role, he was initially rejected because the studio was seeking an actor with conventional Hollywood leading - man looks and physique. He later recalled being considered the "runt of the litter '' of those who tested, but ultimately got the role in late 2006 since the studio "wanted someone geeky ''. While shooting action scenes for Wanted, he suffered several injuries, including a twisted ankle and an injured knee. Nonetheless the actor said he had a "good time '' doing the movie. McAvoy had never done this type of genre before and thought of Wanted as a chance to be more versatile.
Loosely based on the comic book miniseries of the same name by Mark Millar, it saw a June 2008 release worldwide. It received favourable reviews from the press, who generally liked that it was fast - paced. At the box office, Wanted was a success, grossing $341 million against a $75 million production budget. Next was The Last Station (2009), a biopic that details the final months of celebrated writer Leo Tolstoy and also stars Anne - Marie Duff, McAvoy 's wife at the time. It was shown at a limited number of screens in the US. Although most critics ' awards paid attention to co-stars Helen Mirren and Christopher Plummer, the Satellite Awards nominated McAvoy for Best Supporting Actor. In 2009, McAvoy voiced Angelina 's father, Maurice Mouseling, in the television series, Angelina Ballerina: The Next Steps.
He also appeared onstage in 2009 at Apollo Theater 's Three Days of Rain. He voiced the male titular character in Gnomeo and Juliet (2011), an animated movie based on William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet. In Robert Redford 's historical American drama The Conspirator, McAvoy played the role of an idealistic war hero who reluctantly defends co-conspirator Mary Surratt (Robin Wright) charged in the Abraham Lincoln assassination. It premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. While this movie garnered mixed reception, critics lauded the actor for his work. In Owen Gleiberman 's assessment of The Conspirator, he found it "stiff - jointed '' and tedious, but regarded McAvoy as "an avid presence ''.
In mid-2010, McAvoy was cast as telepathic superhero Professor X, leader and founder of the X-Men, in X-Men: First Class. He joined an ensemble that included Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence and Kevin Bacon. Based on the Marvel Comics and a prequel to the film series, it focuses on the relationship between Professor X and Magneto and the origin of their groups. McAvoy did not read comics as a child, but was a fan of the X-Men animated cartoon series. Released to the UK on 1 June, First Class topped its box office with ticket sales of around £ 5 million in its opening weekend. First Class was reviewed favourably, and McAvoy 's performance was widely praised. In 2011, McAvoy began filming the role of Max Lewinsky in the British thriller Welcome to the Punch. He played the lead role in the Danny Boyle film Trance.
In 2012, McAvoy was cast as Bruce Robertson in Filth, an adaptation of an Irvine Welsh novel of the same name. The film 's ensemble cast includes Jamie Bell, Jim Broadbent, Eddie Marsan, and Imogen Poots. For his role, McAvoy won Best Actor at the British Independent Film Awards in December 2013. It was also announced that he would co-star with Jessica Chastain in a double - feature film project, The Disappearance of Eleanor Rigby. He performed the male lead in radio play adaptation of Neverwhere written by Neil Gaiman. In October 2016 McAvoy played the character Richard in the BBC Radio 4 production of Neil Gaiman 's short story ' How The Marquis Got His Coat Back '. Gaiman played the role of the Boatman.
McAvoy starred in Shakespeare 's Macbeth on London 's West End in early 2013. Macbeth was the first performance at the Trafalgar Transformed, running from 9 February until 27 April. The production was directed by Jamie Lloyd who also directed McAvoy in his last stint on the stage in 2009 's Three Days of Rain. In 2015, McAvoy won the Best Actor award at London 's Evening Standard Theater Awards for his portrayal of Jack Gurney in The Ruling Class, a revival of the Peter Barnes play directed by Jamie Lloyd. It ran at Trafalgar Studios from 16 January to 11 April 2015.
McAvoy reprised his role as Professor X in X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), which grossed $747.9 million worldwide, making it the sixth highest - grossing film of the year 2014, and the second highest - grossing film in the X-Men franchise and in 2016 's X-Men: Apocalypse. In 2016, he starred in the M. Night Shyamalan thriller Split as Kevin Wendell Crumb, a dissociative identity disorder sufferer with dangerous capabilities. His performance was praised by critics, with some hailing it as the best of his career. McAvoy will be returning as Professor X in the 2019 film X-Men: Dark Phoenix and as Crumb in Glass (2019).
McAvoy will play adult Bill Denbrough in the upcoming second IT film. The film is set to hit theaters in September 2019.
While working on Shameless, McAvoy started a relationship with Anne - Marie Duff, who played his character 's love interest, and they married on 11 November 2006 in a quiet ceremony. They have one child together, a son named Brendan (b. 2010). On 13 May 2016, McAvoy and Duff jointly announced their decision to divorce. To minimise disruption to Brendan 's life, they still share a home in North London when not working elsewhere.
After McAvoy won the "Rising Star '' award from the BAFTAs, his estranged father spoke to the Sunday Mirror, stating that he would love to get in touch with his son, but did not know how to reach him. Though the actor did not read the piece, he heard about it and was unmoved. He enjoys fantasy themes which he said started from the age of 11 with The Lord of the Rings.
McAvoy 's big interest outside acting and science fiction is football; he is a huge fan of Celtic Football Club, stating that his dream role would be to play Celtic legend Jimmy Johnstone. McAvoy considers himself a spiritual person who no longer practises Catholicism.
Speaking to Sky News, McAvoy said he believed that British filmmakers belittle and dumb down their productions to please American audiences. "It 's like we 're patronising them and short changing ourselves, '' the actor commented. He had previously called 3 - D films a "waste of money '', accusing film studios of using the effect to get more money out of their theatre audiences.
At one point, McAvoy did a "terrifying '' BASE jump from the world 's tallest hospital building in a bid to help raise money for Ugandan children 's charity Retrak, an organisation which assists children on the streets. Additionally, McAvoy is a celebrity supporter of the British Red Cross with whom he travelled to Uganda to raise awareness of the projects there. He had become involved with the charity after shooting The Last King of Scotland there for several months and was shocked by what he saw. In February 2007, he visited northern Uganda and spent four days seeing projects supported by the British Red Cross. In 2015, McAvoy pledged £ 125,000 to a 10 - year scholarship programme at his former drama school, the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland.
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who won the most medals in the sochi olympics | 2014 Winter Olympics medal table - wikipedia
The 2014 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XXII Olympic Winter Games, were a winter multi-sport event held in Sochi, Russia, from 7 to 23 February. A total of 2,873 athletes from 88 nations participated in 98 events in 7 sports across 15 different disciplines.
Initially, host nation Russia matched the Soviet Union 's 1976 achievement of thirteen gold medals, but 4 gold medals (13 overall) were stripped later due to doping. Norway achieved the leading position in the medal table on 24 November 2017, when Russia was stripped of two gold medals in bobsleigh. However, at the end of January 2018, the Court of Arbitration for Sport cleared 28 Russian athletes and 9 out of 13 medals (including 3 gold) were reinstated, allowing Russia to return to the top position.
The Netherlands achieved four podium sweeps in the speed skating, dominating the men 's 500 metres, men 's 5,000 metres, men 's 10,000 metres, and women 's 1,500 metres, surpassing the previous record of two podium sweeps.
Slovenia won its first Winter Olympics gold medal ever, in alpine skiing. This was also the first Winter Olympic gold medal tie. Luger Armin Zöggeler of Italy became the first athlete to achieve six Winter Olympic medals over six consecutive games, all achieved at the men 's singles event.
Speed skater Ireen Wüst from the Netherlands achieved five medals (two gold and three silver), more than any other athlete. Korean - born Russian short track speed skater Viktor Ahn, Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen, and Belarusian biathlete Darya Domracheva tied for the most gold medals, with three each.
The medal table is based on information provided by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and is consistent with IOC convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won, where nation is an entity represented by a National Olympic Committee (NOC). The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals.
In the women 's downhill event in alpine skiing, two gold medals were awarded for a first place tie. No silver medal was awarded for the event. In the men 's super-G alpine skiing, two bronze medals were awarded for a third place tie.
Host nation (Russia)
On 18 July 2016, the McLaren Report was published claiming that the Russian government had sanctioned the use of performance - enhancing drugs by Russian athletes in the 2014 Winter Olympics.
On 9 December 2016, a World Anti-Doping Agency report expanded upon the previous report and included the note that "Two (Russian) (sport) athletes, winners of 4 Sochi Olympic Gold medals, and a female Silver medal winner in (sport) had samples with salt readings that were physiologically impossible '' and that "Twelve (Russian) medal winning athletes... from 44 examined samples had scratches and marks on the inside of the caps of their B sample bottles, indicating tampering ''.
In December 2016, following the release of the McLaren Report on Russian doping at the Sochi Olympics, the International Olympic Committee announced the initiation of an investigation of 28 Russian athletes at the Sochi Olympic Games. La Gazzetta dello Sport reported the names of 17 athletes, of whom 15 were among the 28 under investigation (the number later rose to 46).
Three ladies artistic skaters were named as being under investigation. They are Adelina Sotnikova, the singles gold medalist, as well as pairs skaters Tatiana Volosozhar and Ksenia Stolbova. Volosozhar and Stolbova won gold and silver medals, respectively, in pairs skating. Both also won gold medals in the team event, which also puts the other eight team medalists at risk of losing their golds. In November 2017 the proceeding against Sotnikova was dropped.
Six cross-country skiers were suspended from competition on the basis of the McLaren Report: Evgeniy Belov, Alexander Legkov, Alexey Petukhov, Maxim Vylegzhanin, Yulia Ivanova and Evgenia Shapovalova. Legkov won a gold and silver medals, and Vylegzhanin won three silver medals. The IOC disqualified all six from Sochi, imposed lifetime bans and, in the process, stripped Legkov 's and Vylegzhanin 's of the medals they had won in four events (three individual medals and one team medal). On 1 February 2018, the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld five out of six appeals (except for Ivanova whose appeal was overturned), and their results were restored. Nikita Kryukov, Alexander Bessmertnykh and Natalya Matveyeva were disqualified on 22 December 2017. These decisions were also overturned by the CAS on 1 February 2018. The IOC intends to appeal these decisions.
The International Biathlon Union suspended two Russian biathletes who were in the Sochi games: Olga Vilukhina and Yana Romanova. Vilukhina won silver in sprint, and both women were on a relay team that won the silver medal. They were disqualified and stripped of their medals on 27 November 2017.
The International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation suspended four Russian skeleton sliders. They were Alexander Tretyakov, Elena Nikitina, Maria Orlova and Olga Potylitsina. Tretyakov won a gold medal, and Nikitina won a bronze. On 22 November 2017, the IOC stripped these medals and imposed lifetime Olympic bans on all four.
Seven Russian female ice hockey players were to have hearings before the Oswald Commission on 22 November 2017. The identities of the seven players have not been revealed. Two of the seven are accused of submitting samples showing readings that were physically impossible to be held by a woman. The Russian women 's ice hockey team finished sixth at Sochi 2014. On December 12, 2017 six of them were disqualified. Tatiana Burina and Anna Shukina were also disqualified ten days later.
On 24 November 2017, the IOC disqualified and imposed lifetime Olympic bans on bobsledder Alexandr Zubkov who won two gold medals and speed skater Olga Fatkulina who won a silver medal. All their results were disqualified, resulting in Russia losing its first place in the medal standings. On 27 November 2017, Russian bobsledders Aleksei Negodaylo, Dmitry Trunenkov, and skeleton racer Sergei Chudinov were sanctioned as well. Three other athletes who did n't win medals (Alexander Kasjanov, Ilvir Huzin, Aleksei Pushkarev) were banned on November 29, 2017. Biathlete Olga Zaitseva who won silver in a relay was disqualified on 1 December 2017. Two other athletes, Anastasia Dotsenko and Yuliya Chekalyova, were also banned, bringing the total to 31 (six Russian ice hockey players were sanctioned shortly after). Speed skaters Ivan Skobrev and Artyom Kuznetsov, lugers Albert Demchenko and Tatiana Ivanova, bobsledders Liudmila Udobkina and Maxim Belugin were disqualified on 22 December 2017, bringing the total to 43. Demchenko and Tatiana Ivanova were also stripped of their silver medals.
As of January 2018, the IOC had sanctioned 43 Russian athletes from the 2014 Winter Olympics and banned them from competing in the 2018 edition and all other future Olympic Games as part of the Oswald Commission. All but one of these athletes appealed against their bans to the Court of Arbitration for Sport. The court overturned the sanctions on 28 athletes meaning that their Sochi medals and results are reinstated but decided that there was sufficient evidence against 11 athletes to uphold their Sochi sanctions. The IOC said in a statement that "the result of the CAS decision does not mean that athletes from the group of 28 will be invited to the Games. Not being sanctioned does not automatically confer the privilege of an invitation '' and that "this (case) may have a serious impact on the future fight against doping ''. The IOC found it important to note that CAS Secretary General "insisted that the CAS decision does not mean that these 28 athletes are innocent '' and that they would consider an appeal against the courts decision. The court also decided that none of the 39 athletes should be banned from all future Olympic Games, but only the 2018 Games. 3 Russian athletes are still waiting for their hearing which will be conducted after the 2018 Games.
General
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who has signed the universal declaration of human rights | Universal Declaration of Human Rights - wikipedia
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its 3rd session on 10 December 1948 as resolution 217A at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. It was voted 48 in favor, none against, eight abstentions, and two were absent. As a declaration of the General Assembly, and not a treaty, it was not open for subsequent signature.
The Declaration consists of thirty articles affirming an individual 's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.
Some legal scholars have argued that because States have constantly invoked the Declaration over more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of customary international law. However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez - Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law. '' Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in itself part of domestic law.
During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms -- freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want -- as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the human person '' and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion ''.
When the racist atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II, the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter 's provisions on human rights.
In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, which consisted of 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Commission on Human Rights, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.
The commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, to write the articles of the Declaration. The committee met in two sessions over the course of two years.
Canadian John Peters Humphrey, Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the United Nations Secretary - General to work on the project and became the Declaration 's principal drafter. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat.
Other well - known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, P.C. Chang of the Republic of China (Taiwan),. Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission.
According to Allan Carlson in Globalizing Family Values, the Declaration 's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement 's influence on Cassin and Malik.
Once the committee finished its work in May 1948, the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights, the Economic and Social Council, the Third Committee of the General Assembly before being put to vote in December 1948. During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States.
British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation. (It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force, giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.)
On 10 December 1948, the Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as resolution 217A by a vote of 48 in favor, none against, and eight abstentions (the Soviet Union, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, People 's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, People 's Republic of Poland, Union of South Africa, Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). Honduras and Yemen -- both members of UN at the time -- failed to vote or abstain.
The meeting record provides first hand insight of the debate. South Africa 's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated any number of articles in the Declaration. The Saudi Arabian delegation 's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration 's articles: Article 18, which states that everyone has the right "to change his religion or belief ''; and Article 16, on equal marriage rights. The six communist nations abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism. Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of the Soviet bloc nations to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries.
48 countries voted in favour of the Declaration:
8 countries abstained:
Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later, which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote and in no way reflects opposition to the universal principles.
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles.
Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment. Articles 1 and 2 are the foundation blocks, with their principles of dignity, liberty, equality, and brotherhood. The seven paragraphs of the preamble -- setting out the reasons for the Declaration -- represent the steps. The main body of the Declaration forms the four columns. The first column (articles 3 -- 11) constitutes rights of the individual such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery. Articles 6 through 11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defense when violated. The second column (articles 12 -- 17) constitutes the rights of the individual in civil and political society (including such things as freedom of movement). The third column (articles 18 -- 21) is concerned with spiritual, public, and political freedoms such as freedom of association, thought, conscience, and religion. The fourth column (articles 22 -- 27) sets out social, economic, and cultural rights including healthcare. In Cassin 's model, the last three articles of the Declaration provide the pediment which binds the structure together. These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation.
The adoption of the Universal Declaration is a significant international commemoration marked each year on 10 December, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year - long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us ''.
In 1948, the UN Resolution A / RES / 217 (III) (A) adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French, and official translations in Chinese, Russian and Spanish. In 2009, the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world 's "Most Translated Document '' (370 different languages and dialects). The Unicode Consortium stores 431 of the 503 official translations available at the OHCHR (as of June 2017).
In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.
While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words "fundamental freedoms '' and "human rights '' appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community '' to all persons. The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, and many more. The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and constitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights.
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it "an international document of the first order of importance '', while Eleanor Roosevelt -- first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration -- stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere. '' In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time '' but the Vatican never adopted the Declaration. In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community. ''
Turkey -- which was a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population -- signed the Declaration in 1948. However, the same year, Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration, claiming that it violated Sharia law. Pakistan -- which had signed the declaration -- disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position. Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor of including freedom of religion. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie - Khorassani, said that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo - Christian tradition '' which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia. On 30 June 2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah '', without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations ''.
Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties. For example, Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan 's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article 3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR. Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women 's rights.
A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration 's alleged Western bias. These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Riffat Hassan, and Faisal Kutty. Hassan has argued:
What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality '' of the assumptions on which it is based is -- at the very least -- problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.
Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive) ethics.
Kutty writes: "A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home... It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights. ''
Ironically, a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014 are among the most resistant to UN intervention in domestic affairs, played an invaluable role in the creation of the Declaration, with countries such as Syria and Egypt having been strong proponents of the universality of human rights and the right of countries to self - determination.
Groups such as Amnesty International and War Resisters International have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill '' to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from -- but not yet explicit in -- Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.
Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit, but -- to date (2017) -- those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents. Sean MacBride -- Assistant Secretary - General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate -- has said: "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is ' The Right to Refuse to Kill '. ''
The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process. The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which would be unfair to countries outside of that scope. They further argued that the West 's history of colonialism and Evangelicalism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism: "1. The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences '', "2. Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered '', and "3. Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole. ''
During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments ' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights -- in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.
The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any government, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators, musicians, and producers created a 20 - minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration. The video was to bring to life the Declaration 's 30 articles.
Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the "Fire Up! '' event.
The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (UUSC) is a non-profit, nonsectarian organization whose work around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It works to provide disaster relief and promote human rights and social justice around the world.
The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a Curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
In 1997, the council of the American Library Association (ALA) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Along with Article 19, Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights. Censorship, the invasion of privacy, and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA.
Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth, an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa, where she witnessed firsthand the devastating effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights. The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights, specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and inspire them to become advocates for tolerance and peace. YHRI has now grown into a global movement, including hundreds of groups, clubs and chapters around the world.
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in animals when atp concentrations are high glucose is converted into | Glycolysis - wikipedia
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + - lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C H O, into pyruvate, CH COCOO + H. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high - energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
Glycolysis is a determined sequence of ten enzyme - catalyzed reactions. The intermediates provide entry points to glycolysis. For example, most monosaccharides, such as fructose and galactose, can be converted to one of these intermediates. The intermediates may also be directly useful. For example, the intermediate dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) is a source of the glycerol that combines with fatty acids to form fat.
Glycolysis is an oxygen independent metabolic pathway, meaning that it does not use molecular oxygen (i.e. atmospheric oxygen) for any of its reactions. However the products of glycolysis (pyruvate and NADH + H) are sometimes metabolized using atmospheric oxygen. When molecular oxygen is used for the metabolism of the products of glycolysis the process is usually referred to as aerobic, whereas if no oxygen is used the process is said to be anaerobic. Thus, glycolysis occurs, with variations, in nearly all organisms, both aerobic and anaerobic. The wide occurrence of glycolysis indicates that it is one of the most ancient metabolic pathways. Indeed, the reactions that constitute glycolysis and its parallel pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, occur metal - catalyzed under the oxygen - free conditions of the Archean oceans, also in the absence of enzymes. Glycolysis could thus have originated from chemical constraints of the prebiotic world.
Glycolysis occurs in most organisms in the cytosol of the cell. The most common type of glycolysis is the Embden -- Meyerhof -- Parnas (EMP pathway), which was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakub Karol Parnas. Glycolysis also refers to other pathways, such as the Entner -- Doudoroff pathway and various heterofermentative and homofermentative pathways. However, the discussion here will be limited to the Embden -- Meyerhof -- Parnas pathway.
The entire glycolysis pathway can be separated into two phases:
The overall reaction of glycolysis is:
D - Glucose
2 × Pyruvate
The use of symbols in this equation makes it appear unbalanced with respect to oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms, and charges. Atom balance is maintained by the two phosphate (P) groups:
Charges are balanced by the difference between ADP and ATP. In the cellular environment, all three hydroxyl groups of ADP dissociate into − O and H, giving ADP, and this ion tends to exist in an ionic bond with Mg, giving ADPMg. ATP behaves identically except that it has four hydroxyl groups, giving ATPMg. When these differences along with the true charges on the two phosphate groups are considered together, the net charges of − 4 on each side are balanced.
For simple fermentations, the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate has a net yield of two molecules of ATP. Most cells will then carry out further reactions to ' repay ' the used NAD and produce a final product of ethanol or lactic acid. Many bacteria use inorganic compounds as hydrogen acceptors to regenerate the NAD.
Cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate and NADH + H from glycolysis. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces approximately 34 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule, however most of these are produced by a vastly different mechanism to the substrate - level phosphorylation in glycolysis.
The lower - energy production, per glucose, of anaerobic respiration relative to aerobic respiration, results in greater flux through the pathway under hypoxic (low - oxygen) conditions, unless alternative sources of anaerobically oxidizable substrates, such as fatty acids, are found.
The pathway of glycolysis as it is known today took almost 100 years to fully discover. The combined results of many smaller experiments were required in order to understand the pathway as a whole.
The first steps in understanding glycolysis began in the nineteenth century with the wine industry. For economic reasons, the French wine industry sought to investigate why wine sometime turned distasteful, instead of fermenting into alcohol. French scientist Louis Pasteur researched this issue during the 1850s, and the results of his experiments began the long road to elucidating the pathway of glycolysis. His experiments showed that fermentation occurs by the action of living microorganisms; and that yeast 's glucose consumption decreased under aerobic conditions of fermentation, in comparison to anaerobic conditions (the Pasteur Effect).
While Pasteur 's experiments were groundbreaking, insight into the component steps of glycolysis were provided by the non-cellular fermentation experiments of Eduard Buchner during the 1890s. Buchner demonstrated that the conversion of glucose to ethanol was possible using a non-living extract of yeast (due to the action of enzymes in the extract). This experiment not only revolutionized biochemistry, but also allowed later scientists to analyze this pathway in a more controlled lab setting. In a series of experiments (1905 - 1911), scientists Arthur Harden and William Young discovered more pieces of glycolysis... They discovered the regulatory effects of ATP on glucose consumption during alcohol fermentation. They also shed light on the role of one compound as a glycolysis intermediate: fructose 1, 6 - bisphosphate.
The elucidation of fructose 1, 6 - diphosphate was accomplished by measuring CO levels when yeast juice was incubated with glucose. CO production increased rapidly then slowed down. Harden and Young noted that this process would restart if an inorganic phosphate (Pi) was added to the mixture. Harden and Young deduced that this process produced organic phosphate esters, and further experiments allowed them to extract fructose diphosphate (F - 1, 6 - DP).
Arthur Harden and William Young along with Nick Sheppard determined, in a second experiment, that a heat - sensitive high - molecular - weight subcellular fraction (the enzymes) and a heat - insensitive low - molecular - weight cytoplasm fraction (ADP, ATP and NAD and other cofactors) are required together for fermentation to proceed. This experiment begun by observing that dialyzed (purified) yeast juice could not ferment or even create a sugar phosphate. This mixture was rescued with the addition of undialyzed yeast extract that had been boiled. Boiling the yeast extract renders all proteins inactive (as it denatures them). The ability of boiled extract plus dialyzed juice to complete fermentation suggests that the cofactors were non-protein in character.
In the 1920s Otto Meyerhof was able to link together some of the many individual pieces of glycolysis discovered by Buchner, Harden, and Young. Meyerhof and his team was able to extract different glycolytic enzymes from muscle tissue, and combine them to artificially create the pathway from glycogen to lactic acid.
In one paper, Meyerhof and scientist Renate Junowicz - Kockolaty investigated the reaction that splits fructose 1, 6 - diphosohate into the two triose phosphates. Previous work proposed that the split occurred via 1, 3 - diphosphoglyceraldehye plus an oxidizing enzyme and cozymase. Meyerhoff and Junowicz found that the equilibrium constant for the isomerase and aldoses reaction were not affected by inorganic phosphates or any other cozymase or oxidizing enzymes. They further removed diphosphoglyceraldehyde as a possible intermediate in glycolysis.
With all of these pieces available by the 1930s, Gustav Embden proposed a detailed, step - by - step outline of that pathway we now know as glycolysis. The biggest difficulties in determining the intricacies of the pathway were due to the very short lifetime and low steady - state concentrations of the intermediates of the fast glycolytic reactions. By the 1940s, Meyerhof, Embden and many other biochemists had finally completed the puzzle of glycolysis. The understanding of the isolated pathway has been expanded in the subsequent decades, to include further details of its regulation and integration with other metabolic pathways.
Glucose
Hexokinase
Glucose 6 - phosphate
Glucose - 6 - phosphate isomerase
Fructose 6 - phosphate
phosphofructokinase - 1
Fructose 1, 6 - bisphosphate
Fructose - bisphosphate aldolase
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
+
Glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate
Triosephosphate isomerase
2 × Glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate
Glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase
2 × 1, 3 - Bisphosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate kinase
2 × 3 - Phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate mutase
2 × 2 - Phosphoglycerate
Phosphopyruvate hydratase (Enolase)
2 × Phosphoenolpyruvate
Pyruvate kinase
2 × Pyruvate
The first five steps are regarded as the preparatory (or investment) phase, since they consume energy to convert the glucose into two three - carbon sugar phosphates (G3P).
The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinases to form glucose 6 - phosphate (G6P). This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration low, promoting continuous transport of glucose into the cell through the plasma membrane transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from leaking out -- the cell lacks transporters for G6P, and free diffusion out of the cell is prevented due to the charged nature of G6P. Glucose may alternatively be formed from the phosphorolysis or hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen.
In animals, an isozyme of hexokinase called glucokinase is also used in the liver, which has a much lower affinity for glucose (K in the vicinity of normal glycemia), and differs in regulatory properties. The different substrate affinity and alternate regulation of this enzyme are a reflection of the role of the liver in maintaining blood sugar levels.
Cofactors: Mg
G6P is then rearranged into fructose 6 - phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase. Fructose can also enter the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation at this point.
The change in structure is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been converted to F6P. The reaction requires an enzyme, phosphohexose isomerase, to proceed. This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions. However, it is often driven forward because of a low concentration of F6P, which is constantly consumed during the next step of glycolysis. Under conditions of high F6P concentration, this reaction readily runs in reverse. This phenomenon can be explained through Le Chatelier 's Principle. Isomerization to a keto sugar is necessary for carbanion stabilization in the fourth reaction step (below).
The energy expenditure of another ATP in this step is justified in 2 ways: The glycolytic process (up to this step) is now irreversible, and the energy supplied destabilizes the molecule. Because the reaction catalyzed by Phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK - 1) is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP (an energetically favorable step) it is, in essence, irreversible, and a different pathway must be used to do the reverse conversion during gluconeogenesis. This makes the reaction a key regulatory point (see below). This is also the rate - limiting step.
Furthermore, the second phosphorylation event is necessary to allow the formation of two charged groups (rather than only one) in the subsequent step of glycolysis, ensuring the prevention of free diffusion of substrates out of the cell.
The same reaction can also be catalyzed by pyrophosphate - dependent phosphofructokinase (PFP or PPi - PFK), which is found in most plants, some bacteria, archea, and protists, but not in animals. This enzyme uses pyrophosphate (PPi) as a phosphate donor instead of ATP. It is a reversible reaction, increasing the flexibility of glycolytic metabolism. A rarer ADP - dependent PFK enzyme variant has been identified in archaean species.
Cofactors: Mg
Destabilizing the molecule in the previous reaction allows the hexose ring to be split by aldolase into two triose sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate (a ketose), and glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate (an aldose). There are two classes of aldolases: class I aldolases, present in animals and plants, and class II aldolases, present in fungi and bacteria; the two classes use different mechanisms in cleaving the ketose ring.
Electrons delocalized in the carbon - carbon bond cleavage associate with the alcohol group. The resulting carbanion is stabilized by the structure of the carbanion itself via resonance charge distribution and by the presence of a charged ion prosthetic group.
Triosephosphate isomerase rapidly interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate (GADP) that proceeds further into glycolysis. This is advantageous, as it directs dihydroxyacetone phosphate down the same pathway as glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate, simplifying regulation.
The second half of glycolysis is known as the pay - off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy - rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay - off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic pathway per glucose.
The aldehyde groups of the triose sugars are oxidised, and inorganic phosphate is added to them, forming 1, 3 - bisphosphoglycerate.
The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of NAD, a hydrogen carrier, to give NADH + H for each triose.
Hydrogen atom balance and charge balance are both maintained because the phosphate (P) group actually exists in the form of a hydrogen phosphate anion (HPO), which dissociates to contribute the extra H ion and gives a net charge of - 3 on both sides.
Here, Arsenate (AsO), an anion akin to inorganic phosphate may replace phosphate as a substrate to form 1 - arseno - 3 - phoshoglycerate. This, however, is unstable and readily hydrolyzes to form 3 - phosphoglycerate, the intermediate in the next step of the pathway. As a consequence of bypassing this step, the molecule of ATP generated from 1 - 3 bisphosphoglycerate in the next reaction will not be made, even though the reaction proceeds. As a result, arsenate is an uncoupler of glycolysis.
This step is the enzymatic transfer of a phosphate group from 1, 3 - bisphosphoglycerate to ADP by phosphoglycerate kinase, forming ATP and 3 - phosphoglycerate. At this step, glycolysis has reached the break - even point: 2 molecules of ATP were consumed, and 2 new molecules have now been synthesized. This step, one of the two substrate - level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of ATP (and little ADP), this reaction does not occur. Because ATP decays relatively quickly when it is not metabolized, this is an important regulatory point in the glycolytic pathway.
ADP actually exists as ADPMg, and ATP as ATPMg, balancing the charges at - 5 both sides.
Cofactors: Mg
Phosphoglycerate mutase isomerises 3 - phosphoglycerate into 2 - phosphoglycerate.
Enolase next converts 2 - phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate. This reaction is an elimination reaction involving an E1cB mechanism.
Cofactors: 2 Mg: one "conformational '' ion to coordinate with the carboxylate group of the substrate, and one "catalytic '' ion that participates in the dehydration.
A final substrate - level phosphorylation now forms a molecule of pyruvate and a molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme pyruvate kinase. This serves as an additional regulatory step, similar to the phosphoglycerate kinase step.
Cofactors: Mg
Glycolysis is regulated by slowing down or speeding up certain steps in the pathway by inhibiting or activating the enzymes that are involved. The steps that are regulated may be determined by calculating the change in free energy, ΔG, for each step.
When ΔG is negative, a reaction proceeds spontaneously in the forward direction only and is considered irreversible. When ΔG is positive, the reaction is non-spontaneous and will not proceed in the forward direction unless coupled with an energetically favorable reaction. When ΔG is zero, the reaction is at equilibrium, can proceed in either directions and is considered reversible.
If a step is at equilibrium (ΔG is zero), the enzyme catalyzing the reaction will balance the products and reactants and can not confer directionality to the pathway. These steps (and associated enzymes) are considered unregulated. If a step is not at equilibrium, but spontaneous (ΔG is negative), the enzyme catalyzing the reaction is not balancing the products and reactants and will proceed in the forward direction unless the enzyme function is altered; these steps are considered to be regulated. A common mechanism of regulating enzymes is allosteric control.
The change in free energy, ΔG, for each step in the glycolysis pathway can be calculated using ΔG = ΔG ° ' + RTln Q, where Q is the reaction quotient. This requires knowing the concentrations of the metabolites. All of these values are available for erythrocytes, with the exception of the concentrations of NAD and NADH. The ratio of NAD to NADH in the cytoplasm is approximately 1000, which makes the oxidation of glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (step 6) more favourable.
Using the measured concentrations of each step, and the standard free energy changes, the actual free energy change can be calculated. (Neglecting this is very common - the delta G of ATP hydrolysis in cells is not the standard free energy change of ATP hydrolysis quoted in textbooks).
From measuring the physiological concentrations of metabolites in an erythrocyte it seems that about seven of the steps in glycolysis are in equilibrium for that cell type. Three of the steps -- the ones with large negative free energy changes -- are not in equilibrium and are referred to as irreversible; such steps are often subject to regulation.
Step 5 in the figure is shown behind the other steps, because that step is a side - reaction that can decrease or increase the concentration of the intermediate glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate. That compound is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate by the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase, which is a catalytically perfect enzyme; its rate is so fast that the reaction can be assumed to be in equilibrium. The fact that ΔG is not zero indicates that the actual concentrations in the erythrocyte are not accurately known.
The existence of more than one point of regulation indicates that intermediates between those points enter and leave the glycolysis pathway by other processes. For example, in the first regulated step, hexokinase converts glucose into glucose - 6 - phosphate. Instead of continuing through the glycolysis pathway, this intermediate can be converted into glucose storage molecules, such as glycogen or starch. The reverse reaction, breaking down, e.g., glycogen, produces mainly glucose - 6 - phosphate; very little free glucose is formed in the reaction. The glucose - 6 - phosphate so produced can enter glycolysis after the first control point.
In the second regulated step (the third step of glycolysis), phosphofructokinase converts fructose - 6 - phosphate into fructose - 1, 6 - bisphosphate, which then is converted into glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The dihydroxyacetone phosphate can be removed from glycolysis by conversion into glycerol - 3 - phosphate, which can be used to form triglycerides. Conversely, triglycerides can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol; the latter, in turn, can be converted into dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which can enter glycolysis after the second control point.
The four regulatory enzymes are hexokinase, glucokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. The flux through the glycolytic pathway is adjusted in response to conditions both inside and outside the cell. The internal factors that regulate glycolysis do so primarily to provide ATP in adequate quantities for the cell 's needs. The external factors act primarily on the liver, fat tissue, and muscles, which can remove large quantities of glucose from the blood after meals (thus preventing hyperglycemia by storing the excess glucose as fat or glycogen, depending on the tissue type). The liver is also capable of releasing glucose into the blood between meals, during fasting, and exercise thus preventing hypoglycemia by means of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. These latter reactions coincide with the halting of glycolysis in the liver.
In animals, regulation of blood glucose levels by the pancreas in conjunction with the liver is a vital part of homeostasis. The beta cells in the pancreatic islets are sensitive to the blood glucose concentration. A rise in the blood glucose concentration causes them to release insulin into the blood, which has an effect particularly on the liver, but also on fat and muscle cells, causing these tissues to remove glucose from the blood. When the blood sugar falls the pancreatic beta cells cease insulin production, but, instead, stimulate the neighboring pancreatic alpha cells to release glucagon into the blood. This, in turn, causes the liver to release glucose into the blood by breaking down stored glycogen, and by means of gluconeogenesis. If the fall in the blood glucose level is particularly rapid or severe, other glucose sensors cause the release of epinephrine from the adrenal glands into the blood. This has the same action as glucagon on glucose metabolism, but its effect is more pronounced. In the liver glucagon and epinephrine cause the phosphorylation of the key, rate limiting enzymes of glycolysis, fatty acid synthesis, cholesterol synthesis, gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis. Insulin has the opposite effect on these enzymes. The phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of these enzymes (ultimately in response to the glucose level in the blood) is the dominant manner by which these pathways are controlled in the liver, fat, and muscle cells. Thus the phosphorylation of phosphofructokinase inhibits glycolysis, whereas its dephosphorylation through the action of insulin stimulates glycolysis.
In addition hexokinase and glucokinase act independently of the hormonal effects as controls at the entry points of glucose into the cells of different tissues. Hexokinase responds to the glucose - 6 - phosphate (G6P) level in the cell, or, in the case of glucokinase, to the blood sugar level in the blood to impart entirely intracellular controls of the glycolytic pathway in different tissues (see below).
When glucose has been converted into G6P by hexokinase or glucokinase, it can either be converted to glucose - 1 - phosphate (G1P) for conversion to glycogen, or it is alternatively converted by glycolysis to pyruvate, which enters the mitochondrion where it is converted into acetyl - CoA and then into citrate. Excess citrate is exported from the mitochondrion back into to the cytosol, where ATP citrate lyase regenerates acetyl - CoA and oxaloacetate (OAA). The acetyl - CoA is then used for fatty acid synthesis and cholesterol synthesis, two important ways of utilizing excess glucose when its concentration is high in blood. The rate limiting enzymes catalyzing these reactions perform these functions when they have been dephosphorylated through the action of insulin on the liver cells. Between meals, during fasting, exercise or hypoglycemia, glucagon and epinephrine are released into the blood. This causes liver glycogen to be converted back to G6P, and then converted to glucose by the liver - specific enzyme glucose 6 - phosphatase and released into the blood. Glucagon and epinephrine also stimulate gluconeogenesis, which coverts non-carbohydrate substrates into G6P, which joins the G6P derived from glycogen, or substitutes for it when the liver glycogen store have been depleted. This is critical for brain function, since the brain utilizes glucose as an energy source under most conditions. The simultaneously phosphorylation of, particularly, phosphofructokinase, but also, to a certain extent pyruvate kinase, prevents glycolysis occurring at the same time as gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis.
All cells contain the enzyme hexokinase, which catalyzes the conversion of glucose that has entered the cell into glucose - 6 - phosphate (G6P). Since the cell membrane is impervious to G6P, hexokinase essentially acts to transport glucose into the cells from which it can then no longer escape. Hexokinase is inhibited by high levels of G6P in the cell. Thus the rate of entry of glucose into cells partially depends on how fast G6P can be disposed of by glycolysis, and by glycogen synthesis (in the cells which store glycogen, namely liver and muscles).
Glucokinase, unlike hexokinase, is not inhibited by G6P. It occurs in liver cells, and will only phosphorylate the glucose entering the cell to form glucose - 6 - phosphate (G6P), when the sugar in the blood is abundant. This being the first step in the glycolytic pathway in the liver, it therefore imparts an additional layer of control of the glycolytic pathway in this organ.
Phosphofructokinase is an important control point in the glycolytic pathway, since it is one of the irreversible steps and has key allosteric effectors, AMP and fructose 2, 6 - bisphosphate (F2, 6BP).
Fructose 2, 6 - bisphosphate (F2, 6BP) is a very potent activator of phosphofructokinase (PFK - 1) that is synthesized when F6P is phosphorylated by a second phosphofructokinase (PFK2). In liver, when blood sugar is low and glucagon elevates cAMP, PFK2 is phosphorylated by protein kinase A. The phosphorylation inactivates PFK2, and another domain on this protein becomes active as fructose bisphosphatase - 2, which converts F2, 6BP back to F6P. Both glucagon and epinephrine cause high levels of cAMP in the liver. The result of lower levels of liver fructose - 2, 6 - bisphosphate is a decrease in activity of phosphofructokinase and an increase in activity of fructose 1, 6 - bisphosphatase, so that gluconeogenesis (in essence, "glycolysis in reverse '') is favored. This is consistent with the role of the liver in such situations, since the response of the liver to these hormones is to release glucose to the blood.
ATP competes with AMP for the allosteric effector site on the PFK enzyme. ATP concentrations in cells are much higher than those of AMP, typically 100-fold higher, but the concentration of ATP does not change more than about 10 % under physiological conditions, whereas a 10 % drop in ATP results in a 6-fold increase in AMP. Thus, the relevance of ATP as an allosteric effector is questionable. An increase in AMP is a consequence of a decrease in energy charge in the cell.
Citrate inhibits phosphofructokinase when tested in vitro by enhancing the inhibitory effect of ATP. However, it is doubtful that this is a meaningful effect in vivo, because citrate in the cytosol is utilized mainly for conversion to acetyl - CoA for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis.
Pyruvate kinase enzyme catalyzes the last step of glycolysis, in which pyruvate and ATP are formed. Pyruvate kinase catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to ADP, yielding one molecule of pyruvate and one molecule of ATP.
Liver pyruvate kinase is indirectly regulated by epinephrine and glucagon, through protein kinase A. This protein kinase phosphorylates liver pyruvate kinase to deactivate it. Muscle pyruvate kinase is not inhibited by epinephrine activation of protein kinase A. Glucagon signals fasting (no glucose available). Thus, glycolysis is inhibited in the liver but unaffected in muscle when fasting. An increase in blood sugar leads to secretion of insulin, which activates phosphoprotein phosphatase I, leading to dephosphorylation and activation of pyruvate kinase. These controls prevent pyruvate kinase from being active at the same time as the enzymes that catalyze the reverse reaction (pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), preventing a futile cycle.
The overall process of glycolysis is:
If glycolysis were to continue indefinitely, all of the NAD would be used up, and glycolysis would stop. To allow glycolysis to continue, organisms must be able to oxidize NADH back to NAD. How this is performed depends on which external electron acceptor is available.
One method of doing this is to simply have the pyruvate do the oxidation; in this process, pyruvate is converted to lactate (the conjugate base of lactic acid) in a process called lactic acid fermentation:
This process occurs in the bacteria involved in making yogurt (the lactic acid causes the milk to curdle). This process also occurs in animals under hypoxic (or partially anaerobic) conditions, found, for example, in overworked muscles that are starved of oxygen. In many tissues, this is a cellular last resort for energy; most animal tissue can not tolerate anaerobic conditions for an extended period of time.
Some organisms, such as yeast, convert NADH back to NAD in a process called ethanol fermentation. In this process, the pyruvate is converted first to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, and then to ethanol.
Lactic acid fermentation and ethanol fermentation can occur in the absence of oxygen. This anaerobic fermentation allows many single - cell organisms to use glycolysis as their only energy source.
Anoxic regeneration of NAD is only an effective means of energy production during short, intense exercise in vertebrates, for a period ranging from 10 seconds to 2 minutes during a maximal effort in humans. (At lower exercise intensities it can sustain muscle activity in diving animals, such as seals, whales and other aquatic vertebrates, for very much longer periods of time.) Under these conditions NAD is replenished by NADH donating its electrons to pyruvate to form lactate. This produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule, or about 5 % of glucose 's energy potential (38 ATP molecules in bacteria). But the speed at which ATP is produced in this manner is about 100 times that of oxidative phosphorylation. The pH in the cytoplasm quickly drops when hydrogen ions accumulate in the muscle, eventually inhibiting the enzymes involved in glycolysis.
The burning sensation in muscles during hard exercise can be attributed to the release of hydrogen ions during the shift to glucose fermentation from glucose oxidation to carbon dioxide and water, when aerobic metabolism can no longer keep pace with the energy demands of the muscles. These hydrogen ions form a part of lactic acid. The body falls back on this less efficient but faster method of producing ATP under low oxygen conditions. This is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen reached high concentrations in the atmosphere between 2000 and 2500 million years ago (see diagram above right), and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production than the aerobic replenishment of NAD in cells.
The liver in mammals gets rid of this excess lactate by transforming it back into pyruvate under aerobic conditions; see Cori cycle.
Fermention of pyruvate to lactate is sometimes also called "anaerobic glycolysis '', however, glycolysis ends with the production of pyruvate regardless of the presence or absence of oxygen.
In the above two examples of fermentation, NADH is oxidized by transferring two electrons to pyruvate. However, anaerobic bacteria use a wide variety of compounds as the terminal electron acceptors in cellular respiration: nitrogenous compounds, such as nitrates and nitrites; sulfur compounds, such as sulfates, sulfites, sulfur dioxide, and elemental sulfur; carbon dioxide; iron compounds; manganese compounds; cobalt compounds; and uranium compounds.
In aerobic organisms, a complex mechanism has been developed to use the oxygen in air as the final electron acceptor.
The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol. This occurs via the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl - CoA in the mitochondrion. However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol occurs. This can not occur directly. To obtain cytosolic acetyl - CoA, citrate (produced by the condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate) is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol. There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl - CoA and oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate is returned to mitochondrion as malate (and then back into oxaloacetate to transfer more acetyl - CoA out of the mitochondrion). The cytosolic acetyl - CoA can be carboxylated by acetyl - CoA carboxylase into malonyl CoA, the first committed step in the synthesis of fatty acids, or it can be combined with acetoacetyl - CoA to form 3 - hydroxy - 3 - methylglutaryl - CoA (HMG - CoA) which is the rate limiting step controlling the synthesis of cholesterol. Cholesterol can be used as is, as a structural component of cellular membranes, or it can be used to synthesize the steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D.
Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where they can either be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO, acetyl - CoA, and NADH, or they can be carboxylated (by pyruvate carboxylase) to form oxaloacetate. This latter reaction "fills up '' the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle, and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction (from the Greek meaning to "fill up ''), increasing the cycle 's capacity to metabolize acetyl - CoA when the tissue 's energy needs (e.g. in heart and skeletal muscle) are suddenly increased by activity. In the citric acid cycle all the intermediates (e.g. citrate, iso - citrate, alpha - ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, malate and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle. Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that that additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other. Hence the addition of oxaloacetate greatly increases the amounts of all the citric acid intermediates, thereby increasing the cycle 's capacity to metabolize acetyl CoA, converting its acetate component into CO and water, with the release of enough energy to form 11 ATP and 1 GTP molecule for each additional molecule of acetyl CoA that combines with oxaloacetate in the cycle.
To cataplerotically remove oxaloacetate from the citric cycle, malate can be transported from the mitochondrion into the cytoplasm, decreasing the amount of oxaloacetate that can be regenerated. Furthermore, citric acid intermediates are constantly used to form a variety of substances such as the purines, pyrimidines and porphyrins.
This article concentrates on the catabolic role of glycolysis with regard to converting potential chemical energy to usable chemical energy during the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. Many of the metabolites in the glycolytic pathway are also used by anabolic pathways, and, as a consequence, flux through the pathway is critical to maintain a supply of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.
The following metabolic pathways are all strongly reliant on glycolysis as a source of metabolites: and many more.
Although gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share many intermediates the one is not functionally a branch or tributary of the other. There are two regulatory steps in both pathways which, when active in the one pathway, are automatically inactive in the other. The two processes can therefore not be simultaneously active. Indeed, if both sets of reactions were highly active at the same time the net result would be the hydrolysis of four high energy phosphate bonds (two ATP and two GTP) per reaction cycle.
NAD is the oxidizing agent in glycolysis, as it is in most other energy yielding metabolic reactions (e.g. beta - oxidation of fatty acids, and during the citric acid cycle). The NADH thus produced is primarily used to ultimately transfer electrons to O to produce water, or, when O is not available, to produced compounds such as lactate or ethanol (see Anoxic regeneration of NAD above). NADH is rarely used for synthetic processes, the notable exception being gluconeogenesis. During fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis the reducing agent is NADPH. This difference exemplifies a general principle that NADPH is consumed during biosynthetic reactions, whereas NADH is generated in energy - yielding reactions. The source of the NADPH is two-fold. When malate is oxidatively decarboxylated by "NADP - linked malic enzyme '' pyruvate, CO and NADPH are formed. NADPH is also formed by the pentose phosphate pathway which converts glucose into ribose, which can be used in synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids, or it can be catabolized to pyruvate.
Glycolytic mutations are generally rare due to importance of the metabolic pathway, this means that the majority of occurring mutations result in an inability for the cell to respire, and therefore cause the death of the cell at an early stage. However, some mutations are seen with one notable example being Pyruvate kinase deficiency, leading to chronic hemolytic anemia.
Malignant Tumor cells perform glycolysis at a rate that is ten times faster than their noncancerous tissue counterparts. During their genesis, limited capillary support often results in hypoxia (decreased O2 supply) within the tumor cells. Thus, these cells rely on anaerobic metabolic processes such as glycolysis for ATP. Some tumor cells overexpress specific glycolytic enzymes which results in higher rates of glycolysis. Often these enzymes are Isoenzymes, of traditional glycolysis enzymes, that vary in their susceptibility to traditional feedback inhibition. The increase in glycolytic activity ultimately counteracts the effects of hypoxia by generating sufficient ATP from this anaerobic pathway. This phenomenon was first described in 1930 by Otto Warburg and is referred to as the Warburg effect. The Warburg hypothesis claims that cancer is primarily caused by dysfunctionality in mitochondrial metabolism, rather than because of uncontrolled growth of cells. A number of theories have been advanced to explain the Warburg effect. One such theory suggests that the increased glycolysis is a normal protective process of the body and that malignant change could be primarily caused by energy metabolism.
This high glycolysis rate has important medical applications, as high aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized clinically to diagnose and monitor treatment responses of cancers by imaging uptake of 2 - F - 2 - deoxyglucose (FDG) (a radioactive modified hexokinase substrate) with positron emission tomography (PET).
There is ongoing research to affect mitochondrial metabolism and treat cancer by reducing glycolysis and thus starving cancerous cells in various new ways, including a ketogenic diet.
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.
Some of the metabolites in glycolysis have alternative names and nomenclature. In part, this is because some of them are common to other pathways, such as the Calvin cycle.
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what will happen to triton millions of year from now and why will this happen | Timeline of the far future - wikipedia
While predictions of the future can never be absolutely certain, present understanding in various fields allows for the prediction of far - future events, if only in the broadest outline. These fields include astrophysics, which has revealed how planets and stars form, interact, and die; particle physics, which has revealed how matter behaves at the smallest scales; evolutionary biology, which predicts how life will evolve over time; and plate tectonics, which shows how continents shift over millennia.
All projections of the future of the Earth, the Solar System, and the Universe must account for the second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy, or a loss of the energy available to do work, must increase over time. Stars will eventually exhaust their supply of hydrogen fuel and burn out. Close encounters gravitationally fling planets from their star systems, and star systems from galaxies.
Eventually, matter itself is expected to come under the influence of radioactive decay, as even the most stable materials break apart into subatomic particles. Current data suggest that the universe has a flat geometry (or very close to flat), and thus, will not collapse in on itself after a finite time, and the infinite future allows for the occurrence of a number of massively improbable events, such as the formation of Boltzmann brains.
The timelines displayed here cover events from the beginning of the 11th millennium to the furthest reaches of future time. A number of alternate future events are listed to account for questions still unresolved, such as whether humans will become extinct, whether protons decay, or whether or not the earth survives when the sun expands to the red giant.
Niagara Falls will have eroded away the remaining 32 km to Lake Erie, and ceased to exist.
The many glacial lakes of the Canadian Shield will have been erased by post-glacial rebound and erosion.
Even without a mass extinction, by this time most current species will have disappeared through the background extinction rate, with many clades gradually evolving into new forms. (However, without a mass extinction, there will now be an ecological crisis requiring millions of years of recovery).
Africa 's collision with Eurasia closes the Mediterranean Basin and creates a mountain range similar to the Himalayas.
The Appalachian Mountains peaks will largely erode away, weathering at 5.7 Bubnoff units, although topography will actually increase as regional valleys deepen at twice this rate.
During these times, it is possible that Saturn 's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life.
The universe 's expansion, assuming a constant dark energy density, multiplies the wavelength of the cosmic microwave background by 10, exceeding the scale of the cosmic light horizon and rendering its evidence of the Big Bang undetectable. However, it may still be possible to determine the expansion of the universe through the study of hypervelocity stars.
Collisions between brown dwarfs will create new red dwarfs on a marginal level: on average, about 100 stars will be shining in what was once the Milky Way. Collisions between stellar remnants will create occasional supernovae.
By this point, the Sun will have cooled to five degrees above absolute zero.
Because the total number of ways in which all the subatomic particles in the observable universe can be combined is 10 10 115 (\ displaystyle 10 ^ (10 ^ (115))), a number which, when multiplied by 10 10 10 56 (\ displaystyle 10 ^ (10 ^ (10 ^ (56)))), disappears into the rounding error, this is also the time required for a quantum - tunnelled and quantum fluctuation - generated Big Bang to produce a new universe identical to our own, assuming that every new universe contained at least the same number of subatomic particles and obeyed laws of physics within the range predicted by string theory.
To date five spacecraft (Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and New Horizons) are on trajectories which will take them out of the Solar System and into interstellar space. Barring an extremely unlikely collision with some object, the craft should persist indefinitely.
Estimated lifespan of the HD - Rosetta analog disc, an ion beam - etched writing medium on nickel plate, a technology developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory and later commercialized. (The Rosetta Project uses this technology, named after the Rosetta Stone).
Various public monuments composed of hard granite will have eroded one meter, in a moderate climate, assuming a rate of 1 Bubnoff unit (1 mm / 1,000 years, or ~ 1 inch / 10,000 years).
Without maintenance, the Great Pyramid of Giza will erode into unrecognizability.
On the Moon, Neil Armstrong 's "one small step '' footprint at Tranquility Base will erode by this time, along with those left by all twelve Apollo moonwalkers, due to the accumulated effects of space weathering. (Normal erosion processes active on Earth are not present due to the Moon 's almost complete lack of atmosphere.)
Extremely rare astronomical events beginning in the 11th millennium AD (year 10,001) will be:
For graphical, logarithmic timelines of these events see:
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when was the congress party founded in india and by whom | Indian National Congress - Wikipedia
The Indian National Congress (pronunciation (help info)) (INC, often called Congress Party) is a broadly based political party in India. Founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement, with over 15 million members and over 70 million participants. Congress led India to independence from Great Britain, and powerfully influenced other anti-colonial nationalist movements in the British Empire.
Congress is a secular party whose social liberal platform is generally considered to be on the centre - left of Indian politics. Congress ' social policy is based upon the Gandhian principle of Sarvodaya -- the lifting up of all sections of society -- which involves the improvement of the lives of economically underprivileged and socially marginalised people. The party primarily endorses social liberalism -- seeking to balance individual liberty and social justice, and secularism -- asserting the right to be free from religious rule and teachings.
After India 's independence in 1947, Congress formed the central government of India, and many regional state governments. Congress became India 's dominant political party; as of 2015, in the 15 general elections since independence, it has won an outright majority on six occasions and has led the ruling coalition a further four times, heading the central government for 49 years. There have been seven Congress Prime Ministers, the first being Jawaharlal Nehru (1947 -- 1964), and the most recent Manmohan Singh (2004 -- 2014). Although it did not fare well in the last general elections in India in 2014, it remains one of two major, nationwide, political parties in India, along with the right - wing, Hindu nationalist, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). In the 2014 general election, Congress had its poorest post-independence general election performance, winning only 44 seats of the 543 - member Lok Sabha.
From 2004 to 2014, the Congress - led United Progressive Alliance, a coalition of several regional parties, formed the Indian government, and was headed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. The leader of the party during the period, Sonia Gandhi has served the longest term as the president of the party. As of May 2018, the party is in power in four legislative assemblies: Punjab, Mizoram, Karnataka (in an alliance with the JD (S)), and the union territory of Puducherry.
The history of the Indian National Congress (INC) falls into two distinct eras:
The Indian National Congress conducted its first session in Bombay from 28 -- 31 December 1885 at the initiative of retired Civil service officer Allan Octavian Hume. In 1883, Hume had outlined his idea for a body representing Indian interests in an open letter to graduates of the University of Calcutta. Its aim was to obtain a greater share in government for educated Indians, and to create a platform for civic and political dialogue between them and the British Raj. Hume took the initiative, and in March 1885 a notice convening the first meeting of the Indian National Union to be held in Poona the following December was issued. Due to a cholera outbreak there, it was moved to Bombay.
Hume organised the first meeting in Bombay with the approval of the Viceroy Lord Dufferin. Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee was the first president of Congress; the first session was attended by 72 delegates. Representing each province of India. Notable representatives included Scottish ICS officer William Wedderburn, Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta of the Bombay Presidency Association, Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi of the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, social reformer and newspaper editor Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Justice K.T. Telang, N.G. Chandavarkar, Dinshaw Wacha, Behramji Malabari, journalist and activist Gooty Kesava Pillai, and P. Rangaiah Naidu of the Madras Mahajana Sabha. This small elite group, unrepresentative of the Indian masses at the time, functioned more as a stage for elite Indian ambitions than a political party for the first decade of its existence.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Congress ' demands became more radical in the face of constant opposition from the British government, and the party decided to advocate in favour of the independence movement because it would allow a new political system in which Congress could be a major party. By 1905, a division opened between the moderates led by Gokhale, who downplayed public agitation, and the new extremists who advocated agitation, and regarded the pursuit of social reform as a distraction from nationalism. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who tried to mobilise Hindu Indians by appealing to an explicitly Hindu political identity displayed in the annual public Ganapati festivals he inaugurated in western India, was prominent among the extremists.
Congress included a number of prominent political figures. Dadabhai Naoroji, a member of the sister Indian National Association, was elected president of the party in 1886 and was the first Indian Member of Parliament in the British House of Commons (1892 -- 1895). Congress also included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Mohammed Ali Jinnah. Jinnah was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu -- Muslim unity in achieving self - government. Later he became the leader of the Muslim League and instrumental in the creation of Pakistan. Congress was transformed into a mass movement by Surendranath Banerjea during the partition of Bengal in 1905, and the resultant Swadeshi movement.
Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915. With the help of the moderate group led by Ghokhale, Gandhi became president of Congress. After the First World War, the party became associated with Gandhi, who remained its unofficial spiritual leader and icon. He formed an alliance with the Khilafat Movement in 1920 to fight for preservation of the Ottoman Caliphate, and rights for Indians using civil disobedience or satyagraha as the tool for agitation. In 1923, after the deaths of policemen at Chauri Chaura, Gandhi suspended the agitation. In protest, a number of leaders, Chittaranjan Das, Annie Besant, and Motilal Nehru, resigned to set up the Swaraj Party. The Khilafat movement collapsed and Congress was split.
The rise of Gandhi 's popularity and his satyagraha art of revolution led to support from Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Khan Mohammad Abbas Khan, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Chakravarti Rajgopalachari, Dr. Anugraha Narayan Sinha, Jayaprakash Narayan, Jivatram Kripalani, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. As a result of prevailing nationalism, Gandhi 's popularity, and the party 's attempts at eradicating caste differences, untouchability, poverty, and religious and ethnic divisions, Congress became a forceful and dominant group. Although its members were predominantly Hindu, it had members from other religions, economic classes, and ethnic and linguistic groups.
At the Congress 1929 Lahore session under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, Purna Swaraj (complete independence) was declared as the party 's goal, declaring 26 January 1930 as "Purna Swaraj Diwas '' (Independence Day). The same year, Srinivas Iyenger was expelled from the party for demanding full independence, not just home rule as demanded by Gandhi.
After the passage of the Government of India Act of 1935, provincial elections were held in India in the winter of 1936 -- 37 in eleven provinces: Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. After contesting these elections, the Indian National Congress gained power in eight of them except Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. The All - India Muslim League failed to form a government in any province. Congress ministries resigned in October and November 1939 in protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow 's declaration that India was a belligerent in the Second World War without consulting the Indian people.
In 1939, Subhas Chandra Bose, the elected president in both 1938 and 1939, resigned from Congress over the selection of the working committee. The party was not the sole representative of the Indian polity, other parties included the Hindu Mahasabha, and the Forward Bloc. The party was an umbrella organisation, sheltering radical socialists, traditionalists, and Hindu and Muslim conservatives. Gandhi expelled all the socialist groupings, including the Congress Socialist Party, the Krishak Praja Party, and the Swarajya Party, along with Subhas Chandra Bose, in 1939.
Azad Hind, an Indian provisional government, had been established in Singapore in 1943, and was supported by Japan.
In 1946, the British tried the Indian soldiers who had fought alongside the Japanese during World War II in the INA trials. In response, Congress helped form the INA Defence Committee, which assembled a legal team to defend the case of the soldiers of the Azad Hind government. The team included several famous lawyers, including Bhulabhai Desai, Asaf Ali, and Jawaharlal Nehru. The same year, Congress members initially supported the sailors who led the Royal Indian Navy mutiny, but they withdrew support at a critical juncture and the mutiny failed.
After Indian independence in 1947, the Indian National Congress became the dominant political party in the country. In 1952, in the first general election held after Independence, the party swept to power in the national parliament and most state legislatures. It held power nationally until 1977, when it was defeated by the Janata coalition. It returned to power in 1980 and ruled until 1989, when it was once again defeated. The party formed the government in 1991 at the head of a coalition, as well as in 2004 and 2009, when it led the United Progressive Alliance. During this period the Congress remained centre - left in its social policies while steadily shifting from a socialist to a neoliberal economic outlook. The Party 's rivals at state level have been national parties including the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPIM), and various regional parties, such as the Telugu Desam Party, Trinamool Congress and Aam Aadmi Party.
A post-partition successor to the party survived as the Pakistan National Congress, a party which represented the rights of religious minorities in the state. The party 's support was strongest in the Bengali - speaking province of East Pakistan. After the Bangladeshi War of Independence, it became known as the Bangladeshi National Congress, but was dissolved in 1975 by the government.
From 1951 until his death in 1964, Jawaharlal Nehru was the paramount leader of the party. Congress gained power in landslide victories in the general elections of 1951 -- 52, 1957, and 1962. During his tenure, Nehru implemented policies based on import substitution industrialisation, and advocated a mixed economy where the government - controlled public sector co-existed with the private sector. He believed the establishment of basic and heavy industries was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy. The Nehru government directed investment primarily into key public sector industries -- steel, iron, coal, and power -- promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies. Nehru embraced secularism, socialistic economic practices based on state - driven industrialisation, and a non-aligned and non-confrontational foreign policy that became typical of the modern Congress Party. The policy of non-alignment during the Cold War meant Nehru received financial and technical support from both the Eastern and Western Blocs to build India 's industrial base from nothing.
During his period in office, there were four known assassination attempts on Nehru. The first attempt on his life was during partition in 1947 while he was visiting the North - West Frontier Province in a car. The second was by a knife - wielding rickshaw - puller in Maharashtra in 1955. A third attempt happened in Bombay in 1956. The fourth was a failed bombing attempt on railway tracks in Maharashtra in 1961. Despite threats to his life, Nehru despised having excess security personnel around him and did not like his movements to disrupt traffic.
In 1964, Nehru died because of an aortic dissection, raising questions about the party 's future.
K. Kamaraj became the president of the All India Congress Committee in 1963 during the last year of Nehru 's life. Prior to that, he had been the chief minister of Madras state for nine years. Kamraj had also been a member of "the syndicate '', a group of right wing leaders within Congress.In 1963 the Congress lost popularity following the defeat in the Indo - Chinese war of 1962.To revitalize the party, Kamraj proposed the Kamaraj Plan to Nehru that encouraged six Congress chief ministers (including himself) and six senior cabinet ministers to resign to take up party work. After Nehru 's death in May 1964, Kamaraj was widely credited as the "kingmaker '' in Indian politics for ensuring the victory of Lal Bahadur Shastri over Morarji Desai as the successor of Nehru.
As prime minister, Shastri retained many members of Nehru 's Council of Ministers; T.T. Krishnamachari was retained as Finance Minister of India, as was Defence Minister Yashwantrao Chavan. Shastri appointed Swaran Singh to succeed him as External Affairs Minister. Shashtri appointed Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru 's daughter and former party president, Minister of Information and Broadcasting. Gulzarilal Nanda continued as the Minister of Home Affairs. As Prime Minister, Shastri continued Nehru 's policy of non-alignment, but built closer relations with the Soviet Union. In the aftermath of the Sino - Indian War of 1962, and the formation of military ties between China and Pakistan, Shastri 's government expanded the defence budget of India 's armed forces. He also promoted the White Revolution -- a national campaign to increase the production and supply of milk by creating the National Dairy Development Board. The Madras anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 occurred during Shastri 's tenure.
Shastri became a national hero following victory in the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965. His slogan, "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan '' ("Hail the soldier, Hail the farmer ''), became very popular during the war. On 11 January 1966, a day after signing the Tashkent Declaration, Shastri died in Tashkent, reportedly of a heart attack; but the circumstances of his death remain mysterious.
After Shastri 's death, Congress elected Indira Gandhi as leader over Morarji Desai. Once again, politician K. Kamaraj was instrumental in achieving this result. In 1967, following a poor performance in the general election, Indira Gandhi started moving towards the political left. In mid-1969, she was involved in a dispute with senior party leaders on a number of issues. The two major issues were Gandhi supporting the independent candidate, V.V. Giri, rather than the official Congress party candidate, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, for the vacant post of the President of India. The second issue was Mrs. Gandhi 's abrupt nationalization of the 14 biggest banks in India, which resulted in the resignation of the finance minister, Morarji Desai. Later in the year, the Congress party president, S. Nijalingappa, expelled her from the party for indiscipline. Mrs. Gandhi as a counter-move launched her own faction of the INC. Mrs. Gandhi 's faction, called Congress (R), was supported by most of the Congress MPs while the original party had the support of only 65 MPs.
In the mid-term parliamentary elections held in 1971, the Gandhi - led Congress (R) Party won a landslide victory on a platform of progressive policies such as the elimination of poverty (Garibi Hatao). The policies of the Congress (R) Party under Gandhi before the 1971 elections included proposals to abolish the Privy Purse to former rulers of the Princely states, and the 1969 nationalisation of India 's 14 largest banks.
The New Congress Party 's popular support began to wane in the mid-1970s. From 1975, Gandhi 's government grew increasingly more authoritarian and unrest among the opposition grew. On 12 June 1975, the High Court of Allahabad declared Indira Gandhi 's election to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India 's parliament, void on the grounds of electoral malpractice. However, Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the Supreme Court. She moved to restore order by ordering the arrest of most of the opposition participating in the unrest. In response to increasing disorder and lawlessness, Gandhi 's cabinet and government recommended that President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declare a State of Emergency, which he did on 25 June 1975 based on the provisions of Article 352 of the Constitution.
During the nineteen - month emergency, widespread oppression and abuse of power by Gandhi 's unelected younger son and political heir Sanjay Gandhi and his close associates occurred. This period of oppression ended on 23 January 1977, when Gandhi released all political prisoners and called fresh elections for the Lok Sabha to be held in March. The Emergency officially ended on 23 March 1977. In that month 's parliamentary elections, the opposition Janata Party won a landslide victory over Congress, winning 295 seats in the Lok Sabha against Congress ' 153. Gandhi lost her seat to her Janata opponent Raj Narain. On 2 January 1978, she and her followers seceded and formed a new opposition party, popularly called Congress (I) -- the I signifying Indira. During the next year, her new party attracted enough members of the legislature to become the official opposition.
In November 1978, Gandhi regained a parliamentary seat. In January 1980, following a landslide victory for Congress (I), she was again elected prime minister. The national election commission declared Congress (I) to be the real Indian National Congress for the 1984 general election. However, the designation I was only dropped in 1996.
During Gandhi 's new term as prime minister, her youngest son Sanjay died in an aeroplane crash in June 1980. This led her to encourage her elder son Rajiv, who was working as a pilot, to enter politics. Gradually, Indira Gandhi 's politics and outlook grew more authoritarian and autocratic, and she became the central figure within the Congress Party. As prime minister, she became known for her political ruthlessness and unprecedented centralisation of power.
Gandhi 's term as prime minister also saw increasing turmoil in Punjab, with demands for Sikh autonomy by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and his militant followers. In 1983, they headquartered themselves in the Golden Temple in Amritsar and started accumulating weapons. In June 1984, after several futile negotiations, Gandhi ordered the Indian Army to enter the Golden Temple to establish control over the complex and remove Bhindranwale and his armed followers. This event is known as Operation Blue Star.
On 31 October 1984, two of Gandhi 's bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, shot her with their service weapons in the garden of the prime minister 's residence in response to her authorisation of Operation Blue Star. Gandhi was due to be interviewed by British actor Peter Ustinov, who was filming a documentary for Irish television. Her assassination prompted the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, during which more than 3,000 people were killed.
In 1984, Indira Gandhi 's son Rajiv Gandhi became nominal head of Congress, and went on to become prime minister upon her assassination. In December, he led Congress to a landslide victory, where it secured 401 seats in the legislature. His administration took measures to reform the government bureaucracy and liberalise the country 's economy. Rajiv Gandhi 's attempts to discourage separatist movements in Punjab and Kashmir backfired. After his government became embroiled in several financial scandals, his leadership became increasingly ineffectual. Gandhi was regarded as a non-abrasive person who consulted other party members and refrained from hasty decisions. The Bofors scandal damaged his reputation as an honest politician, but he was posthumously cleared of bribery allegations in 2004. On 21 May 1991, Gandhi was killed by a bomb concealed in a basket of flowers carried by a woman associated with the Tamil Tigers. He was campaigning in Tamil Nadu for upcoming parliamentary elections. In 1998, an Indian court convicted 26 people in the conspiracy to assassinate Gandhi. The conspirators, who consisted of Tamil militants from Sri Lanka and their Indian allies, had sought revenge against Gandhi because the Indian troops he sent to Sri Lanka in 1987 to help enforce a peace accord there had fought with Tamil separatist guerrillas.
Rajiv Gandhi was succeeded as party leader by P.V. Narasimha Rao, who was elected prime minister in June 1991. His rise to the prime ministership was politically significant because he was the first holder of the office from South India. His administration oversaw major economic change and experienced several home incidents that affected India 's national security. Rao, who held the Industries portfolio, was personally responsible for the dismantling of the Licence Raj, which came under the purview of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. He is often called the "father of Indian economic reforms ''.
Future prime ministers Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh continued the economic reform policies begun by Rao 's government. Rao accelerated the dismantling of the Licence Raj, reversing the socialist policies of previous governments. He employed Manmohan Singh as his finance minister to begin a historic economic change. With Rao 's mandate, Singh launched India 's globalisation reforms that involved implementing International Monetary Fund (IMF) policies to prevent India 's impending economic collapse. Rao was also referred to as Chanakya for his ability to push tough economic and political legislation through the parliament while he headed a minority government.
By 1996, the party 's image was suffering from allegations of corruption, and in elections that year, Congress was reduced to 140 seats, its lowest number in the Lok Sabha to that point. Rao later resigned as prime minister and, in September, as party president. He was succeeded as president by Sitaram Kesri, the party 's first non-Brahmin leader.
The 1998 general election saw Congress win 141 seats in the Lok Sabha, its lowest tally until then. To boost its popularity and improve its performance in the forthcoming election, Congress leaders urged Sonia Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi 's widow, to assume leadership of the party. She had previously declined offers to become actively involved in party affairs, and had stayed away from politics. After her election as party leader, a section of the party that objected to the choice because of her Italian ethnicity broke away and formed the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), led by Sharad Pawar. The breakaway faction commanded strong support in the state of Maharashtra and limited support elsewhere. The remainder continued to be known as the Indian National Congress.
Sonia Gandhi struggled to revive the party in her early years as its president; she was under continuous scrutiny for her foreign birth and lack of political acumen. In the snap elections called by the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government in 1999, Congress ' tally further plummeted to just 114 seats. Although the leadership structure was unaltered as the party campaigned strongly in the assembly elections that followed, Gandhi began to make such strategic changes as abandoning the party 's 1998 Pachmarhi resolution of ekla chalo, or "go it alone '' policy, and formed alliances with other like - minded parties. In the intervening years, the party was successful at various legislative assembly elections; at one point, Congress ruled 15 states. For the 2004 general election, Congress forged alliances with regional parties including the NCP and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. The party 's campaign emphasised social inclusion and the welfare of the common masses -- an ideology that Gandhi herself endorsed for Congress during her presidency -- with slogans such as Congress ka haath, aam aadmi ke saath ("Congress hand in hand with the common man ''), contrasting with the NDA 's "India Shining '' campaign. The Congress - led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) won 222 seats in the new parliament, defeating the NDA by a substantial margin. With the subsequent support of the communist front, Congress won a majority and formed a new government. Despite massive support from within the party, Gandhi declined the post of prime minister, choosing to appoint Manmohan Singh instead. She remained as party president and headed the National Advisory Council (NAC).
During its first term in office, the UPA government passed several social reform bills. These included an employment guarantee bill, the Right to Information Act, and a right to education act. The NAC, as well as the Left Front that supported the government from the outside, were widely seen as being the driving force behind such legislation. The Left Front withdrew its support of the government over disagreements about the U.S. -- India Civil Nuclear Agreement. Despite the effective loss of 62 seats in parliament, the government survived the trust vote that followed. In the Lok Sabha elections held soon after, Congress won 207 seats, the highest tally of any party since 1991. The UPA as a whole won 262, enabling it to form a government for the second time. The social welfare policies of the first UPA government, and the perceived divisiveness of the BJP, are broadly credited with the victory.
By the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, the party had lost much of its popular support, mainly because of several years of poor economic conditions in the country, and growing discontent over a series of corruption allegations involving government officials, including the 2G spectrum case and the Indian coal allocation scam. Congress won only 44 seats, which was its worst - ever performance in a national election and brought into question whether it would continue to be identified as an officially recognised party. Gandhi retired as party president in December 2017, having served for a record nineteen years. She was succeeded by her son Rahul Gandhi.
As of 2014, the election symbol of Congress, as approved by the Election Commission of India, is an image of a right hand with its palm facing front and its fingers pressed together; this is usually shown in the centre of a tricolor flag. The hand symbol was first used by Indira Gandhi when she split from the Congress (R) faction following the 1977 elections and created the New Congress (I).
The symbol of the original Congress during elections held between 1952 and 1971 was an image of two bullocks with a plough. The symbol of Indira 's Congress (R) during the 1971 -- 1977 period was a cow with a suckling calf.
Congress was structured in a hierarchical manner by Mohandas Gandhi 's when he took charge as the president of the party in 1921. The party was a "broad church '' during the independence movement; however, Jawarlal Nehru 's descendants have turned the party into a "family firm '' with hereditary succession. At present, the president and the All India Congress Committee (AICC) are elected by delegates from state and district parties at an annual national conference; in every Indian state and union territory -- or pradesh -- there is a Pradesh Congress Committee (PCC), which is the state - level unit of the party responsible for directing political campaigns at local and state levels, and assisting the campaigns for parliamentary constituencies. Each PCC has a working committee of twenty members, most of whom are appointed by the party president, the leader of the state party, who is chosen by the national president. Those elected as members of the states ' legislative assemblies form the Congress Legislature Parties in the various state assemblies; their chairperson is usually the party 's nominee for Chief Ministership. The party is also organised into various committees, and sections; it publishes a daily newspaper, the National Herald. Despite being a party with a structure, Congress under Indira Gandhi did not hold any organizational elections after 1972.
The AICC is composed of delegates sent from the PCCs. The delegates elect Congress committees, including the Congress Working Committee, consisting of senior party leaders and office bearers. The AICC takes all important executive and political decisions. Since Indira Gandhi formed Congress (I) in 1978, the President of the Indian National Congress has effectively been: the party 's national leader, head of the organisation, head of the Working Committee and all chief Congress committees, chief spokesman, and Congress ' choice for Prime Minister of India. Constitutionally, the president is elected by the PCCs and members of the AICC; however, this procedure has often been by - passed by the Working Committee, which has elected its own candidate.
The Congress Parliamentary Party (CPP) consists of elected MPs in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. There is also a Congress Legislative Party (CLP) leader in each state. The CLP consists of all Congress Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) in each state. In cases of states where the Congress is single - handedly ruling the government, the CLP leader is the Chief Minister. Other directly affiliated groups include: the National Students Union of India (NSUI), the Indian Youth Congress -- the party 's youth wing, the Indian National Trade Union Congress, Mahila Congress, its women 's division, and Congress Seva Dal -- its voluntary organisation.
Dynasticism is fairly common in many political parties in India, however, the congress can be described as dynastic party par excellence. Six members of the Nehru - Gandhi family have been presidents of the party. The party started turning into a family firm controlled by Indira Gandhi 's family during the emergency. This was characterized by servility and sycophancy towards the family which later turned into hereditary succession of Gandhi family members to power. Since the formation of Congress (I) by Indira Gandhi in 1978, the party president has been from her family except for the period between 1991 and 1998. In the last three elections to the Lok Sabha combined, 37 % of Congress party MPs had family members precede them in politics.
Congress is a civic nationalist party that follows a form of nationalism that supports the values of freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights.
Throughout much of the Cold War period, Congress supported a foreign policy of nonalignment that called for India to form ties with both the Western and Eastern Blocs, but to avoid formal alliances with either. American support for Pakistan led the party to endorse a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in 1971. In 2004, when the Congress - led United Progressive Alliance came to power, its chairperson Sonia Gandhi unexpectedly relinquished the premiership to Manmohan Singh. This Singh - led "UPA I '' government executed several key pieces of legislation and projects, including the Rural Health Mission, Unique Identification Authority, the Rural Employment Guarantee scheme, and the Right to Information Act.
The history of economic policy of Congress - led governments can be divided into two periods. The first period lasted from independence, in 1947, to 1991 and put great emphasis on the public sector. The second period began with economic liberalization in 1991.
At the beginning of the first period, the Congress prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru implemented policies based on import substitution industrialization and advocated a mixed economy where the government - controlled public sector would co-exist with the private sector. He believed that the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy. The government, therefore, directed investment primarily into key public - sector industries -- steel, iron, coal, and power -- promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies. This period was called the Licence Raj, or Permit Raj, which was the elaborate system of licences, regulations, and accompanying red tape that were required to set up and run businesses in India between 1947 and 1990. The Licence Raj was a result of Nehru and his successors ' desire to have a planned economy where all aspects of the economy were controlled by the state, and licences were given to a select few. Up to 80 government agencies had to be satisfied before private companies could produce something; and, if the licence were granted, the government would regulate production. The licence raj system continued under Indira Gandhi.In addition, many key sectors such as banking, steel coal, and oil were nationalized. Under Rajiv Gandhi, small steps were taken to liberalize the economy.
In 1991, the new Congress - party government, led by P.V. Narasimha Rao, initiated reforms to avert the impending 1991 economic crisis. The reforms progressed furthest in opening up areas to foreign investment, reforming capital markets, deregulating domestic business, and reforming the trade regime. The goals of Rao 's government were to reduce the fiscal deficit, privatize the public sector, and increase investment in infrastructure. Trade reforms and changes in the regulation of foreign direct investment were introduced in order to open India to foreign trade while stabilising external loans. Rao chose Manmohan Singh for the job. Singh, an acclaimed economist and former chairman of the Resrve Bank, played a central role in implementing these reforms.
In 2004, Singh became prime minister of the Congress - led UPA government. Singh remained prime minister after the UPA won the 2009 general elections. The UPA government introduced policies aimed at reforming the banking and financial sectors, as well as public sector companies. It also introduced policies aimed at relieving farmers of their debt. In 2005, Singh 's government introduced the value added tax, replacing the sales tax. India was able to resist the worst effects of the global Economic crisis of 2008. Singh 's government continued the Golden Quadrilateral, the Indian highway modernisation program that was initiated by Vajpayee 's government.
At present, Congress endorses a mixed economy in which the private sector and the state both direct the economy, which has characteristics of both market and planned economies. Congress advocates import substitution industrialisation -- the replacement of foreign imports with domestic products. Congress believes the Indian economy should be liberalised to increase the pace of development.
In 2005, the Congress - led government started the National Rural Health Mission, which employed about 500,000 community health workers. It was praised by American economist Jeffrey Sachs. In 2006, it implemented a proposal to reserve 27 % of seats in the All India Institute of Medical Studies (AIIMS), the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and other central higher education institutions, for Other Backward Classes, which led to the 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests. The Singh government also continued the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan programme, which includes the introduction and improvement of mid-day school meals and the opening of new schools throughout India, especially in rural areas, to fight illiteracy. During Manmohan Singh 's prime - ministership, eight Institutes of Technology were opened in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Himachal Pradesh.
Congress has strengthened anti-terrorism laws with amendments to the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA). The National Investigation Agency (India) (NIA) was created by the UPA government soon after the November 2008 Mumbai terror attacks, in response to the need for a central agency to combat terrorism. The Unique Identification Authority of India was established in February 2009 to implement the proposed Multipurpose National Identity Card, with the objective of increasing national security.
Congress has continued the foreign policy started by P. V. Narasimha Rao. This includes the peace process with Pakistan, and the exchange of high - level visits by leaders from both countries. The party has tried to end the border dispute with the People 's Republic of China through negotiations. Relations with Afghanistan have also been a concern for Congress. During Afghan President Hamid Karzai 's visit to New Delhi in August 2008, Manmohan Singh increased the aid package to Afghanistan for the development of schools, health clinics, infrastructure, and defence. India is now one of the single largest aid donors to Afghanistan.
When in power between 2004 and 2014, Congress worked on India 's relationship with the United States. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited the US in July 2005 to negotiate an Indo - US civilian nuclear agreement. US President George W. Bush visited India in March 2006; during this visit, a nuclear agreement that would give India access to American nuclear fuel and technology in exchange for the IAEA inspection of its civil nuclear reactors was proposed. Over two years of negotiations, followed by approval from the IAEA, the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the US Congress, the agreement was signed on 10 October 2008.
Congress ' policy has been to cultivate friendly relations with Japan as well as European Union countries including the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. Diplomatic relations with Iran have continued, and negotiations over the Iran - Pakistan - India gas pipeline have taken place. In April 2006, New Delhi hosted an India -- Africa summit attended by the leaders of 15 African states. Congress ' policy has also been to improve relations with other developing countries, particularly Brazil and South Africa.
As of June 2018, Congress (INC) is in power in the states of Mizoram and Punjab where the party has majority support. In Karnataka and Puducherry it shares power with alliance partner Janata Dal (Secular) and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam respectively. Previously, Congress governed Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, Haryana, Bihar, Meghalaya, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand & Manipur.
A majority of non-Congress prime ministers of India are former Congress members.
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in human populations in africa two common alleles | Human genetic variation - wikipedia
Human genetic variation is the genetic differences in and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population (alleles), a situation called polymorphism.
No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins (who develop from one zygote) have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy - number variation. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting. As of 2017, there are a total of 324 million known variants from sequenced human genomes. As of 2015, the typical difference between the genomes of two individuals was estimated at 20 million base pairs (or 0.6 % of the total of 3.2 billion base pairs).
Alleles occur at different frequencies in different human populations. Populations that are more geographically and ancestrally remote tend to differ more. The differences between populations represent a small proportion of overall human genetic variation. Populations also differ in the quantity of variation among their members. The greatest divergence between populations is found in sub-Saharan Africa, consistent with the recent African origin of non-African populations. Populations also vary in the proportion and locus of introgressed genes they received by archaic admixture both inside and outside of Africa.
The study of human genetic variation has evolutionary significance and medical applications. It can help scientists understand ancient human population migrations as well as how human groups are biologically related to one another. For medicine, study of human genetic variation may be important because some disease - causing alleles occur more often in people from specific geographic regions. New findings show that each human has on average 60 new mutations compared to their parents.
Causes of differences between individuals include independent assortment, the exchange of genes (crossing over and recombination) during reproduction (through meiosis) and various mutational events.
There are at least three reasons why genetic variation exists between populations. Natural selection may confer an adaptive advantage to individuals in a specific environment if an allele provides a competitive advantage. Alleles under selection are likely to occur only in those geographic regions where they confer an advantage. A second important process is genetic drift, which is the effect of random changes in the gene pool, under conditions where most mutations are neutral (that is, they do not appear to have any positive or negative selective effect on the organism). Finally, small migrant populations have statistical differences -- call the founder effect -- from the overall populations where they originated; when these migrants settle new areas, their descendant population typically differs from their population of origin: different genes predominate and it is less genetically diverse.
In humans, the main cause is genetic drift. Serial founder effects and past small population size (increasing the likelihood of genetic drift) may have had an important influence in neutral differences between populations. The second main cause of genetic variation is due to the high degree of neutrality of most mutations. A small, but significant number of genes appear to have undergone recent natural selection, and these selective pressures are sometimes specific to one region.
Genetic variation among humans occurs on many scales, from gross alterations in the human karyotype to single nucleotide changes. Chromosome abnormalities are detected in 1 of 160 live human births. Apart from sex chromosome disorders, most cases of aneuploidy result in death of the developing fetus (miscarriage); the most common extra autosomal chromosomes among live births are 21, 18 and 13.
Nucleotide diversity is the average proportion of nucleotides that differ between two individuals. As of 2004, the human nucleotide diversity was estimated to be 0.1 % to 0.4 % of base pairs. In 2015, the 1000 Genomes Project, which sequenced one thousand individuals from 26 human populations, found that "a typical (individual) genome differs from the reference human genome at 4.1 million to 5.0 million sites... affecting 20 million bases of sequence ''; the latter figure corresponds to 0.6 % of total number of base pairs. Nearly all (> 99.9 %) of these sites are small differences, either single nucleotide polymorphisms or brief insertions or deletions (indels) in the genetic sequence, but structural variations account for a greater number of base - pairs than the SNPs and indels.
As of 2017, the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (dbSNP), which lists SNP and other variants, listed 324 million variants found in sequenced human genomes.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a difference in a single nucleotide between members of one species that occurs in at least 1 % of the population. The 2,504 individuals characterized by the 1000 Genomes Project had 84.7 million SNPs among them. SNPs are the most common type of sequence variation, estimated in 1998 to account for 90 % of all sequence variants. Other sequence variations are single base exchanges, deletions and insertions. SNPs occur on average about every 100 to 300 bases and so are the major source of heterogeneity.
A functional, or non-synonymous, SNP is one that affects some factor such as gene splicing or messenger RNA, and so causes a phenotypic difference between members of the species. About 3 % to 5 % of human SNPs are functional (see International HapMap Project). Neutral, or synonymous SNPs are still useful as genetic markers in genome - wide association studies, because of their sheer number and the stable inheritance over generations.
A coding SNP is one that occurs inside a gene. There are 105 Human Reference SNPs that result in premature stop codons in 103 genes. This corresponds to 0.5 % of coding SNPs. They occur due to segmental duplication in the genome. These SNPs result in loss of protein, yet all these SNP alleles are common and are not purified in negative selection.
Structural variation is the variation in structure of an organism 's chromosome. Structural variations, such as copy - number variation and deletions, inversions, insertions and duplications, account for much more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. This was concluded in 2007 from analysis of the diploid full sequences of the genomes of two humans: Craig Venter and James D. Watson. This added to the two haploid sequences which were amalgamations of sequences from many individuals, published by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics respectively.
According to the 1000 Genomes Project, a typical human has 2,100 to 2,500 structural variations, which include approximately 1,000 large deletions, 160 copy - number variants, 915 Alu insertions, 128 L1 insertions, 51 SVA insertions, 4 NUMT s, and 10 inversions.
A copy - number variation (CNV) is a difference in the genome due to deleting or duplicating large regions of DNA on some chromosome. It is estimated that 0.4 % of the genomes of unrelated humans differ with respect to copy number. When copy number variation is included, human - to - human genetic variation is estimated to be at least 0.5 % (99.5 % similarity). Copy number variations are inherited but can also arise during development.
A visual map with the regions with high genomic variation of the modern - human reference assembly relatively to a Neanderthal of 50k has been built by Pratas et al.
Epigenetic variation is variation in the chemical tags that attach to DNA and affect how genes get read. The tags, "called epigenetic markings, act as switches that control how genes can be read. '' At some alleles, the epigenetic state of the DNA, and associated phenotype, can be inherited across generations of individuals.
Genetic variability is a measure of the tendency of individual genotypes in a population to vary (become different) from one another. Variability is different from genetic diversity, which is the amount of variation seen in a particular population. The variability of a trait is how much that trait tends to vary in response to environmental and genetic influences.
In biology, a cline is a continuum of species, populations, races, varieties, or forms of organisms that exhibit gradual phenotypic and / or genetic differences over a geographical area, typically as a result of environmental heterogeneity. In the scientific study of human genetic variation, a gene cline can be rigorously defined and subjected to quantitative metrics.
In the study of molecular evolution, a haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor with a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutation. Haplogroups pertain to deep ancestral origins dating back thousands of years.
The most commonly studied human haplogroups are Y - chromosome (Y - DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, both of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y - DNA is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while mtDNA is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to both daughter and son. The Y - DNA and mtDNA may change by chance mutation at each generation.
A variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) is the variation of length of a tandem repeat. A tandem repeat is the adjacent repetition of a short nucleotide sequence. Tandem repeats exist on many chromosomes, and their length varies between individuals. Each variant acts as an inherited allele, so they are used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in genetics and biology research, forensics, and DNA fingerprinting.
Short tandem repeats (about 5 base pairs) are called microsatellites, while longer ones are called minisatellites.
The recent African origin of modern humans paradigm assumes the dispersal of non-African populations of anatomically modern humans after 70,000 years ago. Dispersal within Africa occurred significantly earlier, at least 130,000 years ago. The "out of Africa '' theory originates in the 19th century, as a tentative suggestion in Charles Darwin 's Descent of Man, but remained speculative until the 1980s when it was supported by study of present - day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence from physical anthropology of archaic specimens.
According to a 2000 study of Y - chromosome sequence variation, human Y - chromosomes trace ancestry to Africa, and the descendants of the derived lineage left Africa and eventually were replaced by archaic human Y - chromosomes in Eurasia. The study also shows that a minority of contemporary populations in East Africa and the Khoisan are the descendants of the most ancestral patrilineages of anatomically modern humans that left Africa 35,000 to 89,000 years ago. Other evidence supporting the theory is that variations in skull measurements decrease with distance from Africa at the same rate as the decrease in genetic diversity. Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa, and this is thought to be due to bottlenecks during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size.
A 2009 genetic clustering study, which genotyped 1327 polymorphic markers in various African populations, identified six ancestral clusters. The clustering corresponded closely with ethnicity, culture and language. A 2018 whole genome sequencing study of the world 's populations observed similar clusters among the populations in Africa. At K = 9, distinct ancestral components defined the Afrosiatic - speaking populations inhabiting North Africa and Northeast Africa; the Nilo - Saharan - speaking populations in Northeast Africa and East Africa; the Ari populations in Northeast Africa; the Niger - Congo - speaking populations in West - Central Africa, West Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa; the Pygmy populations in Central Africa; and the Khoisan populations in Southern Africa.
The human genetic variations found to be very rare between individuals but it is a lot more common within population (more than 5 %). The number of variants change depend on how closely related the populations are. The more closely related the population the higher the percentage of variations.
It is commonly assumed that early humans left Africa, and thus must have passed through a population bottleneck before their African - Eurasian divergence around 100,000 years ago (ca. 3,000 generations). The rapid expansion of a previously small population has two important effects on the distribution of genetic variation. First, the so - called founder effect occurs when founder populations bring only a subset of the genetic variation from their ancestral population. Second, as founders become more geographically separated, the probability that two individuals from different founder populations will mate becomes smaller. The effect of this assortative mating is to reduce gene flow between geographical groups and to increase the genetic distance between groups.
The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater genetic drift because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted.
Populations in Africa tend to have lower amounts of linkage disequilibrium than do populations outside Africa, partly because of the larger size of human populations in Africa over the course of human history and partly because the number of modern humans who left Africa to colonize the rest of the world appears to have been relatively low. In contrast, populations that have undergone dramatic size reductions or rapid expansions in the past and populations formed by the mixture of previously separate ancestral groups can have unusually high levels of linkage disequilibrium
The distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations are impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a "population, '' the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and Kittles 2003). In general, however, an average of 85 % of genetic variation exists within local populations, ~ 7 % is between local populations within the same continent, and ~ 8 % of variation occurs between large groups living on different continents. The recent African origin theory for humans would predict that in Africa there exists a great deal more diversity than elsewhere and that diversity should decrease the further from Africa a population is sampled.
Sub-Saharan Africa has the most human genetic diversity and the same has been shown to hold true for phenotypic variation in skull form. Phenotype is connected to genotype through gene expression. Genetic diversity decreases smoothly with migratory distance from that region, which many scientists believe to be the origin of modern humans, and that decrease is mirrored by a decrease in phenotypic variation. Skull measurements are an example of a physical attribute whose within - population variation decreases with distance from Africa.
The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (American Association of Physical Anthropologists 1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ~ 90 % of the variation in human head shapes occurs within continental groups, and ~ 10 % separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002).
A prominent exception to the common distribution of physical characteristics within and among groups is skin color. Approximately 10 % of the variance in skin color occurs within groups, and ~ 90 % occurs between groups (Relethford 2002). This distribution of skin color and its geographic patterning -- with people whose ancestors lived predominantly near the equator having darker skin than those with ancestors who lived predominantly in higher latitudes -- indicate that this attribute has been under strong selective pressure. Darker skin appears to be strongly selected for in equatorial regions to prevent sunburn, skin cancer, the photolysis of folate, and damage to sweat glands.
Understanding how genetic diversity in the human population impacts various levels of gene expression is an active area of research. While earlier studies focused on the relationship between DNA variation and RNA expression, more recent efforts are characterizing the genetic control of various aspects of gene expression including chromatin states, translation, and protein levels. A study published in 2007 found that 25 % of genes showed different levels of gene expression between populations of European and Asian descent. The primary cause of this difference in gene expression was thought to be SNPs in gene regulatory regions of DNA. Another study published in 2007 found that approximately 83 % of genes were expressed at different levels among individuals and about 17 % between populations of European and African descent.
The population geneticist Sewall Wright developed the fixation index (often abbreviated to F) as a way of measuring genetic differences between populations. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measuring the genetic differences among and between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously. It is often stated that the fixation index for humans is about 0.15. This translates to an estimated 85 % of the variation measured in the overall human population is found within individuals of the same population, and about 15 % of the variation occurs between populations. These estimates imply that any two individuals from different populations are almost as likely to be more similar to each other than either is to a member of their own group.
Wright himself believed that values > 0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an F of 0.15 -- 0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5 % of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore F values between continental groups of humans (or races) of as low as 0.1 (or possibly lower) have been found in some studies, suggesting more moderate levels of genetic variation. Graves (1996) has countered that F should not be used as a marker of subspecies status, as the statistic is used to measure the degree of differentiation between populations, although see also Wright (1978).
Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of F to human populations in their 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races ''. They find that the figure of 85 % is misleading because it implies that all human populations contain on average 85 % of all genetic diversity. They argue the underlying statistical model incorrectly assumes equal and independent histories of variation for each large human population. A more realistic approach is to understand that some human groups are parental to other groups and that these groups represent paraphyletic groups to their descent groups. For example, under the recent African origin theory the human population in Africa is paraphyletic to all other human groups because it represents the ancestral group from which all non-African populations derive, but more than that, non-African groups only derive from a small non-representative sample of this African population. This means that all non-African groups are more closely related to each other and to some African groups (probably east Africans) than they are to others, and further that the migration out of Africa represented a genetic bottleneck, with much of the diversity that existed in Africa not being carried out of Africa by the emigrating groups. Under this scenario, human populations do not have equal amounts of local variability, but rather diminished amounts of diversity the further from Africa any population lives. Long and Kittles find that rather than 85 % of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100 % of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 70 % of human genetic diversity exists in a population derived from New Guinea. Long and Kittles argued that this still produces a global human population that is genetically homogeneous compared to other mammalian populations.
There is a hypothesis that anatomically modern humans interbred with Neanderthals during the Middle Paleolithic. In May 2010, the Neanderthal Genome Project presented genetic evidence that interbreeding did likely take place and that a small but significant portion of Neanderthal admixture is present in the DNA of modern Eurasians and Oceanians, and nearly absent in sub-Saharan African populations.
Between 4 % and 6 % of the genome of Melanesians (represented by the Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) are thought to derive from Denisova hominins - a previously unknown species which shares a common origin with Neanderthals. It was possibly introduced during the early migration of the ancestors of Melanesians into Southeast Asia. This history of interaction suggests that Denisovans once ranged widely over eastern Asia.
Thus, Melanesians emerge as the most archaic - admixed population, having Denisovan / Neanderthal - related admixture of ~ 8 %.
In a study published in 2013, Jeffrey Wall from University of California studied whole sequence - genome data and found higher rates of introgression in Asians compared to Europeans. Hammer et al. tested the hypothesis that contemporary African genomes have signatures of gene flow with archaic human ancestors and found evidence of archaic admixture in African genomes, suggesting that modest amounts of gene flow were widespread throughout time and space during the evolution of anatomically modern humans.
New data on human genetic variation has reignited the debate about a possible biological basis for categorization of humans into races. Most of the controversy surrounds the question of how to interpret the genetic data and whether conclusions based on it are sound. Some researchers argue that self - identified race can be used as an indicator of geographic ancestry for certain health risks and medications.
Although the genetic differences among human groups are relatively small, these differences in certain genes such as duffy, ABCC11, SLC24A5, called ancestry - informative markers (AIMs) nevertheless can be used to reliably situate many individuals within broad, geographically based groupings. For example, computer analyses of hundreds of polymorphic loci sampled in globally distributed populations have revealed the existence of genetic clustering that roughly is associated with groups that historically have occupied large continental and subcontinental regions (Rosenberg et al. 2002; Bamshad et al. 2003).
Some commentators have argued that these patterns of variation provide a biological justification for the use of traditional racial categories. They argue that the continental clusterings correspond roughly with the division of human beings into sub-Saharan Africans; Europeans, Western Asians, Central Asians, Southern Asians and Northern Africans; Eastern Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians and Native Americans; and other inhabitants of Oceania (Melanesians, Micronesians & Australian Aborigines) (Risch et al. 2002). Other observers disagree, saying that the same data undercut traditional notions of racial groups (King and Motulsky 2002; Calafell 2003; Tishkoff and Kidd 2004). They point out, for example, that major populations considered races or subgroups within races do not necessarily form their own clusters.
Furthermore, because human genetic variation is clinal, many individuals affiliate with two or more continental groups. Thus, the genetically based "biogeographical ancestry '' assigned to any given person generally will be broadly distributed and will be accompanied by sizable uncertainties (Pfaff et al. 2004).
In many parts of the world, groups have mixed in such a way that many individuals have relatively recent ancestors from widely separated regions. Although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person 's ancestors coming from various continental populations (Shriver et al. 2003; Bamshad et al. 2004), these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history (Cavalli - Sforza et al. 1994; Hoerder 2002). Even with large numbers of markers, information for estimating admixture proportions of individuals or groups is limited, and estimates typically will have wide confidence intervals (Pfaff et al. 2004).
Genetic data can be used to infer population structure and assign individuals to groups that often correspond with their self - identified geographical ancestry. Jorde and Wooding (2004) argued that "Analysis of many loci now yields reasonably accurate estimates of genetic similarity among individuals, rather than populations. Clustering of individuals is correlated with geographic origin or ancestry. '' However, identification by geographic origin may quickly break down when considering historical ancestry shared between individuals back in time.
An analysis of autosomal SNP data from the International HapMap Project (Phase II) and CEPH Human Genome Diversity Panel samples was published in 2009. The study of 53 populations taken from the HapMap and CEPH data (1138 unrelated individuals) suggested that natural selection may shape the human genome much more slowly than previously thought, with factors such as migration within and among continents more heavily influencing the distribution of genetic variations. A similar study published in 2010 found strong genome - wide evidence for selection due to changes in ecoregion, diet, and subsistence particularly in connection with polar ecoregions, with foraging, and with a diet rich in roots and tubers. In a 2016 study, principal component analysis of genome - wide data was capable of recovering previously - known targets for positive selection (without prior definition of populations) as well as a number of new candidate genes.
Forensic anthropologists can determine aspects of geographic ancestry (i.e. Asian, African, or European) from skeletal remains with a high degree of accuracy by analyzing skeletal measurements. According to some studies, individual test methods such as mid-facial measurements and femur traits can identify the geographic ancestry and by extension the racial category to which an individual would have been assigned during their lifetime, with over 80 % accuracy, and in combination can be even more accurate. However, the skeletons of people who have recent ancestry in different geographical regions can exhibit characteristics of more than one ancestral group and, hence, can not be identified as belonging to any single ancestral group.
Gene flow between two populations reduces the average genetic distance between the populations, only totally isolated human populations experience no gene flow and most populations have continuous gene flow with other neighboring populations which create the clinal distribution observed for moth genetic variation. When gene flow takes place between well - differentiated genetic populations the result is referred to as "genetic admixture ''.
Admixture mapping is a technique used to study how genetic variants cause differences in disease rates between population. Recent admixture populations that trace their ancestry to multiple continents are well suited for identifying genes for traits and diseases that differ in prevalence between parental populations. African - American populations have been the focus of numerous population genetic and admixture mapping studies, including studies of complex genetic traits such as white cell count, body - mass index, prostate cancer and renal disease.
An analysis of phenotypic and genetic variation including skin color and socio - economic status was carried out in the population of Cape Verde which has a well documented history of contact between Europeans and Africans. The studies showed that pattern of admixture in this population has been sex - biased and there is a significant interactions between socio economic status and skin color independent of the skin color and ancestry. Another study shows an increased risk of graft - versus - host disease complications after transplantation due to genetic variants in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and non-HLA proteins.
Differences in allele frequencies contribute to group differences in the incidence of some monogenic diseases, and they may contribute to differences in the incidence of some common diseases. For the monogenic diseases, the frequency of causative alleles usually correlates best with ancestry, whether familial (for example, Ellis - van Creveld syndrome among the Pennsylvania Amish), ethnic (Tay - Sachs disease among Ashkenazi Jewish populations), or geographical (hemoglobinopathies among people with ancestors who lived in malarial regions). To the extent that ancestry corresponds with racial or ethnic groups or subgroups, the incidence of monogenic diseases can differ between groups categorized by race or ethnicity, and health - care professionals typically take these patterns into account in making diagnoses.
Even with common diseases involving numerous genetic variants and environmental factors, investigators point to evidence suggesting the involvement of differentially distributed alleles with small to moderate effects. Frequently cited examples include hypertension (Douglas et al. 1996), diabetes (Gower et al. 2003), obesity (Fernandez et al. 2003), and prostate cancer (Platz et al. 2000). However, in none of these cases has allelic variation in a susceptibility gene been shown to account for a significant fraction of the difference in disease prevalence among groups, and the role of genetic factors in generating these differences remains uncertain (Mountain and Risch 2004).
Some other variations on the other hand are beneficial to human, as they prevent certain diseases and increase the chance to adapt to the environment. For example, mutation in CCR5 gene that protects against AIDS. CCR5 gene is absent on the surface of cell due to mutation. Without CCR5 gene on the surface, there is nothing for HIV viruses to grab on and bind into. Therefore the mutation on CCR5 gene decreases the chance of an individual 's risk with AIDS. The mutation in CCR5 is also quite popular in certain areas, with more than 14 % of the population carry the mutation in Europe and about 6 - 10 % in Asia and North Africa.
Apart from mutations, many genes that may have aided humans in ancient times plague humans today. For example, it is suspected that genes that allow humans to more efficiently process food are those that make people susceptible to obesity and diabetes today.
Neil Risch of Stanford University has proposed that self - identified race / ethnic group could be a valid means of categorization in the USA for public health and policy considerations. A 2002 paper by Noah Rosenberg 's group makes a similar claim: "The structure of human populations is relevant in various epidemiological contexts. As a result of variation in frequencies of both genetic and nongenetic risk factors, rates of disease and of such phenotypes as adverse drug response vary across populations. Further, information about a patient 's population of origin might provide health care practitioners with information about risk when direct causes of disease are unknown. ''
Human genome projects are scientific endeavors that determine or study the structure of the human genome. The Human Genome Project was a landmark genome project.
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where does the nerve that innervates the diaghram arise from | Thoracic diaphragm - wikipedia
In human anatomy, the thoracic diaphragm, or simply the diaphragm (Ancient Greek: διάφραγμα diáphragma "partition ''), is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle that extends across the bottom of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity, containing the heart and lungs, from the abdominal cavity and performs an important function in respiration: as the diaphragm contracts, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn into the lungs.
The term diaphragm in anatomy can refer to other flat structures such as the urogenital diaphragm or pelvic diaphragm, but "the diaphragm '' generally refers to the thoracic diaphragm. In humans, the diaphragm is slightly asymmetric -- its right half is higher up (superior) to the left half, since the large liver rests beneath the right half of the diaphragm. There is also a theory that the diaphragm is lower on the other side due to the presence of the heart.
Other mammals have diaphragms, and other vertebrates such as amphibians and reptiles have diaphragm - like structures, but important details of the anatomy vary, such as the position of the lungs in the abdominal cavity.
The diaphragm is a C - shaped structure of muscle and fibrous tissue that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdomen. The dome curves upwards. The superior surface of the dome forms the floor of the thoracic cavity, and the inferior surface the roof of the abdominal cavity.
As a dome, the diaphragm has peripheral attachments to structures that make up the abdominal and chest walls. The muscle fibres from these attachments converge in a central tendon, which forms the crest of the dome. Its peripheral part consists of muscular fibers that take origin from the circumference of the inferior thoracic aperture and converge to be inserted into a central tendon.
The muscle fibres of the diaphragm emerge from many surrounding structures. At the front, fibres insert into the xiphoid process and along the costal margin. Laterally, muscle fibers insert into ribs 6 - 12. In the back, muscle fibres insert into the vertebra at T12 and two appendages, the right and left crus, descend and insert into the lumbar vertebrae at L1 & L2.
There are two lumbocostal arches, a medial and a lateral, on either side.
The left and right crura are tendons that blend of the anterior longitudinal ligament of the vertebral column.
The central tendon of the diaphragm is a thin but strong aponeurosis near the center of the vault formed by the muscle, closer to the front than to the back of the thorax, so that the posterior muscular fibers are the longer.
There are a number of openings in the diaphragm through which structures pass between the thorax and abdomen. There are three large openings -- the aortic, the esophageal, and the caval opening -- plus a series of smaller ones.
The inferior vena cava passes through the caval opening, a quadrilateral opening at the junction of the right and middle leaflets of the central tendon, so that its margins are tendinous. Surrounded by tendons, the opening is stretched open every time inspiration occurs. However, there has been argument that the caval opening actually constricts during inspiration. Since thoracic pressure decreases upon inspiration and draws the caval blood upwards toward the right atrium, increasing the size of the opening allows more blood to return to the heart, maximizing the efficacy of lowered thoracic pressure returning blood to the heart. The aorta does not pierce the diaphragm but rather passes behind it in between the left and right crus.
The thoracic spinal levels at which the three major structures pass through the diaphragm can be remembered by the number of letters contained in each structure:
The diaphragm is primarily innervated by the phrenic nerve which is formed from the cervical nerves C3, C4 and C5. While the central portion of the diaphragm sends sensory afferents via the phrenic nerve, the peripheral portions of the diaphragm send sensory afferents via the intercostal (T5 -- T11) and subcostal nerves (T12).
Arteries and veins above and below the diaphragm supply and drain blood.
From above, the diaphragm receives blood from branches of the internal thoracic arteries, namely the pericardiophrenic artery and musculophrenic artery; from the superior phrenic arteries, which arise directly from the thoracic aorta; and from the lower internal intercostal arteries. From below, the inferior phrenic arteries supply the diaphragm.
The diaphragm drains blood into the brachiocephalic veins, azygos veins, and veins that drain into the inferior vena cava and left suprarenal vein.
The sternal portion of the muscle is sometimes wanting and more rarely defects occur in the lateral part of the central tendon or adjoining muscle fibers.
The thoracic diaphragm develops during embryogenesis, beginning in the third week after fertilization with two processes known as transverse folding and longitudinal folding. The septum transversum, the primitive central tendon of the diaphragm, originates at the rostral pole of the embryo and is relocated during longitudinal folding to the ventral thoracic region. Transverse folding brings the body wall anteriorly to enclose the gut and body cavities. The pleuroperitoneal membrane and body wall myoblasts, from somatic lateral plate mesoderm, meet the septum transversum to close off the pericardio - peritoneal canals on either side of the presumptive esophagus, forming a barrier that separates the peritoneal and pleuropericardial cavities. Furthermore, dorsal mesenchyme surrounding the presumptive esophagus form the muscular crura of the diaphragm.
Because the earliest element of the embryological diaphragm, the septum transversum, forms in the cervical region, the phrenic nerve that innervates the diaphragm originates from the cervical spinal cord (C3, 4, and 5). As the septum transversum descends inferiorly, the phrenic nerve follows, accounting for its circuitous route from the upper cervical vertebrae, around the pericardium, finally to innervate the diaphragm.
The diaphragm is the main muscle of respiration and functions in breathing. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves in the inferior direction, enlarging the volume of the thoracic cavity and reducing intra-thoracic pressure (the external intercostal muscles also participate in this enlargement), forcing the lungs to expand. In other words, the diaphragm 's movement downwards creates a partial vacuum in the thoracic cavity, which forces the lungs to expand to fill the void, drawing air in the process.
Cavity expansion happens in two extremes, along with intermediary forms. When the lower ribs are stabilized and the central tendon of the diaphragm is mobile, a contraction brings the insertion (central tendon) towards the origins and pushes the lower cavity towards the pelvis, allowing the thoracic cavity to expand downward. This is often called belly breathing. When the central tendon is stabilized and the lower ribs are mobile, a contraction lifts the origins (ribs) up towards the insertion (central tendon) which works in conjunction with other muscles to allow the ribs to slide and the thoracic cavity to expand laterally and upwards.
When the diaphragm relaxes, air is exhaled by elastic recoil process of the lung and the tissues lining the thoracic cavity. Assisting this function with muscular effort (called forced exhalation) involves the internal intercostal muscles used in conjunction with the abdominal muscles, which act as an antagonist paired with the diaphragm 's contraction.
The diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions, helping to expel vomit, feces, and urine from the body by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, aiding in childbirth, and preventing acid reflux by exerting pressure on the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus.
In some non-human animals, the diaphragm is not crucial for breathing; a cow, for instance, can survive fairly asymptomatically with diaphragmatic paralysis as long as no massive aerobic metabolic demands are made of it.
If either the phrenic nerve, cervical spine or brainstem is damaged, this will sever the nervous supply to the diaphragm. The most common damage to the phrenic nerve is by bronchial cancer, which usually only affects one side of the diaphragm. Other causes include Guillain -- Barré syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosis.
A hiatus hernia is a hernia common in adults in which parts of the lower esophagus or stomach that are normally in the abdomen pass bulge abnormally through the diaphragm and are present in the thorax. Hernias are described as rolling, in which the hernia is beside the oesophagus, or sliding, in which the hernia directly involves the esophagus. These hernias are implicated in the development of reflux, as the different pressures between the thorax and abdomen normally act to keep pressure on the esophageal hiatus. With herniation, this pressure is no longer present, and the angle between the cardia of the stomach and the oesophagus disappear. Not all hiatus hernias cause symptoms however, although almost all people with Barrett 's oesophagus or oesophagitis have a hiatus hernia.
Hernias may also occur as a result of congenital malformation, a congenital diaphragmatic hernia. When the pleuroperitoneal membranes fail to fuse, the diaphragm does not act as an effective barrier between the abdomen and thorax. Herniation is usually of the left, and commonly through the posterior lumbocostal triangle, although rarely through the anterior foramen of Morgagni. The contents of the abdomen, including the intestines, may be present in the thorax, which may impact development of the growing lungs and lead to hypoplasia. This condition is present in 1 out of 2,000 births. A large herniation has a mortality rate of three out of four, and requires immediate surgical repair.
Due to its position separating the thorax and abdomen, fluid abnormally present in the thorax, or air abnormally present in the abdomen, may collect on one side of the diaphragm. An X-ray may reveal this. Pleural effusion, in which there is fluid abnormally present between the two pleurae of the lungs, is detected by an X-ray of the chest, showing fluid collecting in the angle between the ribs and diaphragm. An X-ray may also be used to reveal a pneumoperitoneum, in which there is gas in the abdomen.
An X-ray may also be used to check for herniation.
The existence of a membrane separating the pharynx from the stomach can be traced widely among the chordates. Thus the model organism, the marine chordate lancelet, possesses an atriopore by which water exits the pharynx, which has been claimed (and disputed) to be homologous to structures in ascidians and hagfishes. The tunicate epicardium separates digestive organs from the pharynx and heart, but the anus returns to the upper compartment to discharge wastes through an outgoing siphon.
Thus the diaphragm emerges in the context of a body plan that separated an upper feeding compartment from a lower digestive tract, but the point at which it originates is a matter of definition. Structures in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds have been called diaphragms, but it has been argued that these structures are not homologous. For instance, the alligator diaphragmaticus muscle does not insert on the esophagus and does not affect pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter. The lungs are located in the abdominal compartment of amphibians and reptiles, so that contraction of the diaphragm expels air from the lungs rather than drawing it into them. In birds and mammals, lungs are located above the diaphragm. The presence of an exceptionally well - preserved fossil of Sinosauropteryx, with lungs located beneath the diaphragm as in crocodiles, has been used to argue that dinosaurs could not have sustained an active warm - blooded physiology, or that birds could not have evolved from dinosaurs. An explanation for this (put forward in 1905), is that lungs originated beneath the diaphragm, but as the demands for respiration increased in warm - blooded birds and mammals, natural selection came to favor the parallel evolution of the herniation of the lungs from the abdominal cavity in both lineages. However, birds do not have diaphragms. They do not breathe in the same way as mammals, and do not rely on creating a negative pressure in the thoracic cavity, at least not to the same extent. They rely on a rocking motion of the keel of the sternum to create local areas of reduced pressure to supply thin, membranous airsacs cranially and caudally to the fixed - volume, non-expansive lungs. A complicated system of valves and air sacs cycles air constantly over the absorption surfaces of the lungs so allowing maximal efficiency of gaseous exchange. Thus, birds do not have the reciprocal tidal breathing flow of mammals. On careful dissection, around eight air sacs can be clearly seen. They extend quite far caudally into the abdomen.
Peritoneopericardial diaphragmatic hernia in a cat.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
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when do they figure out henry is peter pan | Going Home (Once Upon a Time) - wikipedia
"Going Home '' is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time, and the show 's 55th episode overall. The episode served as the season 's winter finale, and marked the first time in the series that six different story lines were used: four involving the character 's past, one in the present, and a combined alternate past / fast forward outcome, the latter setting things up for a new chapter in the series.
In this episode, Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle) hatches a plan to stop Peter Pan (Robbie Kay) from destroying Storybrooke with Regina 's (Lana Parrilla) curse; the end result has Regina making an action that will forever change Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison) and Henry (Jared S. Gilmore).
The episode -- written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz -- received critical acclaim from critics, mainly due to the episode 's ending and Rumplestiltskin 's role; however, the episode saw a significant ratings drop, with 6.44 million viewers watching, and attaining an 18 - 49 rating of 1.9.
Emma Swan 's Volkswagen Beetle drives into the emerald - tinted forest.
As the Curse prepares to take place within hours, Snow White and Prince Charming tell the Blue Fairy that they are worried about the Curse. The Fairy tells them that there was nothing she can do except try to save the baby and that someday everything will be okay... someday. This was not the answer that Snow wanted, but Charming keeps on assuring her that everything will be okay. Snow looks at Emma 's crib and believes the only thing her daughter will have is hope.
While he and Mr. Smee attempt to find a way off the island, Hook is unaware that someone has been following them, and uses a branch that takes Smee out. Hook looks at his unconscious mate and is surprised by Tinker Bell, who pulls out a knife in front of him. However, Hook, figuring out that Tinker Bell is a fairy, tells her that he has only one thing on his mind, which is to seek revenge on Rumplestilskin. He offers her a bottle of rum.
At Rumplestiltskin 's castle, Rumple is marking Baelfire 's birthday, and Belle approaches him. She says that maybe Rumple and his son can someday be together again, but Rumple, who did not want Belle to bother him, doubts that will ever happen.
In the days prior to Emma 's arrival to break the Curse, Henry is talking to Mary Margaret, saying that he is frustrated that no one else in Storybrooke can see that their lives are just following a predictable pattern, referring to the entire town repeating everything since he arrived. As a way to get Henry to believe in himself, Mary Margaret gives him a large book called Once Upon a Time, which will set things up for Henry to bring his birth mother to Storybrooke, this after Henry starts seeing Mary Margaret as Snow White.
Real -- In the prison hospital, Emma gives birth to Henry, but when she is asked by the doctor if she wants to see the baby, Emma refuses.
New -- In 2001, Emma finally gives birth to Henry at the prison hospital. However, the outcome takes a different twist: Instead of giving up Henry, she decides to keep him instead after she sees her son for the first time and she holds him, thus altering the outcome of her destiny thanks to Regina 's spell.
At the well, Pan (who still occupies Henry 's body) and Felix are talking about casting the Curse, as Pan drops the ingredients he took from Regina 's vault in the well. He takes the final element needed to enact it, which was Felix 's heart, because of his loyalty to Pan. Pan rips out Felix 's heart, crushes it, and drops the ashes into the well. Back at the Vault, Gold explains that the only person who can stop it is Regina, but she will need the scroll to do it and since she was the one who enacted it in the first place, Regina is only one who can destroy the scroll. However, Gold warns Regina there will be a price. Gold also tells the others that he may be able to switch Henry and Pan 's bodies back, but he needs the one thing that will reverse it, which is the wand of the Black Fairy. As everyone involved begins the search, Snow talks to Emma, lamenting that she never got to raise her daughter, while at the church (where the other fairies / nuns are gathering for Mother Superior 's wake), David, Tinker Bell, Hook, and Neal are looking for the wand, unaware that another individual is also looking for it as well: Pan 's Shadow. Hook spots the Shadow but fails to stop it, prompting Tinker Bell to come to his aid by using some of her Pixie Dust to fly up to the Shadow, trapping and throwing it into a nearby fire, apparently killing it. Her actions also bring Mother Superior, whose shadow was taken by Pan 's Shadow, back to life. She restores Tinker Bell as a real fairy and gives them the Black Fairy 's wand.
Back at Gold 's Pawn Shop, everyone gathers again to plan another course of action as Gold puts a special bracelet on Henry (who is occupying Peter Pan 's body) so that when they swap bodies again, Pan will not have any magic. Gold then uses the wand and swaps Pan and Henry 's bodies back. After they see Peter Pan back in his original body, Gold stands over his unconscious and powerless father, saying that he has some "unfinished family business '' as everyone leaves to find Henry and the scroll. They find Henry (now in his original body) at the library, but as he hands the scroll over to Regina, a flash of light comes over her and she is knocked out. Around the same time at the Shop, and as Pan wakes up, Gold taunts him because he wants Pan to see a bit of what life could have been like if they had just been father and son, but Pan wants none of it, telling Gold how horrible it was having a child that crushed his dreams. Gold picks up a sword and approaches Pan, unaware that he is able to remove the bracelet (since Pan created the device) and places it on Gold, rendering him powerless, and then tosses Gold across the room, leaving his son cowering in the corner. Gold attempts to find a way to regain his powers, and the only way he can break free of the bracelet is by chopping off his hand.
Later at the street, Regina wakes up and says she knows what must be done to stop the Curse, however, Pan shows up to retrieve the scroll and freezes all of them. Pan decides to take out his grandson Neal, only to be thwarted by Gold, who shows up to stop him. After vowing to Neal and Belle that he is finally ready to pay the price to keep them safe knowing that means killing himself, Gold 's shadow appears, carrying the Dark One 's Dagger and hands it to Gold, and stabs both Pan and himself at the same time. Pan transforms back into Malcolm, who urges Gold to stop before it is too late, but Gold tells his father "Ah but, I am a villain and villains do n't get happy endings. '' He twists the knife and both men vanish in a burst of light. As Belle cries after they disappear, Neal asks a hesitant Regina if there is a way to stop the Curse, to which Regina reveals that the only way to stop it is to give up the one thing she loved the most: Henry. As the Curse approaches, Regina tells Emma that she and Henry will have to leave Storybrooke forever because once the Curse takes place everyone will return to the Enchanted Forest and since Henry was born in the Land Without Magic, he wo n't be able to go back with them, but Emma will be able to stay with him because she 's the savior and the only one who can escape it. As everyone says goodbye to Emma and Henry, Regina gives the two a spell that will give them good memories but they will not remember the events that broke the Curse in the first place. As Emma and Henry drive away, Regina destroys the scrolls as the Curse consumes everyone and Storybrooke disappears.
One year later after the Curse, in New York City, Emma and Henry are in an apartment, and as she makes breakfast for Henry, she receives a knock on the door. When she opens it, she sees Hook standing outside, saying that he needs her help. This time around Hook warns Emma that her family is in trouble, but she has no idea who this person is or what he is talking about. Hook, believing that "true love 's kiss '' will bring her memories back, attempts to kiss Emma, but the shock results in Emma kicking Hook in the groin, pushing him away, and immediately slamming the door in his face.
During an interview with the Los Angeles Times, Robbie Kay, who portrayed Peter Pan, talked about the body - switching plot and venturing to Storybrooke, saying "so there 's an environmental shift so that character is not in his own court, if you will. So he 's adapting to a new environment and obviously in the most recent episodes there was also a character shift. So I 'm playing Henry and Jared (Gilmore) is playing Pan. That again was crazy, but a lot of fun. ''
The outing saw a slip in the ratings, as it places a 1.9 / 5 among 18 - 49s with only 6.44 million tuning in, a drop of two tenths from the previous outing and matching the same numbers it had for "Save Henry ''. The show placed fourth in its timeslot.
Including DVR playback, which added 2.50 million viewers, the episode was watched by a total of 8.94 million viewers with an 18 - 49 rating of 3.1 When rebroadcast on March 8, 2014, the episode received 1.37 million more viewers and a 0.3 rating, totaling 10.37 and 3.4.
The episode was met with universal acclaim, with many praising the episode 's ending and Rumplestiltskin 's fate.
Amy Ratcliffe of IGN gave the episode a 9.1 out of 10, saying "Once 's winter finale was entertaining and enjoyable with just a few weak points. Losing Rumple hurt, and so did Storybrooke going away, but I do n't think either will last for long. Regardless of what sticks, the events have led to a place that changes the landscape and is sure to set up an intriguing rest of the season. '' The ending of the episode was met positively by Ratcliffe, saying "As far as the jump forward in time, it was a smart decision. You know Emma and Henry have settled into their new life and become accustomed to a certain sense of normal (their breakfast scene had more than a hint of the routine when Desmond first appeared in Lost), but the leap is also necessary for at least one practical reason: Gilmore is growing up and now he has a reason to look older. ''
Jim Halterman of TV Fanatic gave the episode a 4.7 out of 5, saying "The one year time jump surprised me. I expected the show to end with that little yellow bug driving away from the Storybrooke that was. Instead we see Emma and Henry living a domestic and happy life together, until a strange knock at the door revealed a pirate with a hook. I loved that Hook kissed her. He was hoping that true love 's kiss would unlock her memories. Unfortunately it does n't work when it 's a one way street.
Lily Sparks of TV.com gave the episode a highly positive review, saying:
The characters of OUAT have been feeling huge crazy things all season, but because this was the mid-season finale, the show actually tapped the brakes and gave the proceedings some gravity and the actors time to process it and to transfer the feeling to us. And we felt all of it! I get infuriated sometimes at how good this show can be, because it could be this good in every episode if it wanted to. It does n't take flashy CGI to make this show intriguing, all it takes is slowing a scene down every once in a while and letting two people process in some real way the batshit hoop they 're jumping through.
Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B -, noting that "Wow, a lot to process this hour: When Once Upon A Time gives you a midseason finale, they frickin ' mean it. With the Pan plot coming to a close, a new storyline needed to open up. And in Storybrooke 's case, that 's wide open. ''
Hilary Busis of Entertainment Weekly summed it up with these comments:
Remember how season 2 's winter finale brought an entire half - season 's storyline to a satisfying end by conclusively returning Snow and Emma to Storybrooke? Well, Sunday 's episode went about a hundred times farther, effectively tying a pretty white bow on the entire show 's storyline -- at least, until that handy "One Year Later '' tag (Captain Swan lives!) and a preview promising the imminent introduction of the Wicked Witch of the West. (Just what Once needed: Another villain who 's more compelling than any of the show 's heroes.)
Of course, that line of thinking is totally moot because "Going Home '' was n't the end of Once Upon a Time -- it was merely the end of the show 's latest chapter, an oft - frustrating string of episodes that wasted too much time running in place and then decided to launch an all - out sprint to the finish. Luckily, that sprint largely worked -- shoehorned - in Tinker Bell redemption plot and all.
Kylie Peters of Den of Geek looked to the season 's future, saying "Things are going to change a lot in the second half of the season. Storybrooke is gone, so it looks like most of the action will take place in the Enchanted Forest. Hopefully Emma 's denial phase does n't last long; we already saw that all through season 1. ''
Many other critics commented positively on the episode 's flashforward. Andy Swift of Hollywood Life said "We 're used to being bombarded by flashbacks on Once Upon A Time, but the midseason finale decided to throw us for a loop by jumping forward in time at the end of the hour. '' Andrea Reiher of Zap2it commented positively on this, saying "The time jump is nice, since Jared Gilmore is starting to age out of his character. That will help considerably. ''
Rumplestiltskin 's death received much reaction from critics. Jason Evans from the Wall Street Journal said "I hope they figure out a way to bring him back as he 's been my favorite character on the show since the very beginning. But, whether Gold comes back or not, it is clear that when Once Upon a Time comes back in three months, the focus will be on getting Emma and Henry 's memory back. '' Rebecca Martin from Wetpaint also commented on it, saying "Things we expected to happen in the Once Upon a Time Season 3 midseason finale: Peter Pan dying. Things we did not expect to happen in the Once Upon a Time Season 3 winter finale: Rumplestiltskin dying. Things that actually did happen in the Once Upon a Time Season 3 winter finale: both. Or so it would appear. ''
Tierney Bricker of E! Online called Rumplestiltskin 's death and the flashforward ending among the OMG TV Moments of the night.
Liane Bonin Starr of HitFix gave a worrying reaction to the episode, saying:
Because this is "Once Upon A TIme, '' (sic) I do n't know if I accept any character as really and truly dead, um, ever. I do n't accept any plot twist as irreversible, either. But dammit, "OUAT '' has me worried with this midseason finale. Logically, I understand there was a need for the show to make some big moves. I suspect, given the ending, those big moves wo n't be as permanent or lasting as earlier scenes led us to believe. But still, I think Kitsis and Horowitz have decided to shake the toy box to mix things up, and I can only hope (Hope! Hey, the theme of the episode!) it portends a fresh storyline -- one we richly deserve after the claustrophobic Neverland.
Natalie Abrams of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer also acknowledged the episode, saying, "Once Upon a Time will never be the same after Sunday 's midseason finale. ''
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when was the last time lebron won the finals | LeBron James - wikipedia
LeBron Raymone James Sr. (/ ləˈbrɒn /; born December 30, 1984) is an American professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Often considered the best basketball player in the world and regarded by some as the greatest player of all time, James ' NBA accomplishments are extensive and include four NBA Most Valuable Player Awards, three NBA Finals MVP Awards, two Olympic gold medals, three All - Star Game MVP awards, and an NBA scoring title. He is the all - time NBA playoffs scoring leader and has amassed fourteen NBA All - Star Game appearances, twelve All - NBA First Team designations, and five All - Defensive First Team honors.
A prep - to - pro, James played high school basketball for St. Vincent -- St. Mary High School in his hometown of Akron, Ohio, where he was heavily touted in the national media as a future NBA superstar. He joined the Cleveland Cavaliers in 2003 as the first overall draft pick. James quickly emerged as a league star and concluded his first season by winning the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. He would go on to establish himself as one of the premier players in the NBA with multiple accolades, including being given the NBA Most Valuable Player Award in 2009 and 2010. However, after falling short of the championship expectations set by the media, fans, and himself, James departed Cleveland in 2010 as a free agent to sign with the Miami Heat. This move was announced in an ESPN special titled The Decision, and is one of the most controversial free agent decisions in American sports history.
In Miami, James won his first NBA championship in 2012, and followed that with another title a year later. He was named league MVP and NBA Finals MVP in both championship years. In 2014, James opted out of his contract with Miami after four seasons to re-sign with the Cavaliers. In 2016, James led the Cavaliers to their first NBA championship by defeating the Golden State Warriors to end Cleveland 's 52 - year professional sports title drought. In 2018, he opted out of his Cleveland contract to sign with the Lakers.
James was born on December 30, 1984, in Akron, Ohio to a 16 - year - old mother, Gloria Marie James. Speculated by many to be his father, Anthony McClelland, has an extensive criminal record and was not involved in their life. When James was growing up, life was often a struggle for the family, as they moved from apartment to apartment in the seedier neighborhoods of Akron while Gloria struggled to find steady work. Realizing that her son would be better off in a more stable family environment, Gloria allowed him to move in with the family of Frank Walker, a local youth football coach who introduced James to basketball when he was nine years old.
James started playing organized basketball in the fifth grade. He later played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for the Northeast Ohio Shooting Stars. The team enjoyed success on a local and national level, led by James and his friends Sian Cotton, Dru Joyce III, and Willie McGee. The group was inseparable and dubbed themselves the "Fab Four '', promising each other that they would attend high school together. In a move that stirred local controversy, they chose to attend St. Vincent -- St. Mary High School, a predominantly white private Catholic school.
As a freshman, James averaged 21 points and 6 rebounds per game for the St. Vincent - St. Mary varsity basketball team. The Fighting Irish finished the year 27 -- 0, winning the Division III state title and becoming the only boys high school team to have an undefeated season. As a sophomore, James averaged 25.2 points and 7.2 rebounds with 5.8 assists and 3.8 steals per game. For some home games during the season, St. Vincent - St. Mary played at the University of Akron 's 5,492 - seat Rhodes Arena to satisfy ticket demand from alumni, fans, and college and NBA scouts who wanted to see James play. The Fighting Irish finished the season 26 -- 1 and repeated as state champions. For his outstanding play, James was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All - USA First Team, becoming the first sophomore to do either.
Prior to the start of his junior year, James appeared in SLAM Magazine and writer Ryan Jones lauded him as possibly "the best high school basketball player in America right now ''. During the season, he appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated, becoming the first high school basketball underclassman to do so. With averages of 29 points, 8.3 rebounds, 5.7 assists, and 3.3 steals per game, he was again named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All - USA First Team, and became the first junior to be named boys ' basketball Gatorade National Player of the Year. St. Vincent - St. Mary finished the year with a 23 -- 4 record, ending their season with a loss in the Division II championship game. Following the loss, James unsuccessfully petitioned for a change to the NBA 's draft eligibility rules, which required prospective players to have at least a high school diploma, in an attempt to enter the 2002 NBA draft. During this time, he used marijuana, which he said was to help cope with the stress that resulted from the constant media attention he was receiving.
Throughout his senior year, James and the Fighting Irish traveled around the country to play a number of nationally ranked teams, including a game against Oak Hill Academy that was nationally televised on ESPN2. Time Warner Cable, looking to capitalize on James 's popularity, offered St. Vincent - St. Mary 's games to subscribers on a pay - per - view basis throughout the season. For the year, James averaged 31.6 points, 9.6 rebounds, 4.6 assists, and 3.4 steals per game, was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All - USA First Team for an unprecedented third consecutive year, and was named Gatorade National Player of the Year for the second consecutive year. He participated in three year - end high school basketball all - star games -- the EA Sports Roundball Classic, the Jordan Capital Classic, and the McDonald 's All - American Game -- losing his National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) eligibility and making it official that he would enter the 2003 NBA draft. Many basketball analysts, scouts, and writers have remarked that James left high school as one of the best and most hyped prospects of all time.
Also during his senior year, James was the centerpiece of several controversies. For his 18th birthday, he skirted state amateur bylaws by accepting a Hummer H2 from his mother, who had secured a loan for the vehicle by utilizing LeBron 's future earning power as an NBA superstar. This prompted an investigation by the Ohio High School Athletic Association (OHSAA) because its guidelines stated that no amateur may accept any gift valued over $100 as a reward for athletic performance. James was cleared of any wrongdoing because he had accepted the gift from a family member and not from an agent or any outside source. Later in the season, James accepted two throwback jerseys worth $845 from an urban clothing store in exchange for posing for pictures, officially violating OHSAA rules and resulting in him being stripped of his high school sports eligibility. James appealed the ruling and his penalty was eventually dropped to a two - game suspension, allowing him to play the remainder of the year. The Irish were also forced to forfeit one of their wins, their only official loss that season. In his first game back after the suspension, James scored a career - high 52 points. St. Vincent - St. Mary went on to win the Division II championship, marking their third division title in four years.
As an underclassman, James played wide receiver for St. Vincent - St. Mary 's football team and was recruited by some Division I programs, including Notre Dame. In his sophomore year, he was named first team all - state, and as a junior, he helped lead the Fighting Irish to the state semifinals. After James broke his wrist during an AAU basketball game, he decided not to play football in his senior year. Some sports analysts, football critics, high school coaches, former and current players have speculated that he could have played in the National Football League.
James was selected by his hometown team, the Cleveland Cavaliers, as the first overall pick of the 2003 NBA draft. In his first regular season game, he scored 25 points against the Sacramento Kings, setting an NBA record for most points scored by a prep - to - pro player in his debut performance. At the conclusion of the season, he was named the NBA Rookie of the Year, finishing with averages of 20.9 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.9 assists per game. He became the first Cavalier to receive the honor and just the third player in NBA history to average at least 20 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists per game as a rookie. The Cavaliers finished the season 35 -- 47, failing to make the playoffs despite an 18 - game improvement over the previous year.
James earned his first NBA All - Star Game selection in 2004 -- 05, contributing 13 points, 8 rebounds, and 6 assists in a winning effort for the Eastern Conference. Around the league, teams took note of his rapid development, with Denver Nuggets coach George Karl telling Sports Illustrated, "It 's weird talking about a 20 - year - old kid being a great player, but he is a great player... He 's the exception to almost every rule. '' On March 20, James scored 56 points against the Toronto Raptors, setting Cleveland 's new single - game points record. With final averages of 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, he was named to his first All - NBA Team. Despite a 30 -- 20 record to start the year, the Cavaliers again failed to make the playoffs, finishing the season 42 -- 40.
At the 2006 All - Star Game, James led the East to victory with 29 points and was named the NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player. Behind final season averages of 31.4 points, 7 rebounds, and 6.6 assists per game, he also finished second in overall NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting to Steve Nash. Under James 's leadership, the Cavaliers qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1998. In his postseason debut, James recorded a triple - double in a winning effort versus the Washington Wizards. In Game 3 of the series, he made the first game - winning shot of his career, making another in Game 5. Cleveland would go on to defeat the Wizards before being ousted by the Detroit Pistons in the second round.
In 2006 -- 07, James 's averages declined to 27.3 points, 6.7 rebounds, 6 assists, and 1.6 steals per game. Some analysts attributed the fall to a regression in his passing skills and shot selection, which stemmed from a lack of effort and focus. The Cavaliers finished the season with 50 wins for the second consecutive year and entered the playoffs as the East 's second seed. In Game 5 of the NBA Conference Finals, James notched 48 points with 9 rebounds and 7 assists, scoring 29 of Cleveland 's last 30 points, including the game - winning layup with two seconds left, against the Pistons. After the game, play - by - play announcer Marv Albert called the performance "one of the greatest moments in postseason history '' and color commentator Steve Kerr described it as "Jordan-esque ''. In 2012, ESPN ranked the performance the fourth greatest in modern NBA playoff history. The Cavaliers went on to win Game 6 and claim their first - ever Eastern Conference championship, earning them a matchup with the San Antonio Spurs in the NBA Finals. During the championship round, James struggled, averaging 22 points, 7.0 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on just 35.6 percent shooting, and Cleveland was eliminated in a sweep.
In February of the 2007 -- 08 season, James was named All - Star Game MVP for the second time behind a 27 - point, 8 - rebound, and 9 - assist performance. On March 21, he moved past Brad Daugherty as the Cavaliers ' all - time leading scorer in a game against the Raptors, doing so in over 100 less games than Daugherty. His 30 points per game were also the highest in the league, representing his first scoring title. Despite his individual accomplishments, Cleveland 's record fell from the year before to 45 -- 37. Seeded fourth in the East entering the playoffs, the Cavaliers defeated the Wizards in the first round for the third consecutive season before being eliminated in seven games by the eventual - champion Boston Celtics in the next round. During the decisive seventh game in Boston, James scored 45 points and Paul Pierce scored 41 in a game the Associated Press described as a "shootout ''.
At the conclusion of the 2008 -- 09 season, James finished second in NBA Defensive Player of the Year voting and made his first NBA All - Defensive Team, posting 23 chase - down blocks and a career - high 93 total blocks. He also became only the fourth postmerger player to lead his team in points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks in a single season. Behind his play and the acquisition of All - Star guard Mo Williams, Cleveland went a franchise record 66 -- 16 and fell just one game short of matching the best home record in league history. With final averages of 28.4 points, 7.6 rebounds, 7.2 assists, 1.7 steals, and 1.2 blocks per game, James became the first Cavalier to win the MVP Award. Reflecting on James 's performance for ESPN, John Hollinger later wrote, "He 's having what is arguably the greatest individual season in history, and it 's time we gave him his due for it. ''
In the playoffs, Cleveland swept the Pistons and the Atlanta Hawks to earn a matchup with the Orlando Magic in the Conference Finals. In Game 1 of the series, James scored 49 points on 66 percent shooting in a losing effort for the Cavaliers. In Game 2, he hit a game - winner to tie the series at 1 -- 1. Cleveland would lose the series in six games, and following the loss in Game 6, James immediately left the floor without shaking hands with his opponents, which was an act that many media members viewed as unsportsmanlike. For the series, he averaged 38.5 points, 8.3 rebounds, and 8 assists per game, finishing the postseason with a career playoff - high 35.3 points per game.
In February of the 2009 -- 10 season, James was forced into a temporary point guard role following a series of injuries to players in the Cavaliers ' backcourt. Behind his leadership, Cleveland lost no momentum, finishing the year with the best record in the league for the second consecutive season. Due in part to his increased minutes as the Cavaliers ' primary ball handler, James increased his statistical production, averaging 29.7 points, 7.3 rebounds, 8.6 assists, 1.6 steals, and 1 block per game on 50 percent shooting en route to another MVP Award. To open the playoffs, Cleveland advanced past the Bulls to earn a matchup with the Celtics in the second round. James was heavily criticized for not playing well in Game 5 of the series, shooting only 20 percent on 14 shots and scoring 15 points. The team suffered its worst loss in franchise history, and at the conclusion of the game, James walked off the court to a smattering of boos from Cleveland 's home crowd. The Cavaliers were officially eliminated from the postseason in Game 6, with James posting 27 points, 19 rebounds, 10 assists, and nine turnovers in the losing effort.
James became an unrestricted free agent at 12: 01 am EDT on July 1, 2010. During this time, he was contacted by several teams, including the Bulls, Los Angeles Clippers, Miami Heat, New York Knicks, New Jersey Nets, and Cavaliers. On July 8, he announced on a live ESPN special titled The Decision that he would sign with the Heat. The telecast was broadcast from the Boys & Girls Club of Greenwich, Connecticut and raised $2.5 million for the charity. An additional $3.5 million was raised from advertising revenue, which was donated to other charities. The day before the special, fellow free agents Chris Bosh and Dwyane Wade also announced that they would sign with Miami; reports later arose that the trio had discussed their upcoming 2010 free agencies among themselves back in 2006. James decided to join with Bosh and Wade in part so that he could shoulder less of the offensive load; he thought that his improved teammates would give him a better chance of winning an NBA championship than had he stayed in Cleveland. Heat president Pat Riley played a major role in selling James on the idea of playing with Bosh and Wade. James would be relieved of the burden of scoring, and he thought he could be the first player since Oscar Robertson to average a triple - double in a season.
Upon leaving the Cavaliers, James drew intense criticism from sports analysts, executives, fans, and current and former players. The Decision itself was also scrutinized and viewed as unnecessary. Many thought that the prolonged wait for James 's choice was unprofessional as not even the teams courting him were aware of his decision until moments before the show. Upon learning that James would not be returning to Cleveland, Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert published an open letter to fans in which he aggressively denounced James 's actions. Some angry fans of the team recorded videos of themselves burning his jersey. Former NBA players, including Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson, were also critical of James, condemning him for joining with Bosh and Wade in Miami and not trying to win a championship as "the guy ''. James drew further criticism in a September interview with CNN when he claimed that race might have been a factor in the fallout from The Decision. As a result of his actions during the 2010 free agency period, he quickly gained a reputation as one of America 's most disliked athletes, a radical change from years prior. The phrase "taking my talents to South Beach '' became a punch line for critics. In retrospect, James has expressed some regret over his handling of The Decision.
James officially signed with the Heat on July 10, 2010. With the move, he became only the third reigning MVP to change teams and the first since Moses Malone in 1982. That evening, the Heat threw a welcome party for their new "big three '' at the American Airlines Arena, an event that took on a rock concert atmosphere. During the gathering, James predicted a dynasty for the Heat and alluded to multiple championships. Outside of Miami, the spectacle was not well - received, furthering the negative public perception of James.
Throughout the 2010 -- 11 season, James and the Heat were treated as villains by the media and opposing fanbases. To begin the year, they struggled to adjust to these new circumstances, going only 9 -- 8 after 17 games. James later admitted that the constant negativity surrounding the team made him play with an angrier demeanor than in years past. On December 2, James faced the Cavaliers in Cleveland for the first time since departing as a free agent. He scored 38 points and led Miami to a win while being booed every time he touched the ball. The Heat eventually turned their season around and finished as the East 's second seed, with James averaging 26.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and 7 assists per game on 51 percent shooting.
In the conference semifinals, James and his teammates found themselves matched up with the Celtics for the second consecutive year. In Game 5, he scored Miami 's last ten points to help seal a series - clinching win. After the final buzzer, he famously knelt on the court in an emotional moment, later telling reporters that it was an extremely personal victory for him and the team. The Heat eventually advanced to the Finals, where they were defeated by the Dallas Mavericks in six games. James received the brunt of the criticism for the loss, averaging only three points in fourth quarters in the series. His Finals scoring average of 17.8 points per game signified an 8.9 - point drop from the regular season, the largest point drop - off in league history.
James was humbled by the Heat 's loss to the Mavericks, and the experience inspired him to leave behind the villain role that he had been embracing, which helped him regain a sense of joy on the court. He also decided that his post game needed improvement, so he worked with Hakeem Olajuwon during the offseason. Behind James 's significantly - expanded skillset, Miami began the year with a franchise - best 18 -- 6 record. He was eventually named MVP for the third time, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 7.9 rebounds, 6.2 assists, and 1.9 steals per game on 53 percent shooting.
In the second round of the playoffs, Miami temporarily lost Chris Bosh to an abdominal injury and found themselves trailing the Indiana Pacers 2 -- 1. James responded with a 40 - point, 18 - rebound, and 9 - assist outing in Game 4 to help even the series. To compensate for Bosh 's absence, the Heat embraced a small - ball lineup with James at power forward, which they retained even after Bosh 's return in the Conference Finals against the Celtics. Facing elimination in Game 6, James scored 45 points to lead the Heat to victory in what The New York Times called a "career - defining performance ''. Miami won Game 7 to advance to the Finals, earning them a matchup with the Oklahoma City Thunder and James 's budding rival, Kevin Durant. Late in Game 4 of the series, James hit a three - pointer to give the Heat a lead, helping them win the game despite missing time with leg cramps. In Game 5, he registered a triple - double as Miami defeated Oklahoma City for their second - ever championship and James 's first championship. James was unanimously voted the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player with averages of 28.6 points, 10.2 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. His full postseason run, in which he averaged 30.3 points, 9.7 rebounds, and 5.6 assists per game, was ranked the second best in modern NBA history by ESPN.
In February of the 2012 -- 13 season, James averaged 29.7 points and 7.8 assists per game while setting multiple shooting efficiency records. That same month, the Heat also began a 27 - game winning streak, the third longest in NBA history. Based on these accomplishments, James 's performance was described as a "month for the ages '' by Sports Illustrated. Miami eventually finished the year with a franchise and league best 66 -- 16 record, and James was named MVP for the fourth time, falling just one vote shy of becoming the first player in NBA history to win the award unanimously. His final season averages were 26.8 points, 8 rebounds, 7.3 assists, and 1.7 steals per game on 56.5 percent shooting.
In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, James scored a buzzer - beating layup to give Miami a one - point victory against the Pacers. Throughout the series, his supporting cast struggled significantly, and his added scoring load prompted him to compare his responsibilities to those of his "Cleveland days ''. Despite these struggles, the Heat advanced to the Finals for a meeting with the Spurs, signifying a rematch for James from his first Finals six years earlier. At the beginning of the series, he was criticized for his lack of aggressiveness and poor shot selection as Miami fell behind 2 -- 3. In Game 6, he recorded his second triple - double of the series, including 16 fourth quarter points, to lead the Heat to a comeback victory. In Game 7, he tied the Finals record for most points scored in a Game 7 victory, leading Miami over San Antonio with 37 points. He was named Finals MVP for the second straight season, averaging 25.3 points, 10.9 rebounds, 7 assists, and 2.3 steals per game for the championship round.
On March 3 of the 2013 -- 14 season, James scored a career - high and franchise - record 61 points in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats. Throughout the year, he was one of the few staples for a Heat roster that used 20 different starting lineups due to injuries, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 6.9 rebounds, and 6.4 assists per game on 56.7 percent shooting. In the second round of the playoffs, he tied a career postseason - high by scoring 49 points in Game 4 against the Brooklyn Nets. In the next round, Miami defeated the Pacers to earn their fourth consecutive Finals berth, becoming one of only four teams in NBA history to do so. In Game 1 of the Finals, James missed most of the fourth quarter because of leg cramps, helping the Spurs take an early series lead. In Game 2, he led the Heat to a series - tying victory with 35 points on a 64 percent shooting rate. San Antonio eventually eliminated the Heat in five games, ending Miami 's quest for a three - peat. For the Finals, James averaged 28.2 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 2.0 steals per game.
On June 25, 2014, James opted out of his contract with the Heat and officially became an unrestricted free agent on July 1. On July 11, he revealed via a first - person essay in Sports Illustrated that he intended to return to the Cavaliers. In contrast to The Decision, his announcement to return to Cleveland was well received. On July 12, he officially signed with the team, who had compiled a league - worst 97 -- 215 record in the four seasons following his departure. A month after James 's signing, the Cavaliers acquired Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves, forming a new star trio along with Kyrie Irving.
In January of the 2014 -- 15 season, James missed two weeks due to left knee and lower back strains, the longest stretch of missed games in his career. In total, he played a career - low 69 games and his final averages were 25.3 points, 6 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. In the second round of the playoffs, he hit a baseline jumper at the buzzer to give Cleveland a 2 -- 2 series tie with the Bulls. In the Conference Finals, the Cavaliers defeated the Hawks to advance to the Finals, making James the first player since the 1960s to play in five consecutive Finals. For most of the Finals against the Golden State Warriors, Irving and Love were sidelined due to injury, giving James more offensive responsibilities. Behind his leadership, the Cavaliers opened the series with a 2 -- 1 lead before being eliminated in six games. Despite the loss, he received serious consideration for the Finals MVP Award, averaging 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds, and 8.8 assists per game for the championship round.
During the 2015 -- 16 season, James was criticized for his role in several off - court controversies, including the midseason firing of Cavaliers ' coach David Blatt. Despite these distractions, Cleveland finished the year with 57 wins and the best record in the East. James 's final averages were 25.3 points, 7.4 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on 52 percent shooting. In the playoffs, the Cavaliers advanced comfortably to the Finals, losing only two games en route to a rematch with the Warriors, who were coming off a record - setting 73 win season. To begin the series, Cleveland fell behind 3 -- 1, including two blowout losses. James responded by registering back - to - back 41 point games in Games 5 and 6, leading the Cavaliers to two consecutive wins to stave off elimination. In Game 7, he posted a triple - double and made a number of key plays, including a memorable chase - down block on Andre Iguodala in the final two minutes, as Cleveland emerged victorious, winning the city 's first professional sports title in 52 years and becoming the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3 -- 1 series deficit in the Finals. James became just the third player to record a triple - double in an NBA Finals Game 7, and behind series averages of 29.7 points, 11.3 rebounds, 8.9 assists, 2.3 blocks, and 2.6 steals per game, he also became the first player in league history to lead both teams in all five statistical categories for a playoff round, culminating in a unanimous Finals MVP selection.
The 2016 -- 17 season was marred by injuries and unexpected losses for the Cavaliers; James later described it as one of the "strangest '' years of his career. Following a January defeat to the New Orleans Pelicans, he publicly criticized Cleveland 's front office for constructing a team that he felt was too "top heavy '', for which he received counter criticism. The Cavaliers finished the season as the East 's second seed, with James averaging 26.4 points and career highs in rebounds (8.6), assists (8.7), and turnovers (4.1) per game. In Game 3 of the first round of the postseason, he registered 41 points, 13 rebounds, and 12 assists against the Pacers, leading Cleveland to a comeback victory after trailing by 25 points at halftime, representing the largest halftime deficit overcome in NBA playoff history. In Game 5 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics, James scored 35 points and surpassed Michael Jordan as the league 's all - time postseason scoring leader. The Cavaliers won the game and the series, advancing to their third consecutive Finals against the Warriors. Behind averages of 33.6 points, 12 rebounds, and 10 assists per game, James became the first player to average a triple - double in the Finals, but Cleveland was defeated in five games.
Prior to the start of the 2017 -- 18 season season, the Cavaliers overhauled their roster by moving Kyrie Irving to the Celtics, who requested a trade in part because he no longer wanted to play with James. After a slow start to the year, Cleveland rebounded by winning 18 of 19 games in December. Their turnaround began with a victory over the Wizards where James scored 57 points, which represented the second - highest point total of his career and tied a franchise record. In January, the Cavaliers had a losing record, and James was criticized for his lackluster effort. Following another round of trades in February, Cleveland returned to form and James reached a number of historical milestones; for example, on March 30, he set an NBA record with 867 straight games scoring in double - digits. James eventually finished the season with averages of 27.5 points, 8.6 rebounds, and a career - high 9.2 assists and 4.2 turnovers per game. In the playoffs, he guided the Cavaliers to another Finals rematch with the Warriors. Along the way, he had some of the most memorable moments of his career, including a game - winning shot against the Pacers and another against the Raptors. In the first game of the Finals, James scored a playoff career - high 51 points, but Cleveland was defeated in overtime. Following the defeat, James injured his hand after punching a wall in the locker room, which hindered his effectiveness for the remainder of the series. The Cavaliers ultimately lost in four games, with James averaging 34 points, 8.5 rebounds, and 10 assists per game for the Finals.
On June 29, 2018, James opted out of his contract with the Cavaliers and became an unrestricted free agent. On July 1, his management company, Klutch Sports, announced that he would sign with the Los Angeles Lakers, which was officially completed on July 9. In an interview with Sports Illustrated, James 's agent, Rich Paul, explained, "In 2010, when he went to Miami, it was about championships. In 2014, when he went back to Cleveland, it was about delivering on a promise. In 2018, it was just about doing what he wants to do. '' Reaction to the move was more positive than his original departure from the Cavaliers, albeit it was still mixed, as some onlookers felt that Los Angeles was not his optimal destination.
James made his debut for the United States national team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece. He spent the Games mostly on the bench, averaging 14.6 minutes per game with 5.8 points and 2.6 rebounds per game in eight games. Team USA finished the competition with a bronze medal, becoming the first U.S. basketball team to return home without a gold medal since adding active NBA players to their line - up. James felt his limited playing time was a "lowlight '' and believed he was not given "a fair opportunity to play ''. His attitude during the Olympics was described as "disrespectful '' and "distasteful '' by columnists Adrian Wojnarowski and Peter Vecsey, respectively.
At the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan, James took on a greater role for Team USA, averaging 13.9 points, 4.8 rebounds, and 4.1 assists per game as co-captain. The team finished the tournament with an 8 -- 1 record, winning another bronze medal. James 's behavior was again questioned, this time by teammate Bruce Bowen, who confronted James during tryouts regarding his treatment of staff members.
Before naming James to the 2008 Olympic team, Team USA managing director Jerry Colangelo and coach Mike Krzyzewski gave James an ultimatum to improve his attitude, and he heeded their advice. At the FIBA Americas Championship 2007, he averaged 18.1 points, 3.6 rebounds, and 4.7 assists per game, including a 31 - point performance against Argentina in the championship game, the most ever by an American in an Olympic qualifier. Team USA went 10 -- 0, winning the gold medal and qualifying for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, China. James credited the team 's attitude and experience for their improvement, saying: "I do n't think we understood what it meant to put on a USA uniform and all the people that we were representing in 2004. We definitely know that now. '' At the Olympics, Team USA went unbeaten, winning their first gold medal since 2000. In the final game, James turned in 14 points, 6 rebounds, and 3 assists against Spain.
James did not play at the 2010 FIBA World Championship but rejoined Team USA for the 2012 Olympics in London, England. He became the leader of the team with Kobe Bryant, who would soon be 34, stepping back. James facilitated the offense from the post and perimeter, called the defensive sets, and provided scoring when needed. During a game against Australia, he recorded the first triple - double in U.S. Olympic basketball history with 11 points, 14 rebounds and 12 assists. Team USA went on to win their second straight gold medal, again defeating Spain in the final game. James contributed 19 points in the win, becoming the all - time leading scorer in U.S. men 's basketball history. He also joined Michael Jordan as the only players to win an NBA MVP award, NBA championship, NBA Finals MVP, and Olympic gold medal in the same year. Afterwards, Krzyzewski said James "is the best player, he is the best leader and he is as smart as anybody playing the game right now. ''
-- Greg Anthony, NBA TV and TNT analyst
Standing 6 feet 8 inches (2.03 m) and weighing 250 pounds (113 kg), James has started at small forward and power forward, but he can also play the other three positions. His athletic and versatile playing style has drawn comparisons to Hall of Famers Oscar Robertson, Magic Johnson, and Michael Jordan. James 's career averages are 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, and 1.6 steals per game.
Many basketball analysts, coaches, fans, and current and former players consider James to be one of the greatest players of all time, often ranking him as the best small forward and in the top five overall. Since 2011, he has been ranked the best player in the NBA by ESPN and Sports Illustrated. He has earned All - NBA honors every season since his second year, All - Defensive honors every season from 2009 to 2014, and was named Rookie of the Year in his debut season. With four MVP awards, he is part of a select group of players who have won the award four times, including Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Jordan, Wilt Chamberlain, and Bill Russell; James and Russell are the only two players who have won four MVP awards in a five - year span. James has never won the Defensive Player of the Year Award, but he has twice finished second in the voting and lists the award as one of his main goals. James has appeared in the Finals nine times and won three championships. Some analysts have criticized him for not having a better Finals record, while others have defended him, arguing that James usually performed well, but his team was defeated by superior competition.
James entered the NBA as an 18 - year - old rookie and made an immediate offensive impact when he led the Cavaliers in scoring. He holds numerous "youngest to '' distinctions, including being the youngest player to score 28,000 career points. During his first stint in Cleveland, he was primarily used as an on - ball point forward. His shooting tendencies were perimeter - oriented, and he established himself as one of the best slashers and finishers in basketball; he led the NBA in three - point plays in 2006. His combination of speed, quickness, and size often created matchup problems for opposing teams because he was capable of blowing by larger defenders and overpowering smaller ones. These qualities became more apparent in transition, where he developed a reputation for grabbing defensive rebounds and then beating the defense downcourt for highlight - quality baskets. Around this time, James was frequently criticized for not having developed a reliable jump shot or post game. Teams would try to exploit these weaknesses by giving him space in the half court and forcing him to settle for three - pointers and long two - pointers, a strategy famously utilized by Spurs coach Greg Popovich in the 2007 Finals, where James converted on only 36 percent of his field goals in four games.
In Miami, Heat coach Erik Spoelstra changed James 's role to a more unconventional one. James began spending more time in the post and shooting fewer three - pointers, attempting a career - low 149 in 2012. He improved his shot selection and accuracy on jump shots, finishing second in the league in catch - and - shoot field goal percentage in 2013. He also learned how to work as an off - ball cutter in the Heat 's "pass - happy '' offense. Behind these improvements, James 's overall scoring efficiency rose to historically - great levels, peaking in 2014 when he registered a 64.9 true shooting percentage. During this period, ESPN 's Tom Haberstroh called James 's free - throw shooting his biggest weakness, describing it as "average ''. Upon returning to the Cavaliers, James began to experience subtle age - related declines in productivity, posting his lowest scoring averages since his rookie season in 2015 and 2016. His shooting also temporarily regressed, and he briefly ranked as the worst high - volume outside shooter from outside the paint in the NBA. Despite these changes, he has remained an elite offensive player who is capable of beating defenses with body control, strength, and varying attacking speeds.
James 's playmaking ability is generally considered to be one of his premier skills, with some analysts ranking him among the greatest passers in NBA history. He is the only frontcourt player in league history to register over 7,000 career assists. Using his size, vision, and the attention he garners from opposing defenses to his advantage, James is able to create easy points for his teammates with accurate assists, manufacturing a league leading 2.6 three - pointers per game by way of his passing alone in 2013. He will often execute passes that would normally be considered unconventional, including passes after leaving his feet and passes through defensive traffic. His uncanny tendency to find the open man played a significant role in the evolution of modern NBA defenses, which forces teams to incorporate some elements of zone into their schemes to better cover the weak side of the court and prevent James from passing to open shooters.
Early in James 's career, he was criticized by the media for his buck passing play in pressure situations; specifically, for passing instead of shooting in the waning seconds of close games. In a 2011 interview, teammate Chris Bosh stated that he would rather have Dwyane Wade and not James take a last - second shot. Later in James 's career, his clutch play was viewed more favorably; for example, in 2015, FiveThirtyEight wrote that he might be "the most clutch playoff shooter of his generation ''.
At the beginning of James 's NBA career, he was considered to be a poor defensive player, but he improved steadily through the years. Near the end of his first tenure in Cleveland, he became proficient at the chase - down block, which involved coming in from behind the opposition in transition to block their shot. In Miami, he developed into a more versatile defensive player, and the Heat relied on him to guard all five positions. James was paired with teammates Shane Battier and Dwyane Wade, and Miami used him in an ultra-aggressive defensive scheme, with James cheating off the ball to help out inside or get into rebounding position. Beginning in 2014, some analysts noted a regression in his defensive impact, stemming from a lack of effort and expected age - related declines. James himself admitted to taking plays off at times, referring to this approach as "chill mode ''. Writing for ESPN in 2016, Nate Duncan observed that while James tended to take off more plays than in his younger days, he was able to raise his level in that year 's Finals and temporarily recapture his Miami form.
James proposed to Savannah Brinson, his high school sweetheart, at a December 31, 2011 party celebrating New Year 's Eve and his 27th birthday. She accepted, and the two were married on September 14, 2013 in San Diego, California. Together, they have three children: LeBron James Jr. (b. 2004), Bryce Maximus James (b. 2007), and Zhuri Nova James (b. 2014). During his stint with the Heat, James resided in Coconut Grove, where he bought a $9 million three - story mansion overlooking Biscayne Bay. In November 2015, James bought a 9,350 square - foot (870 m) East Coast -- style mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles for about $21 million.
James is considered by many people, including his fellow NBA players, to be the "face of the NBA ''. His opinions have yielded significant influence on people who make important league decisions; for example, in 2014 he asked commissioner Adam Silver to increase the duration of the All - Star break, and the request was granted the following season. On February 13, 2015, James was elected the first vice president of the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA).
Throughout his career, James has been ranked by Forbes as one of the world 's most influential athletes, and in 2017, he was listed by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. During his first stint with the Cavaliers, he was adored by local fans, and Sherwin - Williams displayed a giant Nike - produced banner of James on its world headquarters. Despite their affection for James, Cleveland fans and critics were frequently annoyed when he sported a Yankees hat when he attended Cleveland Indians baseball games versus the New York Yankees. Following his actions during the 2010 free agency period and, more specifically, The Decision, he was listed as one of the world 's most disliked athletes. By 2013, his image had mostly recovered and he was reported by ESPN as the most popular player in the NBA for the second time in his career. In 2014, he was named the most popular male athlete in America by the Harris Poll. He has led the league in jersey sales six times.
In March 2008, James became the first black man -- and third man overall after Richard Gere and George Clooney -- to appear on the cover of Vogue, when he posed with Gisele Bündchen. In response, noted ESPN columnist Jemele Hill considered the cover offensive and "memorable for the wrong reasons '', describing the demeanor of James and his holding Bündchen as a reference to classic imagery of the movie monster King Kong, a dark savage capturing his light - skinned love interest.
James is represented by agent Rich Paul of Klutch Sports. His first agent was Aaron Goodwin, whom he left in 2005 for Leon Rose. Rose joined Creative Artists Agency (CAA) in 2007, and he worked with fellow CAA agent Henry Thomas, who represented Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh, to bring James to Miami in 2010. James left CAA for Paul in 2012. James, Paul, Maverick Carter, and Randy Mims -- all childhood friends -- formed agent and sports - marketing company LRMR after James left Goodwin. LRMR handles James 's marketing, including the marketing of The Decision, for which it was criticized.
Throughout his career, James has taken a unique approach to his NBA contracts, usually opting to sign shorter - term deals in order to maximize his earnings potential and flexibility; for example, in 2006, he and the Cavaliers negotiated a three - year, $60 million contract extension instead of the four - year maximum as it allotted him the option of seeking a new contract worth more money as an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 season. This move ultimately allowed James, Dwyane Wade, and Chris Bosh to sign with the Heat together. During his second stint in Cleveland, he began opting out and re-signing on new contracts after each season in order to take advantage of higher salaries resulting from the NBA 's rising salary cap. In 2016, he signed with the Cavaliers on a three - year deal, becoming the highest - paid player in the league for the first time in his career.
James has signed numerous endorsement contracts; some of the companies that he has done business with are Audemars Piguet, Coca - Cola, Dunkin ' Brands, McDonald 's, Nike, State Farm and Beats by Dre. Coming out of high school, he was the target of a three - way bidding war among Nike, Reebok, and Adidas, eventually signing with Nike for approximately $90 million. His signature shoes have performed well for Nike. In 2011, Fenway Sports Group became the sole global marketer of his rights, and as part of the deal, he was granted a minority stake in the English Premier League football club Liverpool, who he has claimed his support for. As a result of James 's endorsement money and NBA salary, he has been listed as one of the world 's highest - paid athletes. In 2013, he surpassed Kobe Bryant as the highest paid basketball player in the world, with earnings of $56.5 million. In 2014, James realized a profit of more than $30 million as part of Apple 's acquisition of Beats Electronics; he had originally struck a deal to get a small stake in the company at its inception in exchange for promoting its headphones. In 2015, he was ranked the sixth highest earning sportsperson, and third highest in 2016 (after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi). James has stated that he would like to own an NBA team in the future, albeit in a hands - off capacity.
James and comedian Jimmy Kimmel co-hosted the 2007 ESPY Awards. In other comedic pursuits, he hosted the 33rd - season premiere of Saturday Night Live. He has also tried his hand at acting, appearing in a cameo role on the HBO series Entourage. In 2015, he played himself in the Judd Apatow film Trainwreck, receiving positive reviews for his performance. That same year, James 's digital video company, Uninterrupted, raised $15.8 million from Warner Bros. Entertainment and Turner Sports to help expand the company 's efforts to bring athlete - created content to fans. It is hosted on Bleacher Report and is used by several other athletes including New England Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski and Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman.
James and his business partner Maverick Carter own production company SpringHill Entertainment, whose first work was the Lions Gate documentary More Than a Game, which was released in 2009 and chronicled James 's high school years. Series produced by SpringHill include the Disney XD sports documentaries Becoming, Starz sitcom Survivor 's Remorse, and animated web series The LeBrons. In 2016, CNBC aired an unscripted series hosted by James called Cleveland Hustles, where four up - and - coming Northern Ohio entrepreneurs will be financed on the condition of revitalizing a neighborhood in Cleveland. In the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, a 60 - minute Vince Carter documentary entitled The Carter Effect was executive produced by James and Maverick Carter along with rapper Drake and Future the Prince. In February 2018 it was announced that James ' production company will produce a new film in the House Party series with James expected to make a cameo. Later that month, Fox News journalist Laura Ingraham told James to "Shut up and dribble '' as a response to his political agendas. This largely contributed to James creating a documentary series looking at the changing role of athletes in the current political and cultural climate, aptly named, "Shut Up and Dribble '' on Showtime.
James is an active supporter of non-profit organizations, including After - School All - Stars, Boys & Girls Clubs of America, and Children 's Defense Fund. He also has his own charity foundation, the LeBron James Family Foundation, which is based in Akron. Since 2005, the foundation has held an annual bike - a-thon to raise money for various causes. In 2015, James announced a partnership with the University of Akron to provide scholarships for as many as 2,300 children beginning in 2021. In 2016, he donated $2.5 million to the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture to support an exhibit on Muhammad Ali. In 2017, he received the J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award from the NBA for his "outstanding service and dedication to the community. '' In November of that same year, the Akron School Board approved the "I Promise School '', a public elementary school created in a partnership with the LeBron James Family Foundation to help struggling elementary school students stay in school. James later reflected that it was his most important professional accomplishment of his life. The school officially opened on July 30, 2018.
Throughout his career, James has taken stances on controversial issues. On several occasions, he mentioned a feeling of obligation to effect change using his status. Those include the War in Darfur, the Trayvon Martin case, the now - former NBA owner Donald Sterling 's racist comments in 2014, the Michael Brown verdict, and the death of Eric Garner. Following a racist incident at his Los Angeles home in 2017, James expressed, "being black in America is tough. We got a long way to go for us as a society and for us as African Americans until we feel equal in America. '' Later on that same year, in the aftermath of the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, James questioned president Donald Trump 's "Make America Great Again '' slogan and said, "It 's sad what 's going on in Charlottesville. Is this the direction our country is heading? Make America Great Again huh? '' and that "Our youth deserve better!! '' James also called Trump a "bum '' after the president rescinded a White House invitation to Stephen Curry. During a 2018 interview with CNN journalist Don Lemon, James accused the president for attempting to divide the country with sports, suggesting "sports has never been something that divides people it 's always been something that brings someone together. '' He also declared he would "never sit across from him. I 'd sit across from Barack (Obama) though. '' In response, Trump said "LeBron James was just interviewed by the dumbest man on television, Don Lemon. He made LeBron look smart, which is n't easy to do. '' However, many players, including former NBA great Michael Jordan (who was mentioned in Trump 's Tweet afterward), supported James and disavowed President Trump 's statements on the subject.
In June 2008, James donated $20,000 to a committee to elect Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama. Later that year, James gathered almost 20,000 people at the Quicken Loans Arena for a viewing of Obama 's 30 - minute American Stories, American Solutions television advertisement. The advertisement was shown on a large screen above the stage, where Jay - Z later held a free concert. In November 2016, James endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election.
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what stories grew out of the eruption at santorini in b.c. 1625 | Minoan eruption - wikipedia
The Minoan eruption of Thera, also referred to as the Thera eruption, Santorini eruption, or Late Bronze Age eruption, was a major catastrophic volcanic eruption with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6 or 7 and a dense - rock equivalent (DRE) of 60 km (14 cu mi), Dated to the mid-second millennium BCE, the eruption was one of the largest volcanic events on Earth in recorded history. It devastated the island of Thera (now called Santorini), including the Minoan settlement at Akrotiri and communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and the coast of Crete with a related earthquake and tsunami.
There are no clear ancient records of the eruption, which may have inspired certain Greek myths, caused turmoil in Egypt and been alluded to in a Chinese chronicle.
Geological evidence shows the Thera volcano erupted numerous times over several hundred thousand years before the Minoan eruption. In a repeating process, the volcano would violently erupt, then eventually collapse into a roughly circular seawater - filled caldera, with numerous small islands forming the circle. The caldera would slowly refill with magma, building a new volcano, which erupted and then collapsed in an ongoing cyclical process.
Immediately before the Minoan eruption, the walls of the caldera formed a nearly continuous ring of islands with the only entrance between Thera and the tiny island of Aspronisi. This cataclysmic eruption was centered on a small island just north of the existing island of Nea Kameni in the centre of the then - existing caldera. The northern part of the caldera was refilled by the volcanic ash and lava, then collapsed again.
Research by a team of international scientists in 2006 revealed that the Santorini event was much larger than the original estimate of 39 km (9.4 cu mi) of Dense - Rock Equivalent (DRE), or total volume of material erupted from the volcano, that was published in 1991. With an estimated DRE in excess of 60 km (14 cu mi), the volume of ejecta was approximately 100 km (24 cu mi). If so, the eruption 's Volcanic Explosivity Index was 7. The volcano ejected up to four times as much as the well - recorded eruption by Krakatoa in 1883. The Thera volcanic events and subsequent ashfall probably sterilized the island, as occurred on Krakatoa. Only the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption of 1815, Lake Taupo 's Hatepe eruption around 180 CE, and perhaps the Baekdu Mountain eruption around 970 CE released more material into the atmosphere during historic times.
On Santorini, there is a 60 m (200 ft) thick layer of white tephra that overlies the soil clearly delineating the ground level before the eruption. This layer has three distinct bands that indicate the different phases of the eruption. Studies have identified four major eruption phases, and one minor precursory tephra fall. The thinness of the first ash layer, along with the lack of noticeable erosion of that layer by winter rains before the next layer was deposited, indicate that the volcano gave the local population a few months ' warning. Since no human remains have been found at the Akrotiri site, this preliminary volcanic activity probably caused the island 's population to flee. It is also suggested that several months before the eruption, Santorini experienced one or more earthquakes, which damaged the local settlements.
Intense magmatic activity of the first major phase (BO / Minoan A) of the eruption deposited up to 7 m (23 ft) of pumice and ash, with a minor lithic component, southeast and east. Archaeological evidence indicated burial of man - made structures with limited damage. The second (BO / Minoan B) and third (BO / Minoan C) eruption phases involved pyroclastic flow and lava fountain activity and the possible generation of tsunamis. Man - made structures not buried during Minoan A were completely destroyed. The third phase was also characterized by the initiation of caldera collapse. The fourth, and last, major phase (BO / Minoan D) was marked by varied activity: lithic - rich base surge deposits, lahars, debris flows, and co-ignimbrite ash - fall deposits. This phase was characterized by the completion of caldera collapse, which produced megatsunamis.
Although the fracturing process is not yet known, the altitudinal statistical analysis indicates that the caldera had formed just before the eruption. The area of the island was smaller, and the southern and eastern coastlines appeared regressed. During the eruption, the landscape was covered by the pumice sediments. In some places, the coastline vanished under thick tuff depositions. In others, recent coastlines were extended towards the sea. After the eruption, the geomorphology of the island was characterized by an intense erosional phase during which the pumice was progressively removed from the higher altitudes to the lower ones.
The Plinian eruption resulted in an estimated 30 to 35 km (19 to 22 mi) high ash plume which extended into the stratosphere. In addition, the magma underlying the volcano came into contact with the shallow marine embayment, resulting in a violent steam eruption.
The eruption also generated a 35 to 150 m (115 to 492 ft) high tsunami that devastated the north coast of Crete, 110 km (68 mi) away. The tsunami affected coastal towns such as Amnisos, where building walls were knocked out of alignment. On the island of Anafi, 27 km (17 mi) to the east, ash layers 3 m (10 ft) deep have been found, as well as pumice layers on slopes 250 m (820 ft) above sea level.
Elsewhere in the Mediterranean are pumice deposits that could have been caused by the Thera eruption. Ash layers in cores drilled from the seabed and from lakes in Turkey, however, show that the heaviest ashfall was towards the east and northeast of Santorini. The ash found on Crete is now known to have been from a precursory phase of the eruption, some weeks or months before the main eruptive phases, and it would have had little impact on the island. Santorini ash deposits were at one time claimed to have been found in the Nile delta, but this is now known to be a misidentification.
The Minoan eruption is a key marker for the Bronze Age chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean world. It provides a fixed point for aligning the entire chronology of the second millennium BCE in the Aegean, as evidence of the eruption is found throughout the region. Despite the evidence, the exact date of the eruption has been difficult to determine. Archaeologists have traditionally placed it at approximately 1500 BCE. Radiocarbon dates, including analysis of an olive branch buried beneath a lava flow from the volcano that gave a date between 1627 BCE and 1600 BCE (95 % confidence interval), suggest an eruption date more than a century earlier than suggested by archaeologists. Thus, the radiocarbon dates and the archaeological dates are in substantial disagreement. It has also been recently suggested that there may be regional variations in the calibration curve which might alter a date by up to 20 years.
In 2012, one of the proponents of an archaeological date, Felix Höflmayer, argued that archaeological evidence could be consistent with a date as early as 1590 BCE, reducing the discrepancy to around 50 years.
Conversely, the radiocarbon dates have been argued to be inaccurate on scientific grounds. That argument has been made, in particular, by Malcolm H. Wiener. The primary problem is that C - deficient carbon, sourced from the environment, might easily have affected the radiocarbon dates.
Archaeologists developed the Late Bronze Age chronologies of eastern Mediterranean cultures by analysing the origin of artifacts (for example, items from Crete, mainland Greece, Cyprus or Canaan) found in each archaeological layer. If an artifact 's origin can be accurately dated, it gives a reference date for the layer in which it is found. If the Thera eruption could be associated with a given layer of Cretan (or other) culture, chronologists could use the date of that layer to date the eruption itself. Since Thera 's culture at the time of destruction was similar to the Late Minoan IA (LMIA) culture on Crete, LMIA is the baseline to establish chronology elsewhere. The eruption also aligns with Late Cycladic I (LCI) and Late Helladic I (LHI) cultures, but predates Peloponnesian LHI. Archeological digs on Akrotiri have also yielded fragments of nine Syro - Palestinian Middle Bronze II (MBII) gypsum vessels.
The Aegean prehistorians felt so confident about their calculations that they rejected early radiocarbon dates in the 1970s for LMI / LCI Thera, as radiocarbon suggested a date about a century earlier than the traditional dates.
Pumice found at Tell el Dab'a in Egypt that matches the composition of the Thera eruption has been dated to 1540 BCE, closer to the traditionally - accepted date of Thera 's eruption. This pumice has been contentious since the 1990s, as it represents the most prominent supported date to differ from the old chronology.
Greenland ice cores show evidence of a large volcanic eruption in 1642 ± 5 BCE, which was suggested as being associated with Santorini. However, volcanic ash retrieved from an ice core does not match the expected Santorini fingerprint. The late Holocene eruption of the Mount Aniakchak, a volcano in Alaska, is now believed to be the source of the minute shards of volcanic glass in the Greenland ice core.
Another method that has been used to establish the date of eruption is tree - ring dating. Tree - ring data has shown that a large event interfering with normal tree growth in North America occurred during 1629 -- 1628 (± 65 years) BCE. Evidence of a climatic event around 1628 BCE has been found in studies of growth depression of European oaks in Ireland and of Scotch pines in Sweden. Bristlecone pine frost rings also indicate a date of 1627 BCE, supporting the late 1600s BCE dating. Recent work has used radiocarbon levels in bristlecone pines and Irish oak dated from 1700 BC to 1500 BC to develop a new calibration curve which is more accurate for this period. It results in the eruption being dated to between 1600 and 1525, a time period which overlaps with the 1570 - 1500 date range from the archeological evidence. Procedural changes in how ice cores are interpreted would bring that data more in line with the dendrochronological numbers.
Hydrogeologist Philip LaMoreaux asserted in 1995 that the eruption caused significant climatic changes in the eastern Mediterranean region, Aegean Sea and much of the Northern Hemisphere, but that was forcefully rebutted by volcanologist David Pyle a year later.
Around the time of the radiocarbon - indicated date of the eruption, there is evidence for a significant climatic event in the Northern Hemisphere like failure of crops in China (see below) and evidence from tree rings, cited above: bristlecone pines of California; bog oaks of Ireland, England, and Germany; and other trees in Sweden. The tree rings date the event to 1628 (± 65 years) BCE.
The eruption devastated the nearby Minoan settlement at Akrotiri on Santorini, which was entombed in a layer of pumice. It is believed that the eruption also severely affected the Minoan population on Crete, but the extent of the impact is debated. Early theories proposed that ashfall from Thera on the eastern half of Crete choked off plant life, causing starvation of the local population. However, after more thorough field examinations, the theory has lost credibility, as it has been determined that no more than 5 mm (0.20 in) of ash fell anywhere on Crete. Other theories have been proposed based on archeological evidence found on Crete indicating that a tsunami, likely associated with the eruption, impacted the coastal areas of Crete and may have devastated the Minoan coastal settlements. Another theory is that much of the damage done to Minoan sites resulted from a large earthquake and the fires it caused, which preceded the Thera Eruption.
Significant Minoan remains have been found above the Late Minoan I era Thera ash layer and tsunami level, and it is unclear whether the effects were enough to trigger the downfall of the Minoan civilization. Some sites were abandoned or settlement systems significantly interrupted in the immediate aftermath of the eruption. As the Minoans were a sea power and depended on ships for their livelihood, the Thera eruption likely caused significant economic hardship to the Minoans. Whether the effects were enough to trigger the downfall of the civilization is intensely debated. The Mycenaean conquest of the Minoans occurred in Late Minoan II period. The Mycenaeans were a military civilization. Using their functional navy and a well - equipped army, they were capable of an invasion. Mycenaean weaponry has been found in burials on Crete. That demonstrates Mycenaean military influence not many years after the eruption. Many archaeologists speculate that the eruption caused a crisis in Minoan civilization, making them vulnerable to conquest by the Mycenaeans.
A volcanic winter from an eruption in the late 17th century BCE has been claimed by some researchers to correlate with entries in later Chinese records documenting the collapse of the semi-legendary Xia dynasty in China. According to the Bamboo Annals, the collapse of the dynasty and the rise of the Shang dynasty, approximately dated to 1618 BCE, were accompanied by "yellow fog, a dim sun, then three suns, frost in July, famine, and the withering of all five cereals ''.
Apocalyptic rainstorms, which devastated much of Egypt, and were described on the Tempest Stele of Ahmose I, have been attributed to short - term climatic changes caused by the Theran eruption. The difficulty with this interpretation is that in the conventional but disputed Egyptian chronology Ahmose I ruled from c. 1539 -- 1514 BCE, whilst the eruption is thought to have occurred somewhere between 1642 -- 1540 BCE.
Alternatively, if the eruption occurred in the Second Intermediate Period, the absence of Egyptian records of the eruption could be caused by the general disorder in Egypt around that time.
While it has been argued that the damage attributed to this storm may have been caused by an earthquake following the Thera Eruption, it has also been suggested that it was caused during a war with the Hyksos, and the storm reference is merely a metaphor for chaos upon which the Pharaoh was attempting to impose order. Documents such as Hatshepsut 's Speos Artemidos depict storms, but are clearly figurative not literal. Research indicates that the Speos Artemidos stele is a reference to her overcoming the powers of chaos and darkness.
The eruption of Thera and volcanic fallout may have inspired the myths of the Titanomachy in Hesiod 's Theogony. The Titanomachy could have picked up elements of western Anatolian folk memory, as the tale spread westward. Hesiod 's lines have been compared with volcanic activity, citing Zeus 's thunderbolts as volcanic lightning, the boiling earth and sea as a breach of the magma chamber, immense flame and heat as evidence of phreatic explosions, among many other descriptions.
Spyridon Marinatos, the discoverer of the Akrotiri archaeological site, suggested that the Minoan eruption is reflected in Plato 's story of Atlantis.
Geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen seeks to establish a link between the eruption of Santorini (c. 1600 BCE) and the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt in the Bible, which was also suggested in the books: The Exodus Enigma, by lan Wilson (1985) and Return to Sodom and Gomorrah, by Charles Pellegrino (1994).
Occupation (1742 -- 1640 BCE) of the Minoan (?) palace at Tel Kabri in the Galilee ended around 1640 BCE.
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core facts that form the basis of the new testament story | Historical background of the new Testament - wikipedia
Most scholars who study the historical Jesus and early Christianity believe that the canonical gospels and life of Jesus must be viewed within his historical and cultural context, rather than purely in terms of Christian orthodoxy. They look at Second Temple Judaism, the tensions, trends, and changes in the region under the influence of Hellenism and the Roman occupation, and the Jewish factions of the time, seeing Jesus as a Jew in this environment; and the written New Testament as arising from a period of oral gospel traditions after his death.
In 64 BCE, the already partially Hellenized Judea was incorporated into the Roman Republic as a client kingdom when Pompey the Great conquered Jerusalem. The Romans treated Judea as a valued crossroads to trading territories, and buffer state against the Parthian Empire. Direct rule was imposed in 6 CE, and Roman prefects were appointed to maintain order through a political appointee, the High Priest. After the uprising by Judas the Galilean and before Pilate (26 CE), in general, Roman Judea was troubled but self - managed, and occasional riots, sporadic rebellions, and violent resistance were an ongoing risk.
Throughout the third quarter of the first century, the conflict between the Jews and the Romans gave rise to increasing tensions. Before the end of the third quarter of the first century, these tensions culminated with the first Jewish - Roman War and the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. This war effectively flattened Jerusalem, and the city was later rebuilt as the Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina, in which Jews were forbidden to live.
Historians seek to understand where Jesus and his followers fit among other Jewish factions at the time. According to the Jewish - Roman historian Flavius Josephus, the three parties in contemporary Judaism were the Pharisees, the Sadducees and the Essenes, the last of these three being apparently marginalized and in some cases retired to quasi-monastic communities. Josephus also speaks of a "Fourth Movement '', Zealots, Lestai or Sicarii.
The Pharisees were a powerful force in 1st - century Judea. Early Christians shared several beliefs of the Pharisees, such as resurrection, retribution in the next world, angels, human freedom, and Divine Providence. After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisaic outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism. Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a Pharisee. In Jesus ' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House of Hillel, which had been founded by the eminent Tanna, Hillel the Elder, and the House of Shammai. Jesus ' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he agreed with their teachings on divorce. Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel 's teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the greatest commandment and the Golden Rule. Historians do not know whether there were Pharisees in Galilee during Jesus ' life, or what they would have been like.
The Sadducees were particularly powerful in Jerusalem. They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the traditional interpretations accepted by the Pharisees, such as belief in retribution in an afterlife, resurrection of the body, angels, and spirits. After the fall of Jerusalem, they disappeared from history.
The Essenes were apocalyptic ascetics, one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, although they were not mentioned in the New Testament. Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an Essene, or close to them. Among these scholars is Pope Benedict XVI, who supposes in his book on Jesus that "it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community. ''
The Zealots were a revolutionary party opposed to Roman rule, one of those parties that, according to Josephus inspired the fanatical stand in Jerusalem that led to its destruction in the year 70 CE. Luke identifies Simon, a disciple, as a "zealot '', which might mean a member of the Zealot party or a zealous person. The notion that Jesus himself was a Zealot does not do justice to the earliest Synoptic material describing him. Alternatively, according to Dale Martin of Yale and supported by Bart Ehrman, as well as an essay by James Still, Jesus has been cast in a Zealot / violent apocalyptic light.
During this period serious theological differences emerged between the Sadducees and Pharisees. Whereas Sadducees favored a limited interpretation of the Torah, Pharisees debated new applications of the law and devised ways for all Jews to incorporate purity practices (hitherto limited to the Jerusalem Temple, see also Ministry of Jesus # Ritual cleanliness) in their everyday lives. Unlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees also believed in (and introduced) the concept of the Resurrection of the Dead in a future, Messianic Age or World to Come. These beliefs seem to have influenced Christians ' belief in a resurrected Jesus.
During this time a variety of other religious movements and splinter groups developed. A number of individuals claimed to be new prophets, in the tradition of Elijah and Elisha. The Talmud provides two examples of such Jewish miracle workers around the time of Jesus. Mishnah Ta'anit 3: 8 tells of "Honi the Circledrawer '' who, in the middle of the 1st century BCE, was famous for his ability to successfully pray for rain. On one occasion when God did not answer his prayer, he drew a circle in the dust, stood inside it, and informed God that he would not move until it rained. When it began to drizzle, Honi told God that he was not satisfied and expected more rain; it then began to pour. He explained that he wanted a calm rain, at which point the rain calmed to a normal rain.
Mishnah Berakot 5: 5 tells of Hanina ben Dosa, who in the generation following Jesus cured Gamaliel 's son by prayer (compare with Matthew 8: 5 - 13). A later story (In the Babylonian Talmud, Berakot 33a) tells of a lizard that used to injure passers - by. Hanina ben Dosa came and put his heel over the hole; the lizard bit him and died.
Such men were respected for their relationship with God but not considered especially saintly; their abilities were seen as one more unknowable thing and not deemed a result of any ultra-strict observance of Jewish law. These men were sometimes doubted, often respected, and even (according to Géza Vermes) addressed by their followers as "lord '' -- but never considered "saviors '' or "messiahs. ''
The literal translation of the Hebrew word mashiach (messiah) is "anointed '', which refers to a ritual of consecrating someone or something by putting holy anointing oil upon it. It is used throughout the Hebrew Bible in reference to a wide variety of individuals and objects; for example, a Jewish king, Jewish priests and prophets, the Jewish Temple and its utensils, unleavened bread, and a non-Jewish king (Cyrus the Great).
In Jewish eschatology the term came to refer to a future king from the Davidic line who will be "anointed '' to be king of God 's kingdom and rule the Jewish people during the Messianic Age. He is considered to be a great military and political leader descended from King David, well versed with the laws that are followed in Judaism.
After the fall of the Hasmoneans and the subsequent Roman occupation, many Jews believed it to be the end of days and hoped that the Romans would somehow fall or be replaced by a Jewish king. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. They believed that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention.
In 36 CE a Samaritan led a large group up Mount Gerizim, where they believed Moses had buried sacred vessels. Pilate blocked their route and killed their leaders. Josephus, who elsewhere expressed the common Judean prejudice against Samaritans, suggested that they were armed. But the surviving Samaritans appealed to the Syrian Legate, Vitellius, that they were unarmed and that Pilate 's actions were excessively cruel. According to historian H.H. Ben - Sasson, Samaria, as part of Roman Judea, was in a sense a "satellite of Syria ''. As a result, Pilate was sent to Rome and ultimately dismissed from his post as prefect. Another such prophet was Theudas, who, sometime between 44 and 46 led a large group of people to the Jordan river, which he claimed he could part. Cuspius Fadus, a procurator after Pilate, blocked their route and killed Theudas.
An "Egyptian Prophet '' led thirty thousand around the Mount of Olives and sought to enter Jerusalem until stopped by Antonius Felix, a procurator after Fadus.
When Herod was still military governor in the Galilee, he spent a good deal of time fighting bandits under the leadership of Ezekias. These bandits are best understood as a peasant group whose targets were local elites (both Hasmonean and Herodian) rather than Rome. Ventidius Cumanus (procurator 48 to 52 CE) often retaliated against brigandry by punishing peasant communities he believed to be their base of support. When a Galillean pilgrim on the way to Jerusalem was murdered by a Samaritan, the bandit chief Eliezar organized Galilleans for a counter-attack, and Cumanus moved against the Jews. A Syrian legate, Quadratus, intervened and sent several Jewish and Samaritan officials to Rome. The Emperor Claudius took the Jewish side, and had the Samaritan leaders executed and exiled, and turned one named Veler over to the Jews who beheaded him. Thus, widespread peasant unrest of this period was not exclusively directed against Rome but also expressed discontent against urban elites and other groups; Roman policy sought to contain the power of the bandits while cultivating Jewish support.
During the First Jewish - Roman War in 66, Josephus was sent to command the Galilee. He raised an army primarily of local bandits who pillaged nearby Greek and Roman cities (including ones occupied by Jewish elites), including the administrative centers of Sepphoris, Tiberias, and Gabara (sometimes Gadara). This suggests that they were concerned primarily with gain or social insurrection against local elites, rather than a political revolution against Roman occupation. When Roman legions arrived from Syria, the bandit army melted away.
The Romans employed a scorched earth policy in its fight in the north, driving thousands of peasants southwards towards Jerusalem. Between 67 and 68, these peasants, perhaps led by bandits, formed a new political party called the Zealots, which believed that an independent kingdom should be restored immediately through force of arms. It is unclear whether their leaders made messianic claims. The Zealots imprisoned members of the Herodian family, killed the former high priests Ananus ben Artanus and Joshua ben Gamaliel, and put on trial the wealthiest citizens. It is possible that they believed they were purging elements whom they believed would have surrendered to the Romans. But these purges also reveal the great social divide between Jewish peasants and aristocrats at this time. They formed part of a social revolution: although they ultimately lost to the Romans, elite groups like the Hasmoneans, Herodians, and Sadducees would never again have power in Roman Judea.
Most historians view the gospels not as an objective account of Jesus, but as the product of men writing at a particular period, and grappling with particular theological as well as political issues. Specifically, they assume that after Jesus ' death his sayings and stories about him circulated among his followers until, at some point in the mid-1st century someone (or group of people) wrote down his sayings in Greek (see Q source) and someone edited and organized stories about his life into a historical narrative, the Gospel of Mark. As these two documents circulated among Christians, other historical narratives were edited and organized. The four gospels ascribed to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John were regionally authoritative by proto - orthodoxy by the 2nd century. Some historians have suggested that between Nero 's persecution of Christians in 64 CE, and the Jewish revolt in 66 CE, Gentile Christians saw more sense in assigning Jews, rather than Romans, responsibility for Jesus ' death.
Moreover, just as Rabbinic Judaism was in part the Pharisaic response to their acknowledgment that the Temple would not be rebuilt in their lifetimes, Christianity reflected the acknowledgment of early Christians that the Second Coming of Christ and the establishment of God 's kingdom on earth was not to happen in their lifetimes. The critical analysis of the Gospels involves, at least in part, a consideration of how these concerns affected the Gospels ' accounts of Jesus.
According to historian Paula Fredriksen (1988: 5), critical scholars rely on four basic criteria for extrapolating an "authentic '' historical account of Jesus out of the New Testament sources:
As Fredriksen observes, these criteria do not guarantee an accurate historical reconstruction. Nevertheless, she argues,
Even these criteria are not sufficient to recover "what really happened. '' They can, however, enable historians to suggest "with reasonable security what possibly happened, what probably happened, and what could not possibly have happened.
According to Fredriksen, two events in the Gospels probably happened: John 's baptism and Pilate 's crucifixion of Jesus. These events are mentioned in all four gospels. Moreover, they do not conform to Jewish tradition in which there are no baptized and crucified messiahs. They are also embarrassing to the early Church. John the Baptist 's prominence in both the gospels and Josephus suggests that he may have been more popular than Jesus in his lifetime; also, Jesus ' mission does not begin until after his baptism by John. Fredriksen suggests that it was only after Jesus ' death that Jesus emerged as more influential than John. Accordingly, the gospels project Jesus ' posthumous importance back to his lifetime. Ways this was accomplished were by minimizing John 's importance by having John resist baptizing Jesus (Matthew), by referring to the baptism in passing (Luke), or by asserting Jesus ' superiority (John).
Given the historical context in which the Gospels took their final form and during which Christianity first emerged, historians have struggled to understand Jesus ' ministry in terms of what is known about 1st century Judaism. According to scholars such as Geza Vermes and E.P. Sanders, Jesus seems not to have belonged to any particular party or movement; Jesus was eclectic (and perhaps unique) in combining elements of many of these different -- and for most Jews, opposing -- positions. Most critical scholars see Jesus as healing people and performing miracles in the prophetic tradition of the Galilee, and preaching God 's desire for justice and righteousness in the prophetic tradition of Judea. (According to Geza Vermes, that Jesus ' followers addressed him as "lord '' indicates that they likened him to notable miracle workers and scribes. See Names and titles of Jesus)
Historians also often note that as Jesus was Jewish, his life, words, and teachings must be understood in the context of 1st century Judaism, his native culture, see for example Aramaic of Jesus. Moreover, they highlight 1st and 2nd century Judaism -- especially after the destruction of the Temple -- as being in a state of flux, consisting of a variety of sects.
As the Gospel accounts are generally held to have been composed in the period immediately following the revolt of 66 - 73, it has been suggested that Christians had to refashion their theological and apocalyptic claims given that Jesus did not immediately return to restore the Jewish kingdom. Moreover, as Christianity emerged as a new religion seeking converts among the gentiles, and eventually as the religion of the emperor himself, it needed to assure both Roman authorities and prospective Gentile audiences that it neither threatened nor challenged imperial sovereignty. Some historians have argued that these two conditions played a crucial role in the revision of accounts of Jesus ' life and teachings into the form they ultimately took in the Gospels.
As with many religions, no precise date of founding is agreed by all parties. Christians traditionally believe that Christianity began with Jesus ' ministry, and the appointment of the Twelve Apostles or the Seventy Disciples, see also Great Commission. Most historians agree that Jesus or his followers established a new Jewish sect, one that attracted both Jewish and Gentile converts. Historians continue to debate the precise moment when Christianity established itself as a new religion, apart and distinct from Judaism. Some Christians were still part of the Jewish community up until the time of the Bar Kochba revolt in the 130s, see also Jewish Christians. As late as the 4th century, John Chrysostom strongly discouraged Christians from attending Jewish festivals in Antioch, which suggests at least some ongoing contact between the two groups in that city. Similarly for the Council of Laodicea around 365. See also Shabbat, Sabbath in Christianity, Quartodeciman, Constantine I and Christianity. According to historian Shaye J.D. Cohen,
According to Cohen, this process ended in 70 CE, after the great revolt, when various Jewish sects disappeared and Pharisaic Judaism evolved into Rabbinic Judaism, and Christianity emerged as a distinct religion. Many historians argue that the Gospels took their final form after the Great Revolt and the destruction of the Temple, although some scholars put the authorship of Mark in the 60s, and need to be understood in this context. They view Christians as much as Pharisees as being competing movements within Judaism that decisively broke only after the Bar Kokhba 's revolt, when the successors of the Pharisees claimed hegemony over all Judaism, and -- at least from the Jewish perspective -- Christianity emerged as a new religion.
By 66 CE, Jewish discontent with Rome had escalated. At first, the priests tried to suppress rebellion, even calling upon the Pharisees for help. After the Roman garrison failed to stop Hellenists from desecrating a synagogue in Caesarea, however, the high priest suspended payment of tribute, inaugurating the First Jewish -- Roman War. In 70, the Temple was destroyed. The destruction of the Second Temple was a profoundly traumatic experience for the Jews, who were now confronted with difficult and far - reaching questions:
How people answered these questions depended largely on their position prior to the revolt. But the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans not only put an end to the revolt, it marked the end of an era. Revolutionaries like the Zealots had been crushed by the Romans, and had little credibility (the last Zealots died at Masada in 73). The Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to the Temple cult, disappeared. The Essenes also vanished, perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the issues of the times that the destruction of the Second Temple was of no consequence to them; precisely for this reason, they were of little consequence to the vast majority of Jews).
Two organized groups remained: the Early Christians, and Pharisees. Some scholars, such as Daniel Boyarin and Paula Fredricksen, suggest that it was at this time, when Christians and Pharisees were competing for leadership of the Jewish people, that accounts of debates between Jesus and the apostles, debates with Pharisees, and anti-Pharisaic passages, were written and incorporated into the New Testament.
The siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE included a major fire at the Temple which destroyed all except the Western Wall and what remained (including the altar tablet) was taken by Titus to Rome as trophies. The destruction of Jerusalem, and the loss of significant portions of Jewish cultural records were significant, with Flavius Josephus writing (about 5 year later c. 75 AD) in The Jewish War (Book VII 1.1) that Jerusalem had been flattened to the point that "there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited. '' And once what was left of the ruins of Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement of Aelia Capitolina, no Jews were allowed to set foot in it; and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the first century through the second century.
Margaret M. Mitchell writes that although Eusebius reports (Ecclesiastical History III 5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for Pella just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lock down in 70, in the face of this total destruction we must accept that no first hand Christian document from the early Jerusalem Church has reached us.
Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea both through a Procurator at Caesarea, which had always been the Roman provincial capital, and through a Jewish Patriarch. A former leading Pharisee, Yohanan ben Zakkai, was appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word, Nasi, also means prince, or president), and he reestablished the Sanhedrin at Javneh under Pharisee control. Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the Temple, the rabbis instructed Jews to give money to charities and study in local synagogues, as well as to pay the Fiscus Iudaicus.
In 132, the Emperor Hadrian threatened to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated to Jupiter, called Aelia Capitolina. Some of the leading sages of the Sanhedrin supported a rebellion (and, for a short time, an independent state) led by Simon bar Kochba; some, such as Rabbi Akiva, believed Bar Kochba to be messiah, or king. Up until this time, a number of Christians were still part of the Jewish community. However, they did not support or take part in the revolt. Whether because they had no wish to fight, or because they could not support a second messiah in addition to Jesus, or because of their harsh treatment by Bar Kochba during his brief reign, these Christians also left the Jewish community around this time. Traditionally, it is believed the Jerusalem Christians waited out the Jewish -- Roman wars in Pella in the Decapolis.
This revolt ended in 135 when Bar Kochba and his army were defeated. According to a midrash, in addition to Bar Kochba the Romans tortured and executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin (the "Ten Martyrs ''). This account also claims this was belated repayment for the guilt of the ten brothers who kidnapped Joseph. It is possible that this account represents a Pharisaic response to the Christian account of Jesus ' crucifixion; in both accounts the Romans brutally punish rebels, who accept their torture as atonement for the crimes of others.
After the suppression of the revolt, the vast majority of Jews were sent into exile; shortly thereafter (around 200), Judah haNasi edited together judgements and traditions into an authoritative code, the Mishna. This marks the transformation of Pharisaic Judaism into Rabbinic Judaism.
Although the Rabbis traced their origins to the Pharisees, Rabbinic Judaism nevertheless involved a radical repudiation of certain elements of Phariseism -- elements that were basic to Second Temple Judaism. The Pharisees had been partisan. Members of different sects argued with one another over the correctness of their respective interpretations, see also Hillel and Shammai. After the destruction of the Second Temple, these sectarian divisions ended. The term "Pharisee '' was no longer used, perhaps because it was a term more often used by non-Pharisees, but also because the term was explicitly sectarian. The Rabbis claimed leadership over all Jews, and added to the Amidah the birkat haMinim (see Council of Jamnia), a prayer which in part exclaims, "Praised are You O Lord, who breaks enemies and defeats the arrogant, '' and which is understood as a rejection of sectarians and sectarianism. This shift by no means resolved conflicts over the interpretation of the Torah; rather, it relocated debates between sects to debates within Rabbinic Judaism.
Paula Fredriksen, in From Jesus to Christ, has suggested that Jesus ' impact on his followers was so great that they could not accept this failure. According to the New Testament, some Christians believed that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion; they argued that he had been resurrected (the belief in the resurrection of the dead in the messianic age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment. Others adapted Gnosticism as a way to maintain the vitality and validity of Jesus ' teachings (see Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels). Since early Christians believed that Jesus had already replaced the Temple as the expression of a new covenant, they were relatively unconcerned with the destruction of the Temple, though it came to be viewed as symbolic of the doctrine of supersessionism.
According to historians of Hellenistic Judaism, Jesus ' failure to establish the Kingdom of God, and his death at the hands of the Romans, invalidated any messianic claims (see for comparison: prophet and false prophet).
According to many historians, most of Jesus ' teachings were intelligible and acceptable in terms of Second Temple Judaism; what set Christians apart from Jews was their faith in Christ as the resurrected messiah. The belief in a resurrected Messiah is unacceptable to Jews today and to Rabbinic Judaism, and Jewish authorities have long used this fact to explain the break between Judaism and Christianity. Recent work by historians paints a more complex portrait of late Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity. Some historians have suggested that, before his death, Jesus forged among his believers such certainty that the Kingdom of God and the resurrection of the dead was at hand, that with few exceptions (John 20: 24 - 29) when they saw him shortly after his execution, they had no doubt that he had been resurrected, and that the restoration of the Kingdom and resurrection of the dead was at hand. These specific beliefs were compatible with Second Temple Judaism. In the following years the restoration of the Kingdom as Jews expected it failed to occur. Some Christians believed instead that Christ, rather than being the Jewish messiah, was God made flesh, who died for the sins of humanity, and that faith in Jesus Christ offered everlasting life (see Christology).
The foundation for this new interpretation of Jesus ' crucifixion and resurrection are found in the epistles of Paul and in the Book of Acts. Most Jews view Paul as the founder of Christianity, who is responsible for the break with Judaism. Recently, Talmud scholar Daniel Boyarin has argued that Paul 's theology of the spirit is more deeply rooted in Hellenistic Judaism than generally believed. In A Radical Jew Boyarin argues that Paul the Apostle combined the life of Jesus with Greek philosophy to reinterpret the Hebrew Bible in terms of the Platonic opposition between the ideal (which is real) and the material (which is false); see also Paul the Apostle and Judaism. Judaism is a corporeal religion, in which membership is based not on belief but rather descent from Abraham, physically marked by circumcision, and focusing on how to live this life properly. Paul saw in the symbol of a resurrected Jesus the possibility of a spiritual rather than corporeal messiah. He used this notion of messiah to argue for a religion through which all people -- not just descendants of Abraham -- could worship the God of Abraham. Unlike Judaism, which holds that it is the proper religion only of the Jews, Pauline Christianity claimed to be the proper religion for all people.
In other words, by appealing to the Platonic distinction between the material and the ideal, Paul showed how the spirit of Christ could provide all people a way to worship God -- the God who had previously been worshipped only by Jews, although Jews claimed that he was the one and only God of all. Boyarin roots Paul 's work in Hellenistic Judaism and insists that Paul was thoroughly Jewish. But, Boyarin argues, Pauline theology made his version of Christianity so appealing to Gentiles. Nevertheless, Boyarin also sees this Platonic reworking of both Jesus 's teachings and Pharisaic Judaism as essential to the emergence of Christianity as a distinct religion, because it justified a Judaism without Jewish law (see also New Covenant).
The above events and trends lead to a gradual separation between Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. According to historian Shaye J.D. Cohen, "Early Christianity ceased to be a Jewish sect when it ceased to observe Jewish practices.
Among the Jewish practices abandoned by proto - orthodox Christianity, Circumcision was rejected as a requirement at the Council of Jerusalem, c. 50, Sabbath observance was modified, perhaps as early as Ignatius ' Epistle to the Magnesians 9.1. Quartodecimanism (observation of the Paschal feast on Nisan 14, the day of preparation for Passover, linked to Polycarp and thus to John the Apostle) was formally rejected at the First Council of Nicaea.
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who played sean connery on saturday night live | Celebrity Jeopardy! (Saturday Night Live) - wikipedia
Celebrity Jeopardy! is a series of sketches that aired regularly on the television comedy / variety show Saturday Night Live between 1996 and 2002, the years when Will Ferrell was a cast member. It parodies the same - named special event on the television quiz show Jeopardy! that features competition between notable individuals with all winnings going towards charitable organizations, and significant reductions to the game 's level of difficulty. Fifteen sketches aired between December 1996 and February 2015: two sketches per season from 1996 to 2002; and one each in 2005 and 2009, when Ferrell returned to the show as host. The sketch was revived for the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special on February 15, 2015.
Ferrell portrays Jeopardy! host Alex Trebek. Darrell Hammond also appeared in each sketch, usually portraying Sean Connery, in an impersonation that typically involves crass insults directed at Trebek. Norm Macdonald appeared as Burt Reynolds in six sketches. Jimmy Fallon also appeared six times, each time portraying a different character.
On several occasions, Celebrity Jeopardy! sketches have been referenced during actual episodes of Jeopardy!.
The sketch begins at the start of the Double Jeopardy! round. Trebek welcomes the audience, introduces the celebrity contestants, and reveals their scores, which are either $0, a negative score, or a very low positive score. Many times, the contestants refuse or fail to select an appropriate category and dollar value from the game board, grinding the game to a halt and often requiring Trebek to choose one himself. As the celebrities ' growing ineptitude became apparent, the subject matter used for categories shifted from normal topics (such as "Movies '' and "Popular Music '') to more childish topics, categories with titles giving not - so - subtle hints as to the correct response without reading the clues (such as "Famous Kareem Abdul - Jabbars ''), and those requiring no responses whatsoever. Recurring Jeopardy! category "Potent Potables '' appears in every sketch but is never selected, and when it finally is chosen, it results in an inadvertently offensive pre-recorded Video Daily Double involving Bill Cosby.
Instead of buzzing in with the correct questions, contestants either give horribly incorrect responses or say things that have nothing to do with the game, frustrating Trebek, who does nothing to hide his contempt for the celebrities ' performance. Trebek 's mood is also exacerbated by Connery 's pranks and antics, which include making sexual jokes at Trebek 's expense, deliberately misreading or vandalizing the categories on the board to turn them into sexually suggestive phrases (such as "Catch These Men '', a category about people on the FBI 's Most Wanted list, which he misreads as "Catch the Semen ''), and implying that he has had sexual relations with the host 's mother.
Trebek eventually grows exasperated with his inability to conduct the show and cuts it short by moving to Final Jeopardy!. He either discards the scripted category in favor of a much easier task (such as having the celebrities write and respond to their own clue), or announces a childishly simple category. Even though it appears impossible for the celebrities to fail, they invariably do. Connery occasionally provides a correct response, yet uses his wager to transform the text into a rude phrase. Sometimes Connery appears to have sympathy for Trebek until the wager reveal, which happens to be a rude drawing at Trebek 's expense; on an earlier sketch, this is also performed by John Travolta, who in response to a clue asking the celebrities to name their favorite food, responds with "miso '', an actual soup, yet when Trebek asks for the wager, reveals it to be "horny '', which is read as "me so horny ''.
Trebek is the beleaguered straight man, and is generally the only person on stage interested in the game. The contestants, who are either unaware of what the game is or uninterested in playing, will ramble incoherently, deliver irrelevant monologues, or openly antagonize the host. Whenever a contestant takes the game seriously, he / she proves utterly incapable of supplying the correct question. No contestant ever offers a correct response; however, two come close: Phil Donahue and Tony Bennett, who in their respective sketches, offer descriptions for the holiday of Christmas and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. When Reynolds, who had initially been the celebrity who appeared on each episode, makes his return appearances, he misreads categories in the same manner as Connery and insists that he be addressed as "Turd Ferguson '' because he finds that name funny.
At the end of almost every sketch, all three celebrities have scores in the negative thousands of dollars, and in most cases, a humorous, often sexual, Final Jeopardy! punchline is delivered by Connery. In one of his sketches, Reynolds is declared an unquestioned winner, even though he wins simply because he has the least amount of negative money, rather than actually earning a victory. When Trebek ends the show, he either states that money will not be awarded to charity or announces his intention to resign or commit suicide.
A typical Celebrity Jeopardy! sketch featured three cast members (two as contestants and Ferrell as Trebek) plus that week 's host as a third contestant. The thirteenth edition of the sketch (Cosby, Sharon Osbourne, Connery) featured three members of the SNL cast as the three contestants and Ferrell, now hosting, reprising his role as Trebek. The episode with Connery, Ozzy Osbourne, and Martha Stewart featured cast members in all four roles.
Thirteen of the fifteen sketches included the episode 's host, usually as a contestant. The tenth sketch was one of two not to feature a host, as it was part of an SNL primetime special that did not feature a guest host. The 40th anniversary special also did not have a host. Both Ferrell and Macdonald were previous cast members who reprised their Celebrity Jeopardy! role upon their return.
Norm Macdonald was inspired to create the first Celebrity Jeopardy! after noting how much easier the questions on the real - life Celebrity Jeopardy! were compared to regular episodes. A fan of the sketch series SCTV, Macdonald acknowledged that his concept would be substantially the same as "Half - Wits, '' a recurring sketch on SCTV in which Eugene Levy played a parody of Trebek, exasperated by the incredibly dumb contestants on the program. Macdonald called Levy and secured permission to co-opt the premise of the sketch.
During the May 2007 special Saturday Night Live in the ' 90s: Pop Culture Nation, Macdonald said he created the Celebrity Jeopardy! sketch purely as an excuse to do his Burt Reynolds impersonation. He purposely chose to make Reynolds an anachronism, appearing on stage as if Reynolds was still the same age he was in 1972. Macdonald also claims that Reynolds was a fan of the sketch and that there were talks to do a sketch where the real Reynolds would crash the game and punch out Macdonald. Reynolds would then play the remainder of the game, with his responses being even dumber than Macdonald 's. However, Macdonald was fired from SNL before that sketch could be written.
The host and contestants are played as caricatures of their real life personalities. Hammond said that, while his initial Connery impression was as accurate as possible, it would eventually morph into a "bastardization '' of the actor, which audiences -- and Hammond himself -- found far more entertaining. Though Trebek shaved his trademark mustache in 2001, Ferrell retained it as long as he played the character, even in the twelfth sketch -- Ferrell 's last episode as a cast member -- when a clean - shaven real Trebek made a cameo at the end.
Critical responses to the sketches have been positive. In 2008, Ferrell 's portrayal of Trebek was # 3 in IGN 's "Top 15 Will Ferrell characters ''.
Jeopardy! host Alex Trebek has mentioned his admiration for Will Ferrell 's impression of him in interviews. Trebek also stated that during every taping of the show, he is asked by one of the audience members if he liked Ferrell 's impression, and always replies that he does. On several occasions, Celebrity Jeopardy! sketches have been referenced during actual Jeopardy! episodes:
In the May 19, 1999 Celebrity Jeopardy! episode, the Jeopardy! round featured the category "'S ' Words '', and the Double Jeopardy! round featured "Swords '' in the same column (in the first sketch, wherein "'S ' Words '' is a category, Connery misreads it as "Swords ''). During the September 5, 2001 episode, the Double Jeopardy! categories were "Sean Connery '', "Surprise Me, Trebek! '', "Therapists '' (misread by Connery as "The Rapists ''), "Things You Should n't Put in Your Mouth '', "The Number After 2 '', and "Rhymes With ' Dog ' ''.
The June 27, 2006 show featured the category "Japan - U.S. Relations '', which had been misread by Connery as "Jap Anus Relations ''. In the November 8 and 16, 2006 Celebrity Jeopardy! episodes, categories included "Surprise Me, Trebek! '' and "Answers That Start With ' Feb ' '', respectively (the latter of which is a reference to the category "Months That Start With ' Feb ' '' from the sketch). Notably, Martin Short competed on the November 17th episode of that year, becoming the only person to compete on both the real and SNL versions of Celebrity Jeopardy! On the November 23, 2009 show, the categories in the Jeopardy! round were "SNL Celebrity Jeopardy! '', "States That End In Hampshire '', "What Color Is Green? '', "Current Black Presidents '', "Sounds That Kitties Make '', and "Twinkle Twinkle Little Word That Rhymes With Star ''.
A May 15, 2015 Celebrity Jeopardy! featured "The Pen is Mightier '', a category about famous authors and their books (which was misread in a Celebrity Jeopardy! sketch as "The Penis Mightier '' by Connery, who thought it was a penis enlargement product); and on September 16, 2015, a contestant who did not know the actual answer jokingly guessed "The Love Ballad of Turd Ferguson '' during Final Jeopardy!
Saturday Night Live continues to include Jeopardy! parodies; a recurring such parody introduced in season 39 is Black Jeopardy!, which reimagines the show as one targeted toward African - Americans. The same Jeopardy! set is used.
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world war 1 marked the end of monarchies in both | Abolition of monarchy - wikipedia
The abolition of monarchy is the occurrence, actual or topical, of the ending of an aristocratic ("hereditary government '') control of a country and the cessation of its kind of government ("monarchy ''). It has occurred throughout history, either through revolutions, coups d'état, wars, or legislative reforms (such as abdications). The founding of the Roman Republic is a noteworthy example and became part of the nation 's traditions including as justification for the assassination of Julius Caesar. The twentieth century saw a major acceleration of this process, with many monarchies violently overthrown by revolution or war, or else abolished as part of the process of decolonisation. By contrast, the restoration of monarchies is rare in modern times, with only two major examples, Spain and Cambodia.
An early example of the abolition of a monarchy in modern times occurred in 1649 with the overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England and its armed forces under leaders such as Oliver Cromwell. 1660 saw a monarchical restoration - though in a more limited form moderated by a more independent Parliament.
Organized Anti-monarchism in what since July 1776 is the United States developed out of the gradual process of revolution that began in 1765, as colonists resisted the Stamp Act through boycott and the expulsion and condemnation of royal officials. While subjects of Great Britain (a union of the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland), the colonists of British North America enjoyed a level of autonomy which increasingly clashed with royal and Parliamentary authority which did not consult colonial needs. With the Declaration of Independence in 1776, the most violent wave of anti-monarchical protest began, with the systematic destruction of the relics and symbols of monarchy. Examples can be found in the toppling of the equestrian statue of George III on Bowling Green in New York City (9 July 1776). Monarchic loyalists were particularly affected by partisan attacks or harassment, with tens of thousands leaving for Canada, Britain, and other colonies. Wealth or property which remained was typically confiscated. Thomas Paine, the famous author of the revolutionary pamphlet "Common Sense '', urged the colonists to finance the revolutionary war through this means. Even today, very few artifacts depicting the British monarchy from the colonial period can be found in the United States. However, not all anti-British or anti-Loyalist sentiment equated to anti-monarchism. The normalcy of having a King at the head of a polity had strong roots in much political thought (Machiavelli, Hobbes) and in religious doctrine (see for example 1 Samuel 8: 6 - 9. Some Americans saw the presidency in monarchical terms.
However, the most famous abolition of monarchy in history - apart from the Dutch Republic of 1581 to 1795 - involved the French monarchy in 1792, during the French Revolution. The French monarchy was later restored several times with differing levels of authority. Napoleon, initially a hero of the Republican revolution, crowned himself emperor in 1804 only to be replaced by the Bourbon Restoration in 1815 which in turn was replaced by the more liberal July Monarchy in 1830.
The 1848 Revolution was a more clear anti-monarchic uprising that replaced the succession of royal leaders with the short - lived Second French Republic. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte established the Second French Empire (1852 to 1870), retaining republican aspects while placing himself in the center of the state until the losses in the Franco - Prussian War precipitated his fall, resulting in the French Third Republic and the definitive end of monarchism in the governing of France.
In 1858 the Mughal Empire came to an end after losing a war against Britain, and its Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, lost his throne. Between 1859 and 1861, four monarchies in Southern Europe ceased to exist: Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the Two Sicilies, when they all became part of the new Kingdom of Italy. The Second Mexican Empire collapsed in 1867, and its Emperor, Maximilian I of Mexico, was executed. The Second French Empire came to an end in 1870 after it had lost the war against Prussia, causing Emperor Napoleon III to lose his throne. He was the last monarch of France.
In Spain monarchy was abolished from 1873 to 1874 by the First Spanish Republic, but then restored until 1931. The monarchy of Tahiti came to an end in 1880 when France made it a colony and overthrew King Pōmare V. That of Burma was abolished in 1885, when the last king, Thibaw Min, lost his throne and the country was annexed by Britain. In Brazil, the monarchy was abolished in 1889, when Emperor Pedro II was overthrown by a republican military coup (the status of the republic was fully confirmed by a plebiscite in 1993 that resulted in 66 % of the votes to the republican government). In 1893 foreign business leaders overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani of the Kingdom of Hawaii. They established a republic, which was annexed by the United States in 1898. The monarchy of Madagascar, known as the Merina Kingdom, came to an end in 1897 when France made it a colony and overthrew Queen Ranavalona III.
In 1910 the last emperor of Korea, Sunjong, lost his throne when the country was annexed by Japan. However, the Korean royal family was mediatised as a puppet family within the Japanese imperial family. Many of the Korean royals were forcibly re-educated in Japan and forced to marry Japanese royalty and aristocrats to meld the ruling families of the two empires. With the abolition of the Japanese aristocracy and cadet branches of the imperial family, the Korean royals officially lost their remaining status.
The monarchy of Portugal was also overthrown in 1910 (5 October), two years after the assassination of King Carlos I, ending the reign of Manuel II, who died in exile in England (1932), without issue.
The ancient monarchy of China ceased to exist in 1912 after the revolution of Sun Yat - sen overthrew Emperor Puyi. General Yuan Shikai, then provisional president, unsuccessfully tried to make himself a monarch in 1915.
World War I led to perhaps the greatest spate of abolition of monarchies in history. The conditions inside Russia and the poor performance in the war gave rise to a revolution which toppled the entire institution of the monarchy, followed by a second revolution against that government in October of the same year that executed Emperor Nicholas II and implemented a Marxist - Leninist government. The defeated German, Austro - Hungarian and Ottoman empires saw the abolition of their monarchies in the close aftermath of the war, ending the reigns of Wilhelm II, Charles I and Mehmed VI respectively. The monarchs of the constituent states within the German Empire, most importantly Ludwig III of Bavaria, Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Wilhelm II of Württemberg, soon abdicated. During the war, monarchies were planned for the Grand Duchy of Finland (to have a Finnish King), and for Lithuania (Mindaugas II of Lithuania), with a protectorate - like dependency of Germany. Both intended kings renounced their thrones after Germany 's defeat in November 1918. King Nicholas I of Montenegro lost his throne when the country became a part of Yugoslavia in 1918.
After the death of the last Emperor, Bogd Khan, in 1924, Mongolia became a republic. In Spain the monarchy was again abolished in 1931 by the Second Spanish Republic (1931 -- 1939). In 1947, General Franco declared Spain a realm, and appointed Juan Carlos of Bourbon his successor in 1969. The Prince of Spain became king at Franco 's death in 1975, and constitutional monarchy was restored in 1978 under him.
World War II saw another spate of abolitions. In 1939 Italy invaded Albania and removed the reigning self - proclaimed King Zog and instated their own King Victor Emmanuel III as its new monarch. Italy, along with the eastern European monarchies of Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania joined with Germany in World War II against the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Western allies and the Soviet Union. As the Axis powers came to a defeat in the war, communist partisans in occupied Yugoslavia and occupied Albania seized power and ended the monarchies. Communists in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania removed their monarchies with strong backing by the Soviet Union, which had many troops and supporters placed there during the course of the war. Through this, Peter II of Yugoslavia, Simeon II of Bulgaria and Michael I of Romania all lost their thrones. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy had switched sides during the war in favour of the western allies, but a referendum in 1946 ended the short reign of his son King Umberto II and the Italian monarchy ceased to exist. A unique result of the war was that Emperor Hirohito of Japan, who had held a debated but important role in Japan 's warfare against the Allied powers, was reduced in stature from a divine monarch to a figurehead by the occupying United States, instead of losing his throne altogether.
Throughout Greece 's eventful modern history, the monarchy was toppled and restored several times between and after the two World Wars. The last king, Constantine II, was forced into exile after a coup in 1967 and the republic was proclaimed in 1973 by the then ruling military dictatorship. Final abolition of the monarchy was confirmed overwhelmingly after constitutional legality was restored, by free referendum in 1974.
The independence of the Indian subcontinent from direct British rule in 1947 posed a unique problem. From 1858, when the British government had assumed direct rule over the subcontinent, it had been governed as a quasi-federation, with most of the subcontinent (known as British India), under the direct rule of the British sovereign. The remainder of the subcontinent, however, was under a form of indirect rule through its division and subdivision into over 500 subnational monarchies, known as princely states; each was ruled by a prince in a subsidiary alliance with the British government. The princely states ranged from powerful and largely independent principalities such as Hyderabad or Mysore, with a high level of autonomy, to tiny fiefdoms a few dozen acres in size. The resulting imperial structure was broadly similar to that of the German Empire before the First World War.
In 1947, it was agreed the Indian subcontinent would be partitioned into the independent British dominions of India and Pakistan, with the princely states acceding to one nation or the other. The accession process proceeded smoothly, with the notable exception of four of the most influential principalities. The Muslim ruler of the Hindu - majority state of Junagadh ruler acceded to Pakistan, but his decision was overruled by the Indian government, while Hyderabad chose to be independent, but was forcibly annexed to India in 1948. The Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, among the largest and most powerful of the principalities, but with a Muslim - majority population, initially held off on a decision. In the autumn of 1947, an invading force from Pakistan frightened the ruler into acceding to India. The ruler of Kalat, in Baluchistan, declared his independence in 1947, after which the state was forcibly merged with Pakistan, resulting in an insurgency persisting to this day. With the promulgation of the Indian constitution in 1950, India abolished its monarchy under the British crown and became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, followed by Pakistan in 1956; as a result of both developments, the majority of the princes formally lost their sovereign rights. A few remaining principalities in Pakistan retained their autonomy until 1969, when they finally acceded to Pakistan. The Indian government formally derecognised its princely families in 1971, followed by Pakistan in 1972.
Many monarchies were abolished in the middle of the 20th century or later as part of the process of decolonisation. The monarchies of India, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Guyana, and Malawi were abolished shortly after they became independent of the United Kingdom, while remaining within the Commonwealth. That of Ireland was not abolished when Ireland became independent of the United Kingdom in the 1920s, but by the Republic of Ireland Act of 1948, which came into force in 1949. Some Commonwealth realms waited a little longer before abolishing their monarchies: Pakistan became a republic in 1956 and South Africa in 1961. Gambia abolished its monarchy in 1970, while Sierra Leone became a republic in 1971, as did Sri Lanka in 1972, Malta in 1974, Trinidad and Tobago in 1976, and Fiji in 1987. The latest country to become a republic within the Commonwealth was Mauritius in 1992.
That of Egypt was abolished in 1953, after the revolution of 1952, which caused King Farouk I to abdicate in favour of his infant son Fuad II. The monarchy of Tunisia ended in 1957 when Muhammad VIII al - Amin lost his throne and that of Iraq in 1958 when King Faisal II was killed and a republic proclaimed. The monarchy of Yemen was abolished in 1962 when King Muhammad al - Shami was overthrown in a coup, although he continued to resist his opponents until 1970. King Idris of Libya was overthrown by a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969. The monarchy of Afghanistan was abolished in 1973 after a coup d'état overthrew King Mohammed Zahir Shah. That of Iran was abolished by the Islamic revolution of 1979 overthrowing Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown in 1974 as a result of a leftist coup. King Palden Thondup Namgyal of Sikkim lost his throne in 1975 when the country became a state of India following a referendum. Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchies of Indochina after World War II: a short - lived attempt to leave a monarchical form of government in post-colonial South Vietnam came to naught in 1955, a military coup overthrew the kingless monarchy in Cambodia in 1970 and a Communist takeover ended the monarchy in Laos in 1975. Cambodia 's monarchy later saw an unexpected rebirth under an internationally mediated peace settlement with former king Norodom Sihanouk being restored as a figurehead in 1993.
In a referendum in Brazil in 1993, voters rejected an attempt to restore the country 's monarchy. Unsuccessful efforts to restore the monarchies of some of the Balkan states in the former Eastern Bloc continue. Former King Michael of Romania and Prince Alexander of Serbia have been allowed to return, gained some popularity, played largely apolitical public roles, but never came close to being restored to their ancestral thrones. However, in Bulgaria, Simeon Saxe - Coburg - Gotha, who was deposed from the Bulgarian throne in 1946, was elected and recently served as the Prime Minister of his country from 2001 to 2005. The only formerly socialist country to have held a referendum on the monarchy was Albania where the claimant to his father 's throne, the self - styled Leka I, lost by a huge margin.
In a 1999 referendum, the voters of Australia rejected a proposal to abolish their monarchy in favour of a specific republican model. The proposal was rejected in all states, with only the Australian Capital Territory voting in favour.
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common high court can be set up by which of the following authority | High Court of Australia - Wikipedia
The High Court of Australia is the supreme court in the Australian court hierarchy and the final court of appeal in Australia. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction, the power of judicial review over laws passed by the Parliament of Australia and the parliaments of the states, and the ability to interpret the Constitution of Australia and thereby shape the development of federalism in Australia.
The High Court is mandated by section 71 of the Constitution, which vests in it the judicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Court was constituted by, and its first members were appointed under, the Judiciary Act 1903. It now operates under sections 71 to 75 of the Constitution, the Judiciary Act, and the High Court of Australia Act 1979. It is composed of seven Justices: the Chief Justice of Australia, currently Susan Kiefel, and six other Justices. They are appointed by the Governor - General of Australia on the advice of the federal government, and under the constitution must retire at age 70.
The High Court has had a permanent home in Canberra since 1979. The majority of its sittings are held in the High Court building, which is situated in the Parliamentary Triangle overlooking Lake Burley Griffin. With an increasing utilisation of video links, sittings are also often held in the state capitals.
The High Court exercises both original jurisdiction (cases that originate in the High Court) and appellate jurisdiction (appeals made to the High Court from other courts). The High Court is the court of final appeal with the ability to interpret the common law for the whole of Australia, not just the state or territory in which the matter arose. The High Court 's broad jurisdiction is similar to that of the Supreme Court of Canada and unlike the Supreme Court of the United States which has a more limited jurisdiction. As such, the court is able to develop the common law consistently across all the states and territories. This role, alongside its role in constitutional interpretation, is one of the court 's most significant. As Sir Owen Dixon said on his swearing in as Chief Justice of Australia:
"The High Court 's jurisdiction is divided in its exercise between constitutional and federal cases which loom so largely in the public eye, and the great body of litigation between man and man, or even man and government, which has nothing to do with the Constitution, and which is the principal preoccupation of the court. ''
This broad array of jurisdiction enables the High Court to take a leading role in Australian law and contributes to a consistency and uniformity among the laws of the different states.
The original jurisdiction of the High Court refers to matters that are originally heard in the High Court. The Constitution confers actual (section 75) and potential (section 76) original jurisdiction.
Section 75 of the Constitution confers original jurisdiction in regard to "all matters '':
The conferral of original jurisdiction creates some problems for the High Court. For example, challenges against immigration - related decisions are often brought against an officer of the Commonwealth within the original jurisdiction of the High Court.
Section 76 provides that Parliament may confer original jurisdiction in relation to matters:
Constitutional matters, referred to in section 76 (i), have been conferred to the High Court by section 30 of the Judiciary Act 1903. However, the inclusion of constitutional matters in section 76, rather than section 75, means that the High Court 's original jurisdiction regarding constitutional matters could be removed. In practice, section 75 (iii) (suing the Commonwealth) and section 75 (iv) (conflicts between states) are broad enough that many constitutional matters would still be within jurisdiction. The original constitutional jurisdiction of the High Court is now well established: the Australian Law Reform Commission has described the inclusion of constitutional matters in section 76 rather than section 75 as "an odd fact of history. '' The 1998 Constitutional Convention recommended an amendment to the constitution to prevent the possibility of the jurisdiction being removed by Parliament. Failure to proceed on this issue suggests that it was considered highly unlikely that Parliament would ever take this step.
The requirement of "a matter '' in section 75 and section 76 of the constitution means that a concrete issue must need to be resolved and the High Court can not give an advisory opinion.
The High Court 's appellate jurisdiction is defined under section 73 of the Constitution. The High Court can hear appeals from the Supreme Courts of the states and territories, any federal court or court exercising federal jurisdiction (such as the Federal Court of Australia, the Federal Circuit Court of Australia, or other federal courts), and decisions made by one or more Justices exercising the original jurisdiction of the court.
However, section 73 allows the appellate jurisdiction to be limited "with such exceptions and subject to such regulations as the Parliament prescribes ''. Parliament has prescribed a large limitation in section 35A of the Judiciary Act 1903. This requires "special leave '' to appeal. Special leave is granted only where a question of law is raised that is of public importance; or involves a conflict between courts; or "is in the interests of the administration of justice ''. Therefore, while the High Court is the final court of appeal, it can not be considered a general court of appeal. The decision as to whether to grant special leave to appeal is determined by one or more Justices of the High Court (in practice, a panel of two or three judges). That is, the Court exercises the power to decide which appeal cases it will consider.
The issue of appeals from the High Court to the United Kingdom 's Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was a significant one during the drafting of the Constitution and it continued to be significant in the years after the court 's creation. The wording of section 74 of the constitution that was put to voters in the various colonies was that there was to be no appeal to the Privy Council in any matter involving the interpretation of the Constitution or of the Constitution of a State, unless it involved the interests of some other dominion.
Section 74 of the Constitution, as enacted by the Imperial Parliament, prohibited appeals on constitutional matters involving disputes about the limits inter se of Commonwealth or state powers, except where the High Court certified it was appropriate for the appeal to be determined by the Privy Council. It did so only once: in the 1912 case of Colonial Sugar Refining Co Ltd v Attorney - General (Cth) when the Court was equally divided. After that case, in which the Privy Council refused to answer the constitutional questions put to it, the High Court never certified another inter se appeal. Indeed, in the case of Kirmani v Captain Cook Cruises Pty Ltd (1985), the court said that it would never again grant a certificate of appeal.
In general matters, however, section 74 did not prevent the Privy Council from granting leave to appeal against the High Court 's wishes and the Council did so often. In some cases the Council acknowledged that the Australian common law had developed differently from English law and thus did not apply its own principles (for example, in Australian Consolidated Press Ltd v Uren (1967), or in Viro v The Queen (1978)), by using a legal fiction that stated that different common law can apply to different circumstances. However, in other cases, the Privy Council enforced English decisions, over-ruling decisions by the High Court. In Parker v The Queen (1963), Chief Justice Sir Owen Dixon led a unanimous judgment that rejected a precedent of the House of Lords in DPP v Smith saying, "I shall not depart from the law on this matter as we have long since laid it down in this Court and I think that Smith 's case should not be used in Australia as authority at all ''. the following year the Privy Council upheld an appeal, applying the House of Lords precedent.
Section 74 did provide that the parliament could make laws to prevent appeals to the Privy Council and it did so, beginning in 1968, with the Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act 1968, which closed off all appeals to the Privy Council in matters involving federal legislation. In 1975, the Privy Council (Appeals from the High Court) Act 1975 was passed, which had the effect of closing all routes of appeal from the High Court. Appeals from the High Court to the Privy Council are now only theoretically possible in inter se matters if the High Court grants a certificate of appeal under section 74 of the Constitution. As noted above, the High Court indicated in 1985 it would not grant such a certificate in the future and it is practically certain that all future High Courts will maintain this policy. In 1986, with the passing of the Australia Act by both the UK Parliament and the Parliament of Australia (with the request and consent of the Australian States), appeals to the Privy Council from state Supreme Courts were closed off, leaving the High Court as the only avenue of appeal.
Thirteen High Court judges have heard cases as part of the Privy Council. Sir Isaac Isaacs is the only judge to have sat on an appeal from the High Court, in 1936 after his retirement as Governor - General. Sir Garfield Barwick insisted on an amendment to Privy Council procedure to allow dissent, however he exercised that only once. The appeals mostly related to decisions from other Commonwealth countries, although they occasionally included appeals from a State Supreme Court.
As per an agreement between Nauru and Australia signed on 6 September 1976, in application of article 57 of the Constitution of Nauru, the High Court of Australia became the ultimate court of appeal for the sovereign Republic of Nauru, formerly an Australian League of Nations mandate. The High Court was empowered to hear appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru in both criminal and civil cases, with certain exceptions; in particular, no case pertaining to the Constitution of Nauru could be decided by the Australian court. There were a total of five appeals to the High Court under this agreement in the first 40 years of its operation. In 2017, however, this jumped to 13 appeals, most relating to asylum seekers. Some legal commentators (including the Australian Law Reform Commission) have argued that this appellate jurisdiction sits awkwardly with the High Court 's other responsibilities and should be renegotiated or repealed. Problems identified including the need to apply Nauruan law and customary practice and that the High Court need not grant leave for an appeal to be heard.
Matthew Batsiua, a former Justice Minister of Nauru, has suggested that the Nauruan government was unhappy with the arrangement following an October 2017 decision from the High Court. Following a protest in May 2015 outside the Nauruan parliament, 19 people were charged with unlawful assembly and other civil offences. The Supreme Court of Nauru subsequently increased the sentences imposed by the District Court, leading to an appeal in which the High Court quashed the decision. The case was remitted to the Supreme Court "differently constituted, for hearing according to law. ''
On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Nauru 's independence, President Baron Waqa declared to parliament that "(s) everance of ties to Australia 's highest court is a logical step towards full nationhood and an expression of confidence in Nauru 's ability to determine its own destiny. '' Nauruan Justice Minister David Adeang cited the cost of appeals to the High Court as another reason for Nauru to establish its own Court of Appeal as the country 's highest court. Under the agreement, the government of either country could end the arrangement with 90 days notice. Nauru unilaterally exercised that option on 12 December 2017 and the High Court 's jurisdiction ended on 12 March 2018. However, the termination of the arrangement did not become known until after the Supreme Court had reheard the case of the protesters and again imposed increased sentences. With the new Court of Appeals not yet established, the defendants are left with no avenue of appeal, a situation criticised as deeply unfair.
The genesis of the court can be traced back to the middle of the 19th century. Before the establishment of the High Court, appeals from the state Supreme Courts could be made only to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which involved the great expense of travelling to London. For this reason some politicians in the colonies wanted a new court that could travel between the colonies hearing appeals.
Following Earl Grey 's 1846 proposal for federation of the Australian colonies, an 1849 report from the Privy Council of the United Kingdom suggested that a national court be created. In 1856, the then Governor of South Australia, Richard Graves MacDonnell, suggested to the Government of South Australia that they and the other colonies should consider establishing a court of appeal that would hear appeals from the Supreme Courts in each colony, and in 1860 the Parliament of South Australia passed legislation encouraging MacDonnell to put forward the idea to his colleagues in the other colonies. However, only the Government of Victoria seriously considered this proposal.
At an inter-colonial conference in 1870 in Melbourne, the idea of an inter-colonial court was again raised and subsequently a Royal Commission was established in Victoria to investigate options for establishing a court of appeal and for unifying extradition laws between the colonies and other similar matters. A draft bill establishing a court was put forward by the Commission, but it completely excluded appeals to the Privy Council, which reacted critically and prevented any serious attempts to implement the bill in London (before federation, any laws affecting all the colonies would have to be passed by the British Imperial Parliament in London).
In 1880 another inter-colonial conference was convened, which proposed the establishment of an Australasian Court of Appeal. This conference was more firmly focussed on having an Australian court. Another draft bill was produced, providing that judges from the colonial Supreme Courts would serve one - year terms on the new court, with one judge from each colony at a given time. New Zealand, which was at the time also considering joining the Australian colonies in federation, was also to be a participant in the new court. However, the proposal retained appeals from colonial Supreme Courts to the Privy Council, which some of the colonies disputed, and the bill was eventually abandoned.
The Constitutional Conventions of the 1890s, which met to draft an Australian Constitution, also raised the idea of a federal Supreme Court. Initial proposals at a conference in Melbourne in February 1890 led to a convention in Sydney in March and April 1891, which produced a draft constitution. The draft included the creation of a Supreme Court of Australia, which would not only interpret the Constitution, like the United States Supreme Court, but also would be a court of appeal from the state Supreme Courts. The draft effectively removed appeals to the Privy Council, allowing them only if the British monarch gave leave to appeal and not allowing appeals at all in constitutional matters.
This draft was largely the work of Sir Samuel Griffith, then the Premier of Queensland, later Chief Justice of Queensland and the first Chief Justice of Australia. Other significant contributors to the judicial clauses in the draft included Attorney - General of Tasmania Andrew Inglis Clark, who had prepared his own constitution prior to the convention. Inglis Clark 's most significant contribution was to give the court its own constitutional authority, ensuring the separation of powers; the original formulation from Griffith, Edmund Barton and Charles Kingston provided only that the parliament could establish a court.
At the later conventions, in Adelaide in 1897, in Sydney later the same year and in Melbourne in early 1898, there were changes to the earlier draft. In Adelaide, the name of the court was changed from Supreme Court of Australia to High Court of Australia. Many people also opposed the new court completely replacing the Privy Council: many large businesses, particularly those which were subsidiaries of British companies or regularly traded with the United Kingdom, preferred for business reasons to keep the colonies under the unified jurisdiction of the British courts, and petitioned the conventions to that effect. Other arguments posited against removing Privy Council appeals were that Australian judges were of a poorer quality than English ones, and that without the Council 's oversight, the law in the colonies risked becoming different from English law. Some politicians, such as Sir George Dibbs, supported the petitioners, but others, including Alfred Deakin, supported the design of the court as it was. Inglis Clark took the view that the possibility of divergence was a good thing, for the law could adapt appropriately to Australian circumstances. Despite the debate, the portions of the draft dealing with the court remained largely unchanged, as the delegates focused on different matters.
After the draft had been approved by the electors of the colonies, it was taken to London in 1899, for the assent of the British Imperial Parliament. However the issue of Privy Council appeals remained a sticking point with a number of Australian and British politicians, including the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Joseph Chamberlain, the Chief Justice of South Australia, Sir Samuel Way, and the Chief Justice of Queensland, Sir Samuel Griffith. Indeed, in October 1899, Griffith made representations to Chamberlain soliciting suggestions from British ministers for alterations to the draft, and offering some alterations of his own. Indeed, such was the effect of these and other representations that Chamberlain called for delegates from the colonies to come to London to assist with the approval process, with a view to their approving any alterations that the British government might see fit to make; delegates were sent, including Deakin, Barton and Charles Kingston, although they were under instructions that they would never agree to changes.
After intense lobbying both in Australia and in the United Kingdom, the Imperial Parliament finally approved the draft constitution, albeit with an altered section 74, which represented a compromise between the two sides: there would be a general right of appeal from the High Court to the Privy Council, except that the Parliament of Australia would be able to make laws restricting this avenue, and also that appeals in inter se matters (matters concerning the boundary between and limits of the powers of the Commonwealth and the powers of the states) were not as of right, but had to be certified by the High Court.
The Constitution was passed by the Imperial Parliament, and came into effect on 1 January 1901. However, the High Court was not established immediately; it was necessary for the new Parliament of Australia to make laws about the structure and procedure of the court. Some of the members of the First Parliament, including Sir John Quick, then one of the leading legal experts in Australia, opposed legislation to set up the court. Even H.B. Higgins, who was himself later appointed to the court, objected to setting it up, on the grounds that it would be impotent while Privy Council appeals remained, and that in any event there was not enough work for a federal court to make it viable.
In 1902, the then Attorney - General Alfred Deakin introduced the Judiciary Bill 1902 in the House of Representatives. Although Deakin and Griffith had produced a draft bill as early as February 1901, it was continually delayed by opponents in the parliament, and the success of the bill is generally attributed to Deakin 's passion and effort in pushing the bill through the parliament despite this opposition. Deakin had proposed that the court be composed of five judges, specially selected to the court; opponents instead proposed that the court should be made up of state Supreme Court justices, taking turns to sit on the High Court on a rotation basis, as had been mooted at the Constitutional Conventions a decade before. Deakin eventually negotiated amendments with the opposition, reducing the number of judges from five to three, and eliminating financial benefits such as pensions.
At one point, Deakin even threatened to resign as Attorney - General due to the difficulties he faced. In what is now a famous speech, Deakin gave a second reading to the House of Representatives, lasting three and a half hours, in which he declared:
"The federation is constituted by distribution of powers, and it is this court which decides the orbit and boundary of every power... It is properly termed the keystone of the federal arch... The statute stands and will stand on the statute - book just as in the hour in which it was assented to. But the nation lives, grows and expands. Its circumstances change, its needs alter, and its problems present themselves with new faces. (The High Court) enables the Constitution to grow and be adapted to the changeful necessities and circumstances of generation after generation that the High Court operates. ''
Deakin 's friend, painter Tom Roberts, who viewed the speech from the public gallery, declared it Deakin 's "magnum opus ''. The Judiciary Act 1903 was finally passed on 25 August 1903, and the first three justices, Chief Justice Sir Samuel Griffith and Justices Sir Edmund Barton and Richard O'Connor were appointed on 5 October of that year. On 6 October, the court held its first sitting in the Banco Court in the Supreme Court of Victoria.
On 12 October 1906, the size of the High Court was increased to five Justices, and Deakin appointed H.B. Higgins and Isaac Isaacs to the High Court. In February, 1913, the High Court was increased again, with the addition of two justices, bringing the total to seven. Charles Powers and Albert Bathurst Piddington were appointed. The outcry against their appointments was so great, however, that Justice Piddington resigned on 5 April 1913 without having taken up his seat.
After the court 's first sitting in the Banco Court in Melbourne, the court continued to use that court until 1928, when a dedicated courtroom was built in Little Bourke Street, next to the Supreme Court of Victoria, which provided the court 's Melbourne sitting place and housed the court 's principal registry until 1980. The court also sat regularly in Sydney, where it originally shared space in the Criminal Courts in the suburb of Darlinghurst, before a dedicated courtroom was constructed next door in 1923.
The court travelled to other cities across the country, where it did not have any facilities of its own but used facilities of the Supreme Court in each city. Deakin had envisaged that the court would sit in many different locations, so as to truly be a federal court. Shortly after the court 's creation, Chief Justice Griffith established a schedule for sittings in state capitals: Hobart, Tasmania in February, Brisbane, Queensland in June, Perth, Western Australia in September and Adelaide, South Australia in October; it is said that Griffith established this schedule because those were the times of year he found the weather most pleasant in each city. The tradition remains to this day, although most of the court 's sittings are now conducted in Canberra.
Sittings were dependent on the caseload and to this day sittings in Hobart occur only once every few years. There are annual sittings in Perth, Adelaide and Brisbane for up to a week each. During the Great Depression, sittings outside of Melbourne and Sydney were suspended to reduce costs.
During World War II, the court faced a period of change. The Chief Justice, Sir John Latham, served from 1940 to 1941 as Australia 's first ambassador to Japan, although his activities in this role were limited by the mutual assistance pact that Japan had entered into with the Axis powers before he could arrive in Tokyo, and were curtailed by the commencement of the Pacific War. Justice Sir Owen Dixon was also absent for several years, while he served as Australia 's minister to the United States in Washington. Sir George Rich was Acting Chief Justice in Latham 's absence. There were many difficult cases concerning the federal government 's use of the defence power during the war.
From 1952, with the appointment of Sir Owen Dixon as Chief Justice, the court entered a period of stability. After World War II, the court 's workload continued to grow, particularly from the 1960s onwards, putting pressures on the court. Sir Garfield Barwick, who was Attorney - General from 1958 to 1964, and from then until 1981 Chief Justice, proposed that more federal courts be established, as permitted under the Constitution. In 1976 the Federal Court of Australia was established, with a general federal jurisdiction, and in more recent years the Family Court and Federal Magistrates Court have been set up to reduce the court 's workload in specific areas.
In 1968, appeals to the Privy Council in matters involving federal legislation were barred by the Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act 1968. In 1975, the Privy Council (Appeals from the High Court) Act 1975 closed all routes of appeal from the High Court. In 1986, with the passing of the Australia Act by both the UK Parliament and the Parliament of Australia (with the request and consent of the Australian States), direct appeals to the Privy Council from state Supreme Courts were also closed off, leaving the High Court as the only avenue of appeal.
The life tenure of High Court Justices was ended in 1977. A national referendum in May 1977 approved the Constitution Alteration (Retirement of Judges) Act (Cth), which upon its commencement on 29 July 1977 amended section 72 of the Constitution so as require that all Justices appointed from then on must retire on attaining the age of 70 years.
The High Court of Australia Act 1979 (Cth), which commenced on 21 April 1980, gave the High Court power to administer its own affairs and prescribed the qualifications for, and method of appointment of, its Justices.
The legal history of the court is commonly summarised by reference to the Chief Justice of the time. While it is a convenient way of breaking the history of the Court into periods, it tends to overstate the importance of the Chief Justice and ignores the influence and tenure of other members of the Court. For example, Isaacs J was the primary force in the Knox Court, while the time of his own appointment as Chief Justice saw the emergence of Dixon J as the new intellectual leader of the Court.
As the first High Court, the court under Chief Justice Sir Samuel Griffith had to establish its position as a new court of appeal for the whole of Australia and had to develop a new body of principle for interpreting the Constitution of Australia and federal legislation. Griffith himself was very much the dominant influence on the court in its early years, but after the appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs and H.B. Higgins in 1906, and the death of foundation Justice Richard O'Connor, Griffith 's influence began to decline.
The court was keen to establish its position at the top of the Australian court hierarchy. In Deakin v Webb (1904) Griffith criticised the Supreme Court of Victoria for following a Privy Council decision about the Constitution of Canada, rather than following the High Court 's own decision on the Australian Constitution.
In Australian constitutional law, the early decisions of the court were influenced by United States constitutional law. In the case of D'Emden v Pedder (1904), which involved the application of Tasmanian stamp duty to a federal official 's salary, the court adopted the doctrine of implied immunity of instrumentalities which had been established in the United States Supreme Court case of McCulloch v. Maryland (1803). That doctrine established that any attempt by the federal government to interfere with the legislative or executive power of the Australian states was invalid, and vice versa. Accompanying that doctrine was the doctrine of reserved State powers, which was based on the principle that the powers of the Australian parliament should be interpreted narrowly, to avoid intruding on areas of power traditionally exercised by the state parliaments. The concept was developed in such cases as Peterswald v Bartley (1904), R v Barger (1908) and the Union Label case (1908).
Together the two doctrines helped smooth the transition to a federal system of government and "by preserving a balance between the constituent elements of the Australian federation, probably conformed to community sentiment, which at that stage was by no means adjusted to the exercise of central power. '' The court had a generally conservative view of the Constitution, taking narrow interpretations of section 116 (which guarantees religious freedom) and section 117 (which prevents discrimination on the basis of someone 's state of origin), interpretations that were to last well into the 1980s.
Two of the original judges of the Court, Griffith and Sir Edmund Barton, were frequently consulted by governors - general, including on the exercise of the reserve powers. This practice of consultation has continued from time to time since.
Adrian Knox became Chief Justice on 18 October 1919 and less than three months later, foundation Justice Sir Edmund Barton died, leaving no original members. The most significant case of the era was the Engineers case (1920), decided at the beginning of Knox 's term. In that case, the doctrines of reserved State powers and implied immunity of instrumentalities were both overturned, and the court entered a new era of constitutional interpretation in which the focus would fall almost exclusively on the text of the Constitution, and in which the powers of the Australian parliament would gain increasing importance.
Knox was knighted in 1921, the only Chief Justice to be knighted during his term. Some of the Knox court 's early work related to the aftermath of World War I. In Roche v Kronheimer (1921), the Court upheld federal legislation which allowed for the making of regulations to implement Australia 's obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. The majority decided the case on the defence power, but Higgins decided it on the external affairs power, the first case to decide that the external affairs power could be used to implement an international treaty in Australia.
Sir Isaac Isaacs was Chief Justice for only forty - two weeks, before leaving the court to be appointed Governor - General of Australia. Isaacs was ill for much of his term as Chief Justice and few significant cases were decided under his formal leadership; rather, his best years were under Knox, where he was the most senior Justice and led the court in many decisions.
Sir Frank Gavan Duffy was Chief Justice for four years beginning in 1931, although he was already 78 when appointed to the position and did not exert much influence, given that (excluding single - Justice cases) he participated in only 40 per cent of cases in that time, and regularly gave short judgments or joint judgments with other Justices. In the context of the Great Depression, the court was reduced to six Justices, resulting in many tied decisions which have no lasting value as precedent.
During this time, the court did decide several important cases, including Attorney - General (New South Wales) v Trethowan (1932), which considered Premier of New South Wales Jack Lang 's attempt to abolish the New South Wales Legislative Council, and the First State Garnishee case (1932), which upheld federal legislation compelling the Lang government to repay its loans. Much of the court 's other work related to legislation passed in response to the Depression.
The court under Chief Justice Sir John Latham, who came to the office in 1935, was punctuated by World War II. Although it dealt with cases in other areas, its most important and lasting work related to wartime legislation, and the transition back to peace following the war.
The court upheld much legislation under the defence power, interpreting it broadly wherever there was a connection to defence purposes, in cases such as Andrews v Howell (1941) and de Mestre v Chisholm (1944). In general, the Curtin Labor government was rarely successfully challenged, the court recognising the necessity that the defence power permit the federal government to govern strongly. The court also allowed the federal government to institute a national income tax scheme in the First Uniform Tax case (1942), and upheld legislation allowing the proclamation of the pacifist Jehovah 's Witnesses religion as a subversive organisation, in the Jehovah 's Witnesses case (1943).
The court reined in the wide scope of the defence power after the war, allowing for a transitional period. It struck down several key planks of the Chifley Labor government 's reconstruction program, notably an attempt to nationalise the banks in the Bank Nationalisation case (1948), and an attempt to establish a comprehensive medical benefits scheme in the First Pharmaceutical Benefits case (1945). However the court also famously struck down Menzies Liberal government legislation banning the Communist Party of Australia in the Communist Party case (1951), Latham 's last major case.
Apart from the wartime cases, the Latham court also developed the criminal defence of honest and reasonable mistake of fact, for example in Proudman v Dayman (1941). It also paved the way for the development of the external affairs power by upholding the implementation of an air navigation treaty in R v Burgess; Ex parte Henry (1936).
Under Chief Justice Sir Owen Dixon, who was elevated to that role in 1952 after 23 years as a Justice, the court enjoyed its most successful period, with British judge, Master of the Rolls Lord Denning, describing the time as the court 's "Golden Age ''. Dixon, widely regarded as Australia 's greatest judge, had a commanding personal and legal influence over the court in this time, measurable in the rise in joint judgments (many of which were led by Dixon) and good relations between the Justices.
While there were fewer cases which tested the limits of federal power, probably due to the Menzies government which was firmly entrenched in its conservative phase throughout Dixon 's tenure, the court did decide several important constitutional cases. Dixon led the court in firmly establishing the separation of powers for the judiciary in the Boilermakers ' case (1956), and the court also upheld the continuing existence of the federal government 's income tax scheme in the Second Uniform Tax case (1957).
During Dixon 's time as Chief Justice, the court came to adopt several of the views that Dixon had advanced in minority opinions in years prior. In several cases, the court upheld Dixon 's interpretation of section 92 (one of the most troublesome sections of the Constitution), which he regarded as guaranteeing a constitutional right to engage in interstate trade, subject to reasonable regulation. It also followed Dixon 's interpretation of section 90 (which prohibits the states from exacting duties of excise), although both these interpretations were ultimately abandoned many years later.
Sir Garfield Barwick came to the court as Chief Justice in 1964. A significant decision of the Barwick court marked the beginning of the modern interpretation of the corporations power, which had been interpreted narrowly since 1909. The Concrete Pipes case (1971) established that the federal parliament could exercise the power to regulate at least the trading activities of corporations, whereas earlier interpretations had allowed only the regulation of conduct or transactions with the public.
The court decided many other significant constitutional cases, including the Seas and Submerged Lands case (1975), upholding legislation asserting sovereignty over the territorial sea; the First (1975) and Second (1977) Territory Senators ' cases, which concerned whether legislation allowing for the mainland territories to be represented in the Parliament of Australia was valid; and Russell v Russell (1976), which concerned the validity of the Family Law Act 1975. The court also decided several cases relating to the historic 1974 joint sitting of the Parliament of Australia, including Cormack v Cope (1974) and the Petroleum and Minerals Authority case (1975).
The Barwick court decided several infamous cases on tax avoidance and tax evasion, almost always deciding against the taxation office. Led by Barwick himself in most judgments, the court distinguished between avoidance (legitimately minimising one 's tax obligations) and evasion (illegally evading obligations). The decisions effectively nullified the anti-avoidance legislation and led to the proliferation of avoidance schemes in the 1970s, a result which drew much criticism upon the court.
Sir Harry Gibbs was appointed as Chief Justice in 1981. Under his leadership, the court moved away from the legalism and conservative traditions which had characterised the Dixon and Barwick courts.
The Gibbs court made several important decisions in Australian constitutional law. It allowed the Federal Parliament to make very wide use of the external affairs power, by holding that this power could be used to implement treaties into domestic law with very few justiciable limits. In Koowarta v Bjelke - Petersen (1982) four judges to three upheld the validity of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, although no single view had majority support. However, in the Tasmanian Dams case (1983), a majority of the court upheld federal environmental legislation under the power.
The court also adopted a more expansive interpretation of the corporations power. In the Actors Equity case (1982), the court upheld regulations which, although they did not directly regulate corporations, indirectly protected corporations. In the Tasmanian Dams case, the court indicated that it would interpret the power to uphold legislation regulating the non-trading activities of corporations, although it did not decide the case on that basis. The external affairs power and the corporations power have both been increasingly relied on by the federal government to extend its authority in recent years.
In administrative law, the court expanded on the doctrines of natural justice and procedural fairness in Kioa v West (1985). Although Gibbs himself dissented on those points, he did decide that executive decision makers were obliged to take humanitarian principles into consideration. Outside of specific areas of law, the court was also involved in several cases of public significance, including the Chamberlain case (1984), concerning Lindy Chamberlain, and A v Hayden (1984), concerning the botched ASIS exercise at the Sheraton Hotel in Melbourne.
Sir Anthony Mason became Chief Justice in 1987. The Mason court was very stable, with only one change in the bench in its eight years, the appointment of Michael McHugh after Sir Ronald Wilson 's retirement. The court under Mason was widely regarded as the most liberal bench in the court 's history.
The Mason court made many important decisions in all areas of Australian law. One of its first major cases was Cole v Whitfield (1988), concerning the troublesome section 92, which had been interpreted inconsistently and confusingly since the beginning of the court. For the first time, the court referred to historical materials such as the debates of the Constitutional Conventions to ascertain the purpose of the section, and the unanimous decision indicated "a willingness to overturn established doctrines and precedents perceived to be no longer working '', a trend which typified the Mason court.
The most popularly significant case decided by the Mason court was the Mabo case (1992), in which the court found that the common law was capable of recognising native title. The decision was one of the High Court 's most controversial of all time and represented the tendency of the Mason court to receive "high praise and stringent criticism in equal measure. '' Other controversial cases included the War Crimes Act case (1991), regarding the validity of the War Crimes Act 1945; Dietrich v The Queen (1992), in which the court found that a lack of legal representation in a serious criminal case can result in an unfair trial; Sykes v Cleary (1992), regarding the disputed election of Phil Cleary; and Teoh 's case (1995), in which the court held that ratification of a treaty by the executive could create a legitimate expectation that members of the executive would act in accordance with that treaty.
The court developed the concept of implied human rights in the Constitution in cases such as Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992), Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills (1992) and Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd (1994), in which the court recognised an implied freedom of political communication arising from the nature of the Constitution in laying out a system of representative government.
In other areas of law, the court developed doctrines of equity in relation to commercial law and contract law, in cases such as Waltons Stores v Maher (1988) and Trident General Insurance v McNiece (1988), and made significant developments in tort law, in cases such as Rogers v Whitaker (1992) and Burnie Port Authority v General Jones Pty Ltd (1994).
Sir Gerald Brennan succeeded Mason in 1995. In contrast to the previous court, the Brennan court had many changes in its membership despite being only three years long. The court decided many significant cases.
In Ha v New South Wales (1997) the court invalidated a New South Wales tobacco licensing scheme, reining in the licensing scheme exception to the prohibition on states levying excise duties, contained in Section 90 of the Constitution. While it did not overturn previous cases in which schemes had been upheld, it did emphasise that the states could not stray too far from the constitutional framework.
The Brennan court made a number of significant decisions in relation to the judiciary of Australia. In Grollo v Palmer (1995) and Hindmarsh Island Bridge case (1998), the court developed the persona designata doctrine, and in Kable v DPP (1997), the court rejected attempts by the Parliament of New South Wales to establish a system of preventative detention and found that the states do not have unlimited ability to regulate their courts, given the place of the courts in the Australian court hierarchy.
The court decided several cases relating to the implied freedom of political communication developed by the Mason court, notably Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) and the Duck shooting case (1997). It also decided several native title cases, including the controversial Wik case (1996).
Murray Gleeson was appointed Chief Justice in 1998. The court under Gleeson 's leadership was generally regarded as more conservative than under Mason or Brennan, favouring legalism in the tradition of the Dixon and Barwick courts. In the Cross-vesting case (1999), the court struck down legislation vesting state jurisdiction in the Federal Court. In Al - Kateb v Godwin (2004) a majority of the court applied a narrow interpretation of the Migration Act 1958, finding that it permitted executively - imposed indefinite detention of stateless persons. However, the court did not entirely shy away from principle and public policy in its decisions.
In Egan v Willis (1998), the court supported the New South Wales Legislative Council 's ability to suspend the Treasurer when he failed to produce documents before the Council, emphasising the purpose of the ability in facilitating responsible government. In Sue v Hill (1999), the court recognised Australia 's emergence as a sovereign independent nation, finding that the United Kingdom was a "foreign power ''.
The Gleeson court decided a number of important native title cases, including Yanner v Eaton (1999), Western Australia v Ward (2002) and the Yorta Yorta case (2002). In tort law, the court 's significant decisions include Perre v Apand Pty Ltd (1999), concerning negligence actions where there is only pure economic loss as opposed to physical or mental injury, Dow Jones v Gutnick (2002), regarding defamation on the Internet, and Cattanach v Melchior (2003), a wrongful life case involving a healthy child. In criminal law, the court in R v Tang (2008) upheld slavery convictions against the owner of a brothel who had held several women in debt bondage after they had been trafficked to Australia.
Perhaps the Gleeson court 's most significant case was among its later ones. In the WorkChoices case (2006), the court finally explicitly accepted a wide reading of the corporations power, after years of gradual expansion following the Concrete Pipes case (1971).
Robert French was appointed Chief Justice in September 2008. The first decision handed down by the French Court was Lujans v Yarrabee Coal Company Pty Ltd (2008), a case dealing with a motor vehicle accident. One of the most notable judgments handed down by the French Court was Pape v Commissioner of Taxation (2009), a constitutional law case concerning the existence of the Commonwealth 's so - called "appropriation power '' and the scope of its executive and taxation powers.
Susan Kiefel was appointed Chief Justice in January 2017. The Kiefel court has decided two important constitutional cases: in Brown v Tasmania, its members adopted a conflicting variety of approaches to the implied freedom of political communication; while in Re Canavan, which attracted huge public interest, the court 's unanimous decision adhered to an interpretation of section 44 of the Constitution according to its "ordinary and natural meaning ''. In Wilkie v Commonwealth the Court held that expenditure for the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey had been approved by Parliament and was the collection of "statistical information '' that could be conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
The High Court of Australia is composed of seven Justices: the Chief Justice of Australia and six other Justices. Their salary is determined by the Remuneration Tribunal, an independent statutory authority. Since 1 July 2017, the Chief Justice has received an annual salary of $584,520 and the other Justices have received $530,440.
Appointments are officially made by the Governor - General in Council. In practice, appointees are nominated by the Prime Minister, on advice from the Cabinet, particularly from the Attorney - General of Australia. For example, four Justices were appointed while Andrew Fisher was Prime Minister, but it was largely on Attorney - General Billy Hughes ' authority that the candidates were chosen. Since 1979, the Attorney - General has been required to consult with the Attorneys - General of the states and territories of Australia about appointments to the court. The process was first used in relation to the appointment of Justice Wilson, and has been generally successful, despite the occasional criticism that the states merely have a consultative, rather than a determinative, role in the selection process.
There are no qualifications for Justices in the Constitution (other than that they must be under the compulsory retirement age of 70). The High Court of Australia Act 1979 requires that appointees have been a judge of a federal, state or territory court, or that they have been enrolled as a legal practitioner for at least five years with either the High Court itself or with a state or territory Supreme Court. There are no other formal requirements.
The appointment process stands in stark contrast with the highly public selection and confirmation process for justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. While there are people who are critical of the secrecy of the process and who advocate a more public method for appointments, there are relatively few who dispute the quality of appointees. Three Chief Justices (Sir Adrian Knox, Sir John Latham and Sir Garfield Barwick) had previously been conservative politicians prior to their appointment. However, there is frequent criticism of Barwick 's intervention in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, when he gave advice to Governor - General Sir John Kerr. On the other side of politics, Labor politicians Dr H.V. Evatt QC, Sir Edward McTiernan and Lionel Murphy QC were also appointed to the High Court; Murphy, Attorney - General in the Whitlam government, was criticised by the conservative side at the time of his appointment but after a decade in office had risen, on occasion, to the heights of Acting Chief Justice. His reputation was gravely damaged in 1985 after illegal police phone - tapping led to charges that he had attempted to pervert the course of justice. He was eventually acquitted of all charges.
The first three justices of the High Court were Chief Justice, Sir Samuel Griffith, Justice Sir Edmund Barton, and Justice Richard Edward O'Connor. There were a number of possible candidates for the first bench of the High Court. In addition to the eventual appointees, names which had been mentioned in the press included two future Justices of the court, Henry Higgins and Isaac Isaacs, along with Andrew Inglis Clark, Sir John Downer, Sir Josiah Symon and George Wise. (Crucially, all of the above had previously served as politicians, with only Griffith and Inglis Clark possessing both political and judicial experience.) Barton and O'Connor were both members of the federal parliament and both from the government benches; indeed Barton was Prime Minister. Each of the eventual appointees had participated in the drafting of the Constitution and had intimate knowledge of it. All three were described as conservative and their jurisprudence was very much influenced by English law, and in relation to the Constitution, by United States law.
In 1906, at the request of the Justices, two more seats were added to the bench, with Isaacs and Higgins the appointees. After O'Connor's death in 1912, an amendment to the Judiciary Act 1903 expanded the bench to seven. For most of 1930 two seats were left vacant due to monetary constraints placed on the court by the Depression. The economic downturn had also led to a reduction in litigation and consequently less work for the court. After Sir Isaac Isaacs retired in 1931, his seat was left empty, and in 1933 an amendment to the Judiciary Act officially reduced the number of seats to six. However, this led to some decisions being split three - all. With the appointment of William Webb in 1946, the number of seats returned to seven, and since then the court has had a full complement of seven Justices. As of 2015 there have been 52 Justices, twelve of whom have been Chief Justice.
Current Justices Susan Kiefel, Virginia Bell and Michelle Gordon are the third, fourth and fifth women to sit on the bench, after Justices Mary Gaudron and Susan Crennan. There are three women sitting concurrently on the bench, alongside four men. In 2017, Justice Kiefel became the first woman to be appointed Chief Justice.
More than half of the Justices, twenty - six, have been residents of New South Wales (with twenty - four of these graduates of Sydney Law School). Thirteen have been from Victoria, eight from Queensland and four from Western Australia. No Justices have been residents of South Australia, Tasmania or any of the territories. The majority of the Justices have been from Protestant backgrounds, with a smaller number from Catholic backgrounds. Sir Isaac Isaacs was of Polish / Jewish background, the only representative of any other faith. Many Justices have not indicated whether they have religious views.
Michael Kirby was the first openly gay justice in the history of the Court; his replacement, Virginia Bell, is the first lesbian, who has been an active campaigner for gay and lesbian rights and was one of the participants in the first Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras in 1978.
Almost all judges on the High Court have taken silk as a Queen 's Counsel (QC), King 's Counsel (KC) or Senior Counsel (SC) before appointment. The exceptions are: Justice Sir Hayden Starke, Justices Sir Edward McTiernan, Sir William Webb, Sir Cyril Walsh, Michael Kirby, Robert French and James Edelman.
From the retirement of Ian Callinan in 2007 until the appointment of Stephen Gageler in 2012, every justice of the High Court had prior judicial experience (serving on state supreme courts or the Federal Court of Australia) for the only time in its history. Although 13 justices of the Court had previously served in state, colonial or federal Parliaments, no parliamentarian has been appointed to the Court since Lionel Murphy 's appointment in 1975.
The Chief Justice and each of the Justices engage associates to assist them in the exercise of their judicial functions. At present, all members of the High Court engage two associates for one - year terms. In addition, the Chief Justice is assisted by an employee of the library as a legal research officer. The role of the associate is broadly equivalent to that of a law clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States. Depending on the judge, an associate 's responsibilities will typically include legal research, assistance in preparation for oral arguments, tipping in court during oral argument, editing judgments and assisting with extrajudicial functions, such as speechwriting. Associates generally will have graduated with first class honours, at or near the top of their class, from a leading law school. Associates will typically also have research experience (and often experience working for a law firm or university or another court). Accordingly, competition for associate positions is very high with hundreds of applications being received annually.
Sir Keith Aickin, Justice Stephen Gageler and Justice James Edelman all served as associates at the High Court of Australia to Sir Owen Dixon, Sir Anthony Mason and Justice Toohey, respectively.
In the 1950s, Prime Minister Robert Menzies established a plan to develop Canberra and construct other important national buildings. A 1959 plan featured a new building for the High Court on the shore of Lake Burley Griffin, next to the location for the new Parliament House and the National Library of Australia. This plan was abandoned in 1968 and the location of the Parliament was moved, later settling on the present site on Capital Hill.
In March 1968, the government announced that the court would move to Canberra. In 1972 an international competition was held attracting 158 entries. In 1973 the firm of Edwards Madigan Torzillo Briggs was declared the winner of the two - stage competition. Architect Chris Kringas was the Principal Designer and Director in charge working with Feiko Bouman. In March 1975, only one month before construction began, Kringas died, aged 38. Following his death, Feiko Bouman, Hans Marelli and Colin Madigan supervised the construction of the design. The constructed building is largely identical to the 1973 competition design.
Construction began in April 1975 on the shore of Lake Burley Griffin, in the Parliamentary Triangle. The site is just to the east of the axis running between Capital Hill and the Australian War Memorial. The High Court building houses three courtrooms, Justices ' chambers, and the Court 's main registry, library, and corporate services facilities. It is an unusual and distinctive structure, built in the brutalist style, and features an immense public atrium with a 24 - metre - high roof. The neighbouring National Gallery was also designed by the firm of Edwards Madigan Torzillo and Briggs. There are similarities between the two buildings in material and style but significant differences in architectural form and spatial concept. The building was completed in 1980 and the majority of the court 's sittings have been held in Canberra since then.
The High Court and the National Gallery Precinct were added to the Australian National Heritage List in November 2007.
The High Court makes itself generally available to the public through its own website. Judgment Alerts, available on the Court 's website and by email with free subscription, provide subscribers with notice of upcoming judgments (normally a week beforehand) and, almost immediately after the delivery of a major judgment, with a brief summary of it (normally not more than one page). All of the Court 's judgments, as well as transcripts of its hearings since 2009 and other materials, are made available, free of charge, through the Australasian Legal Information Institute. The Court has recently established on its website an "eresources '' page, containing for each case its name, keywords, mentions of relevant legislation and a link to the full judgment; these links go to the original text from 2000 onward, scanned texts from 1948 to 1999 and facsimiles from the Commonwealth Law Reports for their first 100 volumes (1903 to 1959); there are also facsimiles of some unreported judgments (1906 - 2002). Since October 2013, audio - visual recordings of full - court hearings held in Canberra have been available on its website.
Coordinates: 35 ° 17 ′ 56 '' S 149 ° 08 ′ 08 '' E / 35.29889 ° S 149.13556 ° E / - 35.29889; 149.13556
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what happened in the wave hill walk off | Wave Hill walk - off - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 17 ° 23 ′ 13 '' S 131 ° 06 ′ 59 '' E / 17.38698 ° S 131.11641 ° E / - 17.38698; 131.11641 Wave Hill walk - off or The Gurindji strike was a walk - off and strike by 200 Gurindji stockmen, house servants and their families in August 1966 at Wave Hill cattle station in Kalkarindji (formerly known as Wave Hill), Northern Territory, Australia.
The Gurindji people 's traditional lands are approximately 3,250 km2 of the Northern Territory. Gurindji first encountered Europeans in the 1850s, when explorer Augustus Gregory crossed into their territory. Several other explorers traversed the area over the following decades until the early 1880s, when large pastoral operations were established.
Wave Hill cattle station, which included the Kalkaringi and Daguragu area, was first stocked in 1883.
Gurindji -- along with all Aboriginal groups in this predicament -- found their waterholes and soakages fenced off or fouled by cattle, which also ate or trampled fragile desert plant life, such as bush tomato. Dingo hunters regularly shot the people 's invaluable hunting dogs, and kangaroo, a staple meat, was also routinely shot since it competed with cattle for water and grazing land. Gurindji suffered lethal "reprisals '' for any attempt to eat the cattle -- anything from a skirmish to a massacre. The last recorded massacre in the area occurred at Coniston in 1928. There was little choice to stay alive but to move onto the cattle stations, receive rations, adopt a more sedentary life and, where possible, take work as stockmen and domestic help. If they could n't continue their traditional way of life, then at least to be on their own land -- the foundation for their religion and spiritual beliefs -- seemed crucial.
In 1914, Wave Hill Station was bought by Vesteys, a British pastoral company comprising a large conglomerate of cattle companies owned by Baron Vestey. Pastoralists were able to make use of the now landless Aboriginal people as extremely cheap labour. On stations across the north, Aboriginal people became the backbone of the cattle industry, working for little or no money, minimal food and appalling housing.
There had been complaints from Indigenous employees about conditions over many years. A Northern Territory government inquiry held in the 1930s said of Vesteys:
However, little was done over the decades leading up to the strike. While it was illegal up until 1968 to pay Aboriginal workers more than a specified amount in goods and money, a 1945 inquiry found Vesteys was not even paying Aboriginal workers the 5 shillings a day minimum wage set up for Aborigines under a 1918 Ordinance. Non-Indigenous males were receiving £ 2 / 8 / - a week in 1945. Gurindji lived in corrugated iron humpies without floors, lighting, sanitation, furniture or cooking facilities. Billy Bunter Jampijinpa, who lived on Wave Hill Station at the time said
Gurindji who received minimal government benefits had these paid into pastoral company accounts over which they had no control. In contrast, non-Aboriginal workers enjoyed minimum wage security with no legal limit on the maximum they could be paid. They were housed in comfortable homes with gardens and had full control over their finances.
On 23 August 1966, led by spokesman Vincent Lingiari, the workers and families walked off Wave Hill and began their ten - year strike. Lingiari led Gurindji, as well as Ngarinman, Bilinara, Warlpiri and Mudbara workers to an important sacred site nearby at Wattie Creek (Daguragu). Initially, the action was interpreted as purely a strike against work and living conditions. However, it soon became apparent that it was not just -- or even primarily -- improved conditions Gurindji were campaigning for. Their primary demand was for return of their land. Novelist Frank Hardy was one of the many non-Indigenous Australians who supported the Gurindji struggle through the strike years as was Darwin based trade unionist Brian Manning.
"This bin (been) Gurindji country long time before them Vestey mob, '' Vincent Lingiari told Hardy at the time.
While Hardy records Pincher Manguari as saying:
The Gurindji strike was not the first or the only demand by Aborigines for the return of their lands -- but it was the first one to attract wide public support within Australia for Land Rights.
In 1968, 60 Aboriginal workers at another Vestey 's property, Limbunya, also joined the strike when they walked off the job.
The Gurindji established a settlement near by at Wattie Creek, which Gurindji have always called Daguragu. These were hard years, but they held strong to their belief in their right to the land.
While living at Daguragu, Gurindji drew up maps showing areas they wanted excised from pastoralist land and returned to them. In 1967, Gurindji petitioned the Governor - General, claiming 1,295 km2 of land near Wave Hill. Their claim was rejected. While Dagaragu would eventually become the first cattle station to be owned and managed by an Aboriginal community, today known as the Murramulla Gurindji Company, it would be many years before the Gurindji achieved this.
In this period, Vincent Lingiari, Billy Bunter Jampijinpa and others toured Australia, with the support of workers ' unions, to give talks, raise awareness, build support for their cause and have meetings with major lawyers and politicians. Frank Hardy recalled one fundraising meeting at which a donor gave $500 after hearing Vincent Lingiari speak. The donor -- who said he had never before met an Aboriginal person -- was a young Dr Fred Hollows, the eye surgeon and Communist activist.
Billy Bunter Jampijinpa was 16 at the time of the walk - off:
In late 1966 the Northern Territory government offered a compromise pay rise of 125 per cent, but the strikers still demanded wages equal to those of white stockmen and return of their land. The Government also made moves to cut off means of Gurindji obtaining food supplies and threatened evictions. Offers of houses, which the Government had built for them at Wave Hill Welfare settlement, were resisted. The Gurindji persisted with their protest and stayed at Daguragu.
In 1969 the Liberal - National Country Coalition government was given a proposal to give eight square kilometres back to the Gurindji. Cabinet refused even to discuss the issue.
However, the tide of public opinion was beginning to turn in Australia. There were demonstrations and arrests in southern Australia in support of the walk - off, and many church, student and trade union groups gave practical and fundraising support to the Gurindji struggle. Several significant events marked the change in opinion in Australia.
An overwhelming majority of Australians -- over 90 per cent of voters and a majority in all six states -- voted "Yes '' to giving the Federal Government power to make laws for Indigenous Australians.
In 1972 the Australian Labor Party (ALP) came to power. Aboriginal land rights was an issue high on its agenda, and it was quick to set up an Inquiry, and subsequently draft legislation, to this end. The Labor Government called a halt to development leases granted by the Northern Territory Land Board that might damage Indigenous rights, suspended mining exploration licences, and gave a small grant of land at Daguragu / Wattie Creek, as an initial step towards the final land handback.
The Whitlam government established the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Land Rights in the Northern Territory, headed by Justice Woodward. The Inquiry 's task was to examine the legal establishment of land rights. The Commission recommended government financial support for the creation of reserves and incorporated land trusts, administered by traditional owners or land councils.
Meanwhile, the Yolngu of northeast Arnhem Land were taking their grievances to the courts, in the case of Milirrpum v Nabalco, after unsuccessfully petitioning the Commonwealth government with a bark petition. The judge 's decision in Gove had relied on the doctrine of terra nullius to deny the Yolngu rights to their land and ensure the security of a bauxite mine by Nabalco. Coupled with the ongoing Gurindji strike, this case highlighted the very real need for Aboriginal land rights in Australia.
As a result of the recommendations of the Woodward Inquiry, the Whitlam government drafted the Aboriginal Land Rights Bill. The legislation was not passed by parliament prior to the Whitlam government 's dismissal in 1975. The subsequent Fraser government passed effectively similar legislation -- the Aboriginal Land Rights Act -- on 9 December 1976.
In 1975, the Labor government of Gough Whitlam finally negotiated with Vesteys to give the Gurindji back a portion of their land. This was a landmark in the land rights movement in Australia for Indigenous Australians. The handback took place on 16 August 1975 at Kalkaringi. Gough Whitlam addressed Vincent Lingiari and the Gurindji people, saying:
Mervyn Bishop 's photograph of Whitlam pouring sand into Lingiari 's hand on that day, has become an iconic one in Australian history.
Vincent Lingiari confronted the vast economic and political forces arrayed against him and his people. The walk - off and strike were landmark events in the struggle for Aboriginal land rights in Australia. For the first time recognition was given of Indigenous people, their rights and responsibilities for the land, and their ability to practise their law, language and culture. In August every year, a large celebration is held at Kalkaringi to mark the anniversary of the strike and walk - off. Known as Freedom Day, people gather from many parts of Australia to celebrate and re-enact the walk - off.
In 2006 an Australian Senate report looked into the matter of underpayment of indigenous workers in the past. A group of those involved in the Wave Hill walk - off have said that they would be prepared to make a reparation claim for underpaid and stolen wages as a test case.
The walk - off route has been entered on the Australian National Heritage List.
Ted Egan wrote the "Gurindji Blues '' in the 1960s with Vincent Lingiari. The words to the first verse are:
In 1971 the song was recorded by Galarrwuy Yunupingu, a Yolngu man actively involved in land rights for his own people through the bark petition and Gove land rights case. Ted Egan says he was moved to write "Gurindji Blues '' after he heard Peter Nixon, then Minister for the Interior, say in parliament that if the Gurindji wanted land, they should save up and buy it, like any other Australian. In 1991, Paul Kelly and Kev Carmody recorded "From Little Things Big Things Grow ''. The words to the first verse are:
The words to the last verse are:
Irish folk musician Damien Dempsey 's song "Wave Hill Walk Off '' commemorates the Gurindji strike and the struggle for Aboriginal land rights.
The words to the first verse are:
"In the year of Lord Jesus nineteen and sixty six,
A great rumbling sound came from up in the sticks,
All these gentle black warriors they dreamed of a Bill,
And enough was enough, so they walked off Wave Hill. ''
The words to the last verse are:
"For nine hungry years they kept up their bold stand,
And took off with and poured land into Vincent 's hand
For indigenous land rights it was finally time,
For to make reparations for a giant of a crime. ''
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who won the world series for the cubs | 2016 World Series - wikipedia
The 2016 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball 's (MLB) 2016 season. The 112th edition of the World Series, it was a best - of - seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Chicago Cubs and the American League (AL) champion Cleveland Indians, the first meeting of those franchises in postseason history. The series was played between October 25 and November 3. The Indians had home - field advantage because the AL had won the 2016 All - Star Game. It was also the last World Series to have home - field advantage determined by the All - Star Game results; since 2017, home - field advantage has been awarded to the team with the better record.
The Cubs defeated the Indians when they won 4 games to 3 to win their first World Series since 1908. Game 7, an 8 -- 7 victory in extra innings, marked the fifth time that a Game 7 had gone past nine innings and the first since 1997 (which, coincidentally, also featured the Indians). It was also the first to have a rain delay which occurred as the tenth inning was about to start. The Cubs became the sixth team to come back from a 3 - 1 deficit to win a best - of - seven World Series, following the 1925 Pittsburgh Pirates, the 1958 New York Yankees, the 1968 Detroit Tigers, the 1979 Pittsburgh Pirates, and the 1985 Kansas City Royals.
The Cubs, playing in their eleventh World Series and their first since 1945, won their third championship and first since 1908, ending the longest world championship drought in North American professional sports history. It was the Indians ' sixth appearance in the World Series and their first since 1997, with their last Series win having come in 1948. The two teams entered their matchup as the two franchises with the longest World Series title droughts, a combined 176 years without a championship. Cleveland manager Terry Francona, who had previously won World Series titles with the Boston Red Sox in 2004 and 2007, fell short in his bid to become the third manager, and the first non-Yankees manager, to win his first three trips to the Fall Classic, after Casey Stengel and Joe Torre.
The Cubs made their eleventh appearance in the World Series; their only previous two championships were in 1907 and 1908, both against the Detroit Tigers. They lost their eight other appearances, in 1906 against the Chicago White Sox, in 1910 against the Philadelphia Athletics, in 1918 against the Boston Red Sox, in 1929 against the Athletics, in 1932 against the New York Yankees, in 1935 against the Tigers, in 1938 against the Yankees, and in 1945 against the Tigers.
The Cubs qualified for the postseason by winning the National League Central, ending the regular season with the best record in the major leagues (103 -- 58) for the first time since 1945; they also posted their highest winning percentage since 1935, and won their most games since 1910. The division title was their sixth since division play began in 1969, and their first since 2008. They defeated the San Francisco Giants in four games of the NL Division Series before clinching their first NL pennant since 1945 with a sixth - game victory over the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NL Championship Series.
For Cubs manager Joe Maddon, it was his second appearance in the World Series as manager -- in 2008, he managed the Tampa Bay Rays when they beat the Boston Red Sox in seven games to win the AL pennant, then were defeated in five games by the Philadelphia Phillies in the World Series. It was also Maddon 's third World Series appearance overall -- in 2002, he was bench coach with the Anaheim Angels when they won the World Series in seven games.
The Indians made their sixth appearance in the World Series. They won their first two championships in 1920 against the Brooklyn Robins and in 1948 against the Boston Braves. They lost their three most recent appearances in the Fall Classic, losing to the New York Giants in 1954, the Atlanta Braves in 1995, and the Florida Marlins in 1997.
The Indians qualified for the postseason by winning the American League Central, their eighth division title and their first since 2007. They defeated the Boston Red Sox in three games of the AL Division Series before clinching the pennant with a five - game victory over the Toronto Blue Jays in the AL Championship Series.
For Indians manager Terry Francona, it was his third appearance in the World Series, which he entered carrying an unbeaten 8 -- 0 record from past games in the Fall Classic. Francona has won two World Series championships, in 2004 and 2007, both with the Red Sox.
This was the third postseason meeting between Francona and Maddon. They met in the 2008 ALCS and the 2013 AL Wild Card Game with Maddon 's teams winning both times.
Chicago won the series, 4 -- 3.
Former Indians and Cubs player Kenny Lofton threw the ceremonial first pitch before Game 1. Corey Kluber started for the Indians, and Jon Lester started for the Cubs. Kyle Schwarber, who had missed nearly all of the 2016 season after tearing ligaments in his leg in the season 's fourth game, was added to the Cubs ' World Series roster and started as their designated hitter. Schwarber struck out twice, but also doubled and drew a walk. The double made Schwarber the first non-pitcher to get his first hit of the season in the World Series.
Kluber made World Series history by striking out eight hitters in the first three innings. Roberto Pérez became the first ever ninth - place hitter with two homers in a World Series game, the first Indians player to hit two homers in a Series game, and the first Puerto Rican - born player to hit two homers in a World Series game. In the first, the Indians loaded the bases off Lester on a single and two walks before José Ramirez 's single drove in a run, then Lester hit Brandon Guyer with a pitch to force in another. Perez 's home run in the fourth made it 3 − 0 Indians. In the eighth, Justin Grimm walked Guyer with two outs and allowed a single to Lonnie Chisenhall, then Hector Rondon allowed Perez 's second home run of the night. Andrew Miller and Cody Allen finished the victory for the Indians despite Miller having to pitch out of a bases - loaded jam in the seventh, and the Indians took Game 1 of the series 6 -- 0. Francona 's World Series winning streak reached nine with this victory.
Leading off the first inning, Dexter Fowler became the first African - American to play for the Cubs in a World Series.
Former Indians player Carlos Baerga threw the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2. The start time for the game was moved up an hour, because of the possibility of heavy rain in the forecast. Looking to tie the series at one game apiece, the Cubs sent Jake Arrieta to the mound against the Indians ' Trevor Bauer. The Cubs also featured six players under age 25 in the starting lineup, a postseason record. The Cubs started things off early as Kris Bryant singled in the first inning and Anthony Rizzo doubled to score Bryant and give the Cubs an early 1 -- 0 lead. Arrieta started well too, retiring the first two batters before walking back - to - back batters in the bottom of the first. However, Arrieta got a flyout to end the inning. The Cubs struck again in the third following a two - out walk by Rizzo and a single by Ben Zobrist. A single by Kyle Schwarber scored Rizzo from second and pushed the Cubs ' lead to 2 -- 0. Bauer was forced from the game in the fourth, and the Cubs struck again in the fifth. Rizzo walked again off Zach McAllister, and Zobrist tripled to plate Rizzo. Another run - scoring single by Schwarber off Bryan Shaw and a bases - loaded walk by Addison Russell pushed the lead to 5 -- 0.
Arrieta continued to pitch well, walking three batters but holding the Indians without a hit into the sixth inning. In the sixth, a double by Jason Kipnis ended the no - hitter, moved to third on a groundout and scored the lone Indians run of the game on a wild pitch by Arrieta. Arrieta allowed another single and was lifted for reliever Mike Montgomery. Both teams threatened in the seventh but could not score and, following a single by Mike Napoli in the bottom of the eighth, Aroldis Chapman entered to finish the game for the Cubs. The win marked the Cubs ' first World Series game victory since 1945 and tied up the series at one game all. The game marked Indians manager Terry Francona 's first loss in ten World Series games.
For Game 3, former Cubs player Billy Williams threw the ceremonial first pitch before the start of the game, and Bill Murray sang "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' during the seventh - inning stretch, to mark the Cubs ' first World Series night game at home. Chicago pitcher Kyle Hendricks started against Cleveland pitcher Josh Tomlin.
The game 's only run came off a Coco Crisp single that scored Michael Martínez from third in the seventh inning. Josh Tomlin, Andrew Miller, Bryan Shaw, and Cody Allen combined to shut out the Cubs. Allen earned his sixth postseason save as Javier Báez struck out swinging to end the game, leaving the tying and winning runs in scoring position. It was the fourth time in which the Cubs had lost in a shutout during the 2016 postseason.
For Game 4, former Cubs pitchers Greg Maddux and Ferguson Jenkins threw the ceremonial first pitches before the start of the game, and actor Vince Vaughn sang "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' during the seventh - inning stretch.
The Cubs struck first when Dexter Fowler doubled to lead off the first and scored on Anthony Rizzo 's one - out single, but Kluber held them to that one run through six innings before Francona turned it over to the bullpen. In the second, Carlos Santana 's leadoff home run off Lackey tied the game; then, with two on, Kluber 's RBI single put the Indians up 2 − 1. Kris Bryant committed two errors in that inning. Next inning, Jason Kipnis hit a leadoff double and scored on Francisco Lindor 's single. In the sixth, Lonnie Chisenhall 's sacrifice fly with two on off Mike Montgomery made it 4 -- 1 Indians. Next inning, Justin Grimm allowed a leadoff double and one - out hit - by - pitch before being relieved by Travis Wood, who gave up a three - run home run to Kipnis put to the Indians ahead 7 -- 1. The Cubs got one run back in the eighth, on a Dexter Fowler home run off Andrew Miller, which was the first run he gave up in the post-season. With the victory, the Indians were just one win away from a World Series championship.
For Game 5, former Cubs star and Hall of Fame member Ryne Sandberg threw the ceremonial first pitch before the start of the game, and Eddie Vedder sang "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' during the seventh - inning stretch. José Ramírez hit a home run for Cleveland in the second inning off Jon Lester, but the Cubs, facing elimination, scored three runs in the fourth inning off Trevor Bauer. Kris Bryant led off the inning with a home run. After Bryant 's home run, Anthony Rizzo doubled and Ben Zobrist singled. Addison Russell 's RBI single put the Cubs up 2 − 1. After Jason Heyward struck out, Javier Baez 's bunt single moved Zobrist to third before David Ross 's sacrifice fly made it 3 -- 1 Cubs. The Indians cut their deficit to 3 − 2 off Lester in the sixth on Francisco Lindor 's RBI single that scored Rajai Davis from second base. With the tying run on second base in the seventh inning, Maddon brought in Aroldis Chapman, who threw 2 ⁄ scoreless innings, earning his first save of the series and fourth overall in the postseason.
The last living member of Cleveland 's 1948 World Series championship team, Eddie Robinson, attended Game 6 at Progressive Field. Former Indians pitcher Dennis Martínez threw out the ceremonial first pitch before the game.
The Cubs scored three runs in the first inning, all with two outs, on a Kris Bryant home run and a two - run double by Addison Russell after two singles off Josh Tomlin. In the third inning, the Cubs loaded the bases on a walk and two singles off Tomlin, who was relieved by Dan Otero. Following the pitching change, Russell hit a grand slam to extend the Cubs lead to 7 -- 0. Russell 's grand slam was the first in a World Series game since Paul Konerko of the crosstown Chicago White Sox in 2005, as well as the first by a visiting player since Lonnie Smith in 1992. In the bottom of the fourth, Mike Napoli drove in Jason Kipnis, who doubled to lead off, with an RBI single to cut the deficit to 7 -- 1. In the bottom of the fifth, Kipnis drove a ball over the left field wall for a home run to make it a 7 -- 2 game. In the top of the ninth with a runner on and two outs, Anthony Rizzo hit a two - run home run to right to make it 9 -- 2. In the bottom of the inning, Aroldis Chapman allowed a leadoff walk to Brandon Guyer and was relieved by Pedro Strop, who threw a wild pitch to move Guyer to second and Roberto Perez 's RBI single made it 9 − 3 Cubs with Perez thrown out at second for the second out. After Carlos Santana walked, Travis Wood relieved Strop and got Jason Kipnis to pop out to short to end the game and force a Game 7.
Russell 's six RBIs tied a World Series single - game record. Arrieta became the first NL starting pitcher to notch two road wins in a single World Series since Bob Gibson in 1967.
Game 7 of the series would go down as a classic, with some calling it the greatest Game 7 in World Series history, comparing it to 1960, 1991 and 2001 for its drama and tension. Former Indians player Jim Thome threw the ceremonial first pitch before the game. The pitching matchup was between MLB earned run average (ERA) champion Kyle Hendricks, who had started Game 3 for the Cubs, and Corey Kluber, who had won games 1 and 4 and was pitching on three days ' rest. Kluber came into the game 4 -- 1 in the postseason with a 0.89 ERA.
Dexter Fowler led off the game with a home run for Chicago off Kluber, becoming the first player ever to hit a lead - off home run in a World Series Game 7. The Indians tied the game in the bottom of the third inning with an RBI single by Carlos Santana, but the Cubs scored two runs in the fourth inning with a sacrifice fly by Addison Russell (Kris Bryant running aggressively to tag up from third on the short fly ball and slide under the tag at home) and a double by Willson Contreras. To start the fifth inning, Javier Báez hit a home run to center making it 4 - 1 on the first pitch he saw to knock Kluber out of the game. ALCS MVP Andrew Miller came on in relief and gave up a walk to Bryant and RBI single to Anthony Rizzo to push the lead to 5 -- 1 (Bryant 's aggressiveness again instrumental as he was attempting to steal second on the hit, allowing him to score all the way from first). In the bottom of the fifth inning, Hendricks retired the first two batters. A two - out walk to Santana persuaded Joe Maddon to relieve his starter. This move, along with others throughout the series, would be highly criticized afterward, as it appeared to some that Hendricks was pulled out too soon. (Maddon also drew criticism for having Javier Báez attempt a squeeze bunt with two strikes and Jason Heyward on third base in the 9th inning -- Báez bunted the pitch foul for Strike 3.)
Jon Lester, who had started Games 1 and 5, came on in relief for the first time since the 2007 ALCS, coincidentally also against the Indians. David Ross committed a throwing error that allowed Jason Kipnis to reach base and put runners on second and third. A wild pitch that ricocheted off Ross 's helmet allowed Santana and Kipnis to score, narrowing the Cubs ' lead to 5 -- 3. To atone for his blunders, the 39 - year - old Ross hit a home run to center, in his last official at - bat of his career, in the top of the sixth to make it a 6 -- 3 game, becoming the oldest player to hit a home run in a World Series Game 7.
Lester retired the first two batters in the eighth inning, but was pulled after a José Ramírez single. Maddon opted to use Aroldis Chapman, who had thrown 42 pitches in Game 5 and was used in Game 6 despite the fact that the Cubs had already built a large lead. Brandon Guyer promptly hit a run - scoring double off Chapman, making the score 6 -- 4. The next batter was Indians center fielder Rajai Davis, who had hit 55 career home runs in 11 seasons entering this game, and who was hitting. 132 in the postseason up to that point. Davis hit a dramatic 2 - run home run off Chapman, just barely clearing the left field wall and the left field foul pole, scoring Guyer and tying the game, making the score 6 - 6. Davis 's home run was the latest - occurring game - tying home run in World Series Game 7 history.
The Cubs squandered a scoring chance in the top of the 9th. Jason Heyward was on first and stole second, advancing to third on a throw to second by Yan Gomes that got away from Kipnis. Javier Baez attempted a bunt with two strikes, fouling it off. Dexter Fowler would eventually ground out to end the top of the ninth. Aroldis Chapman returned to the mound for the bottom of the ninth and promptly retired the Indians in order, facing Carlos Santana, Jason Kipnis, and Francisco Lindor, the Indians 1, 2, and 3 hitters.
With the game tied 6 - 6 after nine innings, a sudden cloudburst resulted in a 17 - minute rain delay. During the delay, Cubs right fielder Jason Heyward called his teammates into a weight room behind Chicago 's dugout and told them, "We 're the best team in baseball... for a reason... Stick together and we 're going to win this game. ''
When play resumed in the top of the tenth, Kyle Schwarber led off with a single off Bryan Shaw to right and was replaced by pinch runner Albert Almora. Kris Bryant then hit a deep fly ball to center, and Almora tagged up to second base, in what was called the "savviest baserunning play of the season. '' After an intentional walk to Anthony Rizzo, Ben Zobrist stepped up to the plate. Zobrist delivered a clutch RBI double into the left field corner, scoring Almora, and breaking the tie, making the score 7 - 6. Zobrist later said, "I was just battling, grinding up there. Fortunately, that last one he left over the plate and up to where I could just slap it down the line, and that was all I was trying to do. ''
After another intentional walk to Addison Russell, Miguel Montero singled into left, scoring Rizzo and making the score 8 -- 6.
Carl Edwards Jr. was called on to finish off the Indians in the bottom of the tenth, but after retiring the first two hitters, he walked Brandon Guyer, who took second base on defensive indifference. Rajai Davis, following up on his eighth - inning heroics, lined a single to center, making it a one - run game, and the score 8 - 7. Maddon called on Mike Montgomery, who had zero career saves. Montgomery retired Michael Martinez with an infield grounder fielded by Bryant, who threw to Rizzo. This ended the game and the World Series, with the Cubs winning the series and ending their 108 - year World Series championship drought. Zobrist was awarded the World Series MVP award after hitting. 357 in the series and delivering the go - ahead hit.
Rizzo called the rain delay "the most important thing to happen to the Chicago Cubs in the past 100 years. I do n't think there 's any way we win the game without it. '' Cubs president Theo Epstein said that when he heard about the meeting called by Heyward, "Right then I thought, ' We 're winning this game. ' ''
The Cubs became the first team to come back from a 3 -- 1 deficit to win the Series since the 1985 Kansas City Royals. They were also the first since the 1979 Pittsburgh Pirates to do so while winning Games 6 and 7 on the road, and the second team since the 1979 Pirates to win Game 7 as the visiting team, with the 2014 San Francisco Giants also having achieved that feat in Kansas City; almost one year later, the 2017 Houston Astros did the same thing in Los Angeles. With the Game 7 victory, Joe Maddon is 3 - 0 in postseason series against Terry Francona, having also won the 2008 ALCS and the 2013 Wild Card Game against him. Game 7 was the 60th extra inning game in World Series history as well as the first extra inning Game 7 won by the road team. In the previous four times in 1912, 1924, 1991 and 1997, the home team won all four extra inning Game 7s.
2016 World Series (4 -- 3): Chicago Cubs beat Cleveland Indians.
Fox televised the series in the United States, under contract with Major League Baseball giving it exclusive rights to the World Series through 2021. Joe Buck was the network 's play - by - play announcer, with John Smoltz as color commentator and Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci as field reporters. Fox Deportes also aired the Series and provided a Spanish - language simulcast over-the - air via Fox 's SAP audio, with Carlos Álvarez and Duaner Sánchez announcing.
Sportsnet in English and RDS in French televised the series in Canada. Sportsnet used the MLB International feed produced by the MLB Network; Matt Vasgersian was MLB International 's play - by - play announcer with the Toronto Blue Jays ' play - by - play announcer Buck Martinez as their color analyst and MLB Network correspondent Lauren Shehadi and analyst Mark DeRosa as field reporters. Alain Usereau and former Montreal Expos player Marc Griffin handled the French - language telecast for RDS. BT Sport televised the series live in the United Kingdom and Ireland. WAPA - TV transmitted the series to Puerto Rico, with Rafael Bracero at the helm of the station 's sports commentary of the series.
Initial reports often utilize "fast national '' ratings, which are subject to revision. Game 7 had over 40 million viewers, the largest audience for a baseball game since Game 7 of the 1991 World Series, while the series as a whole was the first to average double - digit ratings nationally since 2009.
ESPN Radio 's national network covered the World Series through affiliated stations, with Dan Shulman providing the play - by - play and Aaron Boone serving as color analyst. Tampa Bay Rays pitcher Chris Archer appeared as a guest analyst for select innings of Games 1 and 2.
Locally, the teams ' flagship stations broadcast the series with their regular announcers. In Cleveland, WTAM (1100) and WMMS (100.7) carried the Indians ' play - by - play with Tom Hamilton and Jim Rosenhaus, while in Chicago, WSCR (670) carried the Cubs ' play - by - play with Pat Hughes, Ron Coomer, and Len Kasper. The affiliate stations of the teams ' regional radio networks were contractually obligated to carry the national ESPN Radio feed; even so, since both WSCR and WTAM are clear - channel stations, most of the eastern and midwestern United States was able to hear the local broadcasts.
Following the team 's win in Game 7, Cubs fans congregated outside of Wrigley Field and the surrounding Wrigleyville neighborhood to celebrate the championship. On November 4, the team 's victory parade began at Wrigley Field and headed down Lake Shore Drive and Michigan Avenue at downtown for a noon rally at Grant Park. Country singer Brett Eldredge sang a cover of "Go, Cubs, Go '' during the rally. The city of Chicago estimated that over five million people attended the World Series parade and rally celebration, which would make it one of the largest human gatherings in history. After the season, the Cubs chose to make two traditional White House visits during then - President (and White Sox fan), Barack Obama 's final week in office on January 16, 2017, and during President Donald Trump 's tenure on June 28, 2017.
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biggie smalls biggie biggie biggie can't you see | Hypnotize (the Notorious B.I.G. Song) - wikipedia
"Hypnotize '' is a single by American rapper The Notorious B.I.G., released as the first single from his album Life After Death on March 1, 1997 and the last song released in his lifetime, as he was killed in a drive - by shooting a week later. It was the fifth song by a credited artist to hit number one posthumously. It was ranked at number 30 on Rolling Stone 's 50 greatest rap songs of all time in hip hop history.
P. Diddy (known then as Puff Daddy) produced "Hypnotize '' and sampled the beat from Herb Alpert 's 1979 hit "Rise '' which was written by Andy Armer and Herb 's nephew, Randy "Badazz '' Alpert. Randy recalled, "I asked Puffy, in 1996 when he first called me concerning using ' Rise ' for ' Hypnotize, ' why he chose the ' Rise ' groove. He told me that in the summer of 1979 when he was I think 10 years old the song was a huge hit everywhere in New York and ' Rise ' along with Chic 's ' Good Times ' were ' the songs ' that all the kids were dancing and roller skating to that summer. He had always remembered that summer and that song. When he first played the loop for Biggie, (he said that) Biggie smiled and hugged him. ''
Randy continued, "Over the years I was approached by Ice Cube, Eazy - E, Vanilla Ice, and maybe another 4 -- 5 artists to use the song and I never said ' yes ' until I heard a rough version of Biggie 's recording produced by Sean ' Puffy ' Combs, D - Dot, and Ron Lawrence. I was sent a cassette from Puffy and when I cranked it up I not only immediately loved it but my gut thought that this could be a number one record once again. The original ' Rise ' record climbed the chart all summer and became number one around the end of October; Biggie 's version was released and charted its first week at number two and went to number one the second week. ''
As for the chorus, or "hook '', the melody and phrasing is interpolated from a lyrical section of Slick Rick 's song "La Di Da Di '', and it is also from these lyrics that the title "Hypnotize '' is derived. Pamela Long from the group Total sang this part.
The song features many pop culture references to television and film including Star Wars, Roots, Starsky & Hutch, King of New York, comics and cartoon character Richie Rich, children 's clothing Underoos, and the ' 60s pop hit "Da Doo Ron Ron '' by The Crystals. Other references include popular fashion lines Versace, DKNY, Moschino and Coogi.
More recently, the song served as the theme song to the 2009 motion picture Notorious, based on Biggie 's life.
Conor Mcgregor uses a remixed version of Hypnotize and Sinead O'Connor's Version of the Foggy Dew during his walkouts at UFC events.
The song was sang briefly by Sofia Black - D'Elia 's character on the Fox show, The Mick.
The song was used in a 2017 commercial for Oreo Thins. Earlier in 2017, the song was used for promotion of the Baywatch 2017 movie.
The song was a hit on U.S. radio before being issued as a single. On its release, "Hypnotize '' entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number two, right behind labelmate and co-writer and co-producer Sean "Puff Daddy '' Combs ("Ca n't Nobody Hold Me Down ''). When "Hypnotize '' reached number one two weeks later, it made The Notorious B.I.G. the fifth artist in Hot 100 history to have a posthumous chart - topper (see List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones). It also gave back - to - back number - one hits to Combs ' Bad Boy Records label. Nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance at the 1998 Grammy Awards, it lost to "Men in Black '' by Will Smith. The single reached number 10 in the UK, B.I.G. 's first top 10 hit in that country. Kris Ex of Pitchfork wrote "Big was a master of flow, sounding unforced and unlabored over a bevy of pristine, hi - fidelity maximalist beats that seemed to always bow to his intent. ''
50 Cent told NME that the song was the one he would want played at his funeral: "I 'd just want everyone to have as much of a party as possible. ''
The music video was filmed in Los Angeles, California in February 1997, a month before The Notorious B.I.G. 's death. Directed by Paul Hunter, the video starts off with the caption: Florida Keys 5: 47 pm, with B.I.G. and Puff Daddy hanging out on an 60 - foot Tempest yacht with some ladies when a bunch of helicopters disrupt their party and attempt to capture them. It then cuts to B.I.G. and Puff Daddy in an underground parking lot, where they spot a black Hummer and a group of men dressed in black riding motorcycles, and attempt to get away from them by driving their vehicle in reverse while in the streets. It cuts to a pool party that 's set underwater, where swimsuit models can be seen shaking their bodies through the windows, and it ends with B.I.G. and Puff Daddy escaping the helicopters. Intercut throughout the video are scenes of B.I.G. and Puff Daddy behind a sepia background with some female dancers dressed in leather bikinis and B.I.G. dancing behind a black background while pieces of the chorus are captioned below.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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who sang the song get your kicks on route 66 | Route 66 (song) - wikipedia
"(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66 '' is a popular rhythm and blues standard, composed in 1946 by American songwriter Bobby Troup. The song uses a twelve - bar blues arrangement and the lyrics follow the path of U.S. Route 66 (US 66), which traversed the western two - thirds of the U.S. from Chicago, Illinois, to Los Angeles, California.
Nat King Cole, as the King Cole Trio, first recorded the song the same year and it became a hit, appearing on Billboard magazine 's R&B and pop charts.
Another version to reach the Billboard charts was that recorded by Bing Crosby with the Andrews Sisters on May 11, 1946 and this reached the No. 14 position in 1946. The song was subsequently recorded by many artists including Chuck Berry, the Rolling Stones, Them, Dr. Feelgood, Asleep at the Wheel, the Manhattan Transfer, Depeche Mode, The Brian Setzer Orchestra, Pappo, The Cramps, John Mayer,, George Benson and Peter Tork & Blue Suede Shoes.
Bobby Troup got the idea for the song on a cross-country drive from Pennsylvania to California. Troup wanted to try his hand as a Hollywood songwriter, so he and his wife, Cynthia, packed up their 1941 Buick and headed west. The trip began on US 40 and continued along US 66 to the California coast. Troup initially considered writing a tune about US 40, but Cynthia suggested the title "Get Your Kicks on Route 66 ''. The song was composed on the ten - day journey, and completed by referencing maps when the couple arrived in Los Angeles.
The lyrics read as a mini-travelogue about the major stops along the route, listing several cities and towns through which Route 66 passes, viz. St Louis; Joplin, Missouri; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Amarillo, Texas; Gallup, New Mexico; Flagstaff, Arizona; Winona, Arizona; Kingman, Arizona; Barstow, California; and San Bernardino, California. Winona is the only town out of sequence: it was a very small settlement east of Flagstaff, and might indeed have been forgotten if not for the lyric "Do n't forget Winona '', written to rhyme with "Flagstaff, Arizona ''. Many artists who have covered the tune over the years have changed the initial lyrics, usually to "It goes to St. Louis, down through Missouri... '' then continuing on with Oklahoma City and so on. Of the eight states through which the actual route passes, only Kansas and its cities -- US 66 spends just eleven miles (18 km) inside the state 's southeast corner -- are not mentioned by the song. Chuck Berry famously mispronounces Barstow to rhyme with "cow '' instead of correctly pronouncing it to rhyme with "go ''.
"Route 66 '' was first recorded in 1946 by Nat King Cole, whose rendition became a hit on both the U.S. R&B and pop record charts. Cole later re-recorded the tune in 1956 (for the album After Midnight) and 1961 (The Nat King Cole Story).
The song has become a standard and has been recorded by numerous artists. The version recorded by Perry Como in 1959 (on the album Como Swings) is more lyrically complete, including the seldom - heard second verse and also the introductory verse. Chuck Berry 's version was closest to its R&B roots, with jazz overtones, often blended into his songs by Berry.
Natalie Cole 's version of the song was one of many California - related songs played throughout "Sunshine Plaza '' in the original Disney California Adventure.
The song is also played in the 2006 Pixar film Cars and is sung at the end of the film RV, which was released the same year.
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who wins survivor blue collar white collar no collar | Survivor: Worlds Apart - wikipedia
Survivor: Worlds Apart is the 30th season of the American CBS competitive reality television series Survivor, which premiered on February 25, 2015, with the season finale on May 20, 2015. It was filmed in San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, the same location as Survivor: Nicaragua, Survivor: Redemption Island, and Survivor: San Juan del Sur, and features three tribes of six new players divided by social class: white collar, blue collar, and no collar. This season introduced the concept of an extra vote, in which one player can vote twice at a single Tribal Council, which was offered during the season 's Survivor Auction. This season also saw the return of the firemaking tiebreaker challenge, last used in Survivor: Gabon.
The two - hour season finale and one - hour reunion special aired on May 20, 2015, where Mike Holloway was named the winner over Carolyn Rivera and Will Sims II in a 6 -- 1 -- 1 vote.
A DVD release of the season is planned and currently available for pre-order on Amazon.com, however, no release date has been announced.
The cast is composed of 18 new players, initially split into three tribes containing six members each: Escameca ("Blue Collar ''), Masaya ("White Collar ''), and Nagarote ("No Collar ''). The cast includes former football placekicker Tyler Fredrickson. Additionally, So Kim was originally cast on Survivor: San Juan del Sur with her sister Doo, but they dropped out after Doo had a medical emergency the day before the game began.
Mike Holloway, Carolyn Rivera, Shirin Oskooi, Joe Anglim, and Max Dawson were included on the public poll to choose the cast of the subsequent season, Survivor: Cambodia. Due to Holloway winning Worlds Apart, he was ineligible from participating in Cambodia despite placing in the top 10 of his ballot; Anglim and Oskooi were ultimately chosen to compete. Hali Ford and Sierra Dawn Thomas returned for Survivor: Game Changers.
The eighteen new castaways were divided into three tribes of six based on social class: Escameca (Blue Collar), Masaya (White Collar), and Nagarote (No Collar). Despite frequent arguments between the Blue Collars, they only went to Tribal Council once, as did the White Collars. Though the No Collars lost two members, a core alliance of Hali, Jenn, and Joe formed, with Will as their fourth. With 14 players remaining, the players were redistributed into two tribes of seven; on Escameca, Blue Collar Rodney and White Collar Joaquin aligned, but Rodney 's former Blue Collar allies, led by Mike, blindsided Joaquin to break up the pair and retain Rodney 's loyalty.
When the tribes merged, two alliances vied for dominance: the No Collar core alliance, now with White Collar Shirin, went against the Blue Collars. Though Rodney remained with the Blue Collars, he constructed his own alliance with the swing votes -- Will, and White Collars Tyler and Carolyn -- to eventually take down the other Blue Collars to avenge Joaquin; the augmented Blue Collar alliance systematically eliminated the others, unaware of Rodney 's alliance. Mike overheard Rodney 's inner alliance plotting his blindside and outed their plans, but instead found himself ousted from the others and made the primary target. However, Mike won five of the last six immunity challenges and played a hidden immunity idol on the only time he was vulnerable, bringing himself to the end of the game alongside Will and Carolyn. Ultimately, for making it to the end despite being a massive target, Mike was awarded with six of the eight jury votes, and the title of Sole Survivor.
As the game began, Jeff Probst asked each tribe to pick a representative, who would then choose another tribe - mate with whom to make a big decision; Joaquin and So stepped up for the White Collar tribe, Dan and Mike for the Blue Collar tribe, and Will and Jenn for the No Collar tribe. At camp, the pairs were given a choice between a big bag of beans or a smaller bag of beans and a clue to the hidden immunity idol. Only Joaquin and So decided to take the clue, subsequently lying to their tribe about their decision, raising suspicion. Dan and Mike told their Blue Collar tribe the truth about their decision, though Sierra was skeptical. At the No Collar camp, Vince bonded with Jenn over their mutual outlook on life but bickered with Joe over how to build the shelter.
The following day, the Blue Collar tribe also argued about the shelter, with Dan complaining over his tribemates ' choices; Rodney and the women agreed that Dan would be an easy target to eliminate first, but Dan found an ally in Mike. At the No Collar camp, Joe earned his tribe mates ' admiration, particularly Jenn 's, by making fire without flint. Vince took Jenn aside to make sure that she was still loyal to him, causing Jenn to doubt whether Vince was a viable alliance partner. At the White Collar camp, Carolyn suspected So was looking for the hidden immunity idol, but successfully found it herself, citing knowledge of past seasons ' hiding spots as her guide.
White Collar and No Collar were neck - and - neck until Shirin from the White Collar tribe struggled on the 50 - piece puzzle; the other two tribes found success with the 10 - piece puzzle and won immunity. While Shirin seemed to be an easy target for the White Collar tribe 's first vote, So decided to target Carolyn for not stepping up to either the ladder releasing or puzzle solving tasks during the challenge; to save herself, Carolyn told Tyler about her idol. So and Joaquin believed that they were in an alliance with Max and Tyler, but Max 's true loyalty was with Shirin and Carolyn, who attempted to get Tyler to join them in voting off So. At Tribal Council, Shirin called Joaquin and So out for their lie regarding the clue to the hidden immunity idol, while So admitted that Carolyn was her target, which prompted a heated debate between the two. Tyler ultimately decided to join Carolyn, Max, and Shirin, as So became the first player voted out.
At the Blue Collar camp, Dan lost his underwear in the water after getting hit by a wave; his attempts to make light of the situation led Lindsey to further believe he was creating a character out of himself. On the White Collar tribe, Max and Shirin took off their underwear around camp, making Tyler uncomfortable. On the No Collar tribe, Hali and Jenn 's attempts to get to know Nina were complicated by Nina 's deafness, and tensions increased when Hali and Jenn decided to go skinny dipping without asking her, leading to a public outburst from Nina out of frustration.
While the Blue Collar tribe played makeshift basketball around camp, Mike insisted that the tribe continue to work, annoying Rodney in the process. At the No Collar camp, Vince voiced his frustrations about Joe to Nina, and Vince 's attempt to talk to Joe about his behavior around camp only served to further their enmity. With an alliance formed between younger tribe members Hali, Jenn, and Joe, Vince, Nina, and Will considered sticking together.
After No Collar 's Will struggled in the water, the other two tribes pulled ahead to win immunity. Back at camp, Vince told Nina that he was worried about Will 's health due to his weight and asthma, but was considering blindsiding Joe, as voting Will would keep the tribe strong but put the younger alliance in power. The younger alliance tried to recruit Will to split the vote against Nina and Vince -- out of fear for a hidden immunity idol -- to ultimately eliminate Nina on the re-vote; Will was hesitant to vote against Nina, his closest ally. Will told Nina and Vince about the vote - splitting, and they decided to target Jenn due to her perceived untrustworthiness and Joe 's challenge prowess. However, Nina later told Will that Vince was concerned for Will 's health, and had considered voting him out. At Tribal Council, Will decided to stick with the young alliance while going against their vote - splitting plan, voting for Vince and sending him out of the game rather than the alliance 's planned target, Nina.
After Will 's rogue vote sent Vince home, Joe questioned Will 's loyalty while a teary Nina told the tribe that she knew she was next to go. Joe tried to make Nina feel comfortable, but she admitted that she was not as free - spirited as the rest of her tribe. At the White Collar camp, Shirin annoyed her tribe - mates with her tales of seeing howler monkeys having sex in the trees. The next day, the White Collar tribe sans Carolyn looked for the hidden immunity idol, but were unsuccessful as Carolyn had already found it. Shirin proposed a truce, but Joaquin did n't trust her and continued searching with Tyler; though Tyler knew that Carolyn had the idol and Joaquin was on the outs, he continued searching anyway to keep Joaquin 's trust as he considered betraying Shirin for her behavior. At the Blue Collar camp, Dan 's attempts to be funny upset Rodney after Dan jokingly insulted his mother. Later, Mike voiced his frustrations with his tribe - mates ' work ethic, provoking arguments between him and Rodney, Sierra, and Lindsey, the last of whom insulted Mike 's religious views.
The No Collar tribe fell behind quickly, which prompted Joe to send Nina back from the water tower to the barrel; the strategy proved ineffective, and they lost their second consecutive challenge. Back at camp, Joe apologized to Nina for implementing the faulty strategy and assuming she would slow the tribe down. Will and Nina both campaigned to vote the other out. Though the original plan was to eliminate Nina, Hali and Jenn considered voting Will out instead after he had proven himself unpredictable by voting Vince out. At Tribal Council, Nina claimed that her tribe perceived that she was weak because of her deafness, though the tribe argued that was n't the case. When Will discussed his poor challenge performance, Nina took the opportunity to openly campaign against him. She then discussed her previous white collar background and how she felt she had been placed on the wrong tribe. After a pep talk from Hali, Nina affirmed that she would try and fit in with her tribe mates, although she would never get the chance as she was voted out after receiving votes from Jenn, Will, and Joe.
After voting out Nina, the No Collar tribe affirmed their loyalty to each other, though Will felt he would be the next to go if they lost again. At the Blue Collar camp, Rodney noted his respect for Mike despite their previous disagreements.
During the challenge, the Blue Collar tribe 's platform dropped on Kelly 's forehead; after a brief medical examination she was cleared to continue in the challenge. The No Collar tribe finished in first place while the White Collar tribe took second. The victorious No Collar tribe celebrated Will 's birthday by eating one of their chickens from the reward. Jenn, a vegetarian, felt uncomfortable with the killing and roasting; she went searching for the hidden immunity idol, which she found, while the tribe feasted. At the Blue Collar camp, Kelly received six stitches from her injury at the challenge, but her bravery throughout the ordeal earned Mike 's respect, and the two affirmed their alliance. Rodney 's remarks that women should hold themselves to a higher standard than men caused a heated argument between him and Lindsey. At the White Collar camp, Shirin continued to alienate her tribe - mates with her behavior, which caused Carolyn to consider betraying Shirin and her closest ally, Max.
All three tribes were neck - and - neck throughout the challenge, but the No Collar and White Collar tribes narrowly won, sending Blue Collar to their first Tribal Council. Lindsey and Sierra campaigned against Rodney for his misogynistic behavior, while Rodney retaliated by targeting Lindsey. At Tribal Council, Dan, Mike, and Kelly decided to align with Rodney, splitting their votes between Lindsey and Sierra in case of a hidden immunity idol; the vote was initially tied, with two votes each on Lindsey, Rodney, and Sierra, but Lindsey was eliminated after a unanimous revote.
After receiving two votes and losing her closest ally, an upset Sierra felt isolated from her tribe; Dan 's attempts at justifying voting for her only upset her further. At the reward challenge, the three tribes were redistributed into two tribes of seven: Blue Collar tribe members Dan, Mike, Rodney, and Sierra were joined by Joaquin and Tyler from White Collar, and Joe from No Collar to form the new Escameca tribe, while No Collar tribe members Hali, Jenn, and Will were joined by Carolyn, Max, and Shirin from White Collar, and Kelly from Blue Collar to become the new Nagarote tribe.
The new Escameca tribe quickly won the challenge, five points to Nagarote 's two. At the Nagarote camp, the former No Collar and White Collar tribe - mates, three people apiece, vied for Kelly 's vote; the No Collar alliance took a more laid - back approach, while former White Collar Shirin acted quickly. Later, Shirin 's behavior got on her new tribe - mates ' nerves. Max was stung on both feet by a stingray; after putting his wart - covered feet in the tribe 's cooking pot on Jenn 's advice, he was perceived as selfish. At Escameca, Dan, Mike, and Rodney realized that Sierra had all the reason to abandon them for their new tribe - mates, and attempted to bring her back into their fold. Sierra indeed vocalized her desire to align with Joaquin, Joe, and Tyler, though Joaquin and Rodney began to bond. Later, Dan attempted to apologize to Sierra for his previous behavior, but again only further alienated her after ignoring Mike 's advice on how to approach her.
Tyler and Joaquin quickly gave Escameca an early lead, which they maintained to handily win the challenge. Back at camp, Shirin and Max targeted Will for his weakness in challenges, telling Carolyn and Kelly their plans. Though Kelly agreed, Carolyn decided to betray her former White Collar tribe - mates, joining the No Collar alliance instead. Kelly, realizing that Carolyn was no longer with Shirin and Max, also abandoned them. At Tribal Council, the new alliance of five put their votes on Max, sending him out of the game.
The morning after Max 's blindside, Shirin, his closest ally, attempted to figure out why Carolyn betrayed them; Carolyn claimed that it was because the two excluded her from strategic conversations. After Hali admitted that it was because the two were annoying, Shirin vowed to reintegrate with her tribe. At Escameca, Rodney and Joaquin aligned based on their common lifestyles.
Though Escameca was first to the top of their tower, Nagarote came from behind to narrowly win the challenge. On the reward, Shirin bonded with her tribe - mates. The next day, at Escameca, Joaquin tried to align with Sierra; though Sierra was prepared to align with Joaquin and Tyler, she was perturbed by Joaquin 's friendship with Rodney. Rodney later plotted with Mike to throw the immunity challenge to get rid of Joe for being a physical and social threat at the merge, which Mike considered in order to protect his closest ally, Kelly, on the other tribe.
After the tribes were tied with two points apiece, Mike blatantly threw the final match to Kelly to give Nagarote the win. Back at camp, Rodney continued to target Joe; though Joaquin and Tyler agreed to the plan, Mike and Dan decided to betray him and align with Joe instead to break up Rodney and Joaquin 's partnership. Sierra found herself as the swing vote, but ultimately decided to side with Dan, Joe, and Mike to eliminate Joaquin.
Left out of the plans to vote out Joaquin, Rodney felt betrayed by his Blue Collar allies. Mike informed Rodney that they eliminated Joaquin to protect Rodney from being duped, though Rodney claimed that he was trying to reel Joaquin in, not vice versa, and berated Mike for not trusting him. The next morning, the two tribes were merged, and enjoyed a commemorative feast. At the feast, Shirin asked about Joaquin 's blindside and was informed that he and Rodney had grown too close. Realizing that pairs were being targeted, Carolyn planned to downplay her partnership with Tyler going forward.
At the merged camp, Mike and Kelly celebrated their reunion as Kelly realigned with her former Blue Collar tribe - mates. Joe rejoined former No Collar allies Hali and Jenn, and the three brought Shirin into their fold. With Kelly noticeably realigning with her former tribe, the alliance of four attempted to align with Tyler and Carolyn instead. Will, the fourth former No Collar, was courted by Rodney, who proposed a final four deal with him, Kelly, and Carolyn. Rodney conspired for the four to initially vote with the Blue Collars but later betray Dan, Mike, and Sierra to avenge Joaquin. Amidst all the scrambling, Tyler and Carolyn found themselves the swing votes between the Blue Collar and No Collar alliances; Rodney and Mike plotted to target Joe first, though a vexed Rodney told Mike that they would n't be in this mess had Mike not spared Joe at the previous Tribal Council.
After an hour, Joe outlasted Jenn and Carolyn to win the first individual immunity of the game, foiling the Blue Collars ' plan. The Blue Collar alliance shifted their target to Jenn instead to split up her and Hali, though they told Will that Hali was the target to see if he was trustworthy; the alliance of Joe, Hali, Jenn and Shirin targeted Kelly. Tyler and Carolyn entertained offers from both alliances, while a nervous Jenn revealed her idol to Hali, considering playing it. At Tribal Council, Will, Carolyn, and Tyler all voted with the Blue Collar alliance -- Will for Hali and the rest for Jenn -- but Jenn played her hidden immunity idol, negating the seven votes against her and eliminating Kelly instead.
After Jenn 's successful idol play sent Kelly out of the game, Rodney blamed Mike for changing the target from Hali to Jenn, and tried to convince Will, Tyler, and Carolyn to turn on Mike once the minority alliance -- Hali, Jenn, Joe, and Shirin -- was out of the game. Rodney later blatantly disrespected the minority alliance, and bickered with Shirin over food portioning.
Joe, Mike, and Hali advanced to the final round, where Joe won his second individual challenge in a row. Given the choice to take four other castaways with him on the reward, Joe chose to take Carolyn, Tyler, Will, and Shirin to earn their trust and bolster his minority alliance. Joe found a clue to a hidden immunity idol in a bottle Carolyn was drinking from; he managed to trick her into giving him the bottle and took the clue, but Tyler spotted him. The next morning, Joe shared the clue with Tyler, but Mike saw them sneak off and spied on them; Tyler told Mike about the clue to keep the Blue Collars ' trust. Though Joe could n't find the idol, Mike decided to frame him by claiming that he saw Joe find it, which sidelined Joe from continuing his search; Mike continued looking, and eventually found the idol.
Though Dan twice believed that he had completed the sliding puzzle, he was wrong both times; Joe won the challenge, continuing his winning streak. Shirin and Sierra told Hali and Jenn about Dan 's condescending comments, and Sierra considered leaving her Blue Collar alliance for a girls alliance; Shirin lobbied Tyler to take Dan out and weaken the dominating Blue Collars as she thought it was their only opportunity to do so. At Tribal Council, Dan stated that "flippers never win, '' but Shirin claimed that his comment was just a fear tactic to discourage voting against him. However, neither Tyler nor Sierra flipped, and the Blue Collar alliance -- Will, Tyler, and Carolyn included -- targeted Hali, and she became the first member of the jury.
After losing her closest ally in Hali, a despondent Jenn was ready to get voted out. Shirin then told the others that she would vote for Mike to win the game, in the hopes that it would turn him into a target. Later, she lobbied with Mike and Sierra to vote out Carolyn, who was perceived to have Rodney, Tyler, and Will on her side.
The teams were neck - and - neck at the grappling portion, but the team of Dan, Mike, Shirin, Sierra, and Tyler pulled ahead to win reward. Back at camp, the losing team ate one of the chickens, which again alienated vegetarian Jenn, although the mood was lifted by Rodney 's impressions of Mike and Dan; Joe sensed, via his impressions, that Rodney was n't fully onboard with his alliance, and considered plotting with him to overthrow Mike. Jenn told Joe that she would give him immunity if she won the challenge since she was ready to leave.
Tyler outlasted Jenn and Mike to win immunity. Shirin, predicting the majority alliance of seven would split their votes against Joe and Jenn, created a plan wherein she and Joe would vote for Jenn, which would send a willing Jenn out of the game instead of Joe, the majority alliance 's intended target. Mike told Shirin to vote against Joe; Shirin was conflicted between voting against Jenn and ruining the majority alliance 's plans, or voting against Joe to take out the proven challenge threat and earn the majority alliance 's trust. Joe created a fake immunity idol with stashed materials; Mike found him and claimed that he would switch his vote to Jenn if Joe gave him his idol. Joe gave Mike his idol, but Mike stuck with his alliance at Tribal Council, playing the fake idol on Will and voting against Joe; Shirin also voted against Joe, and he became the second member of the jury.
Rodney told his alliance of Carolyn, Tyler, and Will that it was time to target Mike; unbeknownst to them, Mike overheard the conversation.
Dan 's advantage was that he had earned an extra vote at any Tribal Council of his choice up until the final five. Upon returning at camp, Will found a clue that led him to a hidden box filled with rations, including electrolytes, and chose to share them with the rest of the tribe. Mike, having angered others by initially backing out on buying his letter from home to win the advantage, told his close allies that he had only done so because he had overheard Rodney planning his betrayal, which led to an argument between him and Rodney, and upsetting his allies Dan and Sierra; Mike later joined the minority alliance of Jenn and Shirin. Jenn, Mike, and Shirin suspected that Will had n't given the tribe his full supply of rations, and suggested he was stashing food. Tyler informed Will, who subsequently lashed out at Shirin, verbally attacking her on a personal level.
Before the challenge began, Will asked Jeff if he could get his letter from home in exchange for sitting out of the challenge. Jeff agreed provided every other castaway approved; all did except for Shirin. Mike won the challenge, thwarting Rodney 's plan. Suspecting that Sierra would remain loyal to Rodney 's alliance, Jenn, Mike, and Shirin lobbied Dan to join them and vote out Carolyn, while Rodney 's alliance -- Sierra included -- decided to split the vote between Jenn and Shirin. Dan found himself the swing vote, though the majority alliance questioned his loyalty, while Carolyn considered playing her idol due to Dan 's hesitance. At Tribal Council, Shirin and Will reignited their argument, during which Shirin tearfully recounted her past as a victim of domestic abuse. Carolyn held on to her idol as the votes were split between Shirin and Jenn, with Mike and Shirin also voting for Jenn to send her out of the game.
Dan and Sierra discussed Mike 's claims that they were at the bottom of the majority alliance; Dan later attempted to comfort Shirin about Will 's comments at the previous Tribal Council.
After the team of Mike, Sierra, Shirin and Rodney accidentally placed a plank on the ground, they decided to each roll on a barrel to make up time, but they were unable to do so and Carolyn, Dan, Tyler, and Will won the challenge. Back at camp, Sierra campaigned to Rodney to get rid of Tyler for being a threat and to take Shirin to the end because no one would vote for her to win, though Rodney did not believe that Tyler was a threat nor did he trust Shirin. On the reward trip, Carolyn, Tyler, and Will did their best to make sure Dan stayed loyal to them.
Carolyn and Mike outlasted Shirin and Rodney to win immunity, again thwarting the majority alliance 's plans. Though the majority alliance targeted Shirin, she lobbied Dan and Sierra to take out Tyler. Tyler searched through Dan 's bag and discovered his extra vote advantage, and later informed Carolyn. Mike attempted to realign with Dan, his former closest ally, but was unsuccessful, and Mike considered playing his idol on Shirin. At Tribal Council, Shirin told everyone that getting rid of her would be a bad idea and that they should get rid of Tyler. Right before the vote, Mike unveiled his hidden immunity idol and claimed that he would give it to Shirin, and that she was going to vote for Tyler and he was going to vote for another member of the dominant alliance, and told the other members of the alliance to vote for Tyler to ensure their safety. Ultimately, Mike did not play the idol for Shirin, but the dominant alliance called his bluff and Shirin was voted out, though Tyler and Will voted against Dan.
The dominant alliance -- everyone except for Mike -- regrouped to discuss the previous Tribal Council. Although Tyler and Will had voted against Dan, they explained to Dan their reasoning, which he accepted. The next day was Rodney 's birthday, and he hoped that he would finally get to go on a reward trip to celebrate; Will told Rodney that he would give up his potential spot on the trip to make it happen.
Will was not chosen to participate in the challenge. Rodney forgot to bring the balls with him on the obstacle course, losing a lot of time for him, Dan, and Tyler, but they later caught up on the ball - launching portion. However, Mike was able to come from behind to win reward for him, Carolyn, and Sierra. No one decided to give up their reward to Rodney, which provoked his ire. After enjoying the reward trip, Carolyn considered aligning with Mike. Back at camp, an upset Rodney plotted that he would pretend that he wanted to quit the game in hopes that Mike would not play his idol and would be blindsided, though no one else believed it would work. When Carolyn, Mike, and Sierra returned, Rodney began his charade, which Mike saw right through. Tyler, knowing that Mike would likely vote against him, asked Carolyn to play her idol on him.
Carolyn outlasted Mike and Tyler to win immunity. Carolyn proposed to Dan, Rodney, and Sierra that they split their votes between Mike and Tyler, but Carolyn also plotted with Tyler and Will to blindside Dan due to the extra vote advantage he won at the Survivor Auction. Mike told Carolyn that he was voting for Tyler, and she found herself torn between betraying her long - time ally Tyler or getting rid of Dan and his advantage. At Tribal Council, Mike again claimed he would play his idol, which he ultimately did, voiding the four votes against him; Carolyn and Sierra joined Mike in voting against Tyler, and he was sent to the jury.
Having used his hidden immunity idol, Mike knew that he would be voted out unless he won immunity or found a new ally. Though Dan, formerly Mike 's closest ally, felt confident with his new alliance, Carolyn considered working with Mike to blindside Dan to ensure the target stayed off of her, telling Mike about Dan 's extra vote advantage.
Both teams were stuck on the word puzzle for over half an hour until Carolyn was able to decipher host Jeff Probst 's clues to win the challenge for her, Mike, and Will. Carolyn openly considered giving up her reward to Rodney, who had yet to go on a reward trip, but ultimately decided against it. On the reward trip, Mike proposed a final three deal with Carolyn and Will, which Carolyn entertained, though Will was more hesitant. Mike told them that he did not want to lose to Rodney due to his attitude and outbursts, and they agreed. Back at camp, an irate Rodney targeted Carolyn for not giving up her reward to him. After returning from the reward, Mike tried to convince Sierra that Dan would n't take her to the end of the game.
Mike was the first to the table maze and, despite Sierra nearly catching up, ultimately maintained his lead to win immunity for the third time. The majority alliance (sans Carolyn) settled on voting for Carolyn as a threat, while lying to Mike and saying that Dan was the target due to his advantage; Mike then used this to try to tell Dan that he was the target, but Dan did n't believe him. Mike then tried to work with Carolyn and Sierra, telling them that Rodney and Will were siding with Dan, and Carolyn considered playing her hidden immunity idol. At Tribal Council, Dan decided to use his extra vote advantage, but Carolyn countered by playing her hidden immunity idol. The five votes against Carolyn were voided, and Dan was sent to the jury with Mike and Carolyn 's votes.
Despite the fact that her allies Rodney, Sierra, and Will voted against her but Mike did not, Carolyn decided to regroup with her old alliance and continued targeting Mike. Before the reward challenge, the castaways were reunited with their loved ones: Carolyn 's husband Joel, Mike 's mother Deborah, Rodney 's father Rodney Sr., Sierra 's father Danny, and Will 's wife Monifa.
Mike won the challenge, and enjoyed the afternoon with his mother.
The morning of the challenge, Mike had 30 minutes to practice navigating the maze blindfolded with Deborah there to guide him, but they struggled. At the challenge, Carolyn, Rodney, Sierra and Will helped each other, but Mike 's advantage paid off and he won the challenge. Mike made a final three deal with Carolyn and Sierra, and another with Rodney and Will; at Tribal Council, Sierra mentioned that she was a threat, and ultimately Carolyn joined the men to vote her out.
Mike maintained his early lead to win his fifth and final immunity challenge. Rodney and Will stuck together and decided to vote Carolyn out, but Mike told Carolyn that he was going to force a tie with her against Rodney, and encouraged her to practice making fire to win the tiebreaker challenge. At Tribal Council, Mike forced the tie between Carolyn and Rodney; after an hour, Carolyn won the fire - making tiebreaker challenge to join Mike and Will in the finals, and Rodney became the final member of the jury.
After enjoying a feast for making it to the end of the game, the final three faced the jury for their final Tribal Council. Joe told the finalists what they needed to do for the jury to earn his vote, while Hali asked Carolyn how her role as a mother disadvantaged her in the game; Carolyn explained that she fought hard despite being much older than most of the other castaways. Rodney asked Will how he was true to himself, and Will explained that he used his social game and giving nature to compensate for his lack of Survivor knowledge; he then asked Carolyn to explain the moves she made on her own, and she said it was blindsiding Tyler and Dan. Tyler asked Mike what he brought to the game socially, and Mike admitted that his social game was n't as strong as he would 've liked to be; Tyler asked Carolyn to redeem herself for backstabbing him after 30 days of being closest allies, and Carolyn stated that she had to or else he would 've won, but that it was the most difficult decision she made.
Sierra asked Will which of the other finalists ' traits he wanted; he said Mike 's work ethic and Carolyn 's analytical skills. Jenn called the jury out for being bitter against Mike 's manic, back - against - the - wall gameplay, and pled for them to vote for him to win. Dan chastised Mike for not caring about the people sent to the jury, and Mike told Dan that he regretted losing his trust after his actions at the Survivor Auction, and apologized to him; Dan accepted the apology. Shirin castigated Will for comments he made about her family, and praised Mike for defending her, though she stated that, as a superfan of the game, she was going to vote based on their games; Shirin likened each of their games to an animal: Mike 's to a howler monkey, Carolyn 's to a stingray, and Will 's to a dead fish.
Months after the final Tribal Council, at the live reunion, it was revealed that Mike won the game with Hali, Joe, Jenn, Shirin, Tyler, and Dan 's votes, while Carolyn and Will tied for second with one vote each; Carolyn with Sierra 's, and Will with Rodney 's.
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ramanand sagar's shri krishna tv serial full cast and crew names | Krishna (TV series) - Wikipedia
Krishna (also called Shri Krishna) is an Indian television series created, written, and directed by Ramanand Sagar. The series originally aired weekly on Doordarshan. It is an adaptation of the stories of the life of Krishna, based on Bhagavata Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Harivamsa, Vishnu Purana, Padma Purana, Garga Samhita, Bhagavad Gita & Mahabharat. The TV series was first broadcast on Doordarshan 's Metro Channel (DD 2) from 1993. In 1996, the show was broadcast from the beginning on DD National. In 1999, the show moved to Zee where the remaining episodes were broadcast.
The entire series was re-telecast on Sony starting 2001 and later on Star.
This series is now being re-telecasted on ShivaShakthiSai TV, a Telugu Devotional channel, from 15 January 2016.
This serial was also telecast in Mauritius by Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation, in Toronto on Channel 57, in Nepal on Nepal Television, in South Africa on M.Net, in Indonesia on P.T. Cipta Television, in Jakarta on Pendidikan, in Thailand on Channel 3 and in London on T.V. Asia (Satellite).
Shri Krishna was produced by Ramanand Sagar, Subhash Sagar and Prem Sagar under the banner "Sagar Enterprises '' and directed by Ramanand Sagar, Anand Sagar and Moti Sagar. The role of young Krishna was played by Swapnil Joshi and adult Krishna was played by Sarvadaman D. Banerjee.
Ravindra Jain composed music for this serial. The title song, "Shree Krishna Govind Hare Murari '' is popular not only in India but also around the world.
Shri Krishna won the Uptron Award for the "Best director '' in the year 1995. The show was one of the biggest grossers for Doordarshan in the mid to late ' 90s. It earned over Rs 100 crore.
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these boots are made for walking song meaning | These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' - wikipedia
"These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' is a hit song written by Lee Hazlewood and recorded by Nancy Sinatra. It charted January 22, 1966, and reached No. 1 in the United States Billboard Hot 100 and in the UK Singles Chart.
Subsequently, many cover versions of the song have been released in a range of styles: metal, pop, rock, punk rock, country, dance, and industrial. Among the more notable versions are the singles released by Megadeth, Jessica Simpson, and Ella Fitzgerald backed by Duke Ellington and his orchestra.
Lee Hazlewood intended to record the song himself, saying that "it 's not really a girl 's song '', but Sinatra talked him out of it, saying that "coming from a guy it was harsh and abusive, but was perfect for a little girl to sing ''. Hazlewood agreed. Sinatra 's recording of the song was made with the help of Los Angeles session musicians known as the Wrecking Crew. This session included Hal Blaine on drums, Al Casey, Tommy Tedesco, and Billy Strange on guitars, Ollie Mitchell, Roy Caton and Lew McCreary on horns, Carol Kaye on electric bass and Chuck Berghofer on double bass, providing the notable bass line. Nick Bonney was the guitarist for the Nelson Riddle Orchestra.
Other personnel, as seen in the American Federation of Musicians (AFM) contracts for the session include:
The single was released in December 1965, the second song to taken from her debut album Boots, and was a follow - up to the minor hit "So Long, Babe ''. The song became an instant success and in late February 1966 it topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart, a move it replicated in similar charts across the world.
In the same year Sinatra recorded a promotional film, which would later be known as the music video, for the song. It was produced by Color - Sonics and played on Scopitone video jukeboxes. In 1986, for the song 's 20th anniversary, cable station VH1 played the video.
Sinatra told Alison Martino that other videos and performances are from TV shows like The Ed Sullivan Show, Hullaballoo and Shindig!
The videos featured Sinatra wearing an iconic pair of boots.
The song was prominently used by Stanley Kubrick 's in his 1987 film Full Metal Jacket, involving a Vietnamese woman in a miniskirt propositioning a couple of American GIs.
The song was included in the 1995 film Now and Then. However the song did not appear on the film 's soundtrack.
The song was included in the 1997 film Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery
In 2006, Pitchfork Media selected it as the 114th best song of the 1960s. Critic Tom Breihan described the song as "maybe the finest bitchy kiss - off in pop history ''.
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company used portions of the song for its 1960s ad campaign promoting its "wide boots '' tires. Nancy Sinatra unsuccessfully sued Goodyear for using the song, claiming that it had violated her publicity rights.
This song appears in the 2018 film Ocean 's 8.
Jessica Simpson recorded her own version of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' (and added her own lyrics) for the soundtrack to the film The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). The version was also included in the international version of her fifth studio album, A Public Affair (2006). Simpson 's cover was co-produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and was released as the soundtrack 's first single in 2005. It became Simpson 's fifth top - twenty single in the United States, and its music video drew some controversy because of its sexual imagery.
Simpson 's version of the song is performed from the point of view of her character in The Dukes of Hazzard, Daisy Duke, and it has several major differences from Sinatra 's version. The song 's lyrics were changed almost completely as Simpson felt that they did not accurately convey the feelings needed for the film; in the original Sinatra dealt with a cheating boyfriend, while in the new version Simpson explored Daisy Duke 's personality and experiences. She rewrote the majority of the lyrics herself, although some elements were retained such as the opening line "You keep saying you got something for me... '' and the spoken "Are you ready, boots? Start walkin ' ''.
Simpson also added some new music to her version of the song. Whereas the original version did not have a bridge, she created one for the cover. A risqué rap - like / spoken breakdown was added after the bridge. Because of the legalities of songwriting, Simpson has not been credited for the new music or lyrics that she wrote. The production of the song was altered as well. Producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis gave the cover a country - inspired production because of its relationship to the film The Dukes of Hazzard, but they also added a more hip hop - like beat.
In an interview with GAC Nights, Jessica stated that her record label did not want to promote the song because of its country feel, even though the song is more pop than country. She said that she told the label "It 's a great song and Willie Nelson 's on it with me '' and she said the label told her pop radio would n't understand that importance.
"These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' peaked at fourteen on the US Billboard Hot 100, and in late 2005 the RIAA certified the single Gold for 500,000 legal downloads or more. Its digital downloads were high, but radio airplay was low. Due to this, it 's the song that reached the lowest chart position on the Billboard Hot 100 for a song topping the Hot Digital Songs chart. It reached the top ten on Billboard 's Pop 100 chart, and was Simpson 's first single to appear on the chart. On 23 July 2005, the song jumped from 8 - 1 on Hot Digital Songs charts in it _́ s second week with 43,000 downloads. On 11 December 2006 the single was certified Gold by the RIAA again, this time by Epic Records. In total, the single has received 1 million digital downloads.
Internationally it was a success, reaching top 5 in several European countries. It became her biggest hit in Australia, where it reached number two and remained in the top forty for twenty - four weeks. In Ireland, the single also reached number 2. The song also cracked the top five in the United Kingdom, where it reached number four and is to date, her highest peaking single in Britain. It reached the top ten in the chart European Hot 100 Singles, Belgium, and New Zealand and the top twenty in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany. As the end of the year 2005, the single had sold 69,500 copies in UK.
The video, directed by Brett Ratner, has caused some controversy because of its sexual imagery.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Megadeth covered the song on their 1985 debut album Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, which is track four on the original release and eight on the 2002 re-release. Their version (entitled "These Boots '') featured altered lyrics, and was produced more as a parody than a true cover.
When the album started selling well, the writer of the song, Lee Hazlewood, began demanding that the song be omitted, due to its being a "perversion of the original ''. Megadeth guitarist and frontman Dave Mustaine made the point that Hazlewood had been paid royalties for years before he made the complaint, although Mustaine eventually omitted the song anyway from newer pressings of the album. When the album was remixed in 2002, a censored version of the song was included as a bonus track. In 2011, an uncensored live version recorded in 1987 was released as part of the 25th anniversary edition of the album Peace Sells... but Who 's Buying?. In 1987 Megadeth re-recorded the song as part of the soundtrack for Penelope Spheeris ' movie Dudes, changing the title to "These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' ''. In 2018, the song was released with the original Lee Hazlewood lyrics on the remixed and remastered version of Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!
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when did they finish the great wall of china | Great Wall of China - wikipedia
The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east - to - west line across the historical northern borders of China to protect the Chinese states and empires against the raids and invasions of the various nomadic groups of the Eurasian Steppe. Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC; these, later joined together and made bigger and stronger, are collectively referred to as the Great Wall. Especially famous is the wall built in 220 -- 206 BC by Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. Little of that wall remains. The Great Wall has been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced over various dynasties; the majority of the existing wall is from the Ming Dynasty (1368 -- 1644).
Apart from defense, other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls, allowing the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road, regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration. Furthermore, the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watch towers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire, and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a transportation corridor.
The Great Wall stretches from Dandong in the east to Lop Lake in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia. A comprehensive archaeological survey, using advanced technologies, has concluded that the Ming walls measure 8,850 km (5,500 mi). This is made up of 6,259 km (3,889 mi) sections of actual wall, 359 km (223 mi) of trenches and 2,232 km (1,387 mi) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers. Another archaeological survey found that the entire wall with all of its branches measure out to be 21,196 km (13,171 mi). Today, the Great Wall is generally recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in history.
The collection of fortifications known as the Great Wall of China has historically had a number of different names in both Chinese and English.
In Chinese histories, the term "Long Wall (s) '' (長城, changcheng) appears in Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian, where it referred to both the separate great walls built between and north of the Warring States and to the more unified construction of the First Emperor. The Chinese character 城 is a phono - semantic compound of the "place '' or "earth '' radical 土 and 成, whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as * deŋ. It originally referred to the rampart which surrounded traditional Chinese cities and was used by extension for these walls around their respective states; today, however, it is much more often the Chinese word for "city ''.
The longer Chinese name "Ten - Thousand Mile Long Wall '' (萬里 長城, Wanli Changcheng) came from Sima Qian 's description of it in the Records, though he did not name the walls as such. The AD 493 Book of Song quotes the frontier general Tan Daoji referring to "the long wall of 10,000 miles '', closer to the modern name, but the name rarely features in pre-modern times otherwise. The traditional Chinese mile (里, lǐ) was an often irregular distance that was intended to show the length of a standard village and varied with terrain but was usually standardized at distances around a third of an English mile (540 m). Since China 's metrication in 1930, it has been exactly equivalent to 500 metres or 1,600 feet, which would make the wall 's name describe a distance of 5,000 km (3,100 mi). However, this use of "ten - thousand '' (wàn) is figurative in a similar manner to the Greek and English myriad and simply means "innumerable '' or "immeasurable ''.
Because of the wall 's association with the First Emperor 's supposed tyranny, the Chinese dynasties after Qin usually avoided referring to their own additions to the wall by the name "Long Wall ''. Instead, various terms were used in medieval records, including "frontier (s) '' (塞, sāi), "rampart (s) '' (垣, yuán), "barrier (s) '' (障, zhàng), "the outer fortresses '' (外 堡, wàibǎo), and "the border wall (s) '' (t 邊 牆, s 边 墙, biānqiáng). Poetic and informal names for the wall included "the Purple Frontier '' (紫 塞, Zǐsāi) and "the Earth Dragon '' (t 土 龍, s 土 龙, Tǔlóng). Only during the Qing period did "Long Wall '' become the catch - all term to refer to the many border walls regardless of their location or dynastic origin, equivalent to the English "Great Wall ''.
The current English name evolved from accounts of "the Chinese wall '' from early modern European travelers. By the 19th century, "The Great Wall of China '' had become standard in English, French, and German, although other European languages continued to refer to it as "the Chinese wall ''.
The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall - building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. During this time and the subsequent Warring States period, the states of Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Yan, and Zhongshan all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board frames.
King Zheng of Qin conquered the last of his opponents and unified China as the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty ("Qin Shi Huang '') in 221 BC. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords, he ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states. To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north, however, he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire 's northern frontier. Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources. Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls. Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. The human cost of the construction is unknown, but it has been estimated by some authors that hundreds of thousands, if not up to a million, workers died building the Qin wall. Later, the Han, the Sui, and the Northern dynasties all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders. The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region. The Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties, who ruled Northern China throughout most of the 10th -- 13th centuries, constructed defensive walls in the 12th century but those were located much to the north of the Great Wall as we know it, within China 's province of Inner Mongolia and in Mongolia itself.
The Great Wall concept was revived again under the Ming in the 14th century, and following the Ming army 's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu. The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper hand over the Mongolian tribes after successive battles, and the long - drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the nomadic tribes out by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert 's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Yellow River.
Unlike the earlier fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. Up to 25,000 watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls. Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong. Qi Jiguang between 1567 and 1570 also repaired and reinforced the wall, faced sections of the ram - earth wall with bricks and constructed 1,200 watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping to warn of approaching Mongol raiders. During the 1440s -- 1460s, the Ming also built a so - called "Liaodong Wall ''. Similar in function to the Great Wall (whose extension, in a sense, it was), but more basic in construction, the Liaodong Wall enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province, protecting it against potential incursions by Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north. While stones and tiles were used in some parts of the Liaodong Wall, most of it was in fact simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.
Towards the end of the Ming, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Even after the loss of all of Liaodong, the Ming army held the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass, preventing the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng 's rebels. Before this time, the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid, but this time it was for conquest. The gates at Shanhai Pass were opened on May 25 by the commanding Ming general, Wu Sangui, who formed an alliance with the Manchus, hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing, and eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, establishing the Qing dynasty rule over all of China.
Under Qing rule, China 's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was annexed into the empire, so constructions on the Great Wall were discontinued. On the other hand, the so - called Willow Palisade, following a line similar to that of the Ming Liaodong Wall, was constructed by the Qing rulers in Manchuria. Its purpose, however, was not defense but rather migration control.
None of the Europeans who visited Yuan China or Mongolia, such as Marco Polo, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, William of Rubruck, Giovanni de ' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, mentioned the Great Wall.
The North African traveler Ibn Battuta, who also visited China during the Yuan dynasty ca. 1346, had heard about China 's Great Wall, possibly before he had arrived in China. He wrote that the wall is "sixty days ' travel '' from Zeitun (modern Quanzhou) in his travelogue Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling. He associated it with the legend of the wall mentioned in the Qur'an, which Dhul - Qarnayn (commonly associated with Alexander the Great) was said to have erected to protect people near the land of the rising sun from the savages of Gog and Magog. However, Ibn Battuta could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it, suggesting that although there were remnants of the wall at that time, they were n't significant.
Soon after Europeans reached Ming China by ship in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European was to see it for another century. Possibly one of the earliest European descriptions of the wall and of its significance for the defense of the country against the "Tartars '' (i.e. Mongols), may be the one contained in João de Barros 's 1563 Asia. Other early accounts in Western sources include those of Gaspar da Cruz, Bento de Goes, Matteo Ricci, and Bishop Juan González de Mendoza. In 1559, in his work "A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions, '' Gaspar da Cruz offers an early discussion of the Great Wall. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall, although later they slid into hyperbole, including the erroneous but ubiquitous claim that the Ming Walls were the same ones that were built by the First Emperor in the 3rd century BC.
When China opened its borders to foreign merchants and visitors after its defeat in the First and Second Opium Wars, the Great Wall became a main attraction for tourists. The travelogues of the later 19th century further enhanced the reputation and the mythology of the Great Wall, such that in the 20th century, a persistent misconception exists about the Great Wall of China being visible from the Moon or even Mars.
Although a formal definition of what constitutes a "Great Wall '' has not been agreed upon, making the full course of the Great Wall difficult to describe in its entirety, the course of the main Great Wall line following Ming constructions can be charted.
The Jiayu Pass, located in Gansu province, is the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall. Although Han fortifications such as Yumen Pass and the Yang Pass exist further west, the extant walls leading to those passes are difficult to trace. From Jiayu Pass the wall travels discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor and into the deserts of Ningxia, where it enters the western edge of the Yellow River loop at Yinchuan. Here the first major walls erected during the Ming dynasty cuts through the Ordos Desert to the eastern edge of the Yellow River loop. There at Piantou Pass (t 偏 頭 關, s 偏 头 关, Piāntóuguān) in Xinzhou, Shanxi province, the Great Wall splits in two with the "Outer Great Wall '' (t 外 長城, s 外 长城, Wài Chǎngchéng) extending along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province, and the "inner Great Wall '' (t 內 長城, s 內 长城, Nèi Chǎngchéng) running southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 km (250 mi), passing through important passes like the Pingxing Pass and Yanmen Pass before joining the Outer Great Wall at Sihaiye (四海 冶, Sìhǎiyě), in Beijing 's Yanqing County.
The sections of the Great Wall around Beijing municipality are especially famous: they were frequently renovated and are regularly visited by tourists today. The Badaling Great Wall near Zhangjiakou is the most famous stretch of the Wall, for this is the first section to be opened to the public in the People 's Republic of China, as well as the showpiece stretch for foreign dignitaries. South of Badaling is the Juyong Pass; when used by the Chinese to protect their land, this section of the wall had many guards to defend China 's capital Beijing. Made of stone and bricks from the hills, this portion of the Great Wall is 7.8 m (25 ft 7 in) high and 5 m (16 ft 5 in) wide.
One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes in Jinshanling. There it runs 11 km (7 mi) long, ranges from 5 to 8 m (16 ft 5 in to 26 ft 3 in) in height, and 6 m (19 ft 8 in) across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 m (16 ft 5 in) across the top. Wangjinglou (t 望 京 樓, s 望 京 楼, Wàngjīng Lóu) is one of Jinshanling 's 67 watchtowers, 980 m (3,220 ft) above sea level. Southeast of Jinshanling is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for 2.25 km (1.40 mi). It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east. This section was one of the first to be renovated following the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution.
At the edge of the Bohai Gulf is Shanhai Pass, considered the traditional end of the Great Wall and the "First Pass Under Heaven ''. The part of the wall inside Shanhai Pass that meets the sea is named the "Old Dragon Head ''. 3 km (2 mi) north of Shanhai Pass is Jiaoshan Great Wall (焦 山 長城), the site of the first mountain of the Great Wall. 15 km (9 mi) northeast from Shanhaiguan is Jiumenkou (t 九 門口, s 九 门口, Jiǔménkǒu), which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge. Beyond Jiumenkou, an offshoot known as the Liaodong Wall continues through Liaoning province and terminates at the Hushan Great Wall, in the city of Dandong near the North Korean border.
In 2009, 180 km of previously unknown sections of the wall concealed by hills, trenches and rivers were discovered with the help of infrared range finders and GPS devices. In March and April 2015 nine sections with a total length of more than 10 km (6 mi), believed to be part of the Great Wall, were discovered along the border of Ningxia autonomous region and Gansu province.
Before the use of bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built from rammed earth, stones, and wood. During the Ming, however, bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall, as were materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone, so construction quickened. Additionally, bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth. Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick, but is more difficult to use. Consequently, stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the foundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways of the wall. Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall, with defensive gaps a little over 30 cm (12 in) tall, and about 23 cm (9.1 in) wide. From the parapets, guards could survey the surrounding land. Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall, including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements, was of high importance. Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility. Wooden gates could be used as a trap against those going through. Barracks, stables, and armories were built near the wall 's inner surface.
While portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even extensively renovated, in many other locations the Wall is in disrepair. Those parts might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads. Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism, while inscribed bricks were pilfered and sold on the market for up to 50 renminbi. Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction. A 2012 report by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage states that 22 % of the Ming Great Wall has disappeared, while 1,961 km (1,219 mi) of wall have vanished. More than 60 km (37 mi) of the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20 years, due to erosion from sandstorms. In some places, the height of the wall has been reduced from more than 5 m (16 ft 5 in) to less than 2 m (6 ft 7 in). Various square lookout towers that characterize the most famous images of the wall have disappeared. Many western sections of the wall are constructed from mud, rather than brick and stone, and thus are more susceptible to erosion. In 2014 a portion of the wall near the border of Liaoning and Hebei province was repaired with concrete. The work has been much criticized.
One of the earliest known references to the myth that the Great Wall can be seen from the moon appears in a letter written in 1754 by the English antiquary William Stukeley. Stukeley wrote that, "This mighty wall of four score miles (130 km) in length is only exceeded by the Chinese Wall, which makes a considerable figure upon the terrestrial globe, and may be discerned at the Moon. '' The claim was also mentioned by Henry Norman in 1895 where he states "besides its age it enjoys the reputation of being the only work of human hands on the globe visible from the Moon. '' The issue of "canals '' on Mars was prominent in the late 19th century and may have led to the belief that long, thin objects were visible from space. The claim that the Great Wall is visible from the moon also appears in 1932 's Ripley 's Believe It or Not! strip and in Richard Halliburton 's 1938 book Second Book of Marvels.
The claim the Great Wall is visible from the moon has been debunked many times, but is still ingrained in popular culture. The wall is a maximum 9.1 m (29 ft 10 in) wide, and is about the same color as the soil surrounding it. Based on the optics of resolving power (distance versus the width of the iris: a few millimeters for the human eye, meters for large telescopes) only an object of reasonable contrast to its surroundings which is 110 km (70 mi) or more in diameter (1 arc - minute) would be visible to the unaided eye from the Moon, whose average distance from Earth is 384,393 km (238,851 mi). The apparent width of the Great Wall from the Moon is the same as that of a human hair viewed from 3 km (2 mi) away. To see the wall from the Moon would require spatial resolution 17,000 times better than normal (20 / 20) vision. Unsurprisingly, no lunar astronaut has ever claimed to have seen the Great Wall from the Moon.
A more controversial question is whether the Wall is visible from low Earth orbit (an altitude of as little as 160 km (100 mi)). NASA claims that it is barely visible, and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no more conspicuous than many other man - made objects. Other authors have argued that due to limitations of the optics of the eye and the spacing of photoreceptors on the retina, it is impossible to see the wall with the naked eye, even from low orbit, and would require visual acuity of 20 / 3 (7.7 times better than normal).
Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was actually looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing. He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars, but said that "it was n't visible to the unaided eye. '' U.S. Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his claim has been disputed by several U.S. astronauts. Veteran U.S. astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of 100 to 200 miles (160 to 320 km) high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to the naked eye. '' Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station, adds that, "it 's less visible than a lot of other objects. And you have to know where to look. ''
In 2001, Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11: "I do not believe that, at least with my eyes, there would be any man - made object that I could see. I have not yet found somebody who has told me they 've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit... I 've asked various people, particularly Shuttle guys, that have been many orbits around China in the daytime, and the ones I 've talked to did n't see it. ''
In October 2003, Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei stated that he had not been able to see the Great Wall of China. In response, the European Space Agency (ESA) issued a press release reporting that from an orbit between 160 and 320 km (100 and 200 mi), the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye. In an attempt to further clarify things, the ESA published a picture of a part of the "Great Wall '' photographed from low orbit. However, in a press release a week later, they acknowledged that the "Great Wall '' in the picture was actually a river.
Leroy Chiao, a Chinese - American astronaut, took a photograph from the International Space Station that shows the wall. It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he had actually captured it. Based on the photograph, the China Daily later reported that the Great Wall can be seen from ' space ' with the naked eye, under favorable viewing conditions, if one knows exactly where to look. However, the resolution of a camera can be much higher than the human visual system, and the optics much better, rendering photographic evidence irrelevant to the issue of whether it is visible to the naked eye.
"The First Mound '' -- at Jiayuguan, the western terminus
The Great Wall of China at Badaling
A portion of the Great Wall of China at Simatai, overlooking the gorge
Mutianyu Great Wall, China. This is atop the wall on a section that has not been restored
The Old Dragon Head, the Great Wall where it meets the sea in the vicinity of Shanhaiguan
Great Wall at Dandong
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who sang loving you has made me bananas | Loving You Has Made Me Bananas - wikipedia
"Loving You Has Made Me Bananas '' is a song composed and performed by Guy Marks. It parodies big band broadcasts of the era with absurd lyrics:
Oh, your red scarf matches your eyes You closed your cover before striking Father had the shipfitter blues Loving you has made me bananas. Oh, you burned your fingers that evening While my back was turned. I asked the waiter for iodine But I dined all alone.
It was first released in 1968 on ABC Records as a single with "Forgive Me My Love '' on the B - side, some two years after "Winchester Cathedral '' had triggered a revival of this musical form that had fallen out of fashion in the 1950s. It was also released in a stereo LP in 1968 (ABC Records ABCS - 648) with additional legitimate 1930s and 1940s hits sung in the same style ("Object of My Affection '', "Painted Tainted Rose '', "Ti - Pi - Tin '', "This Is Forever '', "Amapola '', "Postage Machine '', "Careless '', "Little Shoemaker '', "Forgive Me My Love '' and "Little Sir Echo '').
The single was re-released in 1978, reaching No. 25 in the UK Singles Chart.
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when were all the star wars movies made | Star Wars - Wikipedia
Star Wars is an American epic space opera franchise, centered on a film series created by George Lucas. It depicts the adventures of characters a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away.
The franchise began in 1977 with the release of the film Star Wars (later subtitled Episode IV: A New Hope in 1981), which became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon. It was followed by two successful sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983); these three films constitute the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy was released between 1999 and 2005, albeit to mixed reactions from both critics and fans. Another trilogy that continues the story from Return of the Jedi began in 2015 with the release of Star Wars: The Force Awakens. The first eight films were nominated for Academy Awards (with wins going to the first two films released) and have been commercial successes, with a combined box office revenue of over US $8.5 billion, making Star Wars the second highest - grossing film series. Spin - off cinematic films include Rogue One (2016) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018).
The film series has spawned into other media, including books, television shows, computer and video games, theme park attractions and lands, and comic books, resulting in significant development of the series ' fictional universe. Star Wars holds a Guinness World Records title for the "Most successful film merchandising franchise ''. In 2015, the total value of the Star Wars franchise was estimated at US $42 billion, making Star Wars the second - highest - grossing media franchise of all time.
The Star Wars franchise takes place in a distant unnamed fictional galaxy at an undetermined point in the ancient past, where many species of aliens (often humanoid) co-exist. People own robotic droids, who assist them in their daily routines, and space travel is common. The galaxy is ruled by various governments at different times, whose rises and falls are chronicled by the original, prequel, and sequel trilogies; these include the Old Republic, the Empire, the New Republic, and the First Order. Each of these governments find themselves in conflict with different rebel factions.
The spiritual and mystical element of the Star Wars galaxy is known as "the Force ". It is described in the original film as "an energy field created by all living things (that) surrounds us, penetrates us, (and) binds the galaxy together ''. The people who are born deeply connected to the Force have better reflexes; through training and meditation, they are able to achieve various supernatural feats (such as telekinesis, clairvoyance, precognition, and mind control). The Force is wielded by two major factions at conflict: the Jedi, who harness the light side of the Force, and the Sith, who use the dark side of the Force through hate and aggression, and whose members are limited to only two: a master and an apprentice. The sequel trilogy introduces the seven Knights of Ren, who fill in the void left behind by the demise of the Sith at the end of the original trilogy.
Original trilogy Prequel trilogy Sequel trilogy
The main series of Star Wars movies (often called The Skywalker Saga or the Star Wars Saga) is composed of three trilogies, released out of sequence. This are the prequel (1999 -- 2005, Episodes I -- III), original (1977 -- 83, Episodes IV -- VI), and sequel (2015 -- 19, Episodes VII -- IX) trilogies. The first two trilogies were released on three year intervals, while the sequel in two year intervals. Each storyline of each trilogy focuses on a different generation of the Skywalker family, whom is strong with The Force. The prequel trilogy focuses on Anakin Skywalker, the original trilogy on his son Luke Skywalker. In the sequel trilogy the antagonist is Kylo Ren, who was born Ben Solo, Anakin 's grandson, the son of his daughter Leia and Luke 's nephew, while the hero protagonist role instead is given to Rey, a female character, whose ancestry is unknown.
In 1971, Lucas signed a contract with Universal Studios to direct two films. He intended one of them to be a space opera; however, knowing film studios were skeptical about the genre, Lucas decided to direct his other idea first, American Graffiti, a coming - of - age story set in the 1960s. In 1973, Lucas started work on his second film 's script draft of The Journal of the Whills, a space opera telling the tale of the training of apprentice CJ Thorpe as a "Jedi - Bendu '' space commando by the legendary Mace Windy. After Universal rejected the film, 20th Century Fox decided to invest in it. On April 17, 1973, Lucas felt frustrated about his story being too difficult to understand, so he began writing a 13 - page script with thematic parallels to Akira Kurosawa 's The Hidden Fortress; this draft was renamed The Star Wars. By 1974, he had expanded the script into a rough draft screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith, the Death Star, and a protagonist named Annikin Starkiller. Numerous subsequent drafts evolved into the script of the original film.
Lucas insisted that the movie would be part of a 9 - part series and negotiated to retain the sequel rights, to ensure all the movies would be made. Tom Pollock, then Lucas ' lawyer writes: "So in the negotiations that were going on, we drew up a contract with Fox 's head of business affairs Bill Immerman, and me. We came to an agreement that George would retain the sequel rights. Not all the (merchandising rights) that came later, mind you; just the sequel rights. And Fox would get a first opportunity and last refusal right to make the movie. '' Lucas was offered $50,000 to write, another $50,000 to produce, and $50,000 to direct the film. Later the offer was increased. American Graffiti cast member Harrison Ford had given up on acting and become a carpenter whom Lucas hired for his home renovations, until Lucas decided to cast him as Han Solo within his film.
Star Wars was released on May 25, 1977. It was followed by The Empire Strikes Back, released on May 21, 1980; the opening crawl of the sequel disclosed it numbered as "Episode V ''. Though the first film in the series was simply titled Star Wars, with its 1981 re-release it had the subtitle Episode IV: A New Hope added to remain consistent with its sequel, and to establish it as the middle chapter of a continuing saga. Return of the Jedi, the final film in the original trilogy, was numbered as "Episode VI '', and released on May 25, 1983. The sequels were all self - financed by Lucasfilm, and generally advertised solely under their subtitles. The plot of the original trilogy centers on the Galactic Civil War of the Rebel Alliance trying to free the galaxy from the clutches of the Galactic Empire, as well as on Luke Skywalker 's quest to become a Jedi.
Near the orbit of the desert planet Tatooine, a Rebel spaceship is intercepted by the Empire. Aboard, the deadliest Imperial agent Darth Vader and his stormtroopers capture Princess Leia Organa, a secret member of the rebellion. Before her capture, Leia makes sure the astromech R2 - D2, along with the protocol droid C - 3PO, escapes with stolen Imperial blueprints stored inside and a holographic message for the retired Jedi Knight Obi - Wan Kenobi, who has been living in exile on Tatooine. The droids fall under the ownership of Luke Skywalker, an orphan farm boy raised by his step - uncle and aunt. Luke helps the droids locate Obi - Wan, now a solitary old hermit known as Ben Kenobi, who reveals himself as a friend of Luke 's absent father, the Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker. Obi - Wan confides to Luke that Anakin was "betrayed and murdered '' by Vader (who was Obi - Wan 's former Jedi apprentice) years ago, and he gives Luke his father 's former lightsaber to keep. After viewing Leia 's message, they both hire the smuggler Han Solo and his Wookiee co-pilot Chewbacca to, aboard their space freighter the Millennium Falcon, help them deliver the stolen blueprints inside R2 - D2 to the Rebel Alliance with the hope of finding a weakness to the Empire 's planet - destroying space station: the Death Star.
For The Star Wars second draft, Lucas made heavy simplifications. It added a mystical energy field known as "the Force '' and introduced the young hero on a farm as Luke Starkiller. Annikin became Luke 's father, a wise Jedi knight. The third draft killed the father Annikin, replacing him with mentor figure Ben Kenobi. Later, Lucas felt the film would not in fact be the first in the sequence, but a film in the second trilogy in the saga. The draft contained a sub-plot leading to a sequel about "The Princess of Ondos '', and by that time some months later Lucas had negotiated a contract that gave him rights to make two sequels. Not long after, Lucas hired author Alan Dean Foster, to write two sequel novels, with the main creative restriction of plots that could be filmed on a low budget. In 1976, a fourth draft had been prepared for principal photography. The film was titled Adventures of Luke Starkiller, as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars. During production, Lucas changed Luke 's name to Skywalker and altered the title to simply The Star Wars and finally Star Wars. At that point, Lucas was not expecting the film to have sequels. The fourth draft of the script underwent subtle changes it discarded "the Princess of Ondos '' sub-plot, to become a self - contained film, that ended with the destruction of the Galactic Empire itself by way of destroying the Death Star. However, Lucas previously conceived of the film as the first of a series. The intention was that if Star Wars was successful, Lucas could adapt Dean Foster 's novels into low - budget sequels. By that point, Lucas had developed an elaborate backstory to aid his writing process.
Before its release, Lucas considered walking away from Star Wars sequels, thinking the film would be a flop. However the film exceeded all expectations. The success of the film as well as its merchandise sales both led Lucas to make Star Wars the basis of an elaborate film serial, and use the profits to finance his film - making center, Skywalker Ranch.
Three years after the destruction of the Death Star, the Rebels are forced to evacuate their secret base on Hoth as they are hunted by the Empire. At the request of the late Obi - Wan 's spirit, Luke travels to the swamp - infested world of Dagobah to find the exiled Jedi Master Yoda and begin his Jedi training. However, Luke 's training is interrupted by Vader, who lures him into a trap by capturing Han and Leia at Cloud City, governed by Han 's old friend Lando Calrissian. During a fierce lightsaber duel with the Sith Lord, Luke learns that Vader is his father.
Alan Dean Foster 's Star Wars sequel - novel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye, released in 1978, Han Solo and Chewbacca were notably excluded from the plot. But after the success of the original film, Lucas knew a sequel would be allowed his desired budget. Knowing this, he decided not to adapt Foster 's work, and instead Lucas hired science fiction author Leigh Brackett to write Star Wars II from scratch with him. Han Solo and Chewbacca were included, but the main character was Luke.
Based on that, Brackett finished her first draft in early 1978; in it, Luke 's father appeared as a ghost to instruct Luke. Lucas has said he was disappointed with it, but before he could discuss it with her, she died of cancer. With no writer available, Lucas had to write his next draft himself. It was this draft in which Lucas first made use of the "Episode '' numbering for the films; Empire Strikes Back was listed as Episode II. As Michael Kaminski argues in The Secret History of Star Wars, the disappointment with the first draft probably made Lucas consider different directions in which to take the story. He made use of a new plot twist: Darth Vader claims to be Luke 's father. According to Lucas, he found this draft enjoyable to write, as opposed to the yearlong struggles writing the first film, and quickly wrote two more drafts, both in April 1978. This new story point of Darth Vader being Luke 's father had drastic effects on the series. After writing these two drafts, Lucas revised the backstory between Anakin Skywalker, Kenobi, and the Emperor.
With this new backstory in place, Lucas decided that the series would be a trilogy, changing Empire Strikes Back from Episode II to Episode V in the next draft. Lawrence Kasdan, who had just completed writing Raiders of the Lost Ark, was then hired to write the next drafts, and was given additional input from director Irvin Kershner. Kasdan, Kershner, and producer Gary Kurtz saw the film as a more serious and adult film, which was helped by the new, darker storyline, and developed the series from the light adventure roots of the first film.
A year after Vader 's shocking revelation, Luke leads a rescue attempt to save Han from the gangster Jabba the Hutt. Afterward, Luke returns to Dagobah to complete his Jedi training, only to find the 900 - year - old Yoda on his deathbed. In his last words Yoda confirms that Vader is Luke 's father, Anakin Skywalker, and that Luke must confront his father again in order to complete his training. Moments later, the spirit of Obi - Wan reveals to Luke that Leia is his twin sister, but Obi - Wan insists that Luke must face Vader again. As the Rebels lead an attack on the Death Star II, Luke engages Vader in another lightsaber duel as Emperor Palpatine watches; both Sith Lords intend to turn Luke to the dark side of the Force and take him as their apprentice.
Kurtz wanted the bittersweet ending they originally outlined that saw Han dead, Leia struggling with her new responsibilities, Luke walking off alone, and the rebel forces in pieces -- an ending he felt was more nuanced -- while Lucas wanted a happier ending. This led to tension between the two, which resulted in Kurtz leaving the production.
After losing much of his fortune in a divorce settlement in 1987, George Lucas had no desire to return to Star Wars, and had unofficially canceled the sequel trilogy by the time of Return of the Jedi. At that point, the prequels were only still a series of basic ideas partially pulled from his original drafts of "The Star Wars ''. Nevertheless, technical advances in the late 1980s and 1990s continued to fascinate Lucas, and he considered that they might make it possible to revisit his 20 - year - old material. The popularity of the franchise was reinvigorated by the Star Wars expanded universe storylines set after the original trilogy films, such as the Thrawn trilogy of novels written by Timothy Zahn and the Dark Empire comic book series published by Dark Horse Comics. Due to the renewed popularity of Star Wars, Lucas saw that there was still a large audience. His children were older, and with the explosion of CGI technology he was now considering returning to directing.
The prequel trilogy consists of Episode I: The Phantom Menace, released on May 19, 1999; Episode II: Attack of the Clones, released on May 16, 2002; and Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, released on May 19, 2005. The plot focuses on the fall of the Galactic Republic, as well as the tragedy of Anakin Skywalker 's turn to the dark side.
About 32 years before the start of the Galactic Civil War, the corrupt Trade Federation sets a blockade around the planet Naboo. The Sith Lord Darth Sidious had secretly planned the blockade to give his alter ego, Senator Palpatine, a pretense to overthrow and replace the Supreme Chancellor of the Republic. At the Chancellor 's request, the Jedi Knight Qui - Gon Jinn and his apprentice, a younger Obi - Wan Kenobi, are sent to Naboo to negotiate with the Federation. However, the two Jedi are forced to instead help the Queen of Naboo, Padmé Amidala, escape from the blockade and plead her planet 's crisis before the Republic Senate on Coruscant. When their starship is damaged during the escape, they land on Tatooine for repairs. Palpatine dispatches his first Sith apprentice, Darth Maul, to hunt down the Queen and her Jedi protectors. While on Tatooine, Qui - Gon discovers a nine - year - old slave named Anakin Skywalker. Qui - Gon helps liberate the boy from slavery, believing Anakin to be the "Chosen One '' foretold by a Jedi prophecy to bring balance to the Force. However, the Jedi Council (led by Yoda) suspects the boy possesses too much fear and anger within him.
Lucas began to reevaluate how the prequels would exist relative to the originals; at first they were supposed to be a "filling - in '' of history tangential to the originals, but he later realized that they could form the beginning of one long story that started with Anakin 's childhood and ended with his death. This was the final step towards turning the film series into a "Saga ''. In 1994, Lucas began writing the screenplay to the first prequel, initially titled Episode I: The Beginning. Following the release of that film, Lucas announced that he would be directing the next two, and began work on Episode II.
Ten years after the Battle of Naboo, former Queen of Naboo Padmé, is now serving as the Senator to her planet, until her duty is interrupted by an assassination attempt. Obi - Wan and his apprentice Anakin are assigned to her protect her; Obi - Wan goes on a mission to track the killer, while Anakin and Padmé go into hiding. They soon fall in love with each other, albeit secretly due to the Jedi Order 's rule against attachment. At the same time, Chancellor Palpatine schemes to sweep the entire galaxy up into the conflict (known as the Clone Wars) between the armies of the Republic led by the Jedi Order, and the Confederacy of Independent Systems led by the fallen Jedi Count Dooku; the former master of Obi - Wan 's deceased master Qui - Gon, and Palpatine 's new Sith apprentice.
The first draft of Episode II was completed just weeks before principal photography, and Lucas hired Jonathan Hales, a writer from The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, to polish it. Unsure of a title, Lucas had jokingly called the film "Jar Jar 's Great Adventure ''. In writing The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas initially decided that Lando Calrissian was a clone and came from a planet of clones which caused the "Clone Wars '' mentioned by both Luke Skywalker and Princess Leia in A New Hope; he later came up with an alternate concept of an army of clone shocktroopers from a remote planet which attacked the Republic and were repelled by the Jedi. The basic elements of that backstory became the plot basis for Episode II, with the new wrinkle added that Palpatine secretly orchestrated the crisis.
Three years after the start of the Clone Wars, Anakin and Obi - Wan lead a rescue mission to save the kidnapped Chancellor Palpatine from Count Dooku and the droid commander General Grievous. Later, Anakin begins to have prophetic visions of his secret wife Padmé dying in childbirth. Palpatine, who had been secretly engineering the Clone Wars to destroy the Jedi Order, convinces Anakin that the dark side of the Force holds the power to save Padmé 's life. Desperate, Anakin submits to Palpatine 's Sith teachings and is renamed Darth Vader. While Palpatine re-organizes the Republic into the tyrannical Empire, Vader participates in the extermination of the Jedi Order; culminating in a lightsaber duel between himself and his former master Obi - Wan on the volcanic planet Mustafar.
Lucas began working on Episode III before Attack of the Clones was released, offering concept artists that the film would open with a montage of seven Clone War battles. As he reviewed the storyline that summer, however, he says he radically re-organized the plot. Michael Kaminski, in The Secret History of Star Wars, offers evidence that issues in Anakin 's fall to the dark side prompted Lucas to make massive story changes, first revising the opening sequence to have Palpatine kidnapped and his apprentice, Count Dooku, murdered by Anakin as the first act in the latter 's turn towards the dark side. After principal photography was complete in 2003, Lucas made even more massive changes in Anakin 's character, re-writing his entire turn to the dark side; he would now turn primarily in a quest to save Padmé 's life, rather than the previous version in which that reason was one of several, including that he genuinely believed that the Jedi were evil and plotting to take over the Republic. This fundamental re-write was accomplished both through editing the principal footage, and new and revised scenes filmed during pick - ups in 2004.
On August 15, 2008, the standalone animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars was released theatrically as a lead - in to the animated TV series with the same name. The animated film and series are both set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith, though Lucas used the film to introduce a retcon into the storyline, revealing Anakin to have trained a female padawan apprentice of his own, named Ahsoka Tano. Unlike the rest of the Star Wars films whose storylines are fully solved within the films series, the animated series is required to explain Ahsoka Tano 's absence from the other films. The new character was originally criticized by fans, but by the end of the animated series the character became a fan favorite. The series ran 6 seasons, which were broadcast on Cartoon Network, with the exception of the last one. The final season was cut short following Disney 's purchase of the franchise. There were also two more seasons in the works, but these were also cancelled.
Over the years, Lucas often exaggerated the amount of material he wrote for the series; many of the exaggerations stemmed from the post ‐ 1978 period when the series grew into a phenomenon. Michael Kaminski explained that the exaggerations were both a publicity and security measure, further rationalizing that since the series ' story radically changed over the years, it was always Lucas 's intention to change the original story retroactively because audiences would only view the material from his perspective. The exaggerations created rumors of Lucas having outlines of a sequel trilogy (Episodes VII, VIII, and IX) that would continue the story after 1983 's Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. Lucasfilm and Lucas had denied plans for a sequel trilogy for many years, insisting that Star Wars was meant to be a six - part series and that no further films would be released after the conclusion of the prequel trilogy in 2005. Although Lucas made an exception by releasing the animated Star Wars: The Clone Wars film in 2008, while promoting it he maintained his position on the sequel trilogy: "I get asked all the time, ' What happens after Return of the Jedi?, ' and there really is no answer for that. The movies were the story of Anakin Skywalker and Luke Skywalker, and when Luke saves the galaxy and redeems his father, that 's where that story ends. ''
Despite insisting that a sequel trilogy would never happen, in 2011 Lucas secretly began working on story treatments for three new Star Wars films. His plans for the sequel trilogy were about the characters being reduced to microscopic size and encountering creatures known as the Whills, a microscopic lifeform that control the Star Wars universe and feed off The Force. The story was apparently inspired by Lucas 's own perception that the Earth would not be saved from human overpopulation and climate change, ending up like Mars, which while unfit for humans could sustain macrobiotic life. But Lucas later decided to cease involvement with the franchise he created and leave the sequel trilogy in the hands of other filmmakers.
In January 2012, Lucas announced that he would step away from blockbuster films and instead produce smaller arthouse films. Asked whether the criticism he received following the prequel trilogy and the alterations to the rereleases of the original trilogy had influenced his decision to retire, Lucas said: "Why would I make any more when everybody yells at you all the time and says what a terrible person you are? ''
In October 2012, The Walt Disney Company agreed to buy Lucasfilm and announced that Star Wars Episode VII would be released in 2015. Later, it was revealed that the three new upcoming films (Episodes VII -- IX) would be based on story treatments Lucas had written before the sale. The co-chairman of Lucasfilm, Kathleen Kennedy, became president of the company, reporting to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn. Kennedy also served as executive producer of new Star Wars feature films, with Lucas serving as creative consultant. As announced by Lucasfilm, the sequel trilogy also meant the end of the existing Star Wars expanded universe (SWEU or EU) which ceased publication and consisted of every storytelling material that was not the theatrical films Episodes I - VI; with the animated 2008 The Clone Wars film and animated series being the sole EU exceptions that remained canon. The EU was discarded to give "maximum creative freedom to the filmmakers and also preserve an element of surprise and discovery for the audience ''. The npn - canon expanded universe content would continue to be re-print under the Star Wars: Legends brand, which was created to brand the non-canonical works of the franchise. Every Star Wars storytelling material published after April 2014, is considered canon.
The sequel trilogy began with Episode VII: The Force Awakens, released on December 18, 2015. It was followed by Episode VIII: The Last Jedi, released on December 15, 2017. Episode IX is due to be released on December 20, 2019. The plot so far contains no elements of the Whills microbiotic worlds and creatures described by Lucas, focusing instead on the journey of female scavenger Rey toward becoming a Jedi Knight with the aid of the reluctant last Jedi Luke Skywalker while she helps the Resistance, led by Luke 's sister Leia, fight against the First Order, led by Supreme Leader Snoke and his apprentice Kylo Ren, who is Leia and Han Solo 's son.
About 30 years after the destruction of the Death Star II, Luke Skywalker has vanished following the demise of the new Jedi Order he was attempting to build. The remnants of the Empire have become the First Order, and seek to destroy Luke and the New Republic, while the Resistance opposes, led by princess - turned - general Leia Organa and backed by the Republic. On Jakku, Resistance pilot Poe Dameron obtains a map to Luke 's location. Stormtroopers under the command of Kylo Ren, the son of Leia and Han Solo, capture Poe. Poe 's droid BB - 8 escapes with the map, and encounters a scavenger Rey. Kylo tortures Poe and learns of BB - 8. Stormtrooper FN - 2187 defects from the First Order, and frees Poe who dubs him "Finn '', while both escape in a TIE fighter that crashes on Jakku, seemingly killing Poe. Finn finds Rey and BB - 8, but the First Order does too; both escape Jakku in a stolen Millennium Falcon. The Falcon is recaptured by Han and Chewbacca, smugglers again since abandoning the Resistance. They agree to help deliver the map inside BB - 8 to the Resistance.
The screenplay for Episode VII was originally set to be written by Michael Arndt, but in October 2013 it was announced that writing duties would be taken over by Lawrence Kasdan and J.J. Abrams. On January 25, 2013, The Walt Disney Studios and Lucasfilm officially announced J.J. Abrams as Star Wars Episode VII 's director and producer, along with Bryan Burk and Bad Robot Productions.
Right after the destruction of Starkiller Base, Rey goes to planet Ahch - To, and attempts to convince the reluctant last Jedi alive, Luke Skywalker to teach her the ways of the Jedi and the Force. Rey also seeks answers of her past and the origin of the conflict between Kylo Ren and Luke, with the help from Luke, while through the Force and unbeknownst to Luke, she starts communicating with her nemesis Kylo Ren, who also is Luke 's nephew and fallen Jedi apprentice, Ben Solo (who renamed himself Kylo Ren). Meanwhile, Ben Solo 's mom and Luke 's sister Leia leads Poe, Finn, BB - 8, Rose Tico, and the rest of the Resistance, as they are pursued by the First Order leaded by Snoke, with Kylo Ren as his second in command. After hearing Kylo Ren 's perspective, Rey disagrees with Luke and despite his warnings leaves him, in order to attempt to redeem Kylo Ren and achieve peace. To do this, Rey, unknowingly, helps Kylo Ren assassinate Supreme Leader Snoke, however unknown to her, Kylo Ren 's true intentions were to replace Snoke as Supreme Leader of the First Order, believing destroying the Jedi and the Resistance the only way to achieve true peace. Rey must choose between Kylo Ren 's offer to co-lead the First Order, and help him exterminate the Resistance and Luke, or helping an outnumbered and cornered Resistance survive on Criat, before it 's too late.
On November 20, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lawrence Kasdan and Simon Kinberg would write and produce Episodes VIII and IX. Kasdan and Kinberg were later confirmed as creative consultants on those films, in addition to writing standalone films. In addition, John Williams, who wrote the music for the previous six episodes, was hired to compose the music for Episodes VII, VIII and IX. On March 12, 2015, Lucasfilm announced that Looper director Rian Johnson would direct Episode VIII with Ram Bergman as producer for Ram Bergman Productions. When asked about Episode VIII in an August 2014 interview, Johnson said "it 's boring to talk about, because the only thing I can really say is, I 'm just happy. I do n't have the terror I kind of expected I would, at least not yet. I 'm sure I will at some point. '' Principal photography on The Last Jedi began in February 2016. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik from March 9 to March 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland in May 2016. Principal photography wrapped in July 2016. On December 27, 2016, Carrie Fisher died after going into cardiac arrest a few days earlier. Before her death, Fisher had completed filming her role as General Leia Organa in The Last Jedi. The film was released on December 15, 2017.
Reports initially claimed Johnson would also direct Episode IX, but it was later confirmed he would write only a story treatment. Johnson later wrote on his Twitter that the information about him writing a treatment for Episode IX is old, and he 's not involved with the writing of that film. Production on Episode IX was scheduled to begin sometime in 2017. Variety and Reuters reported that Carrie Fisher was slated for a key role in Episode IX. Now, Lucasfilm, Disney and others involved with the film have been forced to find a way to address her death in the upcoming film and alter her character 's role. In January 2017, Lucasfilm stated they would not digitally generate Fisher 's performance for the film. In April 2017, Fisher 's brother Todd and daughter Billie Lourd gave Disney permission to use recent footage of Fisher for the film, but later that month, Kennedy stated that Fisher will not appear in the film. Principal photography of Star Wars: Episode IX began on August 1, 2018. J.J. Abrams returned to direct and most of The Last Jedi cast returned, including original trilogy veterans Mark Hammil as Luke Skywalker, and the deceased Carrie Fisher as General Leia (trough previously unseen footage of the previous two films), with Billie Dee Williams returning as Lando Calrissian (who had been absent the previous two films).
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, and parallel to his development of a sequel trilogy, George Lucas and his original trilogy co-scriptwriter Lawrence Kasdan started development on a film about a young Han Solo. On February 5, 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger made public the development of the Lawrence Kasdan standalone film, along with an undisclosed film written by Simon Kinberg. On February 6, Entertainment Weekly reported Kasdan 's film would focus on Han Solo, while the other on Boba Fett (the info on the later film was never confirmed). Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories. Kathleen Kennedy explained that the standalone films will not cross over with the films of the sequel trilogy, stating,
George was so clear as to how that works. The canon that he created was the Star Wars saga. Right now, Episode VII falls within that canon. The spin - off movies, or we may come up with some other way to call those films, they exist within that vast universe that he created. There is no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes. Consequently, from the creative standpoint, it 's a roadmap that George made pretty clear.
In April 2015, Lucasfilm and Kennedy announced that the standalone films would be referred to as the Star Wars Anthology films (albeit the word anthology has never been used on any of the films titles, instead choosing to carry the "A Star Wars Story '' subtitle below the film 's main title). Rogue One: A Star Wars Story was released on December 16, 2016 as the first in an anthology series of films separate from the main episodic saga. The second film, Solo: A Star Wars Story, was released on May 25, 2018.
The story is about Rogue One, the group of rebels led by Jyn Erso, who stole the Death Star plans. The film ends moments before the start of Episode IV: A New Hope.
The idea for the film was conceived by John Knoll who worked as a visual effects supervisor of the prequel trilogy films. In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of the first anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft, for a release on December 16, 2016. On March 12, 2015, the film 's title was revealed to be Rogue One, with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and starring Felicity Jones as Jyn Erso, with Ben Mendelsohn, and Diego Luna all playing characters original to the film, with suppoting roles for James Earl Jones voicing Darth Vader, and other character from previous films, including Bail Organa and Mon Mothma. The film is the first of the series to include characters from the animated series, from The Clone Wars 's Saw Gerrera is Jyn Erso 's extremist mentor, and Chopper from Star Wars: Rebels has a cameo. In April 2015, a teaser trailer was shown during the closing of the Star Wars Celebration. Lucasfilm announced filming would begin in the summer of 2015 and released the plot synopsis. Director Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who do n't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy. ''; and describing the style of the film as similar to that of a war film: "It 's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It 's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie. '' After its debut, Rogue One received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US $500 million worldwide within a week of its release.
Solo is a film focusing on a younger Han Solo and the beginning of his career as a smuggler, as well as his friendship with the Wookiee Chewbacca. A younger Lando Calrissian also appears as the owner of the Millenium Falcon. The film is set before the events of Rogue One and Han 's appearance in Episode IV: A New Hope.
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas started development on a film about a young Han Solo. Lucas hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran script writer Lawrence Kasdan, along with his son Jon Kasdan, to write the script. The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi), Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian, with Emilia Clarke and Woody Harrelson playing characters original to the film. Directors Phil Lord and Christopher Miller began principal photography on the film, but due to creative differences, the pair left the project in June 2017 with three and a half weeks remaining in principal photography. Their replacement was Academy Award - winning director Ron Howard, who previously had been one of three directors to decline George Lucas ' offer to direct Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. Howard had previously collaborated with Lucas prior to the production of Star Wars, as an actor in the Lucas - directed film American Graffiti (1973), which featured original Han Solo actor Harrison Ford. Howard had also directed Willow (1988) for Lucasfilm. Warwick Davis, who played Howard 's titular lead within that film, also appears in a minor role in Solo.
A third anthology film is scheduled to be released in 2020, albeit neither its plot or main character have been officially confirmed. A writer for the film has been hired as of September 2016.
In February 2013, Entertainment Weekly reported that Lucasfilm hired Josh Trank to direct a Star Wars standalone film, with the news being confirmed soon after. However, in November 2016 Trank announced he had left the project. By 2017, it was reported that the film was still in early development at Lucasfilm, with reports stating that the film would focus on bounty hunter Boba Fett. Lucasfilm never confirmed any details of the plot but revealed that the film Trank left was a different film from Solo and Rogue One. By May 2018, reports emerged that James Mangold had signed on to write and direct a Boba Fett film, with Simon Kinberg attached as producer and co-screenwriter. Daniel Logan, who played Boba Fett as a child in Attack of the Clones and voiced him in The Clone Wars animated series, expressed interest in reprising his role in the rumored film, going as far as making his own replica of Boba Fett 's original trilogy armor and sharing pictures wearing it on social media. His portrayal of Boba had been abruptly cut short due to the cancelation of The Clone Wars animated series, Boba 's unfinished arc would had seen him wear such armor for the first time and duel bounty hunter Cad Bane, however instead, the arc was left unfinished and never released, despite being voiced. Temuera Morrison, who voiced an adult Boba Fett in the 2004 special editions of the original trilogy, also expressed interest in portraying Boba Fett, he had previously portrayed Jango Fett in Attack of the Clones (Boba is a clone of Jango, whom Jango raised as his son). The author of the Legends story The Last Man Standing, said that Lucasfilm had sent him emails letting him know they had interest in adapting elements from his Boba Fett focused short story (which also involved Han Solo). However he noted, Lucasfilm might change plans.
In August 2016, Ewan McGregor, who played a younger Obi - Wan Kenobi in the prequel trilogy, stated that if Lucasfilm approached him, he would be open to return to the role in a spin - off anthology film focused on the character 's life in the time between Episode III and IV. In March 2017, McGregor again stated his interest in starring in the film, if Lucasfilm wanted him to. Later in 2017, footage from the film Last Days in the Desert, which starred McGregor, was edited into a fan trailer for an Obi - Wan film. The video led to the proposed film being voted as the most wanted anthology film in a poll by The Hollywood Reporter. By August 2017, it was reported that an Obi - Wan Kenobi film was in development, with Stephen Daldry in early negotiations to co-write and direct the project. Liam Neeson expressed his interest in returning to the franchise, reprising his role as Qui - Gon Jinn. Joel Edgerton, who played Luke Skywalker 's step - uncle Owen in the prequel trilogy, said he would like to reprise his role in an Obi - Wan standalone film, if it were to be made. As of 2018, McGregor has stated he would be open to reprising his role in the movie, while reports state the film may be released in 2020.
While the third anthology film had been officially confirmed for a 2020 release, no other anthology films beyond that have been officially announced. However, in June 2018, Lucasfilm told ABC News that there were multiple unannounced Star Wars films in development. This comes in response to a report from Collider which claimed that all stand - alone films had been put on hold. Making Star Wars reported that a previously unknown Mos Eisley Spaceport film was the source of the rumors and was postponed or cancelled, while all other previously reported yet unannounced films were still in active development.
In 2018, Alden Ehrenreich confirmed his contract deal to appear as Han Solo extended for two additional films, giving the studio the option to pursue a sequel to Solo, or featuring him in other anthology films in a supporting capacity. Solo director Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to the fans to decide. Critics noted the film intentionally left room open for sequels. Solo writer Jon Kasdan said, were he to write the sequel he would include bounty hunter Bossk (who briefly appeared in Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back). While Ehrenreich said he would like sequels to differentiate themselves from the previous Star Wars trilogies, by being standalone in the vein of Indiana Jones or the James Bond films, rather than direct follow - ups.
In 2018, Kennedy said a film focusing on young Lando Calrissian could also happen, but it would not be a priority at the time. Donald Glover, who played Calrissian in Solo, said he would imagine it as "Catch Me If You Can in space ''.
In 2018, it was stated Lucasfilm had also considered a film focusing on the 900 - year - old Jedi Master, Yoda. While not confirming any development, Frank Oz, who puppetered and voiced Yoda, opinionated that due to the difficulty of Yoda 's puppetry along with the likely increased involvement of the character in action sequences, in order to be able to transition from a supporting character into the expanded role of a main character, the character would need to be portrayed through CGI like in the prequel trilogy and said he would be willing to voice the character again. However, later it was said that a Yoda film was not in development. Previously, in 2015, director Guillermo del Toro pitched an idea to Lucasfilm for a film about Jabba the Hutt.
In November 2017, Lucasfilm announced that Rian Johnson, the writer / director of The Last Jedi, would be working on a new trilogy. The films will reportedly differ from the Skywalker - focused films in favor of focusing on new characters. Johnson is confirmed to write and direct the first film. On the same day, Disney announced that a live - action Star Wars television series was in development exclusively for their upcoming streaming service.
In February 2018, it was announced that David Benioff and D.B. Weiss would write and produce a series of Star Wars films that are not Skywalker - focused films, similar to (but separate from) Rian Johnson 's upcoming installments in the franchise.
From 1977 to 2014, the term Expanded Universe (abbreviated as EU), was an umbrella term for all officially licensed Star Wars storytelling materials set outside the events depicted within the theatrical films, including television series, novels, comics, and video games. Lucasfilm maintained internal continuity between the films and television content and the EU material until April 25, 2014, when the company announced all of the EU works would cease production. Existing works would no longer be considered canon to the franchise and subsequent reprints would be rebranded under the Star Wars Legends label, with downloadable content for the massively multiplayer online game Star Wars: The Old Republic being the only Legends material to still be produced. The Star Wars canon was subsequently restructured to only include the existing six feature films, the animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008), and its companion animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars. All future projects and creative developments across all types of media would be overseen and coordinated by the Story Group, announced as a division of Lucasfilm created to maintain continuity and a cohesive vision on the storytelling of the franchise. Lucasfilm announced that the change was made "to give maximum creative freedom to the filmmakers and also preserve an element of surprise and discovery for the audience ''., The animated series Star Wars Rebels was the first project produced after the announcement, followed by multiple comics series from Marvel, novels published by Del Rey, and the sequel film The Force Awakens (2015).
In the two - hour Star Wars Holiday Special produced for CBS in 1978, Chewbacca returns to his home planet of Kashyyyk to celebrate "Life Day '' with his family. Along with the stars of the original 1977 film, celebrities Bea Arthur, Art Carney, Diahann Carroll, and Jefferson Starship appear in plot - related skits and musical numbers. Lucas loathed the special and forbade it to ever be aired again after its original broadcast, or reproduced on home video. An 11 - minute animated sequence in the Holiday Special featuring the first appearance of bounty hunter Boba Fett, is considered to be the sole silver lining of the production, with Lucas even including it as a special feature on a 2011 Blu - ray release (making it the only part of the Holiday Special to ever receive an official home media release). The segment is the first Star Wars animation ever produced.
The television film Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure aired on ABC on Thanksgiving weekend in 1984. With a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, it features the Ewok Wicket from Return of the Jedi as he helps two children rescue their parents from a giant known as Gorax. The 1985 sequel, Ewoks: The Battle for Endor, finds Wicket and his friends protecting their village from invaders.
Nelvana, the animation studio that had animated the animated segment of the Holiday Special was hired to create two animated series. Star Wars: Droids (1985 -- 1986), which aired for one season on ABC, follows the adventures of the droids C - 3PO and R2 - D2, 15 years before the events of the 1977 film Star Wars. Its sister series Star Wars: Ewoks (1985 -- 1987) features the adventures of the Ewoks before Return of the Jedi and the Ewok movies.
After the release of Attack of the Clones, Cartoon Network animated and aired the micro-series Star Wars: Clone Wars from 2003 to weeks before the 2005 release of Revenge of the Sith, as the series featured event set between those films. It won the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program in 2004 and 2005.
Lucas decided to invest in creating his own animation company, Lucasfilm Animation, and used it to create his first in - house Star Wars CGI - animated series. Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 -- 2014) was introduced through a 2008 animated film of the same name, and set in the same time period as the previous Clone Wars series (albeit ignoring it). While all previous television works were reassigned to the Legends brand in 2014, Lucasfilm accepted The Clone Wars and its originating film, as part of the canon. All series released after would also be part of the canon. In 2014, Disney XD began airing Star Wars Rebels, the next CGI - animated series. Set between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope, it followed a band of rebels as they fight the Galactic Empire and helped close some of the arcs in The Clone Wars. The animated microseries Star Wars Forces of Destiny debuted in 2017, focusing on the female characters of the franchise. The animated series Star Wars Resistance will debut in fall 2018, it will be more anime inspired, and focus on resistance pilot Kazuda Zioni in the time between Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens.
Since 2005, when Lucas announced plans for a television series set between the prequel and original trilogies, the television project has been in varying stages of development at Lucasfilm Producer Rick McCallum revealed the working title, Star Wars: Underworld, in 2012, and said in 2013 that 50 scripts had been written. He called the project "The most provocative, the most bold and daring material that we 've ever done. '' The proposed series explores criminal and political power struggles in the decades prior to A New Hope, and as of December 2015 was still in development at Lucasfilm. In November 2017, Bob Iger discussed the development of a Star Wars series for Disney 's upcoming digital streaming service, due to launch in 2019. It is unknown if the series would be based on the Star Wars Underworld scripts or if it would follow an entirely new idea.
In February 2018, it was reported that there are multiple live action Star Wars television series currently in development, with "rather significant '' talent involved in the productions. Jon Favreau, who had previously voiced Pre Vizsla in The Clone Wars animated series, will produce and write one of the television series. In May 2018, Favreau confirmed his series would be set three years after Return of the Jedi (27 years before The Force Awakens) and that the series would feature motion capture characters.
Star Wars - based fiction predates the release of the first film, with the December 1976 novelization of Star Wars, subtitled From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker. Credited to Lucas, it was ghost - written by Alan Dean Foster. The first Expanded Universe story appeared in Marvel Comics ' Star Wars # 7 in January 1978 (the first six issues of the series having been an adaptation of the film), followed quickly by Foster 's novel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye the following month.
Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker is a 1976 novelization of the original film by Alan Dean Foster, who followed it with the sequel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye (1978), which Lucas decided not to film. The film novelizations for The Empire Strikes Back (1980) by Donald F. Glut and Return of the Jedi (1983) by James Kahn followed, as well as The Han Solo Adventures trilogy (1979 -- 1980) by Brian Daley, and The Adventures of Lando Calrissian (1983) trilogy by L. Neil Smith.
Timothy Zahn 's bestselling Thrawn trilogy (1991 -- 1993) reignited interest in the franchise and introduced the popular characters Grand Admiral Thrawn, Mara Jade, Talon Karrde, and Gilad Pellaeon. The first novel, Heir to the Empire, reached # 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list, and the series finds Luke, Leia, and Han facing off against tactical genius Thrawn, who is plotting to retake the galaxy for the Empire. In The Courtship of Princess Leia (1994) by Dave Wolverton, set immediately before the Thrawn trilogy, Leia considers an advantageous political marriage to Prince Isolder of the planet Hapes, but she and Han ultimately marry. Steve Perry 's Shadows of the Empire (1996), set in the as - yet - unexplored time period between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, was part of a multimedia campaign that included a comic book series and video game. The novel introduced the crime lord Prince Xizor, another popular character who would appear in multiple other works. Other notable series from Bantam include the Jedi Academy trilogy (1994) by Kevin J. Anderson, the 14 - book Young Jedi Knights series (1995 -- 1998) by Anderson and Rebecca Moesta, and the X-wing series (1996 -- 2012) by Michael A. Stackpole and Aaron Allston.
Del Rey took over Star Wars book publishing in 1999, releasing what would become a 19 - installment novel series called The New Jedi Order (1999 -- 2003). Written by multiple authors, the series was set 25 to 30 years after the original films and introduced the Yuuzhan Vong, a powerful alien race attempting to invade and conquer the entire galaxy. The bestselling multi-author series Legacy of the Force (2006 -- 2008) chronicles the crossover of Han and Leia 's son Jacen Solo to the dark side of the Force; among his evil deeds, he kills Luke 's wife Mara Jade as a sacrifice to join the Sith. The story parallels the fallen son of Han and Leia, Ben Solo / Kylo Ren, in the 2015 film The Force Awakens. Three series were introduced for younger audiences: the 18 - book Jedi Apprentice (1999 -- 2002) chronicles the adventures of Obi - Wan Kenobi and his master Qui - Gon Jinn in the years before The Phantom Menace; the 11 - book Jedi Quest (2001 -- 2004) follows Obi - Wan and his own apprentice, Anakin Skywalker in between The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones; and the 10 - book The Last of the Jedi (2005 -- 2008), set almost immediately after Revenge of the Sith, features Obi - Wan and the last few surviving Jedi. Maul: Lockdown by Joe Schreiber, released in January 2014, was the last Star Wars novel published before Lucasfilm announced the creation of the Star Wars Legends brand.
Though Thrawn had been designated a Legends character in 2014, he was reintroduced into the canon in the 2016 third season of Star Wars Rebels, with Zahn returning to write more novels based in the character, and set in the reworked canon.
Marvel Comics published a Star Wars comic book series from 1977 to 1986. Original Star Wars comics were serialized in the Marvel magazine Pizzazz between 1977 and 1979. The 1977 installments were the first original Star Wars stories not directly adapted from the films to appear in print form, as they preceded those of the Star Wars comic series. From 1985 -- 1987, the animated children 's series Ewoks and Droids inspired comic series from Marvel 's Star Comics line.
In the late 1980s, Marvel dropped a new Star Wars comic it had in development, which was picked up by Dark Horse Comics and published as the popular Dark Empire sequence (1991 -- 1995). Dark Horse subsequently launched dozens of series set after the original film trilogy, including Tales of the Jedi (1993 -- 1998), X-wing Rogue Squadron (1995 -- 1998), Star Wars: Republic (1998 -- 2006), Star Wars Tales (1999 -- 2005), Star Wars: Empire (2002 -- 2006), and Knights of the Old Republic (2006 -- 2010).
After Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm, it was announced in January 2014 that in 2015 the Star Wars comics license would return to Marvel Comics, whose parent company, Marvel Entertainment, Disney had purchased in 2009. Launched in 2015, the first three publications in were titled Star Wars, Star Wars: Darth Vader, and the limited series Star Wars: Princess Leia.
Radio adaptations of the films were also produced. Lucas, a fan of the NPR - affiliated campus radio station of his alma mater the University of Southern California, licensed the Star Wars radio rights to KUSC - FM for US $1. The production used John Williams ' original film score, along with Ben Burtt 's sound effects.
The first was written by science fiction author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden. It was broadcast on National Public Radio in 1981, adapting the original 1977 film into 13 - episodes. Mark Hamill and Anthony Daniels reprised their film roles.
The overwhelming success, led to a 10 - episode adaptation of The Empire Strikes Back in 1982. Billy Dee Williams joined the other two stars, reprising his role as Lando Calrissian.
In 1983, Buena Vista Records released an original, 30 - minute Star Wars audio drama titled Rebel Mission to Ord Mantell, written by Daley. In the 1990s, Time Warner Audio Publishing adapted several Star Wars series from Dark Horse Comics into audio dramas: the three - part Dark Empire saga, Tales of the Jedi, Dark Lords of the Sith, the Dark Forces trilogy, and Crimson Empire (1998). Return of the Jedi was adapted into 6 - episodes in 1996, featuring Daniels.
The first officially licensed Star Wars electronic game was Kenner 's 1979 table - top Star Wars Electronic Battle Command. In 1982, Parker Brothers published the first licensed Star Wars video game, Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back, for the Atari 2600. It was followed in 1983 by Atari 's rail shooter arcade game Star Wars, which used vector graphics and was based on the "Death Star trench run '' scene from the 1977 film. The next game, Return of the Jedi (1984), used more traditional raster graphics, with the following game The Empire Strikes Back (1985) returning to the 1983 's arcade game vector graphics, but recreating the "Battle of Hoth '' scene instead.
Lucasfilm had started its own video game company in the early 1980s, which became known for adventure games and World War II flight combat games. In 1993, LucasArts released Star Wars: X-Wing, the first self - published Star Wars video game and the first space flight simulation based on the franchise. X-Wing was one of the best - selling games of 1993, and established its own series of games. Released in 1995, Dark Forces was the first Star Wars first - person shooter video game. A hybrid adventure game incorporating puzzles and strategy, it featured new gameplay features and graphical elements not then common in other games, made possible by LucasArts ' custom - designed game engine, called the Jedi. The game was well received and well reviewed, and was followed by four sequels. Dark Forces introduced the popular character Kyle Katarn, who would later appear in multiple games, novels, and comics. Katarn is a former Imperial stormtrooper who joins the Rebellion and ultimately becomes a Jedi, a plot arc similar to that of Finn in the 2015 film The Force Awakens.
Disney has partnered with Lenovo to create the Augmented Reality game ' Star Wars: Jedi Challenges ' that works with a Lenovo Mirage AR headset, a tracking sensor and a Lightsaber controller that will launch in December 2017.
Aside from its well - known science fictional technology, Star Wars features elements such as knighthood, chivalry, and princesses that are related to archetypes of the fantasy genre. The Star Wars world, unlike fantasy and science - fiction films that featured sleek and futuristic settings, was portrayed as dirty and grimy. Lucas ' vision of a "used future '' was further popularized in the science fiction - horror films Alien, which was set on a dirty space freighter; Mad Max 2, which is set in a post-apocalyptic desert; and Blade Runner, which is set in a crumbling, dirty city of the future. Lucas made a conscious effort to parallel scenes and dialogue between films, and especially to parallel the journeys of Luke Skywalker with that of his father Anakin when making the prequels.
Star Wars contains many themes of political science that mainly favor democracy over dictatorship. Political science has been an important element of Star Wars since the franchise first launched in 1977. The plot climax of Revenge of the Sith is modeled after the fall of the democratic Roman Republic and the formation of an empire.
The stormtroopers from the movies share a name with the Nazi stormtroopers (see also Sturmabteilung). Imperial officers ' uniforms resemble some historical German uniforms of World War II and the political and security officers of the Empire resemble the black - clad SS down to the imitation silver death 's head insignia on their officer 's caps. World War II terms were used for names in Star Wars; examples include the planets Kessel (a term that refers to a group of encircled forces) and Hoth (Hermann Hoth was a German general who served on the snow - laden Eastern Front). Palpatine being Chancellor before becoming Emperor mirrors Adolf Hitler 's role as Chancellor before appointing himself Dictator. The Great Jedi Purge alludes to the events of The Holocaust, the Great Purge, the Cultural Revolution, and the Night of the Long Knives. In addition, Lucas himself has drawn parallels between Palpatine and his rise to power to historical dictators such as Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Adolf Hitler. The final medal awarding scene in A New Hope, however, references Leni Riefenstahl 's Triumph of the Will. The space battles in A New Hope were based on filmed World War I and World War II dogfights.
Continuing the use of Nazi inspiration for the Empire, J.J. Abrams, the director of Star Wars: The Force Awakens, has said that the First Order, an Imperial offshoot which serves as the main antagonist of the sequel trilogy, is inspired by another aspect of the Nazi regime. Abrams spoke of how several Nazis fled to Argentina after the war and he claims that the concept for the First Order came from conversations between the scriptwriters about what would have happened if they had started working together again.
The Star Wars saga has had a significant impact on modern popular culture. Star Wars references are deeply embedded in popular culture; Phrases like "evil empire '' and "May the Force be with you '' have become part of the popular lexicon. The first Star Wars film in 1977 was a cultural unifier, enjoyed by a wide spectrum of people. The film can be said to have helped launch the science fiction boom of the late 1970s and early 1980s, making science fiction films a blockbuster genre or mainstream. This very impact made it a prime target for parody works and homages, with popular examples including Spaceballs, Family Guy 's Laugh It Up, Fuzzball, Robot Chicken 's "Star Wars Episode I '', "Star Wars Episode II '' and "Star Wars Episode III '', and Hardware Wars by Ernie Fosselius.
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry, as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' Its sequel, The Empire Strikes Back, was selected in 2010. Despite these callings for archival, it is unclear whether copies of the 1977 and 1980 theatrical sequences of Star Wars and Empire -- or copies of the 1997 Special Edition versions -- have been archived by the NFR, or indeed if any copy has been provided by Lucasfilm and accepted by the Registry.
The original Star Wars film was a huge success for 20th Century Fox, and was credited for reinvigorating the company. Within three weeks of the film 's release, the studio 's stock price doubled to a record high. Prior to 1977, 20th Century Fox 's greatest annual profits were $37 million, while in 1977, the company broke that record by posting a profit of $79 million. The franchise helped Fox to change from an almost bankrupt production company to a thriving media conglomerate.
Star Wars fundamentally changed the aesthetics and narratives of Hollywood films, switching the focus of Hollywood - made films from deep, meaningful stories based on dramatic conflict, themes and irony to sprawling special - effects - laden blockbusters, as well as changing the Hollywood film industry in fundamental ways. Before Star Wars, special effects in films had not appreciably advanced since the 1950s. The commercial success of Star Wars created a boom in state - of - the - art special effects in the late 1970s. Along with Jaws, Star Wars started the tradition of the summer blockbuster film in the entertainment industry, where films open on many screens at the same time and profitable franchises are important. It created the model for the major film trilogy and showed that merchandising rights on a film could generate more money than the film itself did.
The Star Wars saga has inspired many fans to create their own non-canon material set in the Star Wars galaxy. In recent years, this has ranged from writing fan fiction to creating fan films. In 2002, Lucasfilm sponsored the first annual Official Star Wars Fan Film Awards, officially recognizing filmmakers and the genre. Because of concerns over potential copyright and trademark issues, however, the contest was initially open only to parodies, mockumentaries, and documentaries. Fan fiction films set in the Star Wars universe were originally ineligible, but in 2007, Lucasfilm changed the submission standards to allow in - universe fiction entries. Lucasfilm, for the most part, has allowed but not endorsed the creation of these derivative fan fiction works, so long as no such work attempts to make a profit from or tarnish the Star Wars franchise in any way. While many fan films have used elements from the licensed Expanded Universe to tell their story, they are not considered an official part of the Star Wars canon.
As the characters and the story line of the original trilogy are so well known, educationalists have advocated the use of the films in the classroom as a learning resource. For example, a project in Western Australia honed elementary school students story - telling skills by role playing action scenes from the movies and later creating props and audio / visual scenery to enhance their performance. Others have used the films to encourage second - level students to integrate technology in the science classroom by making prototype light sabers. Similarly, psychiatrists in New Zealand and the US have advocated their use in the university classroom to explain different types of psychopathology.
The success of the Star Wars films led the franchise to become one of the most merchandised franchises in the world. In 1977, while filming the original film, George Lucas decided to take a 500,000 - dollar pay - cut to his own salary as director, in exchange for fully owning the merchandising rights of the franchise to himself. Over the franchise 's lifetime, such exchange cost 20th Century Fox, more than US $20 billion in merchandising revenue profits. Disney acquired the merchandising rights as part of purchasing Lucasfilm.
Kenner made the first Star Wars action figures to coincide with the release of the film, and today the remaining 80 's figures sell at extremely high prices in auctions. Since the 90 's Hasbro holds the rights to create action figures based on the saga. Pez dispensers have been produced. Star Wars was the first intellectual property to be licensed in Lego Group history, which has produced a Star Wars Lego theme. Lego has produced animated parody short films to promote their sets, among them Revenge of the Brick (2005) and The Quest for R2 - D2 (2009), the former parodies Revenge of the Sith, while the later The Clone Wars film. Due to their success, LEGO created animated comedy mini-series among them The Yoda Chronicles (2013 - 2014) and Droid Tales (2015) originally airing on Cartoon Network, but since 2014 moved into Disney XD. The Lego Star Wars video games are critically acclaimed best sellers.
In 1977 with the board game Star Wars: Escape from the Death Star (not to be confused with another board game with the same title, published in 1990). The board game Risk has been adapted to the series in two editions by Hasbro: and Star Wars Risk: The Clone Wars Edition (2005) and Risk: Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition (2006).
Three different official tabletop role - playing games have been developed for the Star Wars universe: a version by West End Games in the 1980s and 1990s, one by Wizards of the Coast in the 2000s, and one by Fantasy Flight Games in the 2010s.
Star Wars trading cards have been published since the first "blue '' series, by Topps, in 1977. Dozens of series have been produced, with Topps being the licensed creator in the United States. Some of the card series are of film stills, while others are original art. Many of the cards have become highly collectible with some very rare "promos '', such as the 1993 Galaxy Series II "floating Yoda '' P3 card often commanding US $1,000 or more. While most "base '' or "common card '' sets are plentiful, many "insert '' or "chase cards '' are very rare. From 1995 until 2001, Decipher, Inc. had the license for, created and produced a collectible card game based on Star Wars; the Star Wars Collectible Card Game (also known as SWCCG).
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which i/o address is used by the com2 port | COM (hardware interface) - wikipedia
COM (Communication port) is the original, yet still common, name of the serial port interface on IBM PC - compatible computers. It might refer not only to physical ports, but also to virtual ports, such as ports created by Bluetooth or USB - to - serial adapters.
Most PC - compatible computers in the 1980s and 1990s had one or two COM ports. As of 2007, most computers ship with one or no physical COM ports. As of 2014, most PC - compatible computers do n't include any COM ports. A lot of them do still include a COM header.
After the RS - 232 COM port was removed from most IBM PC compatible computers in the 2000s, an external USB - to - UART serial adapter cable was used to compensate for the loss. A major supplier of these chips is FTDI.
The COM ports are interfaced by an integrated circuit such as 16550 UART. This IC has seven internal 8 - bit registers which hold information and configuration data about which data is to be sent or was received, the baud rate, interrupt configuration and more. In the case of COM1, these registers can be accessed by writing to or reading from the I / O addresses 0x3F8 to 0x3FF.
If the CPU, for example, wants to send information out on COM1, it writes to I / O port 0x3F8, as this I / O port is "connected '' to the UART IC register which holds the information that is to be sent out.
The COM ports in PC - compatible are typically defined as:
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what was the impact of the gideon vs wainwright case | Gideon v. Wainwright - wikipedia
Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963), is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. In it, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that states are required under the Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to provide an attorney to defendants in criminal cases who are unable to afford their own attorneys. The case extended the right to counsel, which had been found under the Fifth and Sixth Amendments to impose requirements on the federal government, by imposing those requirements upon the states as well.
Between midnight and 8: 00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, a burglary occurred at the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida. An unknown person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole money from a cash register. Later that day, a witness reported that he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the poolroom at around 5: 30 that morning, leaving with a wine bottle and money in his pockets. Based on this accusation alone, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny.
Gideon appeared in court alone as he was too poor to afford counsel, whereupon the following conversation took place:
The COURT: Mr. Gideon, I am sorry, but I can not appoint counsel to represent you in this case. Under the laws of the State of Florida, the only time the court can appoint counsel to represent a defendant is when that person is charged with a capital offense. I am sorry, but I will have to deny your request to appoint counsel to defend you in this case.
GIDEON: The United States Supreme Court says I am entitled to be represented by counsel.
The Florida court declined to appoint counsel for Gideon. As a result, he was forced to act as his own counsel and conduct his own defense in court, emphasizing his innocence in the case. At the conclusion of the trial the jury returned a guilty verdict. The court sentenced Gideon to serve five years in the state prison.
From the cell at Florida State Prison, making use of the prison library and writing in pencil on prison stationery, Gideon appealed to the United States Supreme Court in a suit against the Secretary of the Florida Department of Corrections, H.G. Cochran. Cochran later retired and was replaced with Louie L. Wainwright before the case was heard by the Supreme Court. Gideon argued in his appeal that he had been denied counsel and, therefore, his Sixth Amendment rights, as applied to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment, had been violated.
The Supreme Court assigned Gideon a prominent Washington, D.C., attorney, future Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas of the law firm Arnold, Fortas & Porter. Opposing, Bruce Jacob, who later became Dean of the Mercer University School of Law and Dean of Stetson University College of Law, argued the case for the State of Florida. Fortas was assisted by longtime Arnold, Fortas & Porter partner Abe Krash and famed legal scholar John Hart Ely, then a third - year student at Yale Law School.
During oral arguments before the Supreme Court, Fortas repeatedly referenced that the existing framework for a state trial court to appoint counsel was unworkable. Under the existing framework, a magistrate in a preliminary hearing made a determination on whether there were "special circumstances '' in the case which supported that the Defendant should receive counsel. However, as Mr. Fortas highlighted, that determination occurred too early in the case to be of any use. For example, whether a witness 's statement should be barred because it was hearsay, is an extremely complicated issue that no lay man could readily confront, and such a situation only arose in the middle of a trial.
As a second point, Mr. Fortas presented during oral argument that it was widely accepted in the legal community, that the first thing any reputable lawyer does when he is accused of a crime is hire an attorney. In providing an example, Mr. Fortas presented the justices with the fact that when Clarence Darrow, who was widely known as the greatest criminal attorney in the United States, was charged with jury tampering and suborning perjury, the first thing he did was get an attorney to represent him. Surely, as Mr. Fortas suggested, if the greatest attorney in the US needed an attorney to represent him in criminal proceedings, than a man without a legal education or any education for that matter needed a lawyer just the same.
The Supreme Court 's decision was announced on March 18, 1963, and delivered by Justice Hugo Black. The decision was announced as unanimous in favor of Gideon. Two concurring opinions were written by Justices Clark and Douglas. The Supreme Court decision specifically cited its previous ruling in Powell v. Alabama. Whether or not the decision in Powell v. Alabama applied to non-capital cases had sparked heated debate. Betts v. Brady had earlier held that, unless certain circumstances were present, such as illiteracy or stupidity of the defendant, or an especially complicated case, there was no need for a court - appointed attorney in state court criminal proceedings. Betts had thus provided selective application of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel to the states, depending on the circumstances, as the Sixth Amendment had only been held binding in federal cases. Gideon v. Wainwright overruled Betts v. Brady, instead holding that the assistance of counsel, if desired by a defendant who could not afford to hire counsel, was a fundamental right under the United States Constitution, binding on the states, and essential for a fair trial and due process of law regardless of the circumstances of the case.
Justice Clark 's concurring opinion stated that the Sixth Amendment to the Constitution does not distinguish between capital and non-capital cases, so legal counsel must be provided for an indigent defendant in all cases. Justice Harlan 's concurring opinion stated that the mere existence of a serious criminal charge in itself constituted special circumstances requiring the services of counsel at trial.
The Supreme Court remanded the case to the Supreme Court of Florida for "further action not inconsistent with this decision. ''
Gideon v. Wainwright was one of a series of Supreme Court decisions that confirmed the right of defendants in criminal proceedings, upon request, to have counsel appointed both during trial and on appeal. In the subsequent cases of Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964) and Miranda v. Arizona 384 U.S. 436 (1966), the Supreme Court further extended the rule to apply even during police interrogation.
Approximately 2,000 individuals were freed in Florida alone as a result of the Gideon decision. The decision did not directly result in Gideon being freed; instead, he received a new trial with the appointment of defense counsel at the government 's expense.
Gideon chose W. Fred Turner to be his lawyer in his second trial. The retrial took place on August 5, 1963, five months after the Supreme Court ruling. Turner, during the trial, picked apart the testimony of eyewitness Henry Cook, and in his opening and closing statements suggested that Cook likely had been a lookout for a group of young men who broke into the poolroom to steal beer, then grabbed the coins while they were there. Turner also obtained a statement from the cab driver who had taken Gideon from Bay Harbor to a bar in Panama City, stating that Gideon was carrying neither wine, beer, nor Coke when he picked him up, even though Cook testified that he had watched Gideon walk from the pool hall to the phone and then wait for a cab. This testimony completely discredited Cook.
The jury acquitted Gideon after one hour of deliberation. After his acquittal, Gideon resumed his previous life and married again some time later. He died of cancer in Fort Lauderdale on January 18, 1972, at age 61. Gideon 's family in Missouri accepted his body and laid him to rest in an unmarked grave. A granite headstone was added later. It was inscribed with a quote from a letter Gideon wrote to Abe Fortas, the attorney appointed to represent him in the Supreme Court: "Each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind. ''
The former "incorrect trial '' rule, where the government was given a fair amount of latitude in criminal proceedings as long as there were no "shocking departures from fair procedure '' was discarded in favor of a firm set of "procedural guarantees '' based on the Constitution. The court reversed Betts and adopted rules that did not require a case - by - case analysis, but instead established the requirement of appointed counsel as a matter of right, without a defendant 's having to show "special circumstances '' that justified the appointment of counsel. In this way, the case helped to refine stare decisis: when a prior appellate court decision should be upheld and what standard should be applied to test a new case against case precedent to achieve acceptable practice and due process of law.
Many changes have been made in the prosecution and legal representation of indigent defendants since the Gideon decision. The decision created and then expanded the need for public defenders which had previously been rare. For example, immediately following the decision, Florida required public defenders in all of the state 's circuit courts. The need for more public defenders also led to a need to ensure that they were properly trained in criminal defense in order to allow defendants to receive as fair a trial as possible. Several states and counties followed suit. Washington D.C., for instance, has created a training program for their public defenders, who must receive rigorous training before they are allowed to represent defendants, and must continue their training in order to remain current in criminal law, procedure, and practices. In 2010, a public defender 's office in the South Bronx, The Bronx Defenders, created the Center for Holistic Defense, which has helped other public defender offices from Montana to Massachusetts, developed a model of public defense called holistic defense or holistic advocacy. In it, criminal defense attorneys work on interdisciplinary teams, alongside civil attorneys, social workers, and legal advocates to help clients with not only direct but also collateral aspects of their criminal cases. More recently the American Bar Association and the National Legal Aid and Defender Association have set minimum training requirements, caseload levels, and experience requirements for defenders. There is often controversy whether caseloads set upon public defenders give them enough time to sufficiently defend their clients. Some criticize the mindset in which public defense lawyers encourage their clients to simply plead guilty. Some defenders say this is intended to lessen their own workload, while others would say it is intended to obtain a lighter sentence by negotiating a plea bargain as compared with going to trial and perhaps having a harsher sentence imposed. Tanya Greene, an ACLU lawyer, has said that is why 90 to 95 percent of defendants do plead guilty: "You 've got so many cases, limited resources, and there 's no relief. You go to work, you get more cases. You have to triage. ''
The Doughty v. Maxwell decision demonstrates the differences between how states and the federal government address standards for waiver of the right to counsel. In this case the Supreme Court granted certiorari and reversed the decision of the state court in Doughty, which held that regardless of Gideon, the defendant waived his or her right to appointed counsel by entering a plea of guilty. The underlying alleged crime and trial in Doughty took place in Ohio, which had its own way of interpreting the right to counsel as do many states. Pennsylvania and West Virginia also deemed that the right to counsel was waived when a plea of guilty was entered. Depending upon one 's viewpoint, rules such as these could be seen as an attempt by a state to establish reasonable rules in criminal cases or as an attempt to save money even at the expense of denying a defendant due process. This varies a great deal from federal law, which generally has stricter guidelines for waiving the right to counsel. An analogous area of criminal law is the circumstances under which a criminal defendant can waive the right to trial. Under federal law, the defendant can only waive his or her right to trial if it is clear that the defendant understands the "charges, the consequences of the various pleas, and the availability of counsel ''. State laws on the subject are often not as strict, making it easier for prosecutors to obtain a defendant 's waiver of the right to trial.
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who determined the cause of variation within a population | Genetic variation - wikipedia
Genetic variation means that biological systems -- individuals and populations -- are different over space. Each gene pool includes various alleles of genes. The variation occurs both within and among populations, supported by individual carriers of the variant genes.
Genetic variation is brought about, fundamentally, by mutation, which is a permanent change in the chemical structure of chromosomes. Genetic recombination also produces changes within alleles.
Genetic variation among individuals within a population can be identified at a variety of levels. It is possible to identify genetic variation from observations of phenotypic variation in either quantitative traits (traits that vary continuously and are coded for by many genes (e.g., leg length in dogs)) or discrete traits (traits that fall into discrete categories and are coded for by one or a few genes (e.g., white, pink, red petal color in certain flowers)).
Genetic variation can also be identified by examining variation at the level of enzymes using the process of protein electrophoresis. Polymorphic genes have more than one allele at each locus. Half of the genes that code for enzymes in insects and plants may be polymorphic, whereas polymorphisms are less common among vertebrates.
Ultimately, genetic variation is caused by variation in the order of bases in the nucleotides in genes. New technology now allows scientists to directly sequence DNA which has identified even more genetic variation than was previously detected by protein electrophoresis. Examination of DNA has shown genetic variation in both coding regions and in the non-coding intron region of genes.
Genetic variation will result in phenotypic variation if variation in the order of nucleotides in the DNA sequence results in a difference in the order of amino acids in proteins coded by that DNA sequence, and if the resultant differences in amino acid sequence influence the shape, and thus the function of the enzyme.
Geographic variation means genetic differences in populations from different locations. This is caused by natural selection or genetic drift.
Genetic variation within a population is commonly measured as the percentage of gene loci that are polymorphic or the percentage of gene loci in individuals that are heterozygous.
Random mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation. Mutations are likely to be rare and most mutations are neutral or deleterious, but in some instances, the new alleles can be favored by natural selection.
Polyploidy is an example of chromosomal mutation. Polyploidy is a condition wherein organisms have three or more sets of genetic variation (3n or more).
Crossing over and random segregation during meiosis can result in the production of new alleles or new combinations of alleles. Furthermore, random fertilization also contributes to variation.
Variation and recombination can be facilitated by transposable genetic elements, endogenous retroviruses, LINEs, SINEs, etc.
For a given genome of a multicellular organism, genetic variation may be acquired in somatic cells or inherited through the germline.
Genetic variation can be divided into different forms according to the size and type of genomic variation underpinning genetic change. Small - scale sequence variation (< 1Kbp) includes base - pair substitution and indels. Large - scale Structural variation (> 1Kbp) can be either copy number variation (loss or gain), or chromosomal rearrangement (translocation, inversion, or Segmental acquired uniparental disomy). Genetic variation and recombination by transposable elements and endogenous retroviruses sometimes is supplemented by a variety of persistent viruses and their defectives which generate genetic novelty in host genomes. Numerical variation in whole chromosomes or genomes can be either polyploidy or aneuploidy.
A variety of factors maintain genetic variation in populations. Potentially harmful recessive alleles can be hidden from selection in the heterozygous individuals in populations of diploid organisms (recessive alleles are only expressed in the less common homozygous individuals). Natural selection can also maintain genetic variation in balanced polymorphisms. Balanced polymorphisms may occur when heterozygotes are favored or when selection is frequency dependent.
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who won the nascar race in north carolina | North Wilkesboro Speedway - wikipedia
Wilkes 200 (1949 -- 1953 and 1961) Wilkes 160 (1953 -- 1959) Wilkes 320 (1960 and 1962) Wilkes 400 (1963 -- 1976) Gwyn Staley 160 (1959 -- 1960) First Union 400 (1961 -- 1996) Tyson Holly Farms 400 (1979 -- 1996) Lowe 's 250 (1995 - 1996) King 's Ranson 300 (2010) PASS Labor Day Classic 200 (2010)
North Wilkesboro Speedway was a short track that held races in NASCAR 's top three series, including 93 Winston Cup Series races. The track, a NASCAR original, operated from 1949, NASCAR 's inception, until the track 's closure in 1996. The speedway briefly reopened in 2010 and hosted several Stock Car Series races, including the now - defunct ASA Late Model Series, USARacing Pro Cup Series, and PASS Super Late Models, before closing forever in the spring of 2011. The track is located on U.S. Route 421, about five miles east of the town of North Wilkesboro, North Carolina. It measured 0.625 miles (1.006 km) and featured a unique uphill backstretch and downhill frontstretch.
Years before the 1948 founding of NASCAR, Wilkes County and the surrounding areas were known as the Moonshine Capital of America. The local economy was pushed toward liquor after the Great Depression had stripped the profitability of farming and the region 's undulating topography offered places to hide liquor stills during the Prohibition Era. Its location in the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains was also convenient for distillers and distributors of moonshine. North Wilkesboro native & NASCAR driver Benny Parsons recalled of the era "Trust me, there was nothing to do in the mountains of North Carolina back in the 30 's, 40 's, and 50 's. You either worked at a hosiery mill, a furniture factory, or you made whiskey. ''
In 1945, Enoch Staley attended a stock car race in South Carolina sponsored by Bill France. Enoch was inspired by the races and was impressed by the large crowds attending the new sport. So he decided to build a track in his native Wilkes County, and he asked Bill France to promote the races and assist with their operation.
Enoch and his partners, Lawson Curry, Jack Combs, and Charlie Combs, purchased farmland near North Wilkesboro and began building an oval racetrack. When their initial investment of $1,500 was exhausted, they were forced to amend the original design of the track, hence the completed track was not a perfect oval. The front stretch was left with a downhill slope, and the backstretch had an uphill slope. Construction was completed in late 1946.
North Wilkesboro Speedway opened its doors on May 18, 1947 as a dirt track. Bill France promoted the first official event as a Modified race, including heat races and a feature race. While an attendance of about 3,000 people was expected, a crowd in excess of 10,000 was in attendance to see one of the famous Flock brothers win the race.
On October 16, 1949, North Wilkesboro Speedway held the eighth and final race of the 1949 NASCAR Strictly Stock Division. Kenneth Wagner won the first Cup Pole at the track with a speed of 57.563 mph on the dirt surface. A total of 22 drivers competed in the race. Bob Flock, in his Bob Christian - owned 1949 Oldsmobile, passed Bill Blair 's fading Cadillac with 20 laps to go and won by about 100 yards over Lee Petty. At the end of the day Robert "Red '' Byron walked away as the first NASCAR champion.
North Wilkesboro carried a reputation as one of the fastest short - tracks in auto racing in the late 1940s and 1950s. In 1950, speeds reached 73 mph at the track, compared to the next fastest short - track, Charlotte Speedway, where top speeds only reached 66 mph. Most of the fans in the early years of the sport saw the track as notorious for being a great venue to watch races between the legendary racers of the time. Racing at North Wilkesboro was intense and physical.
The 1950 Wilkes 200 was the second Grand National Series race held at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Twenty - six cars entered the race. Twenty - one - year - old Fireball Roberts qualified with a lap speed of 73.266 mph on the dirt track for his first ever Grand National pole, but engine problems dropped him out of the running. Fonty Flock started in the third position and led the most laps in the race with 104, but engine troubles also ended his day. Ultimately, Leon Sales led eight of the 200 laps to become the victor, the fourth NASCAR driver to win an event in his debut race. Jack Smith finished second after leading 55 laps in the race.
After hosting only one NASCAR event in 1949 and one in 1950, the track began running two Grand National Series events per year in 1951 (with the exception of 1956, when only one race was held; the track was being prepared for pavement). One race was held in the spring, normally in late March or early April, and another was held in the fall, normally in late September or early October. In 1957, owner Enoch Stanley had the 5 / 8 - mile track paved.
The Wilkes 200 in 1952 turned into a battle between brothers. Two sets of brothers competed in the race, and they took the top four spots at the finish. The Flock Brothers (Fonty Flock and Tim Flock) were strong, but the Thomas brothers (Herb Thomas and Donald Thomas) had the better outcome. Herb Thomas, driving his 1952 "Fabulous '' Hudson Hornet, won the pole, led 192 of the 200 laps, and grabbed the victory. Fonty Flock led the first eight laps and finished the race second. Donald Thomas, also in a 1952 "Fabulous '' Hudson Hornet, finished third, and Tim Flock finished fourth. Eleven of the 27 cars entered in the race finished. Six of the top nine positions were driving Hudson Hornets.
Herb Thomas started on the pole for the 1953 Wilkes 200 with his record - setting qualifying speed of 78.424 mph on the dirt surface. Outside pole sitter Tim Flock led the first 100 laps before experiencing engine problems. Curtis Turner took the lead on Lap 101 and continued the lead until his car also succumbed to engine troubles nine laps later. Thomas in his Number 92 Hudson Hornet only lead 18 laps in the race but ended the race by taking his third consecutive win at North Wilkesboro. Starting from the third spot, Dick Rathmann led 70 laps and finished behind Herb Thomas. Fonty Flock managed to work his way up from the fourth starting position to the front and led three laps before dropping back and finishing third.
Pole sitter Buck Baker ran 78.288 mph to gap the pole for the 1953 Wilkes 160. Baker ran strong and led the most laps in the race with 80 out front before falling back into sixth position at the finish. Speedy Thompson led 25 laps, and Fonty Flock led 37. Curtis Turner led a total of 18 laps. At the end of the race, Thompson finished two laps ahead of second - place Flock. Thompson 's win ended Herb Thomas and his Hudson Hornet 's three - race winning streak at North Wilkesboro.
At the 1954 Wilkes County 160, Gober Sosebee won the pole with a lap speed of 78.698 mph. Sosebee led a race - high 112 laps but finished in 12th position, eight laps down. The only other leader was Dick Rathmann, who led 48 laps. Rathmann blew a tire while leading, with three laps to go, and still managed to finish and win the race. Herb Thomas finished some 20 seconds behind in second place.
In the 1954 Wilkes 160, Hershel McGriff won the pole with a qualifying speed of 77.612 mph. He and Dick Rathman were the only leaders of the race; McGriff led 74 laps, and Rathman led 83. The race was called three laps early because of a serious crash involving Lou Figaro; his car flipped, and the roof caved in. Figaro was transported to a hospital in Winston - Salem, but he died the following day from a skull fracture and brain damage suffered in the crash. McGriff was declared the winner. It was his final victory and his last Grand National race for 17 years.
Dink Widenhouse won his only career Grand National Series pole at the 1955 Wilkes County 160. Engine problems, however, landed Widenhouse out of the race. Outside pole sitter Buck Baker led all 160 laps, but by the last lap Dick Rathmann was glued to Baker 's bumper, still charging. Rathmann 's final charge off of Turn Four came up three feet short of stealing the victory. It was the closest finish in series history up to that time. Local native Junior Johnson ran in his first Grand National race at North Wilkesboro.
In 1956, the Wilkes County 160 was the only Grand National Series race of the season, and it was the last race on dirt at North Wilkesboro. Junior Johnson 's 1956 Pontiac started from the pole and led the first 17 laps before engine problems sidelined him. Outside pole qualifier Speedy Thompson took over the lead from there until fuel line problems on Lap 114 forced him out of the race. Tim Flock led the final 46 laps, earning his first win at North Wilkesboro. After the race, Flock announced to Carl Kiekhafer that this would be the last time he would drive one of Kiekhafer 's cars. Billy Myers was the runner - up.
The Wilkes County 160 in 1957 was dominated by the Pete DePaolo Fords. DePaolo entered five 1957 Fords in the race, and they all finished in the top six positions. Fireball Roberts put his DePaolo Ford on the pole with a qualifying speed of 81.5 mph. It was the first time the pole sitter had a speed over 80 mph. Roberts was the only driver to lead during the race, leading all 160 laps. Roberts won the race without making a single pit stop. DePaolo 's other drivers were second - place finisher Paul Goldsmith, third place Ralph Moody, fourth place Marvin Panch, and sixth place Allen Adkins. Buck Baker 's was the only non-Depaolo car in the top six. He finished in fifth place.
The Wilkes 160 of 1957 was Junior Johnson 's first race after spending 11 months in jail for his moonshining activities. It was also his only start of the 1957 Grand National Series season. Fireball Roberts won the pole with a lap speed of 81.64 mph. Jack Smith passed Banjo Matthews with ten laps to go, holding off Lee Petty for the victory. Tragedy struck on Lap 47 when Tiny Lund 's axle snapped. One of the wheels broke loose, hitting spectators. One spectator was injured, and another, William R. Thomasson, was killed.
The NASCAR Convertible Series ran two races at North Wilkesboro. In 1957, Ken Rush won the pole and led the first 21 laps before Glen Wood took the lead for the next 42 laps. Paul Goldsmith took the lead on Lap 64 and led the rest of the 160 - lap race. In 1958, Roz Howard won the pole but never led a lap. Billy Myers took the lead on Lap One and continued until Lap 82 when he was passed by Gwyn Staley. Billy Myers retook the lead on Lap 119 and lead the rest of the race.
In 1959 North Wilkesboro 's spring race, the Wilkes County 160, was renamed the Gwyn Staley 160 in memory of Enoch Staley 's younger brother. Gwyn Staley was killed in a convertible race at Richmond 12 days before the running of the Wilkes County 160. The race remained in Gwyn Staley 's name until 1978. Lee Petty won the inaugural Gwyn Staley 160, His first North Wilkesboro win, driving a Petty Enterprises # 43 car. It was his only victory driving a # 43 car, a number later made famous by his son Richard Petty.
Through the 1960s and 1970s the NASCAR Grand National Series began focusing on bigger, faster, and longer tracks. Like other short tracks in NASCAR at the time, crowd capacity and purses were small compared to the larger tracks. Over time, Enoch Staley and Jack Combs attempted to keep the facility modern and on pace with the growth of the sport. The West Grandstand was rebuilt with chair - type seats rather than the old bare concrete slabs. New larger restroom facilities were built, and the South Grandstand was expanded. A garage facility was also built within the track, which at the time was rare for short - track venues. But the main focus was on keeping ticket prices affordable. Food and beverage prices were kept low, and event parking and camping were always free. As long as profits covered maintenance costs, Staley was satisfied with the income of the track.
In the Gwyn Staley 160 of 1960, Junior Johnson beat 21 other drivers for the pole position with a lap speed of 83.860 mph. Glen Wood overtook Johnson to lead the first lap, but Johnson had the race under control and led the next 145 laps. Lee Petty moved up from the eighth starting position to challenge Johnson late in the race. With 14 laps remaining, Johnson and Petty made contact. Johnson 's car was sent spinning into the guardrail. Petty lead the final 14 laps to win his third straight race at North Wilkesboro. The crowd of 9,200 pelted Petty with bottles, rocks, and debris after his win; he had done their local hero wrong. When Petty took the microphone in Victory Lane to explain his side of the story, the crowd began jeering. Rex White finished second, and Wood placed third. Ned Jarrett finished fourth under the alias John Lentz.
The length of the fall race in 1960 was increased from its usual 160 laps / 100 miles to 320 laps / 200 miles, this it became known as the Wilkes 320. Speeds increased immensely from the previous record, 1.83 seconds quicker than any previous qualifying lap (86.806 to 93.399 mph). Rex White posted the fastest qualifying lap and dethroned Lee Petty from his three - race winning streak at North Wilkesboro. Junior Johnson finished about half a lap behind White in second place.
In the 1961 running of the Gwyn Staley 400, Junior Johnson recorded another pole, this time by 0.57 seconds better than the previous track record, with his qualifying time of 23.52 (95.660 mph). Johnson led all of the 62 laps he ran before transmission problems forced him out of the race. Fred Lorenzen led the next 61 laps until engine problems took him out of the running. And Curtis Turner led 56 laps before experiencing problems as well. 1960 Grand National Champion Rex White, who started on the outside pole, led the remaining 221 laps and won the race. Tommy Irwin started the race in sixth position and finished the Gwyn Staley 400 two laps behind White. Richard Petty followed in third place. Fireball Roberts, in a Pontiac owned by Smokey Yunick, finished fourth (ten laps down), and Johnny Allen, who crashed out of the race on his 387th lap, still finished in fifth place. Only 12 of the 25 cars that entered the race were running at the finish of the first 400 - lap edition of the Gwyn Staley race.
In the 1963 Wilkes 400, Fred Lorenzen captured his third straight pole at the track by breaking his own record with a lap time of 23.30 seconds / 96.566 mph. Richard Petty entered the race in an attempt to become the first driver to win four consecutive races at North Wilkesboro. But he experienced engine problems and lasted only 45 laps into the race. Lorenzen led 58 laps, but came up short of victory, six seconds behind winner Marvin Panch. Panch did not start the 1963 season until halfway through because he had nearly lost his life in a crash while testing a Maserati at Daytona that February. Panch, in a Wood Brothers car, started third and led 131 laps in the race. Holman - Moody took the next three spots in the final rundown, with Lorenzen second, Nelson Stacy third, and Fireball Roberts fourth. Stacy started fourth and led 56 laps, while Roberts started from the outside pole and led the most laps with 155.
The track was repaved just prior to the Gwyn Staley 400 in 1964, and the resulting lack of traction wreaked havoc. Fireball Roberts, Buck Baker, Buddy Arrington, and G.C. Spencer all crashed through the wooden guardrail in the first and second turns in Saturday 's practice and qualifying. Roberts was unable to start the race because his Ford had been so heavily damaged. Fred Lorenzen won the pole and led 368 laps on the way to the win.
Junior Johnson was the pole sitter for the 1965 Gwyn Staley 400, with a qualifying time and speed of 22.27 seconds / 101.033 mph, breaking his own record by 0.06 seconds. Marvin Panch was leading the race when a blown tire caused him to crash with 11 laps remaining. Johnson assumed the lead from there and won his third of 13 wins in 1965. Johnson lead during most of the race, 356 laps in total. Bobby Johns in a Holman - Moody Ford finished in the runner - up position, seven seconds behind Johnson. Finishing third, one lap down, was Ned Jarrett. Jarrett had led 20 laps early in the race. Dick Hutcherson, in his Holman - Moody Ford, finished seven laps off the pace in fourth place, and Panch finished fifth. Panch led on three occasions during the race for a total of 24 laps.
In the Wilkes 400 of 1965, Fred Lorenzen won the pole and led the first 190 laps before engine problems forced him out of the race on Lap 219. Junior Johnson took the lead from the fading Lorenzen to pick up his 50th and final Grand National Series victory by two laps over Cale Yarborough. Only 16 of the 35 cars that entered the race were running at the finish.
Jim Paschal started the 1966 Gwyn Staley 400 from the pole position with a record lap time and speed of 21.91 sec / 102.693 mph. Paschal led 308 laps and won by six laps over G.C. Spencer, the largest margin of victory at North Wilkesboro in a Grand National Series race. David Pearson started on the outside pole, and despite losing an engine with 18 laps to go he finished third. Wendell Scott finished fourth (22 laps down), and Clarence Henly Gray finished fifth (25 laps down). Only 14 of the 37 cars entered in the race were running at the finish. Richard Petty was the only driver besides Paschal to lead any laps in the race. He led 92 laps before falling back to finish 11th (53 laps down).
Darel Dieringer completely dominated the 1967 Gwyn Staley 400, driving for Junior Johnson. Dieringer got the pole with a lap of 21.50 seconds / 104.693 mph and lead all 400 laps. He was the first driver to run a Grand National Series race of over 250 miles while leading from start to finish. He lapped the whole field twice at one point. Dieringer took the checked flag after he ran out of gas in Turn Four of the last lap and coasted to the finish line. This was Dieringer 's last Grand National victory. Cale Yarborough, driving the No. 21 Wood Brothers Ford, finished second, one lap behind Dieringer. A 20 - lap qualifying race to make the field was won by Clyde Lynn.
In the Wilkes 400 of 1967, Richard Petty achieved an historic tenth straight win, his 27th win of the season, at North Wilkesboro. Prior to the start of the race, Petty 's car had a flat tire, but he was able to recover and win by two laps over pole winner Dick Hutcherson. Only 15 of the 35 cars that started the race were able to finish.
Three drivers entered the 1970 Wilkes 400 in a very close points race. Bobby Isaac was just ahead of James Hylton, and Bobby Allison was close behind. But Richard Petty, who was out of the points because of a shoulder injury suffered at Darlington in May, was considered the favorite to win the race. Isaac started from the pole for a record - tying fourth consecutive time, matching Fred Lorenzen and Herb Thomas with a qualifying lap time of 21.346 seconds / 105.406 mph. Fans were given quite a show as Isaac and Petty exchanged the lead a total of 11 times throughout the race. Isaac, in the Nord Krauskopf 's K&K Insurance Dodge, led 179 laps and took the win by six car lengths over Petty. Petty, who had started the race in third position led the most laps in the race with 216. Bobby Allison started fourth and finished fourth behind his brother, Donnie Allison. And Hylton finished fifth at the end of day. Isaac advanced to become the 1970 Winston Cup Champion at season 's end, with Allison being the runner - up in points.
Bad weather in 1971 caused the Wilkes 400 to be postponed to November 21. Due to the Grand National Series ' struggling car counts, cars from NASCAR 's Grand American Series were allowed to run in this race. Charlie Glotzbach broke the track record in qualifying at 20.919 seconds / 107.558 mph. It was the first lap ever run under 21 seconds at North Wilkesboro, ending Bobby Isaac 's run of five consecutive poles at the track. Tiny Lund, driving a 1970 Camaro, qualified sixth and led just seven laps on his way to the victory. Lund also won another race driving the Camaro that season at Hickory. Glotzbach finished second, six seconds behind Lund, after leading 76 laps in the race. Richard Petty started from the outside pole and led 306 laps to finish third. Dave Marcis finished fourth, two laps down, and Benny Parsons rounded out the top five. Bobby Allison was the only other driver to lead, running 11 laps out front before losing an engine prior to the half.
The Wilkes 400 in 1972 was one of the wildest finishes in NASCAR Cup Series history. Buddy Baker won the pole in the No. 71 K&K Insurance Dodge owned by Nord Krauskopf, but he only led the first lap of the race. Richard Petty and Bobby Allison swapped the lead for the rest of the race, beating and banging each other for the win. At times was more of a demolition derby than a race. Both cars were destroyed by the end, with Allison 's car noticeably smoking. This was the peak of the Petty - Allison rivalry. Petty was declared the winner, but in Victory Lane, a fan tried to attack him. But he was defended by his helmet - wielding brother, Maurice Petty. This was Richard Petty 's last of 137 wins in a Plymouth.
In the Gwyn Staley 400 of 1973, Bobby Allison landed on the pole with a qualifying lap of 21.077 seconds / 106.750 MPH. Richard Petty qualified on the outside pole, and in dominating fashion he led 386 laps, winning by over four laps. It was Petty 's tenth career win at North Wilkesboro and his 151st career NASCAR victory. Benny Parsons led six laps and finished second. Buddy Baker finished third in the No. 71 K&K Insurance Dodge owned by Nord Krauskopf. Allison lead seven laps and finished fourth in the race. Cecil Gordon rounded out the top five finishers. Yvon DuHamel, a top AMA road racer from Quebec, drove a Mercury prepared by Junie Donlavey and finished in tenth place in his only career Cup race. Twenty of the 30 cars that entered the race were running at the finish.
In the Wilkes 400 of 1973 Bobby Allison, driving for his own No. 12 Coca - Cola team, won the pole position. He and Richard Petty led most of the race, Allison with 161 and Petty with 222. As Petty led the race late, Allison pitted and got fresh tires on a late pit stop, running down Petty and passing him on the final lap. It was considered as one of the most exciting races ever at North Wilkesboro Speedway.
In 1975 the NASCAR Baby Grand Series, later known as Goody 's Dash Series, ran its first race at North Wilkesboro, with a win by Dean Combs. Thirty - seven races were run at the track from 1975 - 1984, 1986 - 1987, and 1995 - 1996. Dean Combs had the most wins at the track with 15 victories.
In the Gwyn Staley 400 of 1977, Cale Yarborough became the first driver to win a NASCAR Cup Series race on his birthday. Neil Bonnett beat Yarborough for the pole, but in the race Yarborough led 320 laps on the way to his birthday victory. Only the top three, Yarborough, Richard Petty and Benny Parsons finished on the lead lap.
In the Wilkes 400 of 1978, Darrell Waltrip won the pole in his No. 88 Gatorade DiGard team Chevrolet. Waltrip led the first 381 laps of the 400 - lap race. But with 19 laps remaining, Cale Yarborough passed Waltrip and took the win. Yarborough and Waltrip were the only drivers to finish on the lead lap in the 27 - car field. This ninth win of the season for Yarborough virtually locked his third straight NASCAR Cup Series championship driving for car owner Junior Johnson.
In the Northwestern Bank 400 of 1979, Benny Parsons won the pole. Richard Petty led the most laps with 211, but it was Bobby Allison who passed Petty and led the final 47 laps. The suspension on Allison 's No. 15 Ford collapsed as he crossed the finish line on the final lap of the race, leading to a smokey victory lap as the car threw sparks. But by that time he had already won and was headed to Victory Lane. Dale Earnhardt tied for fourth, his best finish at that point in his career. He won his first race in the very next event at Bristol.
The Holly Farms 400 in 1979 was the first time the fall race had a sponsor. Holly Farms would be the name of the track 's fall races from this event until the track 's final race in 1996. The race was scheduled to be run September 30, but heavy rains and worms seeping onto the track surface plagued the entire weekend. So the race was rescheduled for the next available weekend, October 14. Dale Earnhardt broke the 20 - second barrier during qualifying and claimed the pole position. With a new asphalt surface on the track, 14 drivers ended up topping the previous qualifying record. Bobby Allison led the most laps in the race with 175, and Darrell Waltrip led 104. After Waltrip bumped Allison out of the lead, Waltrip was wrecked on Lap 311, when Allison put him into the wall. Waltrip began crowding out Allison under the caution before officials black - flagged him. Wilkes County local, Benny Parsons, ended the day in Victory Lane after leading the final 92 laps. It was Parsons ' first and only win at his hometown track.
During the 1980s the track was noticeably lagging behind other speedways on the NASCAR circuit, but the fans were more interested in the great racing action between the legendary drivers. Enoch 's focus was more on the fans ' enjoyment rather than on building large suites and new facilities. Attendance and total purse for races at the track were the lowest in NASCAR, but the events continued to sell out and attract more fans each year.
In the 1981 Northwestern Bank 400, Dave Marcis, driving an unpainted car, won the pole with a lap record of 19.483 sec / 115.485 mph on the newly repaved track. The lap was 0.241 seconds faster than the previous record set by Dale Earnhardt one year earlier. A 22 - year - old newcomer, Mark Martin, made his NASCAR Cup Series debut with a quick qualifying run, starting fifth. But he ended up dropping out 166 laps into the race with rear end problems and finished 27th. Bobby Allison was up front, leading the most laps with 186. Marcis stayed up front and led 123 laps but fell off the pace late in the race when his tires wore out. Richard Petty took the lead and led the final 62 laps for his 194th career win. This was Petty 's 15th and final win at North Wilkesboro, the most Cup wins at the track. It was also Petty 's 107th and final win on a short track. The top five finishers behind Petty were Allison, Darrell Waltrip, Marcis, and Harry Gant.
Darrell Waltrip dominated the Holly Farms 400 of 1981. He started on the pole, leading 318. He lapped the field on the way to the win, beginning a streak of five straight wins at the track. Bobby Allison finished second, one lap down after leading 76 laps. Other leaders in the race were Jody Ridley leading four laps, Dave Marcis with one lap, and Richard Petty with one.
The Northwestern Bank 400 of 1982 was ESPN 's first broadcast at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Bob Jenkins and Ned Jarrett called the race, with Ron Kendrick as the pit reporter. They broadcast every North Wilkesboro race afterward until the final race there in the fall of 1996. Bobby Hillin Jr., at 17 years old, made his first career start and set the record for the youngest driver (A 1998 rule change raised the minimum age in NASCAR to 18, meaning this record is unlikely to be broken) to start a NASCAR Winston Cup race. Darrell Waltrip won the race from the pole, leading 345 laps.
The 1982 Holly Farms 400 was a total domination by Darrell Waltrip and the Junior Johnson team. Waltrip started the weekend by gaining his third straight pole at the track with a qualifying lap of 19.761 sec / 113.860 mph. He led 329 laps in the race. Bobby Allison was the only driver who could stay close to the No. 11 team. As the only other leader in the race, Allison led 71 laps but was forced out by engine problems after 141 laps. Only Waltrip and Harry Gant finished the race on the lead lap. It was Waltrip 's third straight NASCAR Cup Series win at North Wilkesboro.
In the spring of 1983, NASCAR ran its first Busch race at North Wilkesboro. Tommy Ellis won the pole with a qualifying speed of 116.692 mph. Ellis led the first 15 laps before being passed by Butch Lindley. Sam Ard got the lead from Lindley on Lap 34 and led the rest of the 200 - lap race. Only ten of the 23 cars finished the race. That fall, Phil Parsons won the pole for the second Busch race. Jack Ingram led a race - high 126 laps, but Tommy Ellis took the win. Only one event was held in 1984, with Sam Ard winning his final Busch race. Tommy Houston won the pole in 1985 for the last Busch race, with Jack Ingram taking the win.
Darrell Waltrip and Junior Johnson enjoyed a big win in the 1983 Holly Farms 400. It was Waltrip 's fifth straight win at the track and Johnson 's 100th career NASCAR Cup Series win as an owner, which just happened to take place at his home track within ten miles of his home and farm. Waltrip got the pole and led 252 laps on the way to victory. Dale Earnhardt was runner - up in the race with 134 laps out front.
The Northwestern Bank 400 of 1984 was dominated by Ricky Rudd, who got the pole and led 290 laps. But at the end of the race, Tim Richmond had a better pit stop to beat Ricky Rudd out of the win. Richmond 's victory broke Darrell Waltrip 's five - race winning streak at North Wilkesboro.
In the 1986 First Union 400, Geoffrey Bodine started on the pole. On Lap 85, Trevor Boys crashed out of the race and blocked the entrance to Pit Road, but no caution flag was thrown. Instead, a wrecker was sent out on the bottom of the track to haul Boys out of the way under green - flag conditions. Dale Earnhardt won the race and led 195 laps, followed by Ricky Rudd in second place with 102.
The Holly Farms 400 of 1988 was a rough race. Ricky Rudd led 154 laps, and Dale Earnhardt led 107. A beating and banging match started between them, and NASCAR sent them both to the rear of the field with less than 40 laps to go. For the remainder of the race they continued to beat and bang on each other. On the last lap, Geoffrey Bodine gave Rusty Wallace a shot and drove around him in Turn One. But when the two got around to Turn Three, Wallace returned the shot and passed Bodine for the win.
The 1989 First Union 400 was the first NASCAR Cup Series race for Goodyear radial tires. Dale Earnhardt won the race on the Goodyear tires after Rusty Wallace grabbed the pole on Hoosier bias ply tires. Earnhardt led 296 out of 400 laps. In the end, Earnhardt and Alan Kulwicki battled it out hard for the last couple of laps until Kulwicki ran up the track trying to pass Earnhardt on the outside with four laps left.
In the 1989 Holly Farms 400, Dale Earnhardt entered the race only 35 points behind Rusty Wallace for the NASCAR Cup Series championship with four races left. The race was originally scheduled for October 1, but rain caused a two - week postponement. Earnhardt got the pole position because inclement weather had washed out the qualifying runs. This is the only Cup race at North Wilkesboro to start without qualifiers. Earnhardt dominated the race, leading 343 laps. On the final restart on Lap 398, Earnhardt led Ricky Rudd, Geoff Bodine, Terry Labonte, and Mark Martin. Rudd was in pursuit of Earnhardt on the last lap going into the first turn. He went low, and Earnhardt tried to keep a tight line through the corner to hold the lead. They made contact and both cars went spinning, as Geoff Bodine went around to gap the win by leading only the last lap in the race. The last - lap contact also produced some of the most memorable broadcasting quotes in NASCAR history. After the race, Dick Berggren asked Earnhardt, "How will this affect your championship? You 've got three more to go. '' Earnhardt responded, "What do ya think? They oughta fine that son of a bitch and make him sit out the rest of the year, I dunno. '' Earnhardt ended up losing the championship by 12 points to Wallace.
By the 1990s, North Wilkesboro was like a part of the past. Enoch had always had the fans ' interests at heart, and he was reluctant to raise ticket and concession prices or charge spectators additional fees to make facility improvements. Track amenities were seen as out - of - date and lagging behind the other more modern facilities. Parking was overcrowded and tight, traffic jams plagued the two - lane roads leading to the facility, and hotel and motel rooms were hard to find in the area. NASCAR crowds and TV contracts had outgrown the Speedway. NASCAR had continued to expand and grow more in the economy. Bigger TV deals and larger coverage of the races and new, bigger sponsors were growing in the sport, as North Wilkesboro races continued with the lowest crowd capacity, 60,000 in its best years, in all of the Winston Cup Series. Winners purses were normally still under $100,000.
Controversy erupted at the end of the 1990 First Union 400. Mark Martin had started the race from the pole, and Darrell Waltrip was in the lead when a caution came out late for Kenny Wallace right as the last round of green flag pit stops was completed. Brett Bodine was on the tail - end of the lead lap. Since NASCAR did n't have electronic scoring until 1993, the pace car picked Brett Bodine up as the leader. The next 17 laps were run under the yellow, while the officials checked the lap charts and tried to sort everything out. By the time NASCAR realized its mistake and waved the rest of the field around the pace car to fall in behind race leader Bodine, Bodine had already pitted and gotten four fresh ties under yellow during all the confusion. Bodine was able to stay out front with the freshest tires. He led the rest of the race after the green came back out and picked up the win. Darrell Waltrip was very upset after the race and protested Bodine 's win, but NASCAR declined the protest and Bodine keep the win. It turned out to be Bodine 's only career win and Larry McReynold 's first oval track win as a crew chief after two road course victories with Ricky Rudd in the late 1980s. It was also the last Winston Cup Series win for Buick.
Dale Earnhardt dominated the 1990 Tyson Holly Farms 400, leading 291 laps. At one point, Earnhardt even passed Mark Martin for the lead down Pit Road to beat him out of the pits. No Pit Road speed limit was in place at the time. Kyle Petty had won the pole and led 64 laps early in the race. But in the end, Martin made a key adjustment on his last pit stop. He took off and ran away to gain the victory. Just hours after the race, rookie Rob Moroso was killed in a highway crash on the way home. Moroso became the only rookie to win the Winston Cup Series Rookie of the Year honors posthumously.
In the 1991 First Union 400, Brett Bodine beat Alan Kulwicki for the pole. This was the first Winston Cup race held with a Pit Road speed limit. Dale Earnhardt spun early due to contact from Ricky Rudd, but he was able to make his way back to the front. Brett Bodine ran a very strong race and looked to be in contention for a second consecutive First Union 400 until he was spun in Turn Three by Ricky Rudd. Geoff Bodine was black - flagged for making contact with Davey Allison after the two had spun in Turn Four. Allison had escaped without damage in the first incident, but contact from Bodine after the caution damaged his right front fender. Jimmy Spencer seemed to have the car to beat, at one point leading 70 laps. Darrell Waltrip ended the long day in Victory Lane, winning his first race as a driver / owner since his early days in the 1970s. It was his 80th career win. This race had the record for most cautions in a Cup race at North Wilkesboro Speedway, with 17 cautions.
Harry Gant was looking to make history in the 1991 Tyson Holly Farms 400. After winning four straight Cup wins at Darlington, Richmond, Dover, and Martinsville, a win at North Wilkesboro would be a modern - era record of five straight wins in the Winston Cup Series. He had also won both Busch races that he had run in that period. Gant beat Davey Allison for the pole and also had a chance to earn the Unocal bonus, totaling $144,400, if he could win from the pole. Gant looked like he would get the record all day, staying out front and leading 350 laps until late in the race when he began experiencing brake problems. With nine laps to go, Dale Earnhardt passed Gant on the high side and went on to take the checkered flag. Gant still held on to a second - place finish, but his chance at making history was over.
In the 1992 First Union 400, Davey Allison beat Rusty Wallace and drove to victory with broken ribs. He had broken his ribs in a hard crash at Bristol the week before. Alan Kulwicki won the pole and led the most laps with 182. Davey Allison maintained his early Winston Cup Series season points lead.
The 1992 Tyson Holly Farms 400 was the last time a Winston Cup Series race went without a single caution flag on a track less than one mile in length. It was the last caution - free race until 1997 at Talladega. The race was run on a Monday after rain showers had postponed it on Sunday. Alan Kulwicki won the pole again, sweeping both poles at the track for the season. Geoffrey Bodine won the race that ended with only two drivers on the lead lap, Bodine and Terry Labonte. Bodine led 312 laps in the race driving the Number 15 Bud Moore Ford.
In the First Union 400 in 1994, Terry Labonte got his first Winston Cup Series win since 1989 and his first win driving for Rick Hendrick in the Number Five Kellogg Chevy. Ernie Irvan started from the pole with a track record speed of 119.016 mph and dominated most of the day, leading 320 laps in the 400 - lap race before a pit stop miscue cost him the win. He was only able to make it back up to third position, and Labonte beat Rusty Wallace for the win.
The Tyson Holly Farms 400 that fall was a runaway for Geoffrey Bodine, who is the last Winston Cup Series driver to win by lapping the entire field. Jimmy Spencer started on the pole and led the first five laps. Bodine started 18th and cut through the field and into the Top Ten by Lap Five. Bodine led 334 out of 400 laps. This was the last win for Hoosier 's Tire in the Winston Cup Series; they withdrew from the series after NASCAR made new rules for the 1995 season with more requirements from tire companies.
Enoch Staley died of a stroke on May 22, 1995. Less than one month later, Speedway Motorsports, Inc. CEO Bruton Smith purchased fifty percent of the shares of the speedway from the Combs family. Smith had approached the Staley family prior to and after the death of Enoch in 1995. The family declined to sell to him because Enoch had distrusted Smith and had instructed the family never to sell the track to him. After this, it was decided that Smith and Mike Staley, Enoch 's son, would have equal representation on the track. Mike Staley was installed as President and Chief Operating Officer of the Speedway for a one - year term.
The 1995 fall race weekend included the first NASCAR Supertrack race at the track and the return of Ernie Irvan to the Cup racing. Irvan had not raced since his near fatal crash at Michigan in 1994. He made his first start in a truck on Saturday, starting on the outside front row. He led 24 laps before suspension problems forced him to pull out of the race just after the halfway break. Kenny Wallace, Jack Sprague, and Geoff Bodine all ran strong up front at some point, but Mike Bliss went on to score his first - ever truck win. On Sunday in the Tyson Holly Farms 400, Irvan, driving a Number 88 Robert Yates Racing Ford, started seventh and finished sixth with a 31 - lap lead. Mark Martin picked up his second win at the track. This was the first Winston Cup Series race since 1959 with all the cars running at the finish. There were 28 lead changes in this race, a record for North Wilkesboro Cup races.
On January 1, 1996, the fifty - percent interest in North Wilkesboro Speedway owned by the Staley family was sold to racetrack developer and promoter Bob Bahre, owner of New Hampshire Motor Speedway. Mike Staley said that selling the track was very painful, but it was the only choice he had. Both Bahre and Bruton Smith already owned several NASCAR circuits. They announced their intent to use the spring and fall race dates for their own tracks, citing North Wilkesboro Speedway 's age and lack of modern amenities. They said, "cash rules everything around us. ''
In the 1996 First Union 400, Terry Labonte won the pole, led the most laps, and won the race while tying Richard Petty 's Iron - man streak of 513 consecutive starts. He also collected a bonus of $129,200 from the Unocal 76 Challenge Award for the race by winning from the pole. His car was painted silver to commemorate his record streak. The race attracted over 60,000 race fans. Many of them thought this would be the last race held at the Speedway since Bahre had enough time to organize a race at his New Hampshire International Speedway.
The 1996 Tyson Holly Farms 400 was the last Winston Cup Series race held at the track. Junior Johnson refused to attend the last race weekend stating "I 'm not going. It would be more of a sad deal for me to go out and just stand around and look at something disappear, something I can remember almost since I 've been around. '' Bruton Smith needed extra security for the weekend for own protection. Most of the hostile race fans viewed him as the reason for the track 's closure. Ted Musgrave got the last pole with a lap speed of 118.054 mph. This was the last Cup race to have fewer than 40 cars start until the 2016 Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500 at Atlanta, where only 39 cars showed up. Eight drivers led laps in the race, with Jeff Gordon leading most of the event with 207 laps up front. Gordon won the race in front of a record crowd over runner - up Dale Earnhardt. Every car that started this race was running at the finish. Most of the fans remained in the stands long after the race was over, holding on to memories of the track.
The track was closed after the fall race of 1996. North Wilkesboro 's spring date was moved to Smith 's new Texas Motor Speedway. The fall date was taken over by Bahre 's New Hampshire track and moved to early September as part of a schedule realignment. Since the sale to Bahre and Smith, there have been attempts to buy the track and reopen it. Some long - time fans still meet at the track on former race weekends to reminisce and renew old acquaintances.
In early 2003, Junior Johnson and a group of investors considered purchasing the speedway. Johnson speculated that the track could be used for all levels of NASCAR minor - league racing series. A driving school and a test track for the Cup series were others proposed uses for the track. However, in 2004 due to disputes between the two owners, numerous repairs needed, and economic obstacles, Johnson deemed any track purchase highly unlikely.
In October 2003, local realtor Robert Glen started a petition to return racing to North Wilkesboro Speedway. Glen asserted that the speedway 's absence was hurting the local economy. "People are losing their jobs, and they 're losing their homes. You mention the speedway, and you see a glimmer of hope in their eyes. That racetrack is a crown jewel of Wilkes County... this as a catalyst for bringing in new business and jobs to Wilkes. '' The petition asked county commissioners to condemn the Speedway and, through power of eminent domain, sell to an investor that would repurpose the facility for auto racing. There were 3,313 signatures on the petition. However, county officials decided condemnation of the property was not the best option.
During the fall of 2004, Roush Racing had its "Race for the Ride '' testing session for its Roush Racing: Driver X television show. Twenty - six drivers, including Justin Allgaier, Erik Darnell, Matt McCall, Danny O'Quinn, and David Ragan, competed for a chance to earn a ride in the 2005 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series. The Roush Racing team asserted that North Wilkesboro Speedway would be a great place for testing young talent because "it 's a driver 's track '' and because none of the drivers had ever raced there, everyone would have an equal shot.
STS Motorsports, Inc., a group founded in 2005 by Rob Marsden, has been trying to bring racing back to North Wilkesboro Speedway. The group began a petition and caught the attention of current owners, Smith and Bahre. The track was valued by county tax assessors at $4.83 million. The owners eventually agreed to sell for $12 million. No sale was made.
Save the Speedway spent the fall and winter of 2005 attempting to find a buyer or buyers for the track as well as proving that there was still interest in racing at the facility. Over a dozen touring series had written letters of intent to hold events should the Speedway be reopened. Three driving schools and several NASCAR teams showed interest in using the facility for testing.
In 2006 Save The Speedway worked with a New York real estate developer in an attempt to rally investors, but parted ways when neither party could come to an agreement. As of 2007, the group had not yet found investors to purchase the track.
In January 2007 during the NASCAR NEXTEL Cup Media Tour, Bruton Smith announced that he and co-owner Bob Bahre had agreed to let a real estate company attempt to sell the track for the asking price of $12 million. On September 28, 2007, Worth Mitchell, a land developer, announced plans to purchase the speedway. However, Worth Mitchell estimated his odds at 50 -- 50 of completing the deal, and since that time there has been no further information. Speedway Motorsports officials had no comment on the negotiations.
On November 8, 2007, Bahre sold his share of North Wilkesboro Speedway to Smith as part of Smith 's deal to buy Bahre 's New Hampshire Motor Speedway.
Save the Speedway applied for a highway history marker. It was approved at the May meeting of the NC Highway Historical Marker Advisory Committee. North Carolina Office of Archives and History dedicated the placement of the marker on May 24, 2008 at 2: 00 pm. The plaque reads:
NORTH WILKESBORO SPEEDWAY
Pioneer NASCAR dirt track. Built 1946; paved in 1958. Hosted sanctioned events, 1949 - 96. 5 / 8 mile oval 3 mi (4.8 km). W.
On October 31, 2009, Jayski.com announced that the USAR ProCup Series would host an event at North Wilkesboro Speedway on October 3, 2010. Also in 2010, the track hosted the ASA Late Model Series for the King 's Ranson 300 and the PASS Late Models. In 2009 it was announced that Save The Speedway would partner with Speedway Associates to work on the speedway during their lease. On January 7, 2010, the track announced that there would be a PASS Super Late Models race April 7 -- 9, 2011, which would be a 300 - lap race for $153,000 in winnings. They also announced that the Buck Baker Driving School would be the official driving school of NWS. The track announced sponsorship from Goodyear.
At the Labor Day Classic 200 on September 4, 2010 Chase Elliott, son of Bill Elliott, won his second PASS victory of his career. This was the first race at the track since 1996. Chase led twice for a total of 69 laps in the 200 - lap green flag event. Donnie and Bobby Allison returned to the track as Grand Marshalls for the event, which also held races for Stadium Stock, Limited Late Models, and Allison Legacy.
The Brushy Mountain 250 was the 12th USAR Pro Cup event of the 2010 season. The race was ran on October 3, 2010. Jeff Agnew won the pole with a 110.996 mph lap. 20 cars started the event that was the first major race held at North Wilkesboro since the track was dropped from the Cup schedule after 1996. Jeff Agnew led 104 of the 250 laps and won the race over runner up Clay Rogers by 0.775 of a second. A modified race was also ran at the event with Jason Myers winning.
The ASA Late Model Series ran the King 's Ranson 300 on October 31, 2010. Jeff Choquette won the pole, but Kyle Beattie started on the pole for the 150 - lap Kings Ransom event after a full - field inversion to start the race. Brian Ortiz beat Beattie to the lead and led the first 11 laps until Brent Downey caught and passed him on Lap 12. Choquette had flown through the field and eventually passed Downey for the lead on Lap 20. Choquette held the lead until the halfway break. Drivers came down Pit Road for a ten - minute break to make adjustments and get new tires for the second half of the race. The lineup for the second segment of the race had the top six cars inverted, putting Ortiz as the leader for the start of the second half. Ortiz led until Lap 107, when Choquette ran back up through the field and took the lead. Choquette led the rest of the way to the victory, as Sean Bass and Tanner Berryhill came in second and third respectively. This was Choquette 's third win in the last four Sunoco National Tour races. In the other races, Becca Kasten was black - flagged for jumping the final restart, giving the win to Matt McCall in the 150 - lap Late Model Stock race. Justin Sorrow held off Gary Davis in a thrilling photo finish to win the 100 - lap Limited Late Model race, and Wayne Harrington won the UCAR 40 - lap race. The Short Track Shootout was held the day before with Cale Gale winning the Rolling Thunder Modifieds Series race. Alan Carter won the USST Super Trucks Series race, and Tyler Hill won the Allison Legacy Series race.
The 2011 season - opener, the Pro All Stars Series (PASS) South, presented by J.E. Pistons and Roush Yates Performance Products, "The Race '' was the country 's richest short - track race ever. Seventy - seven drivers showed up to try to make the 44 - car field and try to win the $75,000 winner 's purse. It was the first - ever race held under the lights at the track, but severe storms forced postponement of the race, which resulted in the race not ending under the lights.
Qualifying, heat races, and a couple of last chance events were used to set the 44 - car field. Drivers from 21 states and five Canadian provinces had showed up to try to make the field. On Friday, Stephen Nasse won the fast time with a new track record of 18.700 seconds. The fastest 15 during qualifying locked themselves into the field. The top ten drivers then had to redraw for their starting positions in the race. Five 25 - lap heat races were run that evening, with the top three drivers in each race transferring into the race. On Saturday, two 40 - lap last chance races were run, with only the winners transferring into the race. Ten provisionals were given from the PASS series, and Geoff Bodine and Sterling Marlin were added to the field as North Wilkesboro Speedway track provisionals.
Before "The Race, '' a 100 - lap modified race was run. Jimmy Zacharias dominated the first half of the event. Zacharias had a half - lap lead over the field by the first yellow flag on Lap 16. Jason Myers moved up and challenged Zacharias hard for the lead before the competition caution flew at halfway. After the teams made adjustments during the break, Zacharias and Jason Myers led the field to the green, when Zacharias again took off with the lead. On Lap 75, the yellow flag flew again, and all the leaders pitted to make final adjustments and set up for a 25 - lap dash to the finish. Randy Butner and Gary Putnam led the field on the restart with Zacharias in the back after his pit stop. Junior Miller would soon take over the lead as Zacharias ' car appeared to be losing grip after running hard to charge back up to the front. After a yellow on Lap 90, Zacharias and Jason Myers pitted for more adjustments. Miller took the restart and never looked back, taking the 100 - lap Modified victory.
The main race started with Johnny Clark and Jay Fogleman on the front row. Clark was able get out front and lead the first lap of the race. Andy Loden, Augie Grill, Bubba Pollard, and Jody Lavender led in the first segment of the race. An eight - minute break was given for teams to work on their cars and change four tires to prep them for the second segment. Pollard took the lead on the restart and continued to lead until just prior to the Lap 200 end - of - segment break, when Chris Eggleston worked his way to the lead. At the break, team once again put four new tires on and made adjustments for the last segment. Pollard jumped to the lead quickly at the start the last segment. With 50 laps remaining, Pollard and Eggleston ran hard - nose to tail through lapped traffic. On Lap 276, Pollard appeared to try to get under Clark off Turn Four and got sideways, allowing Eggleston to drive around on the high side and take the lead. Over the final laps of the caution - free segment, Eggleston was able to pull away from Pollard. At the end of 300 laps of racing, Eggleston took the checkered flag to win the historic event. Pollard had finished runner - up but was disqualified after post race technical inspection. Jeff Choquette was bumped up to second place, with T.J. Reaid, Ben Rowe, and Andy Loden filling out the top five. Other notable drivers in the field were Ryan Blaney (sixth), Ross Kenseth (seventh), Cale Gale (12th), Erik Darnell (18th), Geoff Bodine (36th), Kenzie Ruston (37th), Gray Gaulding (39th), and Sterling Marlin (43rd). However, after the April 2011 race at the Speedway, Save The Speedway said it would cease working with Speedway Associates and would no longer assist with the Speedway.
North Wilkesboro Speedway has been featured in several NASCAR - related video games, including NASCAR Racing, NASCAR Racing 2, NASCAR Racing 3, NASCAR Racing 4, NASCAR Racing 2003 Season, and NASCAR Heat as an add - on track that can be downloaded. It has also been featured in GeneRally and Top Gear (BBC) Series 16 Special Episode, "East Coast Road Trip ''. North Wilkesboro Speedway, along with other dirt tracks such as Occoneechee Speedway, is one of the inspirations for the Thomasville Speedway in the Pixar movie Cars 3
Coordinates: 36 ° 8 ′ 32 '' N 81 ° 4 ′ 21 '' W / 36.14222 ° N 81.07250 ° W / 36.14222; - 81.07250
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akashic records of bastard magic instructor episode 6 english dubbed | Akashic Records of Bastard magic Instructor - Wikipedia
Akashic Records of Bastard Magic Instructor (ロク で なし 魔術 講師 と 禁忌 教典 (アカシック レコード), Roku de Nashi Majutsu Kōshi to Akashikku Rekōdo) is a Japanese light novel series written by Tarō Hitsuji and illustrated by Kurone Mishima. Fujimi Shobo has published eight volumes since July 2014 under their Fujimi Fantasia Bunko imprint. A manga adaptation with art by Aosa Tsunemi began serialization in Kadokawa Shoten 's shōnen manga magazine Monthly Shōnen Ace from March 26, 2015, and has been collected in five tankōbon volumes. An anime television series adaptation by Liden Films aired from April to June 2017.
The story revolves around Sistine Fibel, a noble magic - user and her best friend Rumia Tingel. They attend a well - known magical academy, hoping to solve the mystery of the enigmatic Sky Castle. However, a replacement instructor, Glenn Radars, who is rather lazy and incompetent, suddenly takes charge of Sistine 's class. When he is eager, the basics of all types of magic are taught to the academy.
The series has been licensed for an English release by Seven Seas Entertainment.
An anime adaptation was announced in March 2016, which was later revealed to be an anime television series adaptation. The series was produced by Liden Films and directed by Minato Kazuto, with Tōko Machida writing the scripts, Satoshi Kimura designed the characters and Hiroaki Tsutsumi composed the music. It aired from April 4, 2017 to June 20, 2017. The series ran for 12 episodes. The series ' opening theme is "Blow Out '' by Konomi Suzuki, and the ending theme is "Precious You '' by Akane Fujita, Yume Miyamoto, and Ari Ozawa. Funimation has licensed the series in North America.
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i love to rise in a summer morn | The school boy - wikipedia
"The School Boy '' is a 1789 poem by William Blake and published as a part of his poetry collection entitled "Songs of Experience. '' These poems were later added with Blake 's "Songs of Innocence '' to create the entire collection entitled "Songs of Innocence and of Experience Shewing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul. '' This collection included poems such as "The Tyger, '' "The Little Boy Lost, '' "Infant Joy, '' and "The Shepherd (Blake). '' These poems are illustrated with colorful artwork created by Blake first in 1789. The first printing in 1789 consisted of sixteen copies. None of the copies of Songs of Innocence are exactly alike as some of them are incomplete or were colored in posthumously "in imitation of '' other copies.
"The School Boy '' is a poem written in the pastoral tradition that focuses on the downsides of formal learning. It considers how going to school on a summer day "drives all joy away ''. The boy in this poem is more interested in escaping his classroom than he is with anything his teacher is trying to teach. In lines 16 - 20, a child in school is compared to a bird in a cage. Meaning something that was born to be free and in nature, is instead trapped inside and made to be obedient.
I love to rise in a summer morn, When the birds sing on every tree; The distant huntsman winds his horn, And the skylark sings with me: O what sweet company! But to go to school in a summer morn, - O it drives all joy away! Under a cruel eye outworn, The little ones spend the day In sighing and dismay. Ah then at times I drooping sit, And spend many an anxious hour; Nor in my book can I take delight, Nor sit in learning 's bower, Worn through with dreary shower. How can the bird that is born for joy Sit in a cage and sing? How can a child, when fears annoy, But droop his tender wing, And forget his youthful spring! O father and mother if buds are nipped, And blossoms blown away; And if the tender plants are stripped Of their joy in the springing day, By sorrow and care 's dismay, - How shall the summer arise in joy, Or the summer fruits appear? Or how shall we gather what griefs destroy, Or bless the mellowing year, When the blasts of winter appear?
The first verse describes the delight of waking up to the birds singing and what a marvellous way this is to start the day.
The next verse, however, contrasts with verse one by describing how distraught the schoolboy is to be at school, and how the thought of this halts his happiness immediately.
Verse three describes school, how when home - schooled you can sit happily and read. At school, there is no freedom; you will learn what you are told to learn, nothing more, nothing less. School can not delight him.
Verse four compares a boy at school to a bird in a cage: his potential is restrained.
Verse five shows how people are dismayed at school and how students are stripped of their joy.
The final verse describes how school can never be fun, but it is like a cold winter 's day blasting through the warm summer.
The illustration for this poem predominantly features elements of nature, which is reflected in the poem 's content. At the bottom of the print, there are three human figures sitting down examining either the ground or something upon the ground. This indicates an interest in nature and of what it is compiled.
Around the border of the print is a weaving of intertwined vines. Within these vines are foliage such as leaves and flowers - nature within nature. There is also a human figure perched near the base of the vines with her arms extended, reaching up into the climbing flora. Further up the vines, there are two human figures sitting in the crook of two separate vines, each one is reading. This could indicate that the farther one travels into nature, the more one will learn. This, based on Blake 's emphasis on a "Natural '' education.
Also among the leaves and fruit of the vines, on the left of the print is a bird about to take flight. "Both victory and liberty (...) are associated with bird wings. '' Birds can also symbolize knowledge and nature. The presence of the bird, further indicated the freedom and learning that can come from education from nature rather than the formal classroom.
Arranged in six stanzas with five lines each, this poem follows a consistently patterned structure. It also contains a rhyme scheme of ababb.
This poem highlights Blake 's affinity for alternative methods of education. Consistently repeated is the draining element of schoolroom education and how it causes students to contribute poor learning and retention for students. Blake instead promotes learning outside the classroom, specifically learning in nature where he believes spontaneous and natural creativity flourishes.
The analogy of the bird and the boy is also evidence of the recurring theme of nature within this poem. As a poet of Romanticism, Blake puts an emphasis on nature, the subjective self and on emotions. Within this poem, the allusions to nature are everywhere referencing things such as summer, wind, blossoms, rain showers, birds and spring. Blake equates the seasons of the Earth to the seasons of the boy 's life. Blake also analogizes the boy with a caged bird unable to sing, to attain its free place in nature, just like the boy.
David Almond references "The School Boy '' in his novel Skellig to validate his character, Mina 's nonformal learning provided to her by her mother and supplemented heavily by Blake 's materials. Sahm writes that, "Mina and her mother quote and reference Blake directly, and many of the characters share his interest in education, spirituality, and imagination. But more than merely quoting Blake 's words, the characters in Skellig live and exemplify one of his primary ideas: that of contraries. ''. Namely in Skellig, Almond uses "The Schoolboy '' as primary evidence for his character, Mina 's non-traditional education. Which ties in with the text of the poem which continually brings up how being in a traditional school setting is draining, and will make a boy "forget his youthful spring. ''
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who plays ray palmer in dc legends of tomorrow | Brandon Routh - wikipedia
Brandon James Routh (born October 9, 1979) is an American actor. He grew up in Iowa before moving to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career, and subsequently appeared on multiple television series throughout the early 2000s including Gilmore Girls. In 2006, he gained greater recognition for his role as the titular superhero in the film Superman Returns. He also had a recurring role in the TV series Chuck, as Daniel Shaw. Following this, he had notable supporting roles in the films Zack and Miri Make a Porno and Scott Pilgrim vs. the World. In 2014, he began a recurring role on Arrow as Ray Palmer / Atom which spun off into a guest role on The Flash and a starring role on Legends of Tomorrow.
Routh, the third of four children, was born on October 9, 1979 in Norwalk, Iowa, the son of Catherine LaVonne (née Lear), a teacher, and Ronald Wayne Routh, a carpenter. Routh was raised in a Methodist family, and has English, Scottish, German, and distant Dutch ancestry. Routh grew up in Norwalk, approximately 100 miles (160 km) south of Woolstock, the birthplace of George Reeves, the first actor to play Superman on television. During his childhood, Routh thought a full - time acting career was unrealistic, citing his small - town background. In his spare time, he played the trumpet and the piano. Routh attended Norwalk High School, where he played sports and participated in music and theatre. He has described himself as a "momma 's boy '' and not "the most popular kid '' during his school years. Routh has also noted that during his younger years, he was fond of the Superman films and comic books.
Routh attended the University of Iowa for a year, aspiring to be a writer. During this time, he modelled and acted in order to earn his tuition fee. Routh has said he was often told that he bore a physical resemblance to Christopher Reeve, who had previously portrayed Superman in a film series. His former manager signed him on because of the resemblance, telling him that he thought Routh would be cast as Superman if there was another film in the series.
In 1999, Routh left the University and moved to Manhattan and then Los Angeles, where he pursued a full - time acting career, first appearing as an extra in Christina Aguilera 's music video for "What a Girl Wants ''. He was cast in his first acting role in 1999, in an episode of the short - lived ABC television series, Odd Man Out. In 2000, he had a four - episode role on the third season of MTV 's nighttime soap opera, Undressed. Routh subsequently appeared on the WB 's Gilmore Girls (in a February 2001 episode, "Concert Interruptus '', playing an attendee of a Bangles concert), and earned steady work on the soap opera One Life to Live, playing Seth Anderson from May 23, 2001 until April 17, 2002.
Prior to Routh 's casting as Superman in the film Superman Returns, Warner Bros. had spent over a decade developing a plan to relaunch the franchise entitled Superman Flyby, with possible stars including name actors Nicolas Cage, Josh Hartnett, Brendan Fraser, Tom Welling, Paul Walker, Henry Cavill (who eventually became Superman in 2013 's Man of Steel and in 2016 's Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice), James Marsden, Ashton Kutcher, Keanu Reeves, Will Smith and James Caviezel and planned directors including Tim Burton, Wolfgang Petersen, McG, Brett Ratner and Shekhar Kapur. When director Bryan Singer came aboard the project, however, he insisted an unknown actor be cast in the part, in the tradition of the casting of the best - known film Superman, Christopher Reeve.
Routh, then 24, had previously already auditioned for director McG and was spotted by Singer after he viewed Routh 's videotaped audition. Singer, who since noted Routh as being the embodiment of "our collective memory of Superman, '' was impressed by his resemblance to the comic book icon and found the actor 's humble Midwestern roots perfect for the role, as well as his "combination of vulnerability and confidence '' Singer said reminded him of Christopher Reeve. Singer decided to cast Routh after the two met on August 13, 2004, but did not tell Routh until two months later, when Routh 's casting was announced in October 2004, making him an "instant celebrity ''. Before filming began, Routh bulked up for the role, gaining 22 pounds to reach a high of 218 pounds. Filming for Superman Returns began in Sydney in February 2005. The film was released in the U.S. on June 28, 2006 and impressed most critics, but was a box office disappointment, grossing only $200 million in the US compared to its estimated budget of $270 million. Routh was signed on to appear in two potential sequels to the film, but due to mediocre box office results it never happened.
Routh has commented he feared his performance would too closely resemble that of Christopher Reeve. Routh has said that he hopes to "remind people of Christopher while at the same time making them feel like they 're seeing a totally new Superman. '' Reviews of Routh 's performance were generally positive, with Newsweek noting he "effortlessly lays claim to the iconic role. '' On the other hand, film critic Roger Ebert noted that he thinks "Routh lacks charisma as Superman, and I suppose as Clark Kent, he is n't supposed to have any. ''
At the 2006 Spike TV Awards, Routh won the award of "Best Superhero '' as Superman in Superman Returns, beating out among others, Hugh Jackman as Wolverine.
In August 2008, Warner Bros. officially announced they intended to reboot the Superman franchise. Routh was still set to reprise the role, according to DC Comics president Paul Levitz. In 2009, however, Routh 's contract to play Superman in another film expired, but he said at the time that he would like to return if given the chance. However, British actor Henry Cavill was cast to play Superman in the reboot of the series, Man of Steel.
After the release of Superman Returns, Routh signed on to play CIA agent John Clark in Without Remorse under the direction of John Singleton with a screenplay by Stuart Beattie. Routh would be the third actor to portray the character after Willem Dafoe and Liev Schreiber. The film was intended for a late - 2007 / early - 2008 release. However, Paramount Pictures recently put the film into turnaround. Routh 's future participation on the project is unknown.
Routh appeared in the ensemble film Life is Hot in Cracktown and the independent drama Fling (formerly titled Lie to Me), co-starring his wife Courtney Ford.
Routh was signed to star in The Informers, a film based on the Bret Easton Ellis novel of the same name. He joins Kim Basinger, Amber Heard, and Billy Bob Thornton, but his scenes ended up scrapped with the decision to excise the "vampire '' subplot from the film entirely.
At Comic Con 2008, it was revealed Routh was to have a cameo in the Kevin Smith comedy Zack and Miri Make a Porno - he instead appeared as a minor character, Bobby Long - and would serve as a judge on Platinum Studios ' 2008 Comic Book Challenge. In addition, he has a cameo where he plays himself in the Bollywood film Kambakkht Ishq.
In January 2009, Routh was officially cast to play Todd Ingram in Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, based on the Scott Pilgrim series by Canadian artist Bryan Lee O'Malley. His character is an arrogant, narcissistic bass player who derives psychic powers from his vegan lifestyle, and is the third of the seven Evil Exes the title character must fight.
Routh plays Daniel Shaw in season 3 of spy series Chuck, in a recurring, supporting role. He again played this character in the shows fifth season.
He portrayed Dylan Dog in the 2011 film Dylan Dog - Dead of Night. The movie is based on the Italian comic series created by Tiziano Sclavi.
On February 22, 2012, it was announced that Routh had been cast in David Kohan and Max Mutchnick 's (the creators of Will & Grace), new CBS half - hour, multicamera comedy pilot, Partners. He played Michael Urie 's character 's steady partner, alongside David Krumholtz and his Table for Three co-star Sophia Bush. The series was cancelled after only six episodes had aired.
In 2013, Routh voiced David "Hesh '' Walker in the video game Call of Duty: Ghosts. Routh has since been appeared in one episode of The Millers and multiple episodes of Chosen and Enlisted in 2014.
On July 7, 2014, it was reported that Routh would once again play a superhero for DC Comics as Ray Palmer / The Atom on The CW 's Arrow. He was a recurring character throughout the show 's third season, which premiered October 8, 2014.
In January 2015, Arrow 's co-creator and executive producer Greg Berlanti stated that they were in the midst of "very early '' preliminary talks for an additional spin - off series centered on Ray Palmer / The Atom.
In February 2015, it was announced that a spin - off was in development that would co-star Routh as The Atom; along with Wentworth Miller, Victor Garber and Caity Lotz. The show, DC 's Legends of Tomorrow premiered in January 2016.
On August 23, 2006, Brandon became engaged to his girlfriend of three years, actress Courtney Ford; the couple married on November 24, 2007, at the El Capitan Ranch in Santa Barbara. In March 2012, Routh and Ford announced that they were expecting their first child in the summer of 2012. On August 10, 2012, the couple welcomed a son, Leo James.
Routh knew actor Kal Penn, a co-star in Superman Returns, for several years during the time he lived in Los Angeles. Routh and Penn were both also featured in The Lonely Island 's Awesometown MTV pilot music video "The Avon Lady ''.
Routh 's sister, Sara, has a musical track entitled "You 're Never Gone '' on Sound of Superman, the companion soundtrack of the film. Routh is a fan and player of the video game World of Warcraft. During the 2008 Presidential Election, Routh spoke at an Iowa rally in support of Democratic candidate Barack Obama.
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how tall is the actress who plays jessica jones | Krysten Ritter - wikipedia
Krysten Alyce Ritter (born December 16, 1981) is an American actress, musician and author. Ritter is known for her roles as lead superheroine Jessica Jones on the Marvel Cinematic Universe series Jessica Jones and the crossover miniseries The Defenders, Jane Margolis on the AMC drama series Breaking Bad, and Chloe on the ABC comedy series Do n't Trust the B -- -- in Apartment 23. She has also had roles in the television series Gravity, ' Til Death, Veronica Mars, Gilmore Girls, Gossip Girl, and The Blacklist, and has appeared in films such as What Happens in Vegas (2008), 27 Dresses (2008), Confessions of a Shopaholic (2009), She 's Out of My League (2010), Veronica Mars (2014), and Big Eyes (2014).
Ritter was born in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania, the daughter of Garry Ritter and Kathi Taylor. She was raised on a farm outside Shickshinny, Pennsylvania, where her mother, stepfather and sister live; her father lives in nearby Benton. Ritter graduated in 2000 from Northwest Area High School. Ritter is of German, Scottish, and English descent.
Ritter was scouted by a modeling agent at her local shopping mall, the Wyoming Valley Mall, at the age of 15, at a modeling event. Ritter described herself at the time as "tall, gawky, awkward, and really, really skinny '' to Philadelphia Style magazine. While in high school, she traveled to New York City on her days off and began modeling there and in Philadelphia. She signed with the Elite Model Management agency and then with Wilhelmina Models. Ritter moved to New York City at the age of 18 and established an international - modeling career in print ads and on television. She did magazine, catalog, and runway work in Milan, New York, Paris, and Tokyo.
Ritter 's acting career began when Wilhelmina placed her for an audition for a Dr Pepper television commercial. Ritter told Philadelphia Style that she felt her "outgoing and bubbly and funny '' personality as a performer helped her transition into acting naturally by letting her entertain the casting people. She won several bit film roles starting in 2001, and then played a 1950s art history student in Julia Roberts ' Mona Lisa Smile (2003). In 2006, she appeared in All This Intimacy, a two - act, Off - Broadway play by Rajiv Joseph, at the Second Stage Theatre. Ritter signed on to star in the premiere of Zach Braff 's play, All New People, at Second Stage Theatre. Anna Camp, David Wilson Barnes and Justin Bartha co-starred in the production under the direction of Peter DuBois.
Ritter had a number of guest starring roles on television, and appeared on the second season of Veronica Mars, playing Gia Goodman, the daughter of mayor Woody Goodman (Steve Guttenberg). Ritter guest - starred on Gilmore Girls for eight episodes from 2006 to 2007 as Rory Gilmore 's friend, Lucy. She also played the first iteration of Allison Stark on the Fox sitcom ' Til Death (which eventually had four actresses play that role through its run).
Ritter continued working in film, often cast as the best friend of the lead character. In 2008, she had supporting roles in the romantic comedies What Happens in Vegas and 27 Dresses. She co-starred in the 2009 film Confessions of a Shopaholic as Suze, the best friend of Isla Fisher 's character. Ritter spent three months shooting She 's Out of My League in Pittsburgh in 2008. She played Patty, the cynical best friend of Alice Eve 's character Molly.
Ritter was cast as a young Carol Rhodes in an episode of The CW 's teen drama series Gossip Girl titled "Valley Girls '', which aired May 11, 2009. The episode was a backdoor pilot for a proposed spin - off series of the same title, set in 1980s Los Angeles, that would chronicle the teenage years of the character Lily van der Woodsen. Ritter described her character Carol, Lily 's sister, as "the outcast '', and "an ' 80s Sunset Strip rocker '' to Access Hollywood. The series was not picked up by the network for the 2009 -- 10 season.
Ritter co-starred as Jane Margolis on the second season of AMC 's drama series Breaking Bad, and starred in the film How to Make Love to a Woman (2009), based on a best - selling book by adult film star Jenna Jameson. She also co-starred with Jason Behr in the independent film The Last International Playboy (2009), as Ozzy, a drug addict. Ritter sold a television pilot that she wrote based on her experiences as a model, named Model Camp. She appeared in the comedy web series Woke Up Dead in 2009, playing Cassie alongside Jon Heder as Drex.
In 2010, Ritter starred in the television series Gravity alongside Ivan Sergei, Ving Rhames, and Rachel Hunter, playing the sharp and quirky Lily. The Starz comedy - drama centers on a group of out - patient suicide survivors. She starred opposite Ben Barnes in the 2011 comedy film Killing Bono as the manager of an Irish band. Directed by Nick Hamm, the film is based on Killing Bono: I Was Bono 's Doppleganger, a book about the early days of the Irish rock band U2. Beginning in January 2010, the film 's shoot lasted for six weeks and moved from Belfast to London before returning to Belfast.
Ritter starred alongside Alicia Silverstone in the comedy horror film Vamps, written and directed by Amy Heckerling. She plays a New York City socialite turned into a vampire by a vampire queen (Sigourney Weaver). She also stars in the 2011 independent comedy film Life Happens, with Kate Bosworth and Rachel Bilson. Co-written by Ritter with director Kat Coiro, the film is about two best friends dealing with the pregnancy and subsequent motherhood of Ritter 's character.
In early February 2011, Ritter joined the cast of the ABC sitcom Do n't Trust the B -- -- in Apartment 23, playing the title role of Chloe, a New York City party girl and con artist who tries to rip off her new roommates after they move in, but who ends up befriending and "mentoring '' one of the applicants. The series was canceled on January 22, 2013 after two seasons. On February 15, 2013, it was reported that Ritter would star as Nora in the NBC comedy pilot Assistance, based on Leslye Headland 's play of the same name. However, it was confirmed in January 2014 that the pilot would not be picked up to series. On July 9, 2013, it was announced that Ritter would star in Jake Hoffman 's directorial debut, Asthma, which centers on the indie rock scene in New York City. It was announced on February 20, 2014 that Ritter would star on NBC 's astronaut - themed comedy pilot Mission Control as aerospace engineer Dr. Mary Kendricks. On October 15, 2014, NBC announced that it was no longer moving forward with the show.
On December 5, 2014, Ritter was cast to star in the Marvel Television series Jessica Jones, playing the title role, a former superhero turned private investigator in New York City. On her casting, executive producer and showrunner Melissa Rosenberg stated that Ritter "brings both the hard edge and the vulnerability the role demands ''. Ritter revealed that she had been reading through the comic book in preparation for the role while also expressing her delight on working with Rosenberg and women in general. All 13 episodes of the first season premiered on Netflix on November 20, 2015. Ritter reprised the role on The Defenders alongside Charlie Cox as Matt Murdock / Daredevil, Mike Colter as Luke Cage and Finn Jones as Danny Rand / Iron Fist, and reprised her role again in a second season of Jessica Jones in 2018. Ritter will direct an episode in the third season of Jessica Jones, marking her first time directing.
Ritter and her childhood friend William Thomas Burnett form the indie rock duo Ex Vivian, for which Ritter sings and plays guitar. Their self - titled debut album was released in 2012 on Burnett 's WT Records. Ritter 's debut novel, a psychological thriller titled Bonfire, was released on November 7, 2017, by Crown Archetype.
Ritter moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles in 2007. She also promotes animal rights and has posed for PETA ad campaigns, including one warning pet owners of the dangers of leaving dogs in cars during the summer, and another against SeaWorld keeping orcas in captivity. She has been in a relationship with musician Adam Granduciel since August 2014. She is an avid knitter, and has appeared on the cover of Vogue Knitting.
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who discovered the link between thalidomide and birth defects | Thalidomide - wikipedia
Thalidomide, sold under the brand name Immunoprin, among others, is an immunomodulatory drug and the prototype of the thalidomide class of drugs. Today, thalidomide is used mainly as a treatment of certain cancers (multiple myeloma) and of a complication of leprosy.
Thalidomide was first marketed in 1957 in West Germany under the trade - name Contergan. The German drug company Chemie Grünenthal developed and sold the drug. Primarily prescribed as a sedative or hypnotic, thalidomide also claimed to cure "anxiety, insomnia, gastritis, and tension ''. Afterwards, it was used against nausea and to alleviate morning sickness in pregnant women. Thalidomide became an over-the - counter drug in West Germany on October 1, 1957. Shortly after the drug was sold in West Germany, between 5,000 and 7,000 infants were born with phocomelia (malformation of the limbs). Only 40 % of these children survived. Throughout the world, about 10,000 cases were reported of infants with phocomelia due to thalidomide; only 50 % of the 10,000 survived. Those subjected to thalidomide while in the womb experienced limb deficiencies in a way that the long limbs either were not developed or presented themselves as stumps. Other effects included deformed eyes and hearts, deformed alimentary and urinary tracts, blindness and deafness. The negative effects of thalidomide led to the development of more structured drug regulations and control over drug use and development.
Thalidomide is used as a first line treatment in multiple myeloma in combination with dexamethasone or with melphalan and prednisone, to treat acute episodes of erythema nodosum leprosum and for maintenance therapy.
Thalidomide is used off - label in several ways.
The bacterium that causes tuberculosis is related to leprosy. Thalidomide may be helpful in some cases where standard TB drugs and corticosteroids are not sufficient to resolve severe inflammation in the brain.
It is used as a second - line treatment to manage graft versus host disease and aphthous stomatitis in children and has been prescribed for other conditions in children including actinic prurigo and epidermolysis bullosa pruriginosa; the evidence for these uses is weak. It is recommended only as a third line treatment in graft versus host disease in adults, based on lack of efficacy and side effects observed in clinical trials.
Thalidomide should not be used by people who are breast feeding or pregnant, trying to conceive a child, or can not or will not follow the risk management program to prevent pregnancies. The prescribing doctor is required to ensure that contraception is being used, and regularly pregnancy tests must be administered. Some people are allergic to thalidomide and should not take it. It should be used with caution in people with chronic infections like HIV or hepatitis B.
Thalidomide causes birth defects. The FDA and other regulatory agencies have approved marketing of the drug only with an auditable risk evaluation and mitigation strategy that ensures that people using the drug are aware of the risks and avoid pregnancy; this applies to men and women both, as the drug can be transmitted in sperm.
There is a high risk that thalidomide can cause excessive blood clots. There is also a high risk that thalidomide can interfere with formation of various kinds of new blood cells, creating a risk of infection via neutropenia, leukopenia, and lymphopenia, and risks that blood will not clot via thrombocytopenia. There is also a risk of anemia via lack of red blood cells. The drug can also damage nerves, causing peripheral neuropathy that may be irreversible.
Thalidomide has several cardiovascular adverse effects, including risk of heart attacks, pulmonary hypertension, and changes in heart rhythm including syncope, bradycardia and atrioventricular block.
It can cause liver damage and severe skin reactions like Stevens - Johnson Syndrome. It tends to make people sleepy, which creates risk for driving and operating other machinery. As it kills cancer cells, it can cause tumor lysis syndrome. Thalidomide can prevent menstruation.
Other than the above, very common (reported in more than 10 % of people) adverse effects include tremor, dizziness, tingling, numbness, constipation, and peripheral edema.
Common (reported by 1 - 10 % of people) adverse effects include confusion, depressed mood, reduced coordination, heart failure, difficulty breathing, interstitial lung disease, lung inflammation, vomiting, dry mouth, rashes, dry skin, fever, weakness, and a sense of unwellness.
There are no expected pharmacokinetic interactions between thalidomide and other medicines due to its neutral effects on p - glycoprotein and P450 cytochromes. It may interact with sedatives due to its sedative action. It may also interact with bradycardic agents due to its bradycardia - inducing effects. The risk of peripheral neuropathy may be increased by concomitant treatment with other agents known to cause peripheral neuropathy. The risk of venous thromboembolisms with thalidomide seems to be increased when patients are treated with oral contraceptives or other cytotoxic agents (including doxorubicin and melphalan) concurrently. Thalidomide may interfere with the contraceptive effects of various contraceptives and hence it is advised that women of reproductive age use at least two different means of contraception to ensure that no child will be conceived while they are receiving thalidomide.
As of 2013 eighteen cases of overdoses had been reported with doses of up to 14.4 g without any reported fatalities. No specific antidote for overdoses exists and treatment is purely supportive.
The precise mechanism of action for thalidomide is unknown although efforts to identify thalidomide 's teratogenic action generated 2000 research papers and the proposal of 15 or 16 plausible mechanisms by 2000. As of 2015 the main theories were inhibition of the process of angiogenesis, its inhibition of cereblon, a ubiquitin ligase, and its ability to generate reactive oxygen species which in turn kill cells.
Thalidomide also binds to and acts as an antagonist of the androgen receptor (AR) and hence is a nonsteroidal antiandrogen (NSAA) of some capacity. In accordance, it can produce gynecomastia and sexual dysfunction as side effects in men.
Thalidomide is provided as a racemic mixture of two enantiomers; while there are reports that only one of the enantiomers may cause birth defects, the body converts each enantiomer into the other through mechanisms that are not well understood.
Thalidomide is racemic; while the S - thalidomide is the bioactive form of the molecule, the individual enantiomers can racemize to each other due to the acidic hydrogen at the chiral centre, which is the carbon of the glutarimide ring bonded to the phthalimide substituent. The racemization process can occur in vivo.
Celgene Corporation originally synthesized thalidomide using a three - step sequence starting with L - glutamic acid treatment, but this has since been reformed by the use of L - glutamine. As shown in the image below, N - carbethoxyphtalimide (1) can react with L - glutamine to yield N - Phthaloyl - L - glutamine (2). Cyclization of N - Phthaloyl - L - glutamine occurs using carbonyldiimidazole, which then yields thalidomide (3). Celegne Corporation 's original method resulted in a 31 % yield of S - thalidomide, whereas the two - step synthesis yields 85 - 93 % product that is 99 % pure.
Thalidomide was discovered by scientists at the German pharmaceutical company Chemie Grünenthal (now Grünenthal GmbH) around 1953. The company had been set up as a soap maker just after WWII ended, to address the urgent market need for antibiotics. Heinrich Mueckter was appointed to head the discovery program based on his experience working with the German army 's antiviral research program. In the course of preparing reagents for the work, Mueckter 's assistant Wilhelm Kunz isolated a by - product, that was in turn recognized by pharmacologist Herbert Keller as an analog of glutethimide, a sedative, and the medicinal chemistry work turned to improving the lead compound into a suitable drug; the result was thalidomide. The toxicity was examined in several animals, and the drug was introduced in 1956 as a sedative.
Researchers at Chemie Grünenthal also found that thalidomide was a particularly effective antiemetic that had an inhibitory effect on morning sickness. Hence, on October 1, 1957, the company launched thalidomide and began aggressively marketing it under the trade name Contergan. It was proclaimed a "wonder drug '' for insomnia, coughs, colds and headaches.
During this time period, the use of medications during pregnancy was not strictly controlled, and drugs were not thoroughly tested for potential harm to the fetus. Thousands of pregnant women took the drug to relieve their symptoms. At the time of the drug 's development, scientists did not believe any drug taken by a pregnant woman could pass across the placental barrier and harm the developing fetus, even though the effect of alcohol on fetal development had been documented by case studies on alcoholic mothers since at least 1957. There soon appeared reports of findings of abnormalities in children being born, traced back to the use of the drug thalidomide. In late 1959, it was noticed that peripheral neuritis developed in patients who took the drug over a period of time, and it was only after this point that thalidomide ceased to be provided over the counter.
Hence, while initially considered safe, the drug was responsible for teratogenic deformities in children born after their mothers used it during pregnancies, prior to the third trimester. In November 1961, thalidomide was taken off the market due to massive pressure from the press and public. Experts estimate that the drug thalidomide led to the death of approximately 2,000 children and serious birth defects in more than 10,000 children, about 5,000 of them in West Germany. The regulatory authorities in East Germany did not approve thalidomide. One reason for the initially unobserved side effects of the drug and the subsequent approval in West Germany was that at that time drugs did not have to be tested for teratogenic effects. They had been tested on rodents only, as was usual at the time.
In the UK, the British pharmaceutical company The Distillers Company (Biochemicals) Ltd, a subsidiary of Distillers Co. Ltd. (now part of Diageo plc), marketed thalidomide under the brand name Distaval as a remedy for morning sickness throughout the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. Their advertisement claimed that "Distaval can be given with complete safety to pregnant women and nursing mothers without adverse effect on mother or child... Outstandingly safe Distaval has been prescribed for nearly three years in this country. '' Around the world, more and more pharmaceutical companies started to produce and market the drug under license from Chemie Grünenthal. By the mid 1950s, 14 pharmaceutical companies were marketing thalidomide in 46 countries under 37 (some reports suggest 51) different trade names.
In the U.S., representatives from Chemie Grünenthal approached Smith, Kline & French (SKF), now GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) with a request to market and distribute the drug in North America. A memorandum rediscovered in 2010 in the archives of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) shows that, as part of its in - licensing approach, Smith, Kline and French conducted animal tests and ran a clinical trial of the drug in the United States involving 875 people, including pregnant women, in 1956 -- 57. In 1956, researchers at SKF involved in clinical trials noted that even when used in very high doses, thalidomide could not induce sleep in mice. And when administered at doses 50 to 650 times larger than that claimed by Chemie Grünenthal to be "sleep inducing '', the researchers could still not achieve the hypnotic effect in animals that it had on humans. After completion of the trial, and based on reasons kept hidden for decades, SKF declined to commercialize the drug. Later, Chemie Grünenthal, in 1958, reached an agreement with William S Merrell Company in Cincinnati, Ohio, (later Richardson - Merrell, now part of Sanofi), to market and distribute thalidomide throughout the United States.
The U.S. FDA refused to approve thalidomide for marketing and distribution. However, the drug was distributed in large quantities for testing purposes, after the American distributor and manufacturer Richardson - Merrell had applied for its approval in September 1960. The official in charge of the FDA review, Frances Oldham Kelsey, did not rely on information from the company, which did not include any test results. Richardson - Merrell was called on to perform tests and report the results. The company demanded approval six times, and was refused each time. Nevertheless, a total of 17 children with thalidomide - induced malformations were born in the U.S.
In Canada, the history of the drug thalidomide dates back to April 1, 1961. There were many different forms sold, with the most common variant being Talimol. Two months after Talimol went on sale, pharmaceutical companies sent physicians letters warning about the risk of birth defects. It was not until March 2, 1962, that both drugs were banned from the Canadian market by the FDD, and soon afterward physicians were warned to destroy their supplies.
In 1964, Israeli physician Jacob Sheskin administered thalidomide to a patient critically ill with leprosy. The patient exhibited erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL), a painful skin condition, one of the complications of leprosy. This was attempted despite the ban on thalidomide 's use, but results were favourable: the patient slept for hours and was able to get out of bed without aid upon awakening. A clinical trial studying the use of thalidomide in leprosy soon followed.
Thalidomide has been used by Brazilian physicians as the drug of choice for the treatment of severe ENL since 1965, and by 1996, at least 33 cases of thalidomide embryopathy were recorded in people born in Brazil after 1965. Since 1994, the production, dispensing, and prescription of thalidomide have been strictly controlled, requiring women to use two forms of birth control and submit to regular pregnancy tests. Despite this, cases of thalidomide embryopathy continue, with at least 100 cases identified in Brazil between 2005 and 2010. 5.8 million thalidomide pills were distributed throughout Brazil in this time period, largely to poor Brazilians in areas with poor access to healthcare, and these cases have occurred despite the controls.
In 1998 the FDA approved the drug 's use in the treatment of ENL. Because of thalidomide 's potential for causing birth defects, the drug may be distributed only under tightly controlled conditions. The FDA required that Celgene Corporation, which planned to market thalidomide under the brand name Thalomid, establish a system for thalidomide education and prescribing safety (STEPS) oversight program. The conditions required under the program include limiting prescription and dispensing rights to authorized prescribers and pharmacies only, keeping a registry of all patients prescribed thalidomide, providing extensive patient education about the risks associated with the drug, and providing periodic pregnancy tests for women who take the drug.
In 2010, the World Health Organisation (WHO) stated that it did not recommend thalidomide due the difficulty of adequately controlling its use, and due to the availability of clofazimine.
Shortly after the teratogenic properties of thalidomide were recognized in the mid-1960s, its anti-cancer potential was explored and two clinical trials were conducted in people with advanced cancer, including some people with multiple myeloma; the trials were inconclusive.
Little further work was done with thalidomide in cancer until the 1990s.
Judah Folkman pioneered studies into the role of angiogenesis (the proliferation and growth of blood vessels) in the development of cancer, and in the early 1970s had shown that solid tumors could not expand without it. In 1993 he surprised the scientific world by hypothesizing the same was true of blood cancers, and the next year he published work showing that a biomarker of angiogenesis was higher in all people with cancer, but especially high in people with blood cancers, and other evidence emerged as well. Meanwhile, a member of his lab, Robert D'Amato, was looking for angiogenesis inhibitors, and discovered in 1994 that thalidomide inhibited angiogenesis. Around that time, the wife of a man who was dying of multiple myeloma and whom standard treatments had failed, called Folkman asking him about his anti-angiogenesis ideas. Folkman convinced the patient 's doctor to try thalidomide, and that doctor conducted a clinical trial of thalidomide for people with multiple myeloma in which about a third of the subjects responded to the treatment. The results of that trial were published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1999.
After further work was done by Celgene and others, in 2006 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted accelerated approval for thalidomide in combination with dexamethasone for the treatment of newly diagnosed multiple myeloma patients.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, more than 10,000 children in 46 countries were born with deformities such as phocomelia as a consequence of thalidomide use. The severity and location of the deformities depended on how many days into the pregnancy the mother was before beginning treatment; thalidomide taken on the 20th day of pregnancy caused central brain damage, day 21 would damage the eyes, day 22 the ears and face, day 24 the arms, and leg damage would occur if taken up to day 28. Thalidomide did not damage the foetus if taken after 42 days gestation.
It is not known exactly how many worldwide victims of the drug there have been, although estimates range from 10,000 to 20,000 to 100,000. Despite the side effects, thalidomide was sold in pharmacies in Canada until 1962.
In the United Kingdom, the drug was licensed in 1958 and withdrawn in 1961. Of the approximately 2,000 babies born with defects, around half died within a few months and 466 survived to at least 2010.
In Spain, thalidomide was widely available throughout the 1970s, perhaps even into the 1980s. There were two reasons for this. First, state controls and safeguarding were poor; indeed, it was not until 2008 that the government even admitted the country had ever imported thalidomide. Second, Grünenthal failed to insist that its sister company in Madrid warn Spanish doctors, and permitted it to not warn them. The Spanish advocacy group for victims of thalidomide estimates that in 2015, there were 250 -- 300 living victims of thalidomide in Spain.
The Australian obstetrician William McBride and the German paediatrician Widukind Lenz suspected a link between birth defects and the drug, a theory Lenz proved in 1961. McBride was later awarded a number of honors, including a medal and prize money by L'Institut de la Vie in Paris. Further animal tests were conducted by Dr George Somers, Chief Pharmacologist of Distillers Company in Britain, which showed foetal abnormalities in rabbits. Similar results were also published showing these effects in rats and other species.
In East Germany, the head of the central pharmacy control commission, Friedrich Jung, suspected an antivitaminic effect of thalidomide as derivative of glutamic acid. Meanwhile, in West Germany, it took some time before the increase in dysmelia at the end of the 1950s was connected with thalidomide. In 1958 Karl Beck, a former pediatric doctor in Bayreuth wrote an article in a local newspaper claiming a relationship between nuclear weapons testing and cases of dysmelia in children. Based on this, FDP whip Erich Mende requested an official statement from the federal government. For statistical reasons, the main data series used to research dysmelia cases started by chance at the same time as the approval date for thalidomide. After the Nazi regime with its Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring used mandatory statistical monitoring to commit various crimes, western Germany had been very reluctant to monitor congenital disorders in a similarly strict way. The parliamentary report rejected any relation with radioactivity and the abnormal increase of dysmelia. Also the DFG research project installed after the Mende request was not helpful. The project was led by pathologist Franz Büchner who ran the project to propagate his teratological theory. Büchner saw lack of healthy nutrition and behavior of the mothers as being more important than genetic reasons. Furthermore, it took a while to install a Surgeon General in Germany; the Federal Ministry of Health (Germany) was not founded until 1962, some months after thalidomide was banned from the market. In Germany approximately 2,500 thalidomide babies were born.
Several countries either restricted the drug 's use or never approved it. Ingeborg Eichler, a member of the Austrian pharmaceutical admission conference, enforced thalidomide (tradename Softenon) being sold under the rules of prescription medication and as a result relatively few affected children were born in Austria and Switzerland. In the United States, pharmacologist Frances Oldham Kelsey M.D. withstood pressure from the Richardson - Merrell company and refused Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval to market thalidomide, saying further studies were needed. This reduced the impact of thalidomide in United States patients. Although thalidomide was never approved for sale in the United States at the time, millions of tablets had been distributed to physicians during a clinical testing program. It was impossible to know how many pregnant women had been given the drug to help alleviate morning sickness or as a sedative.
The numerous reports of malformations in babies brought about the awareness of the side effects of the drug on pregnant women. The birth defects caused by the drug thalidomide can range from moderate malformation to more severe forms. Possible birth defects include phocomelia, dysmelia, amelia, bone hypoplasticity, and other congenital defects affecting the ear, heart, or internal organs. Franks et al. looked at how the drug affected newborn babies, the severity of their deformities, and reviewed the drug in its early years. Webb in 1963 also reviewed the history of the drug and the different forms of birth defects it had caused. "The most common form of birth defects from thalidomide is shortened limbs, with the arms being more frequently affected. This syndrome is the presence of deformities of the long bones of the limbs resulting in shortening and other abnormalities. ''
In 1968, a large criminal trial began in Germany, charging several Grünenthal officials with negligent homicide and injury. After Grünenthal settled with the victims in April 1970, the trial ended in December 1970 with no finding of guilt. As part of the settlement, Grünenthal paid 100 million DM into a special foundation; the German government added 320 million DM. The foundation paid victims a one - time sum of 2,500 - 25,000 DM (depending on severity of disability) and a monthly stipend of 100 - 450 DM. The monthly stipends have since been raised substantially and are now paid entirely by the government (as the foundation had run out of money). Grünenthal paid another 50 million Euros into the foundation in 2008.
On 31 August 2012, Grünenthal chief executive Harald F. Stock, PhD, who served as the Chief Executive Officer of Grünenthal GmbH from January 2009 to May 28, 2013 and was also a Member of Executive Board until May 28, 2013, apologized for the first time for producing the drug and remaining silent about the birth defects. At a ceremony, Stock unveiled a statue of a disabled child to symbolize those harmed by thalidomide and apologized for not trying to reach out to victims for over 50 years. At the time of the apology, there were 5,000 to 6,000 sufferers still alive. Victim advocates called the apology "insulting '' and "too little, too late '', and criticized the company for not compensating victims. They also criticized the company for their claim that no one could have known the harm the drug caused, arguing that there were plenty of red flags at the time.
In 1968, after a long campaign by The Sunday Times, a compensation settlement for the UK victims was reached with Distillers Company (now part of Diageo), which had distributed the drug in the UK. This compensation, which is distributed by the Thalidomide Trust in the UK, was substantially increased by Diageo in 2005. The UK Government gave survivors a grant of £ 20 million, to be distributed through the Thalidomide Trust, in December 2009.
Melbourne woman Lynette Rowe, who was born without limbs, led an Australian class action lawsuit against the drug 's manufacturer, Grünenthal, which fought to have the case heard in Germany. The Supreme Court of Victoria dismissed Grünenthal 's application in 2012, and the case was heard in Australia. On 17 July 2012, Rowe was awarded an out - of - court settlement, believed to be in the millions of dollars and paving the way for class action victims to receive further compensation. In February 2014, the Supreme Court of Victoria endorsed the settlement of $89 million AUD to 107 victims of the drug in Australia and New Zealand.
The drug thalidomide 's birth defects in children affected many people 's lives, and from these events came the formation of the group called The Thalidomide Victims Association of Canada, a group of 120 Canadian survivors. Their goal was to prevent future usage of drugs that could be of potential harm to mothers and babies. The members from the thalidomide victims association were involved in the STEPS program, which aimed to prevent teratogenicity.
The effects of thalidomide increased fears regarding the safety of pharmaceutical drugs. The Society of Toxicology of Canada was formed after the effects of thalidomide were made public, focusing on toxicology as a discipline separate from pharmacology. The need for the testing and approval of the toxins in certain pharmaceutical drugs became more important after the disaster. The Society of Toxicology of Canada is responsible for the Conservation Environment Protection Act, focusing on researching the impact to human health of chemical substances. Thalidomide brought on changes in the way drugs are tested, what type of drugs are used during pregnancy, and increased the awareness of potential side effects of drugs.
According to Canadian news magazine program W5, most, but not all, victims of thalidomide receive annual benefits as compensation from the Government of Canada. Excluded are those who can not provide the documentation the government requires.
For correctly denying the application despite the pressure from Richardson - Merrell, Kelsey eventually received the President 's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service at a 1962 ceremony with President John F. Kennedy. In September 2010, the FDA honored Kelsey with the first Kelsey award. The award, given annually to an FDA staff member, came 50 years after Kelsey, then a new medical officer at the agency, first reviewed the application from the William S. Merrell Company of Cincinnati. Cardiologist Helen B. Taussig learned of the damaging effects of the drug thalidomide on newborns and in 1967, testified before Congress on this matter after a trip to Germany where she worked with infants with phocomelia (severe limb deformities). As a result of her efforts, thalidomide was banned in the United States and Europe.
The disaster prompted many countries to introduce tougher rules for the testing and licensing of drugs, such as the Kefauver Harris Amendment (U.S.), Directive 65 / 65 / EEC1 (E.U.), and the Medicines Act 1968. In the United States, the new regulations strengthened the FDA, among other ways, by requiring applicants to prove efficacy and to disclose all side effects encountered in testing. The FDA subsequently initiated the Drug Efficacy Study Implementation to reclassify drugs already on the market.
Research efforts have been focused on determination how thalidomide causes birth defects and its other activities in the human body, efforts to develop safer analogs, and efforts to find further uses for thalidomide.
The exploration of the antiangiogenic and immunomodulatory activities of thalidomide has led to the study and creation of thalidomide analogs. Celgene has sponsored numerous clinical trials with analogues to thalidomide, such as lenalidomide, that are substantially more powerful and have fewer side effects -- except for greater myelosuppression. In 2005, Celgene received FDA approval for lenalidomide (Revlimid) as the first commercially useful derivative. Revlimid is available only in a restricted distribution setting to avoid its use during pregnancy. Further studies are being conducted to find safer compounds with useful qualities. Another more potent analog, pomalidomide, is now FDA approved. Additionally, apremilast was approved by the FDA in March 2014. These thalidomide analogs can be used to treat different diseases, or used in a regimen to fight two conditions.
Interest turned to pomalidomide, a derivative of thalidomide marketed by Celgene. It is a very active anti-angiogenic agent and also acts as an immunomodulator. Pomalidomide was approved in February 2013 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a treatment for relapsed and refractory multiple myeloma. It received a similar approval from the European Commission in August 2013, and is expected to be marketed in Europe under the brand name Imnovid.
There is no conclusive evidence that thalidomide or lenalidomide is useful to bring about or maintain remission in Crohn 's disease.
Thalidomide was studied in a Phase II trial for Kaposi 's sarcoma, a rare soft tissue cancer most commonly seen in the immunocompromised, that is caused by the Kaposi 's sarcoma - associated herpesvirus (KSHV).
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when was the bonfire of the vanities first published | The Bonfire of the Vanities - wikipedia
The Bonfire of the Vanities is a 1987 satirical novel by Tom Wolfe. The story is a drama about ambition, racism, social class, politics, and greed in 1980s New York City and centers on three main characters: WASP bond trader Sherman McCoy, Jewish assistant district attorney Larry Kramer, and British expatriate journalist Peter Fallow.
The novel was originally conceived as a serial in the style of Charles Dickens ' writings; it ran in 27 installments in Rolling Stone starting in 1984. Wolfe heavily revised it before it was published in book form. The novel was a bestseller and a phenomenal success, even in comparison with Wolfe 's other books. It has often been called the quintessential novel of the 1980s.
The title is a reference to the historical Bonfire of the Vanities, which happened in 1497 in Florence, Italy, when the city was under the rule of the Dominican priest Girolamo Savonarola, who ordered the burning of objects that church authorities considered sinful, such as cosmetics, mirrors, books and art.
Wolfe intended his novel to capture the essence of New York City in the 1980s. Wall Street in the 1980s was newly resurgent after most of the previous decade had been bad for stocks. The excesses of Wall Street 's big players were at the forefront of the popular imagination, captured in films like Oliver Stone 's Wall Street, novels like Bret Easton Ellis ' American Psycho, and in non-fiction books like Liar 's Poker, Den of Thieves, and Barbarians at the Gate.
Beneath Wall Street 's success, the city was a hot - bed of racial and cultural tension. Homelessness and crime in the city were growing. Several high - profile racial incidents polarized the city, particularly two black men who were murdered in white neighborhoods: Willie Turks, who was murdered in the Gravesend section of Brooklyn in 1982, and Michael Griffith in Howard Beach, Queens, in 1986. In another episode that became a subject of much media attention, Bernhard Goetz became something of a folk - hero in the city for shooting a group of black men who tried to rob him in the subway in 1984.
Burton B. Roberts, a Bronx judge known for his no - nonsense imperious handling of cases in his courtroom, became the model for the character of Myron Kovitsky in the book.
Throughout his early career, Wolfe had planned to write a novel that would capture the wide spectrum of American society. Among his models was William Makepeace Thackeray 's Vanity Fair, which described the society of 19th century England. Wolfe remained occupied writing nonfiction books on his own and contributing to Harper 's until 1981, when he ceased his other projects to work on the novel.
Wolfe began researching the novel by observing cases at the Manhattan Criminal Court and shadowing members of the Bronx homicide squad. To overcome a case of writer 's block, Wolfe wrote to Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling Stone, to propose an idea drawn from Charles Dickens and Thackeray. The Victorian writers whom Wolfe viewed as his models had often written their novels in serial installments. Wenner offered Wolfe around $200,000 to serialize his work. The deadline pressure gave him the motivation he had hoped for, and from July 1984 to August 1985 each biweekly issue of Rolling Stone contained a new installment. Wolfe was not happy with his "very public first draft '', and thoroughly revised his work. Even Sherman McCoy, the central character of the novel, changed -- originally a writer, in the book version he is cast as a bond salesman. (Wolfe came up with the revised occupation after spending a day on the government - bond desk of Salomon Brothers, with many of the traders who later founded the notorious hedge fund Long - Term Capital Management.) Wolfe researched and revised for two years. The Bonfire of the Vanities appeared in 1987. The book was a commercial and critical success, spending weeks on bestseller lists and earning praise from much of the literary establishment on which Wolfe had long heaped scorn.
The story centers on Sherman McCoy, a successful New York City bond trader. His $3 million Park Avenue co-op, combined with his aristocratic wife 's extravagances and other expenses required to keep up appearances are depleting his great income, or as Sherman calls it, a "hemorrhaging of money ''. McCoy 's secure life as a self - regarded "Master of The Universe '' on Wall Street is gradually destroyed when he and his mistress, Maria Ruskin, accidentally enter the Bronx at night while they are driving back to Manhattan from Kennedy Airport. Finding the ramp back to the highway blocked by trash cans and a tire, McCoy exits the car to clear the way. Approached by two black men whom they perceive -- uncertainly, in Sherman 's case -- as predators, McCoy and Ruskin flee. After Ruskin takes the wheel of the car to race away, it fishtails, apparently striking one of the two would - be assailants -- a "skinny boy ''.
Peter Fallow, a has - been, alcoholic journalist for the tabloid City Light, is soon given the opportunity of a lifetime when he is persuaded to write a series of articles about Henry Lamb, a black youth who has allegedly been the victim of a hit and run by a wealthy white driver. Fallow cynically tolerates the manipulations of Reverend Bacon, a Harlem religious and political leader who sees the hospitalized youth as a "projects success story gone wrong ''. Fallow 's series of articles on the matter ignites a series of protests and media coverage of the Lamb case.
Up for re-election and accused of foot - dragging in the Lamb case, the media - obsessed Bronx District Attorney Abe Weiss pushes for McCoy 's arrest. The evidence includes McCoy 's car (which matches the description of the vehicle involved in the alleged hit and run), plus McCoy 's evasive response to police questioning. The arrest all but ruins McCoy; distraction at work causes him to flub on finding an investor for a $600 million bond on which he had pegged all his hopes of retiring the mortgage on his home and covering his family costs. While McCoy is getting a dressing down from his boss for failing to sell the bond, his lawyer, Tommy Killian, calls to tell him of his upcoming arrest, forcing him to admit his legal problems to his boss and being given a leave of absence as a result. McCoy 's upper class friends ostracize him, and his wife leaves him and takes their daughter Campbell (McCoy 's only source of genuine family love) to live with his parents.
Hoping to impress his boss as well as an attractive former juror, Shelly Thomas, Assistant District Attorney Larry Kramer aggressively prosecutes the case, opening with an unsuccessful bid to set McCoy 's bail at $250,000. Released on $10,000 bail, McCoy is besieged by demonstrators who are protesting outside his home.
Fallow hears a rumor that Maria Ruskin was at the wheel of McCoy 's car when it allegedly struck Lamb, but has fled the country. Trying to smoke out the truth, on the pretense of interviewing the rich and famous, Fallow meets with her husband, Arthur, at a pricey French restaurant. While recounting his life, Arthur has a fatal seizure, as disturbed patrons and an annoyed maître d'hôtel look on. Ruskin is forced to return to the United States for his funeral, where McCoy confronts her about being "the only witness ''. Fallow, spying on Maria, overhears that she, not Sherman, was driving.
Fallow 's write - up of the association between Sherman McCoy and Maria Ruskin prompts Assistant D.A. Kramer to offer her a deal: corroborate the other witness and receive immunity, or be treated as an accomplice. Ruskin recounts this to McCoy while he is wearing a wire. When a private investigator employed by Killian discovers a recording of a conversation that contradicts Ruskin 's statement to the grand jury, the judge assigned to the case declares her testimony "tainted '' and dismisses the case.
In the epilogue, a fictional New York Times article informs us that Fallow has won the Pulitzer Prize and married the daughter of City Light owner Sir Gerald Steiner, while Ruskin has escaped prosecution and remarried. McCoy 's first trial ends in a hung jury, split along racial lines. Kramer is removed from the prosecution after it is revealed he was involved with Shelly Thomas in a sexual tryst at the apartment formerly used by Ruskin and McCoy. It is additionally revealed that McCoy has lost a civil trial to the Lamb family and, pending appeal, has a $12 million liability, which has resulted in the freezing of his assets. The all - but - forgotten Henry Lamb succumbs to his injuries from the accident; McCoy, penniless and estranged from his wife and daughter, awaits trial for vehicular manslaughter. In the novel 's closing, Tommy Killian holds forth:
If this case was being tried in foro conscientiae (in the court of the conscience), the defendants would be Abe Weiss, Reginald Bacon, and Peter Fallow of The City Light.
Bonfire was Wolfe 's first novel. Wolfe 's prior works were mostly non-fiction journalistic articles and books. His earlier short stories appeared in his collection Mauve Gloves & Madmen, Clutter & Vine.
According to Wolfe, the characters are composites of many individuals and cultural observations. However, some characters were based on real people. Wolfe has acknowledged the character of Tommy Killian is based on New York lawyer Edward Hayes, to whom the book is dedicated. The character of the Reverend Bacon is considered by many to be based on the Reverends Al Sharpton and / or Jesse Jackson, who have both campaigned under the banner of eliminating racism.
In 2007, on the book 's 20th anniversary of publication, The New York Times published a retrospective on how the city had changed since Wolfe 's novel.
The book was a major bestseller, and also received strong reviews. The New York Times praised the book, saying it was "a big, bitter, funny, craftily plotted book that grabs you by the lapels and wo n't let go '', but criticized its sometimes superficial characters, saying when "the book is over, there is an odd aftertaste, not entirely pleasant. ''
In 1990, Bonfire was adapted into a film starring Tom Hanks as Sherman McCoy, Kim Cattrall as his wife Judy, Melanie Griffith as his mistress Maria, and Bruce Willis as journalist (and narrator of the film) Peter Fallow. The screenplay was written by Michael Cristofer. Wolfe was paid $750,000 for the rights. The film, however, was a commercial and critical flop.
An opera adaptation, with music by Stefania de Kenessey and libretto and direction by Michael Bergmann, premiered in New York on October 9, 2015.
Amazon Studios, in association with Warner Bros. TV, is working on an eight - episode, one - hour drama series based on the book, produced by Chuck Lorre. It will be distributed through Amazon Video.
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which battle is 1757 marked the beginning of british occupation in india | Battle of Plassey - wikipedia
Great Britain
Mughal Empire
Colonel Robert Clive
Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah
The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on 23 June 1757. The battle consolidated the Company 's presence in Bengal, which later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years.
The battle took place at Palashi (Anglicised version: Plassey) on the banks of the Bhagirathi River, about 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of Calcutta and south of Murshidabad, then capital of Bengal (now in Nadia district in West Bengal). The belligerents were the Nawab Siraj - ud - daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India Company. Siraj - ud - daulah had become the Nawab of Bengal the year before, and he ordered the English to stop the extension of their fortification. Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander in chief of the Nawab 's army, and also promised him to make him Nawab of Bengal. He defeated the Nawab at Plassey in 1757 and captured Calcutta.
The battle was preceded by the attack on British - controlled Calcutta by Nawab Siraj - ud - daulah and the Black Hole massacre. The British sent reinforcements under Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Charles Watson from Madras to Bengal and recaptured Calcutta. Clive then seized the initiative to capture the French fort of Chandernagar. Tensions and suspicions between Siraj - ud - daulah and the British culminated in the Battle of Plassey. The battle was waged during the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), and, in a mirror of their European rivalry, the French East India Company (La Compagnie des Indes Orientales) sent a small contingent to fight against the British. Siraj - ud - Daulah had a numerically superior force and made his stand at Plassey. The British, worried about being outnumbered, formed a conspiracy with Siraj - ud - Daulah 's demoted army chief Mir Jafar, along with others such as Yar Lutuf Khan, Jagat Seths (Mahtab Chand and Swarup Chand), Omichund and Rai Durlabh. Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and Yar Lutuf Khan thus assembled their troops near the battlefield but made no move to actually join the battle. Siraj - ud - Daulah 's army with 50,000 soldiers, 40 cannons and 10 war elephants was defeated by 3,000 soldiers of Col. Robert Clive, owing to the flight of Siraj - ud - daulah from the battlefield and the inactivity of the conspirators. The battle ended in 11 hours.
This is judged to be one of the pivotal battles in the control of Indian subcontinent by the colonial powers. The British now wielded enormous influence over the Nawab and consequently acquired significant concessions for previous losses and revenue from trade. The British further used this revenue to increase their military might and push the other European colonial powers such as the Dutch and the French out of South Asia, thus expanding the British Empire.
The British East India Company had a strong presence in India with the three main stations of Fort St. George in Madras, Fort William in Calcutta and Bombay Castle in western India. These stations were independent presidencies governed by a president and a council, appointed by the Court of Directors in England. The British adopted a policy of allying themselves with various princes and Nawabs, promising security against usurpers and rebels. The Nawabs often gave them concessions in return for the security. By the 18th century all rivalry had ceased between the British East India Company and the Dutch or Portuguese counterparts. The French had also established an East India Company under Louis XIV and had two important stations in India -- Chandernagar in Bengal and Pondicherry on the Carnatic coast, both governed by the presidency of Pondicherry. The French were a late comer in India trade, but they quickly established themselves in India and were poised to overtake Britain for control.
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 1748) marked the beginning of the power struggle between Britain and France and of European military ascendancy and political intervention in the Indian subcontinent. In September 1746, Mahé de La Bourdonnais landed off Madras with a naval squadron and laid siege to the port city. The defences of Madras were weak and the garrison sustained a bombardment of three days before surrendering. The terms of the surrender agreed by Bourdonnais provided for the settlement to be ransomed back for a cash payment by the British East India Company. However, this concession was opposed by Joseph François Dupleix, the governor general of the Indian possessions of the Compagnie des Indes Orientales. When Bourdonnais left India in October, Dupleix reneged on the agreement. The Nawab of the Carnatic Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan intervened in support of the British and the combined forces advanced to retake Madras, but despite vast superiority in numbers, the army was easily crushed by the French. As retaliation to the loss of Madras, the British, under Major Lawrence and Admiral Boscawen, laid siege to Pondicherry but were forced to raise it after thirty - one days. The Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle in 1748 forced Dupleix to yield Madras back to the British in return for Louisbourg and Cape Breton Island in North America.
The Treaty of Aix - La - Chapelle prevented direct hostilities between the two powers but soon they were involved in indirect hostilities as the auxiliaries of the local princes in their feuds. The feud Dupleix chose was for the succession to the positions of the Nizam of the Deccan and the Nawab of the dependent Carnatic province. The British and the French both nominated their candidates for the two posts. In both cases, Dupleix 's candidates usurped both thrones by manipulation and two assassinations. In mid-1751, the French candidate for the Nawab 's post, Chanda Sahib, laid siege to the British candidate Mohammed Ali 's last stronghold Trichinopoly, where Ali was holed up with his British reinforcements. He was aided by a French force under Charles, Marquis de Bussy.
On 1 September 1751, 280 Europeans and 300 sepoys under the command of Captain Robert Clive attacked and seized Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, finding that the garrison had fled the night before. It was hoped that this would force Chanda Sahib to divert some of his troops to wrest the city back from the British. Chanda Sahib sent a force of 4,000 Indians under Raza Sahib and 150 Frenchmen. They besieged the fort and breached the walls in various places after several weeks. Clive sent out a message to Morari Rao, a Maratha chieftain who had received a subsidy to assist Mohammed Ali and was encamped in the Mysore hills. Raza Sahib, learning of the imminent Maratha approach, sent a letter to Clive asking him to surrender in return for a large sum of money but this offer was refused. In the morning of 24 November, Raza Sahib tried to mount a final assault on the fort but was foiled in his attempt when his armoured elephants stampeded due to the British musketry. They tried to enter the fort through the breach several times but always repulsed with loss. The siege was raised the next day and Raza Sahib 's forces fled from the scene, abandoning guns, ammunition and stores. With success at Arcot, Conjeeveram and Trichinopoly, the British secured the Carnatic and Mohammed Ali succeeded to the throne of the Nawab in accordance with a treaty with the new French governor Godeheu.
Alwardi Khan ascended to the throne of the Nawab of Bengal after his army attacked and captured the capital of Bengal, Murshidabad. Alivardi 's attitude to the Europeans in Bengal is said to be strict. During his wars with the Marathas, he allowed the strengthening of fortifications by the Europeans and the construction of the Maratha Ditch in Calcutta by the British. On the other hand, he collected large amounts of money from them for the upkeep of his war. He was well - informed of the situation in southern India, where the British and the French had started a proxy war using the local princes and rulers. Alwardi did not wish such a situation to transpire in his province and thus exercised caution in his dealings with the Europeans. However, there was continual friction; the British always complained that they were prevented from the full enjoyment of the farman of 1717 issued by Farrukhsiyar. The British, however, protected subjects of the Nawab, gave passes to native traders to trade custom - free and levied large duties on goods coming to their districts -- actions which were detrimental to the Nawab 's revenue.
In April 1756, Alwardi Khan died and was succeeded by his twenty - three - year - old grandson, Siraj - ud - daulah. His personality was said to be a combination of a ferocious temper and a feeble understanding. He was particularly suspicious of the large profits made by the European companies in India. When the British and the French started improving their fortifications in anticipation of another war between them, he immediately ordered them to stop such activities as they had been done without permission. When the British refused to cease their constructions, the Nawab led a detachment of 3,000 men to surround the fort and factory of Cossimbazar and took several British officials as prisoners, before moving to Calcutta. The defences of Calcutta were weak and negligible. The garrison consisted of only 180 soldiers, 50 European volunteers, 60 European militia, 150 Armenian and Portuguese militia, 35 European artillery - men and 40 volunteers from ships and was pitted against the Nawab 's force of nearly 50,000 infantry and cavalry. The city was occupied on 16 June by Siraj 's force and the fort surrendered after a brief siege on 20 June.
The prisoners who were captured at the siege of Calcutta were transferred by Siraj to the care of the officers of his guard, who confined them to the common dungeon of Fort William known as The Black Hole. This dungeon, 18 by 14 feet (5.5 m × 4.3 m) in size with two small windows, had 146 prisoners thrust into it -- originally employed by the British to hold only six prisoners. On 21 June, the doors of the dungeon were opened and only 23 of the 146 walked out, the rest died of asphyxiation, heat exhaustion and delirium. It appears that the Nawab was unaware of the conditions in which his prisoners were held which resulted in the unfortunate deaths of most of the prisoners. Meanwhile, the Nawab 's army and navy were busy plundering the city of Calcutta and the other British factories in the surrounding areas.
When news of the fall of Calcutta broke in Madras on 16 August 1756, the Council immediately sent out an expeditionary force under Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson. A letter from the Council of Fort St. George, states that "the object of the expedition was not merely to re-establish the British settlements in Bengal, but also to obtain ample recognition of the Company 's privileges and reparation for its losses '' without the risk of war. It also states that any signs of dissatisfaction and ambition among the Nawab 's subjects must be supported. Clive assumed command of the land forces, consisting of 900 Europeans and 1500 sepoys while Watson commanded a naval squadron. The fleet entered the Hooghly River in December and met with the fugitives of Calcutta and the surrounding areas, including the principal Members of the Council, at the village of Falta on 15 December. The Members of Council formed a Select Committee of direction. On 29 December, the force dislodged the enemy from the fort of Budge Budge. Clive and Watson then moved against Calcutta on 2 January 1757 and the garrison of 500 men surrendered after offering a scanty resistance. With Calcutta recaptured, the Council was reinstated and a plan of action against the Nawab was prepared. The fortifications of Fort William were strengthened and a defensive position was prepared in the north - east of the city.
On 9 January 1757, a force of 650 men under Captain Coote and Major Kilpatrick stormed and sacked the town of Hooghly, 23 miles (37 km) north of Calcutta. On learning of this attack, the Nawab raised his army and marched on Calcutta, arriving with the main body on 3 February and encamping beyond the Maratha Ditch. Siraj set up his headquarters in Omichund 's garden. A small body of their army attacked the northern suburbs of the town but were beaten back by a detachment under Lieutenant Lebeaume placed there, returning with fifty prisoners.
Clive decided to launch a surprise attack on the Nawab 's camp on the morning of 4 February. At midnight, a force of 600 sailors, a battalion of 650 Europeans, 100 artillery - men, 800 sepoys and 6 six - pounders approached the Nawab 's camp. At 6: 00, under the cover of a thick fog, the vanguard came upon the Nawab 's advanced guard, who after firing with their matchlocks and rockets, ran away. They continued forward for some distance till they were opposite Omichund 's garden, when they heard the galloping of cavalry on their right. The cavalry came within 30 yards (27 m) of the British force before the line gave fire, killing many and dispersing the rest. The fog hampered visibility beyond walking distance. Hence, the line moved slowly, infantry and artillery firing on either side randomly. Clive had intended to use a narrow raised causeway, south of the garden, to attack the Nawab 's quarters in the garden. The Nawab 's troops had barricaded the passage. At about 9: 00, as the fog began to lift, the troops were overwhelmed by the discharge of two pieces of heavy cannon from across the Maratha Ditch by the Nawab 's artillery. The British troops were assailed on all sides by cavalry and musket - fire. The Nawab troops then made for a bridge a mile further on, crossed the Maratha Ditch and reached Calcutta. The total casualties of Clive 's force were 57 killed and 137 wounded. The Nawab 's army lost 22 officers of distinction, 600 common men, 4 elephants, 500 horses, some camels and a great number of bullocks. The attack scared the Nawab into concluding the Treaty of Alinagar with the Company on 5 February, agreeing to restore the Company 's factories, allow the fortification of Calcutta and restoring former privileges. The Nawab withdrew his army back to his capital, Murshidabad.
Concerned by the approach of de Bussy to Bengal and the Seven Years ' War in Europe, the Company turned its attention to the French threat in Bengal. Clive planned to capture the French town of Chandernagar, 20 miles (32 km) north of Calcutta. Clive needed to know whose side the Nawab would intervene on if he attacked Chandernagar. The Nawab sent evasive replies and Clive construed this to be assent to the attack. Clive commenced hostilities on the town and fort of Chandernagar on 14 March. The French had set up defences on the roads leading to the fort and had sunk several ships in the river channel to prevent passage of the men of war. The garrison consisted of 600 Europeans and 300 sepoys. The French expected assistance from the Nawab 's forces from Hooghly, but the governor of Hooghly, Nandkumar had been bribed to remain inactive and prevent the Nawab 's reinforcement of Chandernagar. The fort was well - defended, but when Admiral Watson 's squadron forced the blockade in the channel on 23 March, a fierce cannonade ensued with aid from two batteries on the shore. The naval squadron suffered greatly due to musket - fire from the fort. At 9: 00 on 24 March, a flag of truce was shown by the French and by 15: 00, the capitulation concluded. After plundering Chandernagar, Clive decided to ignore his orders to return to Madras and remain in Bengal. He moved his army to the north of the town of Hooghly.
Furthermore, Siraj - ud - Daula believed that the British East India Company did not receive any permission from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II to fortify their positions in the territories of the Nawab of Bengal.
The Nawab was infuriated on learning of the attack on Chandernagar. His former hatred of the British returned, but he now felt the need to strengthen himself by alliances against the British. The Nawab was plagued by fear of attack from the north by the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani and from the west by the Marathas. Therefore, he could not deploy his entire force against the British for fear of being attacked from the flanks. A deep distrust set in between the British and the Nawab. As a result, Siraj started secret negotiations with Jean Law, chief of the French factory at Cossimbazar, and de Bussy. The Nawab also moved a large division of his army under Rai Durlabh to Plassey, on the island of Cossimbazar 30 miles (48 km) south of Murshidabad.
Popular discontent against the Nawab flourished in his own court. The Seths, the traders of Bengal, were in perpetual fear for their wealth under the reign of Siraj, contrary to the situation under Alivardi 's reign. They had engaged Yar Lutuf Khan to defend them in case they were threatened in any way. William Watts, the Company representative at the court of Siraj, informed Clive about a conspiracy at the court to overthrow the ruler. The conspirators included Mir Jafar, paymaster of the army, Rai Durlabh, Yar Lutuf Khan and Omichund, a merchant and several officers in the army. When communicated in this regard by Mir Jafar, Clive referred it to the select committee in Calcutta on 1 May. The committee passed a resolution in support of the alliance. A treaty was drawn between the British and Mir Jafar to raise him to the throne of the Nawab in return for support to the British in the field of battle and the bestowal of large sums of money upon them as compensation for the attack on Calcutta. On 2 May, Clive broke up his camp and sent half the troops to Calcutta and the other half to Chandernagar.
Mir Jafar and the Seths desired that the confederacy between the British and himself be kept secret from Omichund, but when he found out about it, he threatened to betray the conspiracy if his share was not increased to three million rupees (£ 300,000). Hearing of this, Clive suggested an expedient to the Committee. He suggested that two treaties be drawn -- the real one on white paper, containing no reference to Omichund and the other on red paper, containing Omichund 's desired stipulation, to deceive him. The Members of the Committee signed on both treaties, but Admiral Watson signed only the real one and his signature had to be counterfeited on the fictitious one. Both treaties and separate articles for donations to the army, navy squadron and committee were signed by Mir Jafar on 4 June.
Clive testified and defended himself thus before the House of Commons of Parliament on 10 May 1773, during the Parliamentary inquiry into his conduct in India:
Omichund, his confidential servant, as he thought, told his master of an agreement made between the English and Monsieur Duprée (may be a mistranscription of Dupleix) to attack him, and received for that advice a sum of not less than four lacks of rupees. Finding this to be the man in whom the nabob entirely trusted, it soon became our object to consider him as a most material engine in the intended revolution. We therefore made such an agreement as was necessary for the purpose, and entered into a treaty with him to satisfy his demands. When all things were prepared, and the evening of the event was appointed, Omichund informed Mr. Watts, who was at the court of the nabob, that he insisted upon thirty lacks of rupees, and five per cent. upon all the treasure that should be found; that, unless that was immediately complied with, he would disclose the whole to the nabob; and that Mr. Watts, and the two other English gentlemen then at the court, should be cut off before the morning. Mr. Watts, immediately on this information, dispatched an express to me at the council. I did not hesitate to find out a stratagem to save the lives of these people, and secure success to the intended event. For this purpose we signed another treaty. The one was called the Red, the other the White treaty. This treaty was signed by every one, except admiral Watson; and I should have considered myself sufficiently authorised to put his name to it, by the conversation I had with him. As to the person who signed admiral Watson 's name to the treaty, whether he did it in his presence or not, I can not say; but this I know, that he thought he had sufficient authority for so doing. This treaty was immediately sent to Omichund, who did not suspect the stratagem. The event took place, and success attended it; and the House, I am fully persuaded, will agree with me, that, when the very existence of the Company was at stake, and the lives of these people so precariously situated, and so certain of being destroyed, it was a matter of true policy and of justice to deceive so great a villain.
On 12 June, Clive was joined by Major Kilpatrick with the rest of the army from Calcutta at Chandernagar. The combined force consisted of 613 Europeans, 171 artillery - men controlling eight field pieces and two howitzers, 91 topasses, 2100 sepoys (mainly dusadhs) and 150 sailors. The army set out for Murshidabad on 13 June. Clive sent out the Nawab 's messengers with a letter declaring his intention to march his army to Murshidabad to refer their complaints with regard to the treaty of 9 February with the principal officers of the Nawab 's government. The Indian troops marched on shore while the Europeans with the supplies and artillery were towed up the river in 200 boats. On 14 June, Clive sent a declaration of war to Siraj. On 15 June, after ordering an attack on Mir Jafar 's palace in suspicion of his alliance with the British, Siraj obtained a promise from Mir Jafar to not join the British in the field of battle. He then ordered his entire army to move to Plassey, but the troops refused to quit the city until the arrears of their pay were released. The delay caused the army to reach Plassey only by 21 June.
By 16 June, the British force had reached Paltee, 12 miles (19 km) north of which lay the strategically important town and fort of Katwa. It contained large stores of grain and military supplies and was covered by the river Aji. On 17 June, Clive despatched a force of 200 Europeans, 500 sepoys, one field piece and a small howitzer under Major Coote of the 39th Foot to capture the fort. The detachment found the town abandoned when they landed at midnight. At daybreak on 19 June, Major Coote went to the bank of the river and waved a white flag, but was met only by shot and a show of defiance by the governor. Coote split his Anglo - Indian force; the sepoys crossed the river and fired the ramparts while the Europeans crossed farther up from the fort. When the garrison saw the advancing troops, they gave up their posts and fled north. Hearing of the success, Clive and the rest of the army arrived at Katwa by the evening of 19 June.
At this juncture, Clive faced a dilemma. The Nawab had reconciled with Mir Jafar and had posted him on one flank of his army. Mir Jafar had sent messages to Clive, declaring his intention to uphold the treaty between them. Clive decided to refer the problem to his officers and held a council of war on 21 June. The question Clive put before them was whether, under the present circumstances, the army, without other assistance, should immediately cross into the island of Cossimbazar and attack the Nawab or whether they should fortify their position in Katwa and trust to assistance from the Marathas or other Indian powers. Of the twenty officers attending the council, thirteen including Clive were against immediate action, while the rest including Major Coote were in favour citing recent success and the high spirits of the troops. The council broke up and after an hour of deliberation, Clive gave the army orders to cross the Bhagirathi River (another name for the Hooghly River) on the morning of 22 June.
At 1: 00, on 23 June, they reached their destination beyond the village of Plassey. They quickly occupied the adjoining mango grove, called Laksha Bagh, which was 800 yards (730 m) long and 300 yards (270 m) wide and enclosed by a ditch and a mud wall. Its length was angled diagonally to the Bhagirathi River. A little to the north of the grove at the bank of the river stood a hunting lodge enclosed by a masonry wall where Clive took up his quarters. The grove was about a mile from the Nawab 's entrenchments. The Nawab 's army had been in place 26 hours before Clive 's. A French detachment under Jean Law would reach Plassey in two days. Their army lay behind earthen entrenchments running at right angles to the river for 200 yards (180 m) and then turning to the north - eastern direction for 3 miles (4.8 km). There was a redoubt mounted by cannon at this turning along the entrenchment. There was a small hill covered by trees 300 yards (270 m) east of the redoubt. 800 yards (730 m) towards the British position was a small tank (reservoir) and 100 yards (91 m) further south was a larger tank, both surrounded by a large mound of earth.
At daybreak on 23 June, the Nawab 's army emerged from their camp and started advancing towards the grove. Their army consisted of 30,000 infantry of all sorts, armed with matchlocks, swords, pikes and rockets and 20,000 cavalry, armed with swords or long spears, interspersed by 300 pieces of artillery, mostly 32, 24 and 18 - pounders. The army also included a detachment of about 50 French artillerymen under de St. Frais directing their own field pieces. The French took up positions at the larger tank with four light pieces advanced by two larger pieces, within a mile of the grove. Behind them were a body of 5,000 cavalry and 7,000 infantry commanded by the Nawab 's faithful general Mir madan Khan and Diwan Mohanlal. The rest of the army numbering 45,000 formed an arc from the small hill to a position 800 yards (730 m) east of the southern angle of the grove, threatening to surround Clive 's relatively smaller army. The right arm of their army was commanded by Rai Durlabh, the centre by Yar Lutuf Khan and the left arm closest to the British by Mir Jafar.
Clive watched the situation unfolding from the roof of the hunting lodge, anticipating news from Mir Jafar. He ordered his troops to advance from the grove and line up facing the larger tank. His army consisted of 750 European infantry with 100 Topasses, 2100 sepoys (dusadhs) and 100 artillery - men assisted by 50 sailors. The artillery consisted of eight 6 - pounders and two howitzers. The Europeans and Topasses were placed in the centre of the line in four divisions, flanked on both sides by three 6 - pounders. The sepoys were placed on the right and left in equal divisions. Clive posted two 6 - pounders and two howitzers behind some brick - kilns 200 yards (180 m) north of the left division of his army to oppose the French fire.
At 8: 00, the French artillery at the larger tank fired the first shot, killing one and wounding another from the grenadier company of the 39th Regiment. This, as a signal, the rest of the Nawab 's artillery started a heavy and continuous fire. The advanced field pieces of the British opposed the French fire, while those with the battalion opposed the rest of the Nawab 's artillery. Their shots did not serve to immobilize the artillery but hit the infantry and cavalry divisions. By 8: 30, the British had lost 10 Europeans and 20 sepoys. Leaving the advanced artillery at the brick kilns, Clive ordered the army to retreat back to relative shelter of the grove. The rate of casualties of the British dropped substantially due to the protection of the embankment.
At the end of three hours, there was no substantial progress and the positions of both sides had not changed. Clive called a meeting of his staff to discuss the way ahead. It was concluded that the present position would be maintained till after nightfall, and an attack on the Nawab 's camp should be attempted at midnight. Soon after the conference, a heavy rainstorm occurred. The British used tarpaulins to protect their ammunition, while the Nawab 's army took no such precautions. As a result, their gunpowder got drenched and their rate of fire slackened, while Clive 's artillery kept up a continuous fire. As the rain began to subside, Mir Madan Khan, assuming that the British guns were rendered ineffective by the rain, led his cavalry to a charge. However, the British countered the charge with heavy grape shot, mortally wounding Mir Madan Khan and driving back his men.
Siraj had remained in his tent throughout the cannonade surrounded by attendants and officers assuring him of victory. When he heard that Mir Madan was mortally wounded, he was deeply disturbed and attempted reconciliation with Mir Jafar, flinging his turban to the ground, entreating him to defend it. Mir Jafar promised his services but immediately sent word of this encounter to Clive, urging him to push forward. Following Mir Jafar 's exit from the Nawab 's tent, Rai Durlabh urged Siraj to withdraw his army behind the entrenchment and advised him to return to Murshidabad leaving the battle to his generals. Siraj complied with this advice and ordered the troops under Mohan Lal to retreat behind the entrenchment. He then mounted a camel and accompanied by 2,000 horsemen set out for Murshidabad.
At about 14: 00, the Nawab 's army ceased the cannonade and began turning back north to their entrenchments, leaving St. Frais and his artillery without support. Seeing the Nawab 's forces retiring, Major Kilpatrick, who had been left in charge of the British force while Clive was resting in the hunting lodge, recognised the opportunity to cannonade the retiring enemy if St. Frais ' position could be captured. Sending an officer to Clive to explain his actions, he took two companies of the 39th Regiment and two field pieces and advanced towards St. Frais ' position. When Clive received the message, he hurried to the detachment and reprimanded Kilpatrick for his actions without orders and commanded to bring up the rest of the army from the grove. Clive himself then led the army against St. Frais ' position which was taken at 15: 00 when the French artillery retreated to the redoubt of the entrenchment, setting up for further action.
As the British force moved towards the larger tank, it was observed that the left arm of the Nawab 's army had lingered behind the rest. When the rear of this division reached a point in a line with the northern point of the grove, it turned left and marched towards the grove. Clive, unaware that it was Mir Jafar 's division, supposed that his baggage and stores were the intended target and sent three platoons under Captain Grant and Lieutenant Rumbold and a field piece under John Johnstone, a volunteer, to check their advance. The fire of the field piece halted the advance of the division, which remained isolated from the rest of the Nawab 's army.
Meanwhile, the British field pieces began a cannonade on the Nawab 's camp from the mound of the larger tank. As a result, many of the Nawab 's troops and artillery started coming out of the entrenchment. Clive advanced half of his troops and artillery to the smaller tank and the other half to a rising ground 200 yards (180 m) to the left of it and started bombarding the entrenchment with greater efficiency, throwing the approaching trains into confusion. The Nawab 's troops shot their matchlocks from holes, ditches, hollows and from bushes on the hill east of the redoubt while St. Frais kept up his artillery fire from the redoubt. Cavalry charges were also repulsed by the British field pieces. However, the British force sustained most of its casualties in this phase.
At this point, Clive realised that the lingering division was Mir Jafar 's and concentrated his efforts at capturing the redoubt and hill east of it. Clive ordered a three - pronged attack with simultaneous attacks by two detachments on the redoubt and the hill supported by the main force in the centre. Two companies of grenadiers of the 39th Regiment, under Major Coote took the hill at 16: 30 after the enemy fled without firing a shot. Coote pursued them across the entrenchment. The redoubt was also taken after St. Frais was forced to retreat. By 17: 00, the British occupied the entrenchment and the camp left by a dispersing army. The British troops marched on and halted 6 miles (9.7 km) beyond Daudpur at 20: 00.
The British losses were estimated at 22 killed and 50 wounded. Of the killed, three were of the Madras Artillery, one of the Madras Regiment and one of the Bengal European Regiment. Of the wounded, four were of the 39th Regiment, three of the Madras Regiment, four of the Madras Artillery, two of the Bengal European Regiment, one of the Bengal Artillery and one of the Bombay Regiment. Of the losses by the sepoys, four Madras and nine Bengal sepoys were killed while nineteen Madras and eleven Bengal sepoys were wounded. Clive estimates that the Nawab 's force lost 500 men, including several key officers.
In the evening of 23 June, Clive received a letter from Mir Jafar asking for a meeting with him. Clive replied that he would meet Mir Jafar at Daudpur the next morning. When Mir Jafar arrived at the British camp at Daudpur in the morning, Clive embraced him and saluted him as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. He then advised Mir Jafar to hasten to Murshidabad to prevent Siraj 's escape and the plunder of his treasure. Mir Jafar reached Murshidabad with his troops on the evening of 24 June. Clive arrived at Murshidabad on 29 June with a guard of 200 European soldiers and 300 sepoys in the wake of rumours of a possible attempt on his life. Clive was taken to the Nawab 's palace, where he was received by Mir Jafar and his officers. Clive placed Mir Jafar on the throne and acknowledging his position as Nawab, presented him with a plate of gold rupees.
Siraj - ud - daulah had reached Murshidabad at midnight on 23 June. He summoned a council where some advised him to surrender to the British, some to continue the war and some to prolong his flight. At 22: 00 on 24 June, Siraj disguised himself and escaped northwards on a boat with his wife and valuable jewels. His intention was to escape to Patna with aid from Jean Law. At midnight on 24 June, Mir Jafar sent several parties in pursuit of Siraj. On 2 July, Siraj reached Rajmahal and took shelter in a deserted garden but was soon discovered and betrayed to the local military governor, the brother of Mir Jafar, by a man who was previously arrested and punished by Siraj. His fate could not be decided by a council headed by Mir Jafar and was handed over to Mir Jafar 's son, Miran, who had Siraj murdered that night. His remains were paraded on the streets of Murshidabad the next morning and were buried at the tomb of Alivardi Khan.
According to the treaty drawn between the British and Mir Jafar, the British acquired all the land within the Maratha Ditch and 600 yards (550 m) beyond it and the zamindari of all the land between Calcutta and the sea. Besides confirming the firman of 1717, the treaty also required the restitution, including donations to the navy squadron, army and committee, of 22,000,000 rupees (£ 2,750,000) to the British for their losses. However, since the wealth of Siraj - ud - daulah proved to be far less than expected, a council held with the Seths and Rai Durlabh on 29 June decided that one half of the amount was to be paid immediately -- two - thirds in coin and one third in jewels and other valuables. As the council ended, it was revealed to Omichund that he would receive nothing with regard to the treaty, hearing which he went insane.
As a result of the war of Plassey, the French were no longer a significant force in Bengal. In 1759, the British defeated a larger French garrison at Masulipatam, securing the Northern Circars. By 1759, Mir Jafar felt that his position as a subordinate to the British could not be tolerated. He started encouraging the Dutch to advance against the British and eject them from Bengal. In late 1759, the Dutch sent seven large ships and 1400 men from Java to Bengal under the pretext of reinforcing their Bengal settlement of Chinsura even though Britain and Holland were not officially at war. Clive, however, initiated immediate offensive operations by land and sea and defeated the much larger Dutch force on 25 November 1759 in the Battle of Chinsura. The British then deposed Mir Jafar and installed Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal. The British were now the paramount European power in Bengal. When Clive returned to England due to ill - health, he was rewarded with an Irish peerage, as Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey and also obtained a seat in the British House of Commons.
The struggle continued in areas of the Deccan and Hyderabad such as Arcot, Wandewash, Tanjore and Cuddalore, culminating in 1761 when Col. Eyre Coote defeated a French garrison under de Lally, supported by Hyder Ali at Pondicherry. The French were returned Pondicherry in 1763 by way of the Treaty of Paris but they never again regained their former stature in India. The British would, in effect, emerge as rulers of the subcontinent in subsequent years.
The Battle of Plassey and the resultant victory of the British East India company led to puppet governments instated by them in various states of India. This led to an unleashing of excesses, malpractices and atrocities by the British East India Company in the name of tax collection.
A monument was established in the battlefield, called Palashi Monument.
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department of physics quaid i azam university islamabad | Department of Physics, Quaid - e-Azam University - wikipedia
The Department of Physics, Quaid - e-Azam University (Urdu: طبیعیات کے سیکشن جامعہ قائداعظم ) (founded as the Institute of Physics, QAU), is an academic and research department of the Quaid - e-Azam University (Qau), Pakistan. It is also referred to as the Institute of Theoretical Physics.
Established in 1966 with efforts led by Abdus Salam, the institute was located in Rawalpindi, Punjab Province and offered research in mathematics and theoretical physics. Professor Riazuddin served its first and founding director of the institute after shifting to the present QAU campus in 1972. The institute is considered a birthplace of school of theoretical physics of Pakistan. It is also a birthplace of "Theoretical Physics Group '' (TPG), now shifted to PINSTECH, and invited scientists from all over the world. The department has collaborated with institutes including Kahuta Research Laboratories, National Centre for Physics, Government College University, the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) and CERN.
i ħ ∂ ∂ t Ψ (r, t) = H ^ Ψ (r, t) (\ displaystyle (i \ hbar (\ frac (\ partial) (\ partial t)) \ Psi (\ mathbf (r), \, t) = (\ hat (H)) \ Psi (\ mathbf (r), \, t)))
The Schrödinger equation, use to describe how the quantum state of a physical system changes with time
Between 1966 - 1968, Abdus Salam 's doctoral students had returned to Pakistan after earning their doctorates and experience. These physicists had been under Abdus Salam 's influence and were eager to establish an institute of physics. Abdus Salam enablked them to engage their research in theoretical physics and to establish the country 's first school of theoretical physics. Abdus Salam provided his support to establish the institute and gave the founding directorship of the institute to his pupil student, Riazuddin.
Abdus Salam and Riazuddin founded the first "Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) '' in 1968 that gave birth to Pakistan 's school of theoretical physics. The infrastructure was built by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) after Raziuddin Siddiqui also persuaded the PAEC to provide its full support to establish this institute as a birthplace of theoretical physics. The new institute was re-established at the University of Islamabad and, Salam, Siddiqui and Bhutto convinced the authorities in Pakistan, specifically President Ayub Khan, to make the proposed university a research institution. Siddiqui convinced the chairman of PAEC, dr IH Usmani, to send all the theoreticians in PAEC to the Institute of Physics at the University of Islamabad to form a theoretical physics group.
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in which year state reorganisation commission gave its report on the basis of language | States Reorganisation Commission - Wikipedia
The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was a body constituted by the Central Government of India in 1953 to recommend the reorganisation of state boundaries. In 1955, after nearly 2 years of study, the Commission recommended that India 's state boundaries should be reorganised to form 16 states and 3 union territories.
States Reorganisation Commission consisted of Fazal Ali, K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Kunzru. Some of its recommendations were implemented in the States Reorganisation Act of 1956
After India became independent from the British Empire in 1947, the constituent units of India were classified under the following distinct categories:
The borders of these states, inherited from British India, were not suitable for easy administration. The internal provincial borders of British India were a result of historical events, as well as political, military and strategic planning by the British. The Government agreed that the reorganisation of state borders was necessary, but the basis of reorganisation was yet to be determined.
One of the proposals was to reorganise the state on the basis of languages of India. This would make administration easier, and would help replace the caste and religion - based identities with less controversial linguistic identities. Earlier in 1920, the members of the Indian National Congress had agreed on the linguistic reorganisation of the Indian states as one of the party 's political goals. The Provincial Committees of the party were set on this basis since 1920. In 1927, the Congress declared that it was committed to "the redistribution of provinces on a linguistic basis '', and reaffirmed its stance several times, including in the election manifesto of 1945 - 46.
But, soon after independence, the Congress - led Government became concerned that the states formed solely on a linguistic basis might be unsuitable, and might even pose a risk to the national unity. On 17 June 1948, Rajendra Prasad, the President of the Constituent Assembly, set up the Linguistic Provinces Commission (aka Dhar Commission) to recommend whether the states should be reorganised on linguistic basis or not. The committee included SK Dhar (retired Judge of the Allahabad High Court), JN Lal (lawyer) and Panna Lall (retired Indian Civil Service officer). In its 10 December 1948 report, the Commission recommended that "the formation of provinces on exclusively or even mainly linguistic considerations is not in the larger interests of the Indian nation ''. It recommended the reorganisation of the provinces of Madras, Bombay and Central Provinces and Berar primarily on the basis of geographical contiguity, financial self - sufficiency and ease of administration. Soon after the report was published, the Congress, at its Jaipur session, set up the "JVP committee '' to study the recommendations of the Dar Commission. The committee, comprised Jawaharlal Nehru and Vallabhbhai Patel, in addition to the Congress president Pattabhi Sitaramayya. In its report dated 1 April 1949, the Committee stated that the time was not suitable for formation of new provinces, but also stated "if public sentiment is insistent and overwhelming, we, as democrats, have to submit to it, but subject to certain limitations in regard to the good of India as a whole ''.
B.R. Ambedkar submitted a Memorandum (dated 14 October 1948) to the Dar Commission, supporting the formation of linguistic provinces, specifically the formation of the Marathi - majority Maharashtra state with Bombay as its capital. To address the concern of national unity, he suggested that the official language of every province should be same as the official language of the Central Government. KM Munshi, a Gujarati leader opposed to incorporation of Bombay in the proposed Maharashtra state, opposed the linguistic reorganisation proposal, saying that "the political ambition of a linguistic group can only be satisfied by the exclusion and discrimination of other linguistic groups within the area. No safeguards and no fundamental rights can save them from the subtle psychological exclusion which linguism implies. ''
By the 1952, the demand for creation of a Telugu - majority state in the parts of the Madras State had become powerful. Potti Sreeramulu, one of the activists demanding the formation of a Telugu - majority state, died on 16 December 1952 after undertaking a fast - unto - death. Subsequently, the Telugu - majority Andhra State was formed in 1953. This sparked off agitations all over the country, with linguistic groups demanding separate statehoods.
To reorganise the states, the Government of India constituted the State Reorganisation Commission (SRC) under the chairmanship of Fazl Ali, a former Supreme Court judge.
The Commission submitted its report on 30 September 1955, with the following recommendations:
The report was tabled in the Lok Sabha on 14 December 1955.
In Part II of Report of the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) 1955, titled "Factors Bearing on Reorganisation '', the Commission clearly said that "it is neither possible nor desirable to reorganise States on the basis of the single test of either language or culture, but that a balanced approach to the whole problem is necessary in the interest of our national unity. ``
The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 implemented some of the recommendations of the SRC. In addition to the three Union Territories (UTs) proposed by the SRC, it also established Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura as UTs. It established a total of 14 states in addition to these UTs.
The recommendations of the commission were not accepted universally.
The SRC recommended formation of separate Vidarbha State by splitting majority Marathi speaking areas from Madhya Pradesh state. However, the Indian government did not accept the recommendation and merged these areas in the predominantly Marathi speaking Bombay state. Vidarbha would have been the second Marathi majority state for the people of a regional / provincial language in India. Similarly, Telangana state would have been the second state for the Telugu speaking people beside Andhra state as per the SRC recommendation. Eventually, Telangana did become a separate state on 2nd June, 2014.
The Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress demanded to merge Thovalai, Agasteeswaram, Kalkulam, Vilavancode, Neyyatinkara, Senkottai, Deviculam and Peermade with Madras State. However, the Commission recommended only the merger of Thovalai, Agasteeswaram, Kalkulam, Vilvancode and Shenkottai with Madras State. In Neyyatinkara Taluk the Commission found that 86 % of the people knew Malayalam. So the Commission did not favour the merger of this Taluk with Madras State. During the Lok Sabha (Parliament) discussions, the representatives of Travancore - Cochin State vehemently opposed the Commission 's recommendations for the merger of the Southern Taluks with Madras State. A. Nesamony argued for the merger of Neyyatinkara, Deviculam, Peermade and Chittoor with the Tamil - majority Madras State.
Even though the SRC recommended for the merger of the entire Shenkottai taluk, the subsequently formed Joint Committee recommended the eastern portion of Shenkottai alone to be merged with Madras State. This decision was finally published authoritatively on 16 January 1956. In the July 1956 Lok Sabha meeting, Nesamony argued for the full merger of Shencottai as recommended by SRC. The House refused to reconsider the decision of the joint Committee by over-ruling the recommendation of the SRC.
On the basis of the percentage of the people speaking Tamil, the S.R. Commission recommended for the transfer of four taluks namely, Agasteeswaram, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode to Tamil Nadu from the State of Travancore - Cochin. The same yard stick was used for the transfer of Shenkotta Taluk to Tamil Nadu. While dealing with Devikulam and Peermede taluks, even though the majority was Tamil - speaking people and the representatives to the State Assembly were Tamils as in the case of the above indicated five taluks, the commission used a different yard stick and recommended to retain in Travancore - Cochin State due to geographical reasons. Even though Shenkotta was fully transferred by the commission, the Joint Committee appointed to fix the exact boundaries of the states, divided Shenkotta Taluk and allowed Travancore -- Cochin State to retain a major portion.
The Commission 's report judged the arguments for and against the merger of the Telugu - majority Telangana region (of Hyderabad State) and the Andhra State (created in 1953). Para 369 to 389 of SRC deals with the merger of Telangana and Andhra to establish the Andhra Pradesh state (complete text of the recommendations is available on Wikisource). Para 386 of SRC says, "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusions that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residency Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification ''.
Hyderabad Chief minister in his letter to Congress President said Communist parties supported the merger for their political calculations. Hyderabad PCC chief said overwhelming majority from Congress opposed the merger and Communists were elected in special circumstances in 1951 and Visalandhra was not a political issue in 1951 and Assembly does not reflect people 's view on this issue. He also said 80 % of Congress delegates who were elected in 1955 opposed the merger.
In Hyderabad assembly out of 174 MLAs, 147 MLAs expressed their view. 103 MLAs (including Marathi and Kannada MLAs) supported the merger and opposed the Fazal Ali Commission 's recommendation to keep Telangana as a separate state for 5 years; and 29 opposed such merger. Among Telangana MLAs, 59 Telangana MLAs agreed with the merger, 25 Telangana MLAs opposed the merger. Out of 94 Telangana MLAs in the assembly, 36 were Communists (PDF), 40 were Congress, 11 were Socialist party (SP), 9 were independents. Voting did not take place on the resolution because Telangana proponents asked to include the phrase "As per the wishes of people '' in the resolution.
An agreement was reached between Telangana leaders and Andhra leaders on 20 February 1956 to merge Telangana and Andhra with promises to safeguard Telangana 's interests. Popular newspaper in Telangana, Golconda Patrika, in its editorial on 8 March 1956, immediately after Nehru public declaration about the merger, expressing doubts about the Gentleman 's agreement said Andhra older brother might say any number of sweet things now, but they have to be committed to their promises and they should not exploit Telangana younger brother in future. ''
Following the Gentlemen 's agreement, the central government established a unified Andhra Pradesh on November 1, 1956.
There have been several movements to invalidate the merger of Telangana and Andhra, major ones occurring in 1969, 1972 and 2000s onwards. The Telangana movement gained momentum over decades becoming a widespread political demand of creating a new state from the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh. In early 2014, the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 was approved by the Indian parliament, and Telangana became India 's 29th state on 2 June 2014.
The Akali Dal, a Sikh - dominated political party active mainly in Punjab, sought to create a Punjabi Suba (a Punjabi - majority) province. This new state would be a Sikh - majority state, which caused concern among the Punjabi Hindus. The Sikh leaders such Fateh Singh tactically stressed the linguistic basis of the demand, while downplaying its religious basis -- a state where the distinct Sikh identity could be preserved. The Hindu newspapers from Jalandhar, exhorted the Punjabi Hindus to declare Hindi as their "mother tongue '', so that the Punjabi Suba proponents could be deprived of the argument that their demand was solely linguistic.
The States Reorganisation Commission rejected the demand for a Punjabi - majority state saying that it lacked a majority support and that Punjabi was not grammatically very distinct from Hindi. The Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) was merged with Punjab, though. Akali Dal continued its movement, and in 1966 the Punjab Reorganisation Act split Punjab into the Sikh - majority Punjab state and the Hindu - majority state of Haryana, with Chandigarh, administered as a separate union territory, as the shared capital of the two states.
After India became independent in 1947, the Belgaum district (which was in the erstwhile Bombay Presidency) became a part of the Bombay State. The award of the Belgaum district to the Kannada - majority Mysore State (later Karnataka) was contested by the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti, which wanted it to be included in the proposed Marathi - majority Maharashtra state.
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if the two equal sides of an isosceles triangle have length a | Isosceles triangle - wikipedia
In geometry, an isosceles triangle is a triangle that has two sides of equal length. Sometimes it is specified as having two and only two sides of equal length, and sometimes as having at least two sides of equal length, the latter version thus including the equilateral triangle as a special case. The two equal sides are called the legs and the third side is called the base of the triangle. Examples of isosceles triangles include the isosceles right triangle, the golden triangle, and the faces of bipyramids and certain Catalan solids.
By the isosceles triangle theorem, the two angles opposite the legs are themselves equal, while if the third side is different then the third angle is different. By the Steiner -- Lehmus theorem, every triangle with two angle bisectors of equal length is isosceles.
Every isosceles triangle has an axis of symmetry along the perpendicular bisector of its base. In a non-equilateral isosceles triangle this axis is also the Euler line of the triangle, and one of the two axes of the Steiner inellipse. The two angles opposite the legs are always acute, so the classification of the triangle as acute, right, or obtuse depends only on the angle between its two legs.
"Isosceles '' is a compound word, made from "isos '' (equal) and skelos (leg). The same word is used, for instance, for isosceles trapezoids, trapezoids with two equal sides, and for sets of more than three points that have only two distinct distances between pairs of points. A triangle that is not isosceles (having three unequal sides) is called a scalene triangle.
In an isosceles triangle that has exactly two equal sides, the equal sides are called legs and the third side is called the base. The angle included by the legs is called the vertex angle and the angles that have the base as one of their sides are called the base angles. The vertex opposite the base is called the apex.
Euclid defined an isosceles triangle as one having exactly two equal sides, but modern treatments prefer to define them as having at least two equal sides, making equilateral triangles (with three equal sides) a special case of isosceles triangles. In the equilateral triangle case, since all sides are equal, any side can be called the base, if needed, and the term leg is not generally used.
Whether the isosceles triangle is acute, right or obtuse depends only on the angle at the apex. In Euclidean geometry, the base angles can not be obtuse (greater than 90 °) or right (equal to 90 °) because their measures would sum to at least 180 °, the total of all angles in any Euclidean triangle. Since a triangle is obtuse or right if and only if one of its angles is obtuse or right, respectively, an isosceles triangle is obtuse, right or acute if and only if its apex angle is respectively obtuse, right or acute. In Edwin Abbott 's book Flatland, this classification of shapes was used as a satire of social hierarchy: isosceles triangles represented the working class, with acute isosceles triangles lower in the hierarchy than right or acute isosceles triangles.
As well as the isosceles right triangle, several other specific shapes of isosceles triangles have been studied. These include the Calabi triangle (a triangle with three congruent inscribed squares), the golden triangle and golden gnomon (two isosceles triangles whose sides and base are in the golden ratio), and the 30 - 30 - 120 triangle of the triakis triangular tiling. Five Catalan solids, the triakis tetrahedron, triakis octahedron, tetrakis hexahedron, pentakis dodecahedron, and triakis icosahedron, each have isosceles - triangle faces, as do the infinitely - many bipyramids.
For any isosceles triangle, the following four quantities are all equal:
If the triangle has equal sides of length a (\ displaystyle a) and base of length b (\ displaystyle b), the general triangle formulas for these quantities all simplify to
This formula can also be derived from the Pythagorean theorem using the fact that this line segment bisects the base and partitions the isosceles triangle into two congruent right triangles.
The area T (\ displaystyle T) of an isosceles triangle can be derived from the formula for its height, and the general formula for the area of a triangle as half the product of base and height:
The same area formula can also be derived from Heron 's formula for the area of a triangle from its three sides.
If the apex angle (θ) (\ displaystyle (\ theta)) and leg lengths (a) (\ displaystyle (a)) of an isosceles triangle are known, then the area of that triangle is:
This is derived by drawing a perpendicular line from the base of the triangle, which bisects the vertex angle and creates two right triangles. The bases of these two right triangles are both equal to the hypotenuse times the sine of the bisected angle by definition of the term "sine ''. For the same reason, the heights of these triangles are equal to the hypotenuse times the cosine of the bisected angle. From the trigonometric identity sin θ = 2 sin (θ 2) cos (θ 2) (\ displaystyle \ sin \ theta = 2 \ sin (\ left ((\ frac (\ theta) (2)) \ right)) \ cos (\ left ((\ frac (\ theta) (2)) \ right))), one can derive
This is a special case of the general formula for the area of a triangle as half the product of two sides times the sine of the included angle.
The perimeter p (\ displaystyle p) of an isosceles triangle with equal sides a (\ displaystyle a) and base b (\ displaystyle b) is just
As in any triangle, the area T (\ displaystyle T) and perimeter p (\ displaystyle p) are related by the isoperimetric inequality
This is a strict inequality for isosceles triangles with sides unequal to the base, and becomes an equality for the equilateral triangle. The area, perimeter, and base can also be related to each other by the equation
Because this is a quadratic equation in b (\ displaystyle b), there are in general two distinct isosceles triangles with given area T (\ displaystyle T) and perimeter p (\ displaystyle p). In the equilateral case (when the isoperimeteric inequality becomes an equality) there is only one such triangle, which is equilateral.
If the two equal sides have length a (\ displaystyle a) and the other side has length b (\ displaystyle b), then the internal angle bisector t (\ displaystyle t) from one of the two equal - angled vertices satisfies
as well as
and conversely, if the latter condition holds, an isosceles triangle parametrized by a (\ displaystyle a) and t (\ displaystyle t) exists.
The Steiner -- Lehmus theorem states that every triangle with two angle bisectors of equal lengths is isosceles. It was formulated in 1840 by C.L. Lehmus. Its other namesake, Jakob Steiner, was one of the first to provide a solution.
A triangle with exactly two equal sides has exactly one axis of symmetry, which goes through the vertex angle and also goes through the midpoint of the base. Thus the axis of symmetry coincides with (1) the angle bisector of the vertex angle, (2) the median drawn to the base, (3) the altitude drawn from the vertex angle, and (4) the perpendicular bisector of the base.
The Euler line of any triangle goes through the triangle 's orthocenter (the intersection of its three altitudes), its centroid (the intersection of its three medians), and its circumcenter (the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of its three sides, which is also the center of the circumcircle that passes through the three vertices). In an isosceles triangle with exactly two equal sides, the Euler line coincides with the axis of symmetry. This can be seen as follows. Since as pointed out in the previous section the axis of symmetry coincides with an altitude, the intersection of the altitudes, which must lie on that altitude, must therefore lie on the axis of symmetry; since the axis coincides with a median, the intersection of the medians, which must lie on that median, must therefore lie on the axis of symmetry; and since the axis coincides with a perpendicular bisector, the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors, which must lie on that perpendicular bisector, must therefore lie on the axis of symmetry.
If the vertex angle is acute (so the isosceles triangle is an acute triangle), then the orthocenter, the centroid, and the circumcenter all fall inside the triangle. If the vertex angle, and therefore the triangle, is obtuse, then the centroid still falls in the triangle 's interior, but the circumcenter falls outside it (beyond the base), and the orthocenter also falls outside the triangle (beyond the apex).
In an isosceles triangle the incenter (the intersection of its angle bisectors, which is the center of the incircle, that is, the circle which is internally tangent to the triangle 's three sides) lies on the Euler line.
The Steiner inellipse of any triangle is the unique ellipse that is internally tangent to the triangle 's three sides at their midpoints. In an isosceles triangle, if the legs are longer than the base then the Steiner inellipse 's major axis coincides with the triangle 's axis of symmetry; if the legs are shorter than the base, then the ellipse 's minor axis coincides with the triangle 's axis of symmetry.
The theorem which states that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal appears as Proposition I. 5 in Euclid. This result has been called the pons asinorum (the bridge of asses) or the isosceles triangle theorem. Some say that its name as the bridge of asses is because the diagram used by Euclid in his demonstration of the result resembles a bridge. Others claim that the name stems from the fact that this is the first difficult result in Euclid, and acts to separate those who can understand Euclid 's geometry from those who ca n't.
For any integer n ≥ 4 (\ displaystyle n \ geq 4), any triangle can be partitioned into n (\ displaystyle n) isosceles triangles. In a right triangle, the median from the hypotenuse (that is, the line segment from the midpoint of the hypotenuse to the right - angled vertex) divides the right triangle into two isosceles triangles. This is because the midpoint of the hypotenuse is the center of the circumcircle of the right triangle, and each of the two triangles created by the partition has two equal radii as two of its sides. Either diagonal of a rhombus divides it into two congruent isosceles triangles. Similarly, one of the two diagonals of a kite divides it into two isosceles triangles, which are not congruent except when the kite is a rhombus.
If a cubic equation with real coefficients has two complex roots and one real root, then when these roots are plotted in the complex plane they are the vertices of an isosceles triangle whose axis of symmetry coincides with the horizontal (real) axis. This is because the complex roots are complex conjugates and hence are symmetric about the real axis.
If an isosceles triangle ABC with equal legs AB and BC has a segment drawn from A to a point D on ray BC, and if the reflection of AD around AC intersects ray BC at E, then BC = BD × BE.
A well known fallacy is the false proof of the statement that all triangles are isosceles. This argument has been attributed to Lewis Carroll, but W.W. Rouse Ball claims priority in this matter. The fallacy is rooted in Euclid 's lack of recognition of the concept of betweenness and the resulting ambiguity of inside versus outside of figures.
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who is opening up for panic at the disco | Panic! At the Disco - wikipedia
Panic! at the Disco is an American rock band from Las Vegas, Nevada, formed in 2004 by childhood friends Brendon Urie, Ryan Ross, Spencer Smith and Brent Wilson. Since 2015, vocalist Urie is the only official member in the band, supported on tours by guitarist Kenneth Harris, drummer Dan Pawlovich, and bassist Nicole Row. Panic! at the Disco recorded its first demos while its members were in high school. Shortly after, the band recorded and released its debut studio album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (2005). Popularized by the second single, "I Write Sins Not Tragedies, '' the album was certified double platinum in the US. In 2006, founding bassist Brent Wilson was fired from the band during an extensive world tour and subsequently replaced by Jon Walker.
Influenced by 1960s rock bands the Beatles, the Zombies and the Beach Boys, and preceded by the single "Nine in the Afternoon, '' the band 's second studio album, Pretty. Odd. (2008) marked a significant departure from the sound of the band 's debut. Ross and Walker, who favored the band 's new direction, departed because Urie and Smith wanted to make further changes to the band 's style. The duo subsequently formed a new band, The Young Veins, leaving Urie and Smith as the sole remaining members of Panic! at the Disco.
Continuing as a duo, Urie and Smith released a new single, "New Perspective, '' and recruited bassist Dallon Weekes and guitarist Ian Crawford as touring musicians for live performances. Weekes was later inducted into the band 's lineup as a full - time member in 2010. The band 's third studio album, Vices & Virtues (2011), was recorded solely by Urie and Smith in 2010, produced by John Feldmann and Butch Walker.
As a three - piece, Urie, Smith, and Weekes recorded and released the band 's fourth studio album, Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!, in 2013. Prior to the release of the album, Smith unofficially left the band due to health and drug - related issues, leaving Urie and Weekes as the remaining members. The duo recruited guitarist Kenneth Harris and drummer Dan Pawlovich as touring musicians for live performances.
In 2015, Smith officially left the band after not performing live with the band since his departure in 2013. Shortly thereafter, Weekes reverted to being a touring member once again, leaving Urie as the only member of the official lineup. In April 2015, "Hallelujah '' was released as the first single from Panic! at the Disco 's fifth studio album, Death of a Bachelor (2016). In December 2017, Weekes officially announced his departure from the band. Preceded by lead single "Say Amen (Saturday Night), '' the band 's sixth studio album, Pray for the Wicked, was released on June 22, 2018.
Panic! at the Disco was formed in 2004 in the suburban area of Summerlin, Las Vegas, by childhood friends Ryan Ross, who sang and played guitar, and Spencer Smith, who played drums. They both attended Bishop Gorman High School, and they began playing music together in ninth grade. They invited friend Brent Wilson from nearby Palo Verde High School to join on bass, and Wilson invited classmate Brendon Urie to try out on guitar. The quartet soon began rehearsing in Smith 's grandmother 's living room. Urie grew up in a Mormon family in Las Vegas and early on missed some rehearsals to go to church. Ross initially was the lead vocalist for the group, but after hearing Urie sing back - up during rehearsals, the group decided to make him the lead. Initially, Panic! at the Disco was a Blink - 182 cover band.
In the group 's early experimental demos, the band created a sound that was different from the many death - metal groups that were performing in Las Vegas at the time. The band signed a recording contract without having performed a live show. "We never went out and played shows before we got signed because the music scene in Las Vegas is so bad. There 's not a lot going on, '' Smith said. "In our practice space, there were something like 30 bands, and every day we 'd walk into that room and hear the exact same death - metal bands. So it kind of influenced us to be different. And to get out of Las Vegas. '' Urie began working at Tropical Smoothie Cafe in Summerlin to afford rent for the band 's new practice space. The four left their educations behind to concentrate on music; Ross had a falling out with his father when he dropped out of college, and when Urie dropped out of high school his parents kicked him out of the house. He stayed with friends until he could afford to rent an apartment.
Ross and Urie soon began to commit to their laptops the demos they had been developing and posted three early demos ("Time to Dance, '' "Nails for Breakfast, Tacks for Snacks '' and "Camisado '') on PureVolume. On a whim, they sent a link to Fall Out Boy bassist Pete Wentz via a LiveJournal account. Wentz, who was in Los Angeles at the time with the rest of Fall Out Boy working on the band 's major - label debut, From Under the Cork Tree, drove to Las Vegas to meet with the young, unsigned band. Upon hearing "two to three '' songs during band practice, Wentz was impressed and immediately wanted the band to sign to his Fueled by Ramen imprint label Decaydance Records, which made the band the first on the new label. Around December 2004, the group signed to the label. As news broke that Wentz had signed Panic! (who had yet to perform a single live show), fans on the internet began to bash the group. "Almost right away we knew what was going to happen, '' Ross explained in a 2006 interview. "We had two songs online and people were already making assumptions on what kind of band we were and what we were going to sound like. ''
Meanwhile, Wentz began to hype the band wherever possible: from wearing "Pete! at the Disco '' T - shirts onstage to mentioning the group in interviews. Wentz gave a quick shout - out to the band during a press junket on the day before the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards: "I 've got a couple of bands coming out soon on Decaydance, one being this band called Panic! at the Disco, '' Wentz said. "Their record is going to be your next favorite record. It 's called A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out -- get it before your little brother does. '' At the time of the band 's signing, all of the band members were still in high school (with the exception of Ross, who was forced to quit UNLV). Urie graduated in May 2005, and Wilson and Smith finished school online as the band left for College Park, Maryland, to record their debut record.
The band relocated to College Park, Maryland, to record its debut album from June to September 2005. Although they only had shells of songs when they arrived, the rest of the album shaped up fast through the marathon session. "We did n't have a day off in the five - and - a-half weeks we were there, 12 or 14 hours a day, '' Ross said in a 2005 interview. "We were making things up in our heads that were n't there, and on top of the stress of trying to finish the record, we were living in a one - bedroom apartment with four people on bunk beds, '' recalled Ross. "Everyone got on everybody 's nerves. Someone would write a new part for a song and someone else would say they did n't like it just because you ate their cereal that morning. ''
The album is split into two halves: the first half is mostly electronic dance punk, while the second half features Vaudevillian piano, strings, and accordion. The band grew tired of writing only with drum machines and keyboards and, inspired by film scores (specifically the works of Danny Elfman and Jon Brion) decided to write a completely different half. "By the end of that, we were completely exhausted, '' said Ross of the studio sessions. After its completion, "we had two weeks to come home and learn how to be a band, '' Ross said. The group played its first live show during the summer of 2005 at local Las Vegas music venue The Alley on West Charleston. Afterwards, the band toured nationally on the Nintendo Fusion Tour with mentors Fall Out Boy, as well as Motion City Soundtrack, The Starting Line, and Boys Night Out for the rest of 2005.
The band 's debut album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, was released September 27, 2005. Sales began relatively slow. It debuted at No. 112 on the Billboard 200 album chart, No. 6 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart, and No. 1 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart, with nearly 10,000 albums sold in the first week of release. Within a span of four months, Panic! would see the video for its first single, "I Write Sins Not Tragedies, '' rocket up the Billboard Hot 100 as sales of Fever passed the 500,000 mark. At the end of March 2006, the band announced a headlining tour. By August, the group 's debut record was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and the music video for "I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' won Video of the Year at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. "Some aspects of the fame are annoying, but at the end of the day it 's something we 're most grateful for. It 's certainly opened the door to a whole new batch of opportunities, '' Ross said of the band 's newfound fame and instant success.
In May 2006, Panic! at the Disco announced that original bassist Brent Wilson had left the band, "posting a statement that was both diplomatic and entirely inscrutable (...) yet (failing) to mention any reason why Wilson is leaving Panic, '' according to MTV News. He was replaced in the band by Jon Walker. In June, Wilson asserted to MTV News that he was kicked out of the band via a phone call. "It was done as a phone call and the only person who spoke was Spencer. Apparently, Brendon and Ryan were on the speakerphone too, but they did n't say a word. They never even said they were sorry, '' explained Wilson. Smith wrote a lengthy e-mail back to James Montgomery of MTV News, stating, in part, "We made the decision based on Brent 's lack of responsibility and the fact that he was n't progressing musically with the band, '' and revealed that Wilson did not write nor play any bass present on Fever: Instead, Urie recorded these parts. Wilson demanded a cut in royalties, and threatened to take his former band to court.
In 2006, the band supported The Academy Is... on the band 's worldwide tour "Ambitious Ones and Smoking Guns '' from January to May. Beginning in June, the group headlined its first unnamed national tour, that would last until August. During the group 's performance at the 2006 Reading Festival in August, the band was greeted by excessive bottling, one of which hit Urie in the face that knocked him unconscious. Despite this, the band continued with its set after Urie recovered. The band 's second headlining tour, dubbed the Nothing Rhymes with Circus Tour, began in November. In roughly one year, Panic! at the Disco went from being the opening act on a five - band bill to the headliners on a massive arena tour.
The Nothing Rhymes with Circus Tour feature the band 's first highly theatrical live shows, which featured every song with dance numbers, skits, and tricks performed by a six - member troupe, as the band donned intricate costumes, loosely re-enacting moments from the songs. Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times noted the sudden success and circus - inspired tour of the young band in a concert review: "There 's something charming about watching a band trying to navigate sudden success, aided by a contortionist, a ribbon dancer and all the rest of it. '' MTV News favorably likened its theme and wardrobe to "Janet Jackson 's audience - dividing, hypersexual The Velvet Rope Tour. '' The group, fresh off the major success of A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, took a break after non-stop touring, and the group members began formulating ideas for their next album together during the winter of 2006.
After a short period of development regarding the ideas of the album, on March 6, 2007 the band arrived at a cabin in the rural mountains of Mount Charleston, Nevada and began the writing process for the new album. After recording the new tracks and performing them live over the summer, the band returned to its native Las Vegas as well as the group 's old rehearsal studio, where the band members wrote their debut record. The band grew uninterested in the songs previously written and by August scrapped the entire new album (which Ross later revealed was "three - quarters '' done) and started over. "We wanted to approach these songs in the most basic form, '' Ross said. "We wrote them all on one acoustic guitar and with someone singing. I think that we kind of skipped that part of songwriting on the first record, and this time we 're sort of paying attention to that. (...) We 've written a bunch of songs since we 've been home (Las Vegas). I think it 's the most fun and the happiest we 've been since we started. '' With simplicity the new focus and the old album shelved, the group settled in and began recording what would become Pretty. Odd. In October, the band entered the Studio at the Palms at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas to begin recording the album.
In January 2008, the band unveiled a new logo and dropped the exclamation point from the group 's name, becoming Panic at the Disco. Released on March 21, 2008, Pretty. Odd. was described by the band as "more organic and mellower '' than A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, as well as unintentionally and coincidentally similar to music of the Beatles, in both songwriting and scope. The record debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first - day sales of 54,000, and first - week sales of 139,000 copies in the United States. Those figures marked the band 's biggest sales week to that date, beating a previous record held by A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (which sold 45,000 during the winter of 2006). The record also debuted at "Current Alternative Albums '' chart and No. 2 on the "Digital Albums '' chart, the latter of which accounted for 26 percent of the disc 's overall sales. The album charted high in various other countries and was eventually certified gold in the United Kingdom, however, Pretty. Odd. received relatively disappointing sales in the face of its predecessor. Pretty. Odd. was, however, critically acclaimed in contrast to Fever: Barry Walters of Spin called Panic 's debut album "embarrassing '' while regarding the new record as "(daring) to be optimistically beautiful at a time when sadness and ugliness might have won them easier credibility. ''
The band announced plans to headline the 2008 Honda Civic Tour in January 2008, which took up the majority of early touring for the album. Motion City Soundtrack, the Hush Sound and Phantom Planet opened for the tour, which performed across North America from April 10 to July 14, 2008. Throughout October and November 2008, the band toured with Dashboard Confessional and The Cab on the Rock Band Live Tour promoting the video game Rock Band 2.
As expected and predicted by several music publications, the band adopted a very different style for the touring in support of Pretty. Odd., in contrast to the dark, circus - themed elements of the band 's previous stage shows. Each show contained "woodsy set pieces, projections of flora and fauna, and mic stands wrapped in lights and flowers, '' and each band member dressed in a vest. While reflecting on the theatrical nature of A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out touring, Urie commented: "We did it and it was a lot of fun when we did it, but this time around I think we wanted to get back to a more intimate, personal setting, and scale it down a little bit. '' Ryan Ross explained that: "It 's more about connecting with the audience and seeing what 's gon na happen every night. It 's not as scripted out and pre-planned. It makes it more exciting for us, and less monotonous every night. '' A live album,... Live in Chicago, based on live recordings from Chicago during the Honda Civic Tour, was released December 2, 2008. An accompanying DVD contains photos from the tour, each music video from the album as well as behind - the - scenes footage of the videos and the tour, the short film Panic! at the Disco In: American Valley, and the documentary feature based on the tour, All In A Day 's.
Pretty. Odd. 's touring was also defined by a larger effort to remain environmentally conscious. On the tour, the band worked with two non-profit eco organizations: Reverb, which facilitates environmentally friendly touring; and Global Inheritance, which seeks to inspire more eco-activism. In a 2008 interview, Ross revealed that the band traveling on a biodiesel bus, to re-using plastics, and recycling more backstage. The band went as far as to print tour booklets on recycled paper, with soy ink, and organize an "eco-contest, '' in which profits from the tour went straight to environmental organizations.
In spring 2009, the band began recording material for its third studio album. However, on July 6, 2009, Ryan Ross and Jon Walker announced via the band 's official website that the two were leaving the band. In an interview following the split, Ross explained that he first brought the idea to Smith in late June 2009 over lunch: "Spencer and I had lunch and caught up for a while, and then the big question came up, like, ' Well, what do you want to do? ' and I said, ' Well, I think it might be best if we kind of do our own thing for a while, ' and he said, ' I 'm glad you said that, because I was going to say the same thing, ' '' Ross recalled. "And there was really no argument, which is really the best way that could 've worked out. '' Ross said the split was largely due to creative differences between him and Urie. Urie wanted the band to explore a more polished pop sound, while Ross -- and, by extension, Walker -- was interested in making retro - inspired rock.
The news asserted that both tour plans with blink - 182 in August 2009 and new album production "will continue as previously announced. '' The following day, Alternative Press broke the news that "New Perspective, '' the first song recorded without Ross and Walker, would debut the following month on radio and as a part of the soundtrack to the film Jennifer 's Body. On July 10, 2009, Alternative Press also reported that the band had regained the exclamation point, becoming, once again, Panic! at the Disco. "New Perspective '' was released on July 28, 2009. Former guitarist of pop rock band The Cab, Ian Crawford and Dallon Weekes, frontman of indie rock band The Brobecks, filled in for Ross and Walker on tour during the blink - 182 Summer Tour in August 2009.
The band re-entered the studio during early 2010 and spent much of the year recording the group 's third studio album. During this time, touring bassist Dallon Weekes joined the band 's official lineup along with Urie and Smith, making the band a three - piece. Although Weekes did not perform on the upcoming album, he was responsible for the conceptualization of the cover art of the album and was also featured on the album cover, masked and standing in the background behind Smith and Urie. On January 18, 2011, the band revealed that an album titled Vices & Virtues would officially be released on March 22, 2011. The album was produced by Butch Walker and John Feldmann. The record 's first single, "The Ballad of Mona Lisa, '' was released digitally on February 1, 2011, with the music video being released February 8, 2011. Vices & Virtues was officially released March 22, 2011, to relatively positive critical reviews.
The band began touring in support of the album, christened the Vices & Virtues Tour, in earnest beginning in February 2011. The tour has sported the same electric, over-the - top theatricality the band was known for during the Fever era. "I really miss wearing costumes and makeup, '' Urie told Spin. "I love throwing a big production. I 've recently been reading about Tesla coils and I 'm trying to figure out how I can get one that sits on the stage and shoots sparks without hurting anybody. '' The group was scheduled to play the Australian Soundwave Revolution festival in September / October but the festival was canceled. The band performed at the Counter-Revolution mini-festival, the festival that took its place.
On May 12, 2011, the band collaborated with indie pop band Fun. and the two groups embarked on an American tour, releasing a single together titled "C'mon. '' Panic! at the Disco contributed a new song "Mercenary '' to the soundtrack for the video game Batman: Arkham City.
After the Vices & Virtues tour cycle, Urie, Smith, and Weekes began writing and preparing for a fourth album. During the recording of the album, touring guitarist Ian Crawford, who joined the band in 2009 after the departure of Ryan Ross and Jon Walker, left the band citing his desire to make "real, genuine '' music. On July 15, 2013, the album was announced as Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!, with a scheduled release date of October 8, 2013. The first single, "Miss Jackson, '' was released on July 15, 2013, along with its music video to promote the album. Panic! at the Disco opened for Fall Out Boy on the Save Rock And Roll Arena Tour with Kenneth Harris replacing Crawford.
Shortly before the band began its first tour in support of the album, Smith wrote an open letter to fans regarding his abuse of alcohol and prescription medications since the recording of Pretty. Odd. Although Smith joined the band for the first handful of dates, he left the tour to "continue fighting addiction. '' Urie posted on the band 's official website on August 7, 2013, that "It 's become evident that Spencer still needs more time to take care of himself. I ca n't expect him to be fighting addiction one minute and be fully immersed in a national tour the next. With that said, the tour will continue without Spencer while he is away getting the help he needs. '' Since Spencer 's leave of absence, Dan Pawlovich of the band Valencia has filled in on tour.
In an interview with Pure Fresh on September 23, 2014, Urie stated that he had already thought about ideas on the fifth studio album; however, he was not sure if it would be a Panic! at the Disco album, or a solo album. Urie has also stated there are no current plans for Smith to return to the band.
On April 2, 2015, Smith announced that he had officially left the band. That same month, Urie revealed in an interview with Kerrang! that he was working on new material for the band 's fifth studio album.
On April 20, 2015, Urie released "Hallelujah '' as a single without any previous formal announcements. It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 40, the band 's second highest ever after "I Write Sins Not Tragedies. '' The band performed at the KROQ Weenie Roast on May 16, 2015. On September 1, 2015, another song from the fifth studio album, "Death of a Bachelor '', premiered on an Apple Music broadcast hosted by Pete Wentz. The second single, "Victorious '' was released at the end of the month. On October 22, 2015, through the band 's official Facebook page, Urie announced the new album as Death of a Bachelor with a scheduled release date of January 15, 2016. It is the first album written and composed by Urie with a team of writers, as the status of Weekes changed from an official member to that of a touring member once again. Weekes ' status was rumored during the promotion of Death of a Bachelor that he was no longer an official member, until it was confirmed by Weekes himself on October 24, 2015, via Twitter that he was "not contributing creatively anymore. '' The third single "Emperor 's New Clothes '' was released on the same day, along with the official music video. "LA Devotee '' was released November 26 as a promotional single. On December 31, 2015, the band released "Do n't Threaten Me with a Good Time. ''
The band co-headlined the Weezer & Panic! at the Disco Summer Tour 2016 with Weezer from June to August 2016. The band released a cover of Queen 's "Bohemian Rhapsody '' in August 2016, on the Suicide Squad soundtrack album.
On September 22, 2016, the band released the music video for "LA Devotee. '' With the release came the announcement of the Death of a Bachelor Tour in 2017. MisterWives and Saint Motel were announced as the opening acts. In a December 2016 interview, Urie said that he hoped to make a music video for every song on the album Death of a Bachelor.
On December 15, 2017, the band released their fourth live album All My Friends We 're Glorious: Death of a Bachelor Live. It was released as a limited - edition double - vinyl and digital download. Five days later, the band released a non-album Christmas song titled "Feels Like Christmas. '' On December 27, bassist Dallon Weekes officially announced his departure from Panic! at the Disco after over eight years of performing in the band. On March 19, 2018, the band played a surprise show in Cleveland, Ohio with new touring bassist, Nicole Row. On March 21, 2018, the band released two new songs "Say Amen (Saturday Night) '' and "(Fuck A) Silver Lining. '' At the same time, the band also announced the Pray for the Wicked Tour and a new album called Pray for the Wicked.
On June 7, 2018, the band performed at the fountains at the Bellagio prior to game 5 of the Stanley Cup Finals. The performance is said to have had sentimental value to the band as they took to the stage in their hometown.
Panic! at the Disco have been known to change their sound each album. Musically, they have mainly been described as pop rock, pop, pop punk, baroque pop, electropop, synth - pop, dance - punk, power pop, alternative rock, emo pop, vaudeville, and emo.
Panic! at the Disco went on record many times saying that the group 's second album would be completely different from A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out, as Rolling Stone wrote in an article: "The group cemented its next direction with their first single, called "Nine in the Afternoon. '' "It 's influenced by the music our parents listened to: the Beach Boys, the Kinks, the Beatles, '' says Ross. "Our new songs are more like classic rock than modern rock. We got older and started listening to different music -- and this seems like the natural thing to do right now. '' Pretty. Odd. has been described as being like "(Panic) dropping the entire Beatles catalog into a blender, adding some modern alternative ice and the horn section from Sonia Dada, then churning out a new - millennium Liverpool smoothie. '' In his review of the band 's live album, Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted, "... Pretty. Odd. suggests that they 're becoming that rare thing in 2008: a pop - oriented rock band. They might not be doing this knowingly, but the results are entertaining all the same. '' Urie has cited bands / artists such as Frank Sinatra, Queen, David Bowie, Weezer, Green Day and My Chemical Romance as his biggest influences.
Current members
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what is the name of the game in love 020 | Love O2O (TV series) - wikipedia
Love O2O (Chinese: 微微 一笑 很 倾城) is a 2016 Chinese television series based on the novel of the same name written by Gu Man, starring Yang Yang and Zheng Shuang. It aired on Jiangsu TV and Dragon TV from 22 August to 6 September 2016.
The drama is a commercial success in China, and internationally. It is one of the most watched Chinese modern dramas, with over 24 billion views online.
Bei Weiwei (Zheng Shuang) is the campus goddess, who excels in her studies. She aspires to be an online game developer, and goes by the user ID of Luwei Weiwei in the online role - playing game A Chinese Ghost Story. After she gets dumped by her online husband Zhenshui Wuxiang, she gets approached by the number one player Yixiao Naihe, who suggested that they get married so they both can participate in a couple competition within the game. The newly formed couple instantly hit it off, and undergo many adventures together in the game.
However, Wei Wei never expected the real identity of her virtual husband to be her college senior, Xiao Nai (Yang Yang) who is described as the cream of the crop in both sports and academics. When Wei Wei discovers his true identity, getting to know that their meeting in the game and getting married wasn "t just their ranks or a mere coincidence but Xiao Nai had once seen her duelling with another player in an internet cafe. She realized that he had already fallen for her when he saw her for the first time, not for her beauty but for her quick, swift finger movements on the keyboard!
The series was filmed at Shanghai Songjiang University Town, East China University of Political Science and Law and Shanghai Commercial Plaza.
The fictional game in the universe uses the content provided by A Chinese Ghost Story, a popular MMORPG game in China.
The series ranked first in television ratings and became the number one most searched and discussed topic online during its broadcast. The drama is also well - received internationally.
The drama was praised for following the details of the novel faithfully, as well as its refreshing and unique plot. Unlike most dramas, Love O2O does not succumb to overused cliches and plot devices, making it stand out from dramas with similar themes.
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what type of catholic school is notre dame | University of Notre Dame - wikipedia
The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame / ˌnoʊtərˈdeɪm / NOH - tər - DAYM or ND) is a private, non-profit Catholic research university in the community of Notre Dame, Indiana, near the city of South Bend, in the United States. The main campus covers 1,250 acres (510 ha) in a suburban setting and it contains a number of recognizable landmarks, such as the Golden Dome, the "Word of Life '' mural (commonly known as Touchdown Jesus), the Notre Dame Stadium, and the Basilica. The school was founded on November 26, 1842, by Father Edward Sorin, CSC, who was also its first president.
Notre Dame is consistently recognized as one of the top universities in the United States, in particular for its undergraduate education. Undergraduate students are organized into six colleges, Arts and Letters, Science, Engineering, Business, Architecture and Global Affairs. The School of Architecture is known for teaching New Classical Architecture and for awarding the globally renowned annual Driehaus Architecture Prize. The university offers over 50 foreign study abroad yearlong programs and over 15 summer programs. Notre Dame 's graduate program has more than 50 master, doctoral and professional degree programs offered by the five schools, with the addition of the Notre Dame Law School and a MD - PhD program offered in combination with the Indiana University School of Medicine. It maintains a system of libraries, cultural venues, artistic and scientific museums, including the Hesburgh Library and the Snite Museum of Art. The majority of the university 's 8,000 undergraduates live on campus in one of 31 residence halls, each with its own traditions, legacies, events, and intramural sports teams. The university counts approximately 134,000 alumni, considered among the strongest alumni networks among U.S. colleges.
The university 's athletic teams are members of the NCAA Division I and are known collectively as the Fighting Irish. Notre Dame is known for its football team, which contributed to its rise to prominence on the national stage in the early 20th century; the team an Independent with no conference affiliation, has accumulated eleven consensus national championships, seven Heisman Trophy winners, 62 members in the College Football Hall of Fame, and 13 members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Other ND sport teams, chiefly in the Atlantic Coast Conference, have accumulated 17 national championships. The Notre Dame Victory March is often regarded as one of the most famous and recognizable collegiate fight songs.
Started as a small all - male institution in 1842 and charter in 1844, Notre Dame reached international fame at the beginning of the 20th century, aided by the success of its football team under the guidance of coach Knute Rockne. Major improvements to the university occurred during the administration of the Rev. Theodore Hesburgh between 1952 and 1987 as Hesburgh 's administration greatly increased the university 's resources, academic programs, and reputation and first enrolled women undergraduates in 1972. Ever since, the University has seen steady growth, and under the leadership of the next two presidents, Rev. Malloy and Rev. Jenkins, many infrastructure and research expansions have been completed. Notre Dame 's growth has continued in the 21st century, and it currently possesses one of the largest endowments of any U.S. university, at $13.1 billion.
In 1842, the Bishop of Vincennes, Célestine Guynemer de la Hailandière, offered land to Father Edward Sorin of the Congregation of Holy Cross, on the condition that he build a college in two years. Fr. Sorin arrived on the site with eight Holy Cross brothers from France and Ireland on November 26, 1842, and began the school using Father Stephen Badin 's old log chapel. He soon erected additional buildings, including the Old College, the first church, and the first main building. They immediately acquired two students and set about building additions to the campus.
Notre Dame began as a primary and secondary school, but soon received its official college charter from the Indiana General Assembly on January 15, 1844. Under the charter the school is officially named the University of Notre Dame du Lac (University of Our Lady of the Lake). Because the university was originally only for male students, the female - only Saint Mary 's College was founded by the Sisters of the Holy Cross near Notre Dame in 1844.
The first degrees from the college were awarded in 1849. The university was expanded with new buildings to accommodate more students and faculty. With each new president, new academic programs were offered and new buildings built to accommodate them. The original Main Building built by Fr. Sorin just after he arrived was replaced by a larger "Main Building '' in 1865, which housed the university 's administration, classrooms, and dormitories. Beginning in 1873, a library collection was started by Father Lemonnier, housed in the Main Building, and by 1879 it had grown to ten thousand volumes.
This Main Building, and the library collection, was entirely destroyed by a fire in April 1879; school closed immediately and students were sent home. The university founder, Fr. Sorin, and the president at the time, the Rev. William Corby, immediately planned for the rebuilding of the structure that had housed virtually the entire University. Construction was started on May 17, and by the incredible zeal of administrator and workers the building was completed before the fall semester of 1879. The library collection was also rebuilt and stayed housed in the new Main Building for years afterwards. Around the time of the fire, a music hall was opened. Known as Washington Hall, it hosted plays and musical acts put on by the school. By 1880, a science program was established at the university, and a Science Hall (today LaFortune Student Center) was built in 1883. The hall housed multiple classrooms and science labs needed for early research at the university.
By 1890, individual residence halls were built to house the increasing number of students. William J. Hoynes was dean of the law school 1883 -- 1919, and when its new building was opened shortly after his death it was renamed in his honor. The Rev. John Zahm CSC became the Holy Cross Provincial for the United States (1896 -- 1906), with overall supervision of the university. He tried to modernize and expand Notre Dame, erecting buildings and adding to the campus art gallery and library, and amassing what became a famous Dante collection. His term was not renewed by the Congregation because of fears he had expanded Notre Dame too quickly and had run the Holy Cross order into serious debt.
In 1919 Father James Burns became president of Notre Dame, and in three years he produced an academic revolution that brought the school up to national standards by adopting the elective system and moving away from the university 's traditional scholastic and classical emphasis. By contrast, the Jesuit colleges, bastions of academic conservatism, were reluctant to move to a system of electives; for this reason, their graduates were shut out of Harvard Law School. Notre Dame continued to grow over the years, adding more colleges, programs, and sports teams. By 1921, with the addition of the College of Commerce, Notre Dame had grown from a small college to a university with five colleges and a professional law school. The university continued to expand and add new residence halls and buildings with each subsequent president.
One of the main driving forces in the growth of the University was its football team, the Notre Dame Fighting Irish. Knute Rockne became head coach in 1918. Under Rockne, the Irish would post a record of 105 wins, 12 losses, and five ties. During his 13 years the Irish won three national championships, had five undefeated seasons, won the Rose Bowl in 1925, and produced players such as George Gipp and the "Four Horsemen ''. Knute Rockne has the highest winning percentage (. 881) in NCAA Division I / FBS football history. Rockne 's offenses employed the Notre Dame Box and his defenses ran a 7 -- 2 -- 2 scheme. The last game Rockne coached was on December 14, 1930, when he led a group of Notre Dame all - stars against the New York Giants in New York City.
The success of Notre Dame reflected rising status of Irish Americans and Catholics in the 1920s. Catholics rallied around the team and listened to the games on the radio, especially when it defeated teams from schools that symbolized the Protestant establishment in America -- Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Army.
Its role as a high - profile flagship institution of Catholicism made it an easy target of anti-Catholicism. The most remarkable episode of violence was a clash between Notre Dame students and the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist and anti-catholic movement, in 1924. Nativism and anti-Catholicism, especially when directed towards immigrants, were cornerstones of the KKK 's rhetoric, and Notre Dame was seen as a symbol of the threat posed by the Catholic Church. The Klan decided to have a week - long Klavern in South Bend. Clashes with the student body started on May 17, when students, aware of the anti-Catholic animosity, blocked the Klansmen from descending from their trains in the South Bend station and ripped the KKK clothes and regalia. On May 19 thousands of students massed downtown protesting the Klavern, and only the arrival of college president Fr. Matthew Walsh prevented any further clashes. The next day, football coach Knute Rockne spoke at a campus rally and implored the students to obey the college president and refrain from further violence. A few days later the Klavern broke up, but the hostility shown by the students was an omen and a contribution to the downfall of the KKK in Indiana.
Holy Cross Father John Francis O'Hara was elected vice president in 1933 and president of Notre Dame in 1934. During his tenure at Notre Dame, he brought numerous refugee intellectuals to campus; he selected Frank H. Spearman, Jeremiah D.M. Ford, Irvin Abell, and Josephine Brownson for the Laetare Medal, instituted in 1883. O'Hara strongly believed that the Fighting Irish football team could be an effective means to "acquaint the public with the ideals that dominate '' Notre Dame. He wrote, "Notre Dame football is a spiritual service because it is played for the honor and glory of God and of his Blessed Mother. When St. Paul said: ' Whether you eat or drink, or whatsoever else you do, do all for the glory of God, ' he included football. ''
The Rev. John J. Cavanaugh, CSC served as president from 1946 to 1952. Cavanaugh 's legacy at Notre Dame in the post-war years was devoted to raising academic standards and reshaping the university administration to suit it to an enlarged educational mission and an expanded student body and stressing advanced studies and research at a time when Notre Dame quadrupled in student census, undergraduate enrollment increased by more than half, and graduate student enrollment grew fivefold. Cavanaugh also established the Lobund Institute for Animal Studies and Notre Dame 's Medieval Institute. Cavanaugh also presided over the construction of the Nieuwland Science Hall, Fisher Hall, and the Morris Inn, as well as the Hall of Liberal arts (now O'Shaughnessy Hall), made possible by a donation from I.A. O'Shaughnessy, at the time the largest ever made to an American Catholic university. He also established a system of advisory councils at the university, which continue today.
The Rev. Theodore Hesburgh, C.S.C., (1917 -- 2015) served as president for 35 years (1952 -- 87) of what Andrew Greeley calls a "dramatic transformation. '' In that time the annual operating budget rose by a factor of 18 from $9.7 million to $176.6 million, and the endowment by a factor of 40 from $9 million to $350 million, and research funding by a factor of 20 from $735,000 to $15 million. Enrollment nearly doubled from 4,979 to 9,600, faculty more than doubled 389 to 950, and degrees awarded annually doubled from 1,212 to 2,500.
Hesburgh is also credited with transforming the face of Notre Dame by making it a coeducational institution. In the mid-1960s Notre Dame and Saint Mary 's College developed a co-exchange program whereby several hundred students took classes not offered at their home institution, an arrangement that added undergraduate women to a campus that already had a few women in the graduate schools. After extensive debate, merging with St. Mary 's was rejected, primarily because of the differential in faculty qualifications and pay scales. "In American college education, '' explained the Rev. Charles E. Sheedy, C.S.C., Notre Dame 's Dean of Arts and Letters, "certain features formerly considered advantageous and enviable are now seen as anachronistic and out of place... In this environment of diversity, the integration of the sexes is a normal and expected aspect, replacing separatism. '' Thomas Blantz, C.S.C., Notre Dame 's Vice President of Student Affairs, added that coeducation "opened up a whole other pool of very bright students. '' Two of the male residence halls were converted for the newly admitted female students that first year, while two others were converted for the next school year. In 1971 Mary Ann Proctor became the first female undergraduate; she transferred from St. Mary 's College. In 1972, Angela Sienko, who earned a bachelor 's degree in marketing, became the first woman to graduate from the university.
In 1978, a historic district comprising 21 contributing buildings was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
In the 18 years under the presidency of Edward Malloy, C.S.C., (1987 -- 2005), there was a rapid growth in the school 's reputation, faculty, and resources. He increased the faculty by more than 500 professors; the academic quality of the student body has improved dramatically, with the average SAT score rising from 1240 to 1460; the number of minority students more than doubled; the endowment grew from $350 million to more than $3 billion; the annual operating budget rose from $177 million to more than $650 million; and annual research funding improved from $15 million to more than $70 million. Notre Dame 's most recent (2014) capital campaign raised $2.014 billion, far exceeding its goal of $767 million, and is the largest in the history of Catholic higher education and was the largest of any University without a medical school at the time.
Since 2005, Notre Dame has been led by John I. Jenkins, C.S.C., the 17th president of the university. Jenkins took over the position from Malloy on July 1, 2005. In his inaugural address, Jenkins described his goals of making the university a leader in research that recognizes ethics and building the connection between faith and studies. During his tenure, Notre Dame has increased its endowment, enlarged its student body, and undergone many construction projects on campus, including Compton Family Ice Arena, a new architecture hall, additional residence halls, and the Campus Crossroads, a $400 m enhancement and expansion of Notre Dame Stadium.
Notre Dame 's campus is located in Notre Dame, Indiana, an unincorporated community in the Michiana area of Northern Indiana, north of South Bend and four miles (6 km) from the Michigan state line. In September 2011, Travel + Leisure listed Notre Dame as having one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States. Today it lies on 1,250 acres (5.1 km) just south of the Indiana Toll Road and includes 143 buildings located on quads throughout the campus. Notre Dame is a major tourist attraction in northern Indiana; in the 2015 -- 2016 academic year, the campus was visited by more than 1.8 millions visitors, more than 857,250 of which from outside of St. Joseph County.
Development of the campus began in the spring of 1843, when Fr. Sorin and some of his congregation built the "Old College, '' a building used for dormitories, a bakery, and a classroom. A year later, after an architect arrived, a small "Main Building '' was built allowing for the launch of the college. The Main Building burned down in 1879, and it was immediately replaced with the current one. It was topped with the Golden Dome, which today has become Notre Dame 's most distinguishable feature. Close to the Main Building stands Washington Hall, a theater that was built in 1881 and has since then been used for theatrical and musical representation.
Because of its Catholic identity, a number of religious buildings stand on campus. The Old College building has become one of two seminaries on campus run by the Congregation of Holy Cross. The current Basilica of the Sacred Heart is located on the spot of Fr. Sorin 's original church, which became too small for the growing college. It is built in French Revival style and it is decorated by stained glass windows imported directly from France. The interior was painted by Luigi Gregori, an Italian painter invited by Fr. Sorin to be artist in residence. The Basilica also features a bell tower with a carillon. Inside the church there are also sculptures by Ivan Mestrovic. The Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes, which was built in 1896, is a replica of the original in Lourdes, France. It is very popular among students and alumni as a place of prayer and meditation, and it is considered one of the most beloved spots on campus.
A Science Hall was built in 1883 under the direction of Fr. Zahm, but in 1950 it was converted to a student union building and named LaFortune Student Center, after Joseph LaFortune, an oil executive from Tulsa, Oklahoma. Commonly known as "LaFortune '' or "LaFun, '' it is a 4 - story building of 83,000 square feet (7,700 m) that provides the Notre Dame community with a meeting place for social, recreational, cultural, and educational activities. LaFortune employs 35 part - time student staff and 29 full - time non-student staff and has an annual budget of $1.2 million. Many businesses, services, and divisions of The Office of Student Affairs are found within. The building also houses restaurants from national restaurant chains.
A 70 acres (28 ha) historic district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 as University of Notre Dame: Main and South Quadrangles. The district covers 21 contributing buildings in the core of the original campus including the Main Administration Building and the Basilica.
Since the construction of its oldest buildings, the university 's physical plant has grown substantially. Over the years 31 residence halls have been built to accommodate students and each has been constructed with its own chapel. Many academic building were added together with a system of libraries, the most prominent of which is the Theodore Hesburgh Library, built in 1963 and today containing almost 4 million books. Since 2004, several buildings have been added, including the DeBartolo Performing Arts Center, the Guglielmino Complex, and the Jordan Hall of Science. Additionally, a new residence for men, Dunne Hall, began accepting residents for the Fall 2016 semester. Flaherty Hall was completed and began housing undergraduate women in Fall 2016 as well. A new engineering building, Stinson - Remick Hall, a new combination Center for Social Concerns / Institute for Church Life building, Geddes Hall, and a law school addition have recently been completed as well. Additionally the new hockey arena opened in the fall of 2011. The Stayer Center for Executive Education, which houses the Mendoza College of Business Executive Education Department opened in March 2013 just South of the Mendoza College of Business building. Because of its long athletic tradition, the university features also many building dedicated to sport. The most famous is Notre Dame Stadium, home of the Fighting Irish football team; it has been renovated several times and today it can hold more than 80 thousand people. Prominent venues include also the Edmund P. Joyce Center, with indoor basketball and volleyball courts, and the Compton Family Ice Arena, a two - rink facility dedicated to hockey. Also, there are many outdoor fields, as the Frank Eck Stadium for baseball. McCourtney Hall, an interdisciplinary research facility, opened its doors for the Fall 2016 semester, and ground has broken on a 60,000 - square - foot architecture building on the South end of campus near the DeBartolo Performing Arts Center. Walsh Family Hall of Architecture will open in late 2018.
Announced on January 29, 2014 as an integration of "the academy, student life and athletics, '' construction on the 750,000 square foot Campus Crossroads project began around Notre Dame Stadium on November 19, 2014. The construction project consists of three buildings -- Duncan Student Center (west), Corbett Family Hall (east) and O'Neill Hall (south) -- will house student life services, a recreation center, the career center, the departments of anthropology and psychology, a digital media center and the department of music and Sacred Music program. The east and west buildings also will include some 3,000 to 4,000 premium seats for the football stadium with supporting club amenities.
Legends of Notre Dame (commonly referred to as Legends) is a music venue, public house, and restaurant located on the campus of the University of Notre Dame, just 100 yards (91 m) south of Notre Dame Stadium. The former Alumni Senior Club opened its doors the first weekend in September 2003 after a $3.5 million renovation and transformed into the all - ages student hang - out that currently exists. Legends is made up of two parts: The Restaurant and Alehouse and the nightclub.
The University of Notre Dame has made being a sustainability leader an integral part of its mission. The Office of Sustainability was created in the fall of 2007 at the recommendation of a Sustainability Strategy Working Group and appointed the first director in April 2008. The pursuit of sustainability is directly related to the Catholic Mission of the University. In his encyclical Laudato Si ', Pope Francis stated, "We need a conversation which includes everyone, since the environmental challenge we are undergoing, and its human roots, concern and affect us all. ''
The University of Notre Dame received a gold rating from the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) in 2014. In 2016, The Office of Sustainability released their Comprehensive Sustainability Strategy in order to achieve a number of goals in the areas of Energy and Emissions, Water, Building and Construction, Waste, Procurement, Licensing and Food Sources, Education, Research, and Community Outreach. As of April 2018, twelve buildings have achieved LEED - Certified status with nine of them achieving LEED Gold status. Notre Dame 's dining services sources 40 % of its food locally and offers sustainably caught seafood as well as many organic, fair - trade, and vegan options. The university also houses the Kellog Institute for International Peace Studies. Father Gustavo Gutierrez, the founder of Liberation Theology is a current faculty member.
The university owns several centers around the world used for international studies and research, conferences abroad, and alumni support.
In addition to the five Global Getaways, the University also holds a presence in Chicago where it owns the Santa Fe Building.
The first phase of Eddy Street Commons, a $215 million development located adjacent to the University of Notre Dame campus and funded by the university, broke ground on June 3, 2008. The Eddy Street Commons drew union protests when workers hired by the City of South Bend to construct the public parking garage picketed the private work site after a contractor hired non-union workers. The second phase, a 90 million dollar project, broke ground in 2017. Combined, the two phases constitute a 300 million dollar investment in the Northeastern Neighborhood.
The university of Notre Dame is under the leadership of the president, who is a priest of the Congregation of Holy Cross. The first president was Fr. Edward Sorin and the current president is Fr. John I. Jenkins. As of 2018, the provost of the university, who oversees academic functions, is Thomas Burish. Until 1967 Notre Dame had been governed directly by the Congregation, but under the presidency of the Rev. Theodore Hesburgh two groups, the Board of Fellows and the Board of Trustees were established to govern the University. The Fellows are a group of six Holy Cross religious and six lay members who have final say over the operation of the university. The Fellows vote on potential trustees and sign off on all major decisions by that body. The Trustees elect the president and provide general guidance and governance to the university.
Notre Dame 's financial endowment was started in the early 1920s by university president James Burns, and increased to US $7 million by 1952 when Hesburgh became president. By the 1980s it reached $150 million, and in 2000, it returned a record 57.9 % investment. For the 2007 fiscal year, the endowment had grown to approximately $6.5 billion, putting the university in the top - 15 largest endowments in the country. In October 2018, the University listed its endowment at National Association of College and University Business Officers published Notre Dame 's endowment at $13.1 billion.
As of fall 2014, Notre Dame had 12,292 students and employed 1,126 full - time faculty members and another 190 part - time members to give a student / faculty ratio of 8: 1.
All of Notre Dame 's undergraduate students are a part of one of the five undergraduate colleges at the school or are in the First Year of Studies program.
The First Year of Studies program was established in 1962 to guide incoming freshmen in their first year at the school before they have declared a major. Each student is given an academic advisor from the program who helps them to choose classes that give them exposure to any major in which they are interested. The program also includes a Learning Resource Center which provides time management, collaborative learning, and subject tutoring. This program has been recognized previously, by U.S. News & World Report, as outstanding. The program is designed to encourage intellectual and academic achievement and innovation among first year students. It includes programs such as FY advising, the Dean 's A list, the Renaissance circle, NDignite, the First year Urban challenge and more.
Each admissions cycle, the Office of Undergraduate Admissions selects a small number of students for the Glynn Family Honors Program, which grants top students within the College of Arts and Letters and the College of Science access to smaller class sizes taught by distinguished faculty, endowed funding for independent research, and dedicated advising faculty and staff.
The university first offered graduate degrees, in the form of a Master of Arts (MA), in the 1854 -- 1855 academic year. The program expanded to include Master of Laws (LL. M.) and Master of Civil Engineering in its early stages of growth, before a formal graduate school education was developed with a thesis not required to receive the degrees. This changed in 1924 with formal requirements developed for graduate degrees, including offering Doctorate (PhD) degrees.
In 2014, Notre Dame announced plans to establish the Donald R. Keough School of Global Affairs, a professional school focused on the study of global government, human rights, and other areas of global social and political policy. The creation of the school is funded by a $50 million gift from Donald Keough and Marilyn Keough and will be housed in Jenkins Hall on Debartolo Quad. The school is scheduled to open in August 2017.
The library system of the university is divided between the main library and each of the colleges and schools. The main building is the 14 - story Theodore M. Hesburgh Library, completed in 1963, which is the third building to house the main collection of books. The front of the library is adorned with the Word of Life mural designed by artist Millard Sheets. This mural is popularly known as "Touchdown Jesus '' because of its proximity to Notre Dame Stadium and Jesus ' arms appearing to make the signal for a touchdown.
The library system also includes branch libraries for Architecture, Chemistry and Physics, Engineering, Law, and Mathematics as well as information centers in the Mendoza College of Business, the Kellogg Institute for International Studies, the Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, and a slide library in O'Shaughnessy Hall. A theology library was also opened in fall of 2015. Located on the first floor of Stanford Hall, it is the first branch of the library system to be housed in a dorm room. The library system holds over three million volumes, was the single largest university library in the world upon its completion, and remains one of the 100 largest libraries in the country.
Notre Dame is known for its competitive admissions, with the incoming class enrolling in fall 2017 admitting 3,610 from a pool of 20,371 (17.7 % acceptance rate). The academic profile of the enrolled class continues to rate among the top 10 to 15 in the nation for national research universities. Of the most recent class, the Class of 2020, 48 % were in the top 1 % of their high school, and 94 % were in the top 10 %. The median SAT score was 1510 and the median ACT score was 34. The university practices a non-restrictive early action policy that allows admitted students to consider admission to Notre Dame as well as any other colleges to which they were accepted. 1,400 of the 3,577 (39.1 %) were admitted under the early action plan. Admitted students came from 1,311 high schools and the average student traveled more than 750 miles to Notre Dame, making it arguably the most representative university in the United States. While all entering students begin in the College of the First Year of Studies, 25 % have indicated they plan to study in the liberal arts or social sciences, 24 % in engineering, 24 % in business, 24 % in science, and 3 % in architecture.
USNWR graduate school rankings
USNWR departmental rankings
In 2016 -- 2017, Notre Dame ranked 7th for undergraduate teaching and 15th overall among "national universities '' in the United States in U.S. News & World Report 's Best Colleges 2016. In 2014, USA Today ranked Notre Dame 10th overall for American universities. Forbes 's "America 's Top Colleges '' ranks Notre Dame 13th among colleges in the United States in 2016, 8th among Research Universities, and 1st in the Midwest. U.S. News & World Report also lists Notre Dame Law School as 22nd overall. BusinessWeek ranks Mendoza College of Business undergraduate school as 1st overall. It ranks the MBA program as 20th overall. The Philosophical Gourmet Report ranks Notre Dame 's graduate philosophy program as 15th nationally, while Architect Magazine ranked the undergraduate architecture program as 12th nationally. Additionally, the study abroad program ranks sixth in highest participation percentage in the nation, with 57.6 % of students choosing to study abroad in 17 countries. According to PayScale, undergraduate alumni of University of Notre Dame have a mid-career median salary $110,000, making it the 24th highest among colleges and universities in the United States. The median starting salary of $55,300 ranked 58th in the same peer group.
Named by Newsweek as one of the "25 New Ivies, '' it is also an Oak Ridge Associated University.
Father Joseph Carrier, C.S.C. was Director of the Science Museum and the Library and Professor of Chemistry and Physics until 1874. Carrier taught that scientific research and its promise for progress were not antagonistic to the ideals of intellectual and moral culture endorsed by the Church. One of Carrier 's students was Father John Augustine Zahm who was made Professor and Co-Director of the Science Department at age 23 and by 1900 was a nationally prominent scientist and naturalist. Zahm was active in the Catholic Summer School movement, which introduced Catholic laity to contemporary intellectual issues. His book Evolution and Dogma (1896) defended certain aspects of evolutionary theory as true, and argued, moreover, that even the great Church teachers Thomas Aquinas and Augustine taught something like it. The intervention of Irish American Catholics in Rome prevented Zahm 's censure by the Vatican. In 1913, Zahm and former President Theodore Roosevelt embarked on a major expedition through the Amazon.
In 1882, Albert Zahm (John Zahm 's brother) built an early wind tunnel used to compare lift to drag of aeronautical models. Around 1899, Professor Jerome Green became the first American to send a wireless message. In 1931, Father Julius Nieuwland performed early work on basic reactions that was used to create neoprene. Study of nuclear physics at the university began with the building of a nuclear accelerator in 1936, and continues now partly through a partnership in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics.
The Lobund Institute (Laboratory Of Biology University of Notre Dame) grew out of pioneering research in germ - free - life which began in 1928. This area of research originated in a question posed by Pasteur as to whether animal life was possible without bacteria. Although others had taken up this idea, their research was short lived and inconclusive. Lobund was the first research organization to answer definitively, that such life is possible and that it can be prolonged through generations. But the objective was not merely to answer Pasteur 's question but also to produce the germ free animal as a new tool for biological and medical research. This objective was reached and for years Lobund was a unique center for the study and production of germ free animals and for their use in biological and medical investigations. Today the work has spread to other universities. In the beginning it was under the Department of Biology and a program leading to the master 's degree accompanied the research program. In the 1940s Lobund achieved independent status as a purely research organization and in 1950 was raised to the status of an Institute. In 1958 it was brought back into the Department of Biology as integral part of that department, but with its own program leading to the degree of PhD in Gnotobiotics.
Richard T. Sullivan taught English from 1936 to 1974 and published six novels, dozens of short stories, and various other efforts. He was known as a regional writer and a Catholic spokesman.
Frank O'Malley was an English professor during the 1930s -- 1960s. Influenced by philosophers Jacques Maritain, John U. Nef, and others, O'Malley developed a concept of Christian philosophy that was a fundamental element in his thought. Through his course "Modern Catholic Writers '' O'Malley introduced generations of undergraduates to Gabriel Marcel, Graham Greene, Evelyn Waugh, Sigrid Undset, Paul Claudel, and Gerard Manley Hopkins.
The Review of Politics was founded in 1939 by Waldemar Gurian, modeled after German Catholic journals. It quickly emerged as part of an international Catholic intellectual revival, offering an alternative vision to positivist philosophy. For 44 years, the Review was edited by Gurian, Matthew Fitzsimons, Frederick Crosson, and Thomas Stritch. Intellectual leaders included Gurian, Jacques Maritain, Frank O'Malley, Leo Richard Ward, F.A. Hermens, and John U. Nef. It became a major forum for political ideas and modern political concerns, especially from a Catholic and scholastic tradition.
Kenneth Sayre has explored the history of the Philosophy department. He stresses the abandonment of official Thomism to the philosophical pluralism of the 1970s, with attention to the issue of being Catholic. He pays special attention to the charismatic personalities of Ernan McMullin and Ralph McInerny, key leaders of the department in the 1960s and 1970s.
The rise of Hitler and other dictators in the 1930s forced numerous Catholic intellectuals to flee Europe; president John O'Hara brought many to Notre Dame. From Germany came Anton - Hermann Chroust (1907 -- 1982) in classics and law, and Waldemar Gurian a German Catholic intellectual of Jewish descent. Positivism dominated American intellectual life in the 1920s onward but in marked contrast, Gurian received a German Catholic education and wrote his doctoral dissertation under Max Scheler. Ivan Meštrović (1883 -- 1962), a renowned sculptor, brought Croatian culture to campus, 1955 -- 62. Yves Simon (1903 -- 61), brought to ND in the 1940s the insights of French studies in the Aristotelian - Thomistic tradition of philosophy; his own teacher Jacques Maritain (1882 -- 1973) was a frequent visitor to campus.
The exiles developed a distinctive emphasis on the evils of totalitarianism. For example, the political science courses of Gerhart Niemeyer (1907 -- 97) discussed communist ideology and were particularly accessible to his students. He came to ND in 1955, and was a frequent contributor to the National Review and other conservative magazines. In 1960, then President Theodore M. Hesburgh, at the urging of Niemeyer and political science department head, Fr. Stanley Parry, C.S.C., invited Eric Voegelin (1901 - 1985), who had escaped Nazi - occupied Austria, to guest lecture at Notre Dame, which he did until his retirement in 1968.
As of 2012 research continued in many fields. The university president, John Jenkins, described his hope that Notre Dame would become "one of the pre -- eminent research institutions in the world '' in his inaugural address. The university has many multi-disciplinary institutes devoted to research in varying fields, including the Medieval Institute, the Kellogg Institute for International Studies, the Kroc Institute for International Peace studies, and the Center for Social Concerns. Recent research includes work on family conflict and child development, genome mapping, the increasing trade deficit of the United States with China, studies in fluid mechanics, computational science and engineering, supramolecular chemistry, and marketing trends on the Internet. As of 2013, the university is home to the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index which ranks countries annually based on how vulnerable they are to climate change and how prepared they are to adapt.
In 2014 the Notre Dame student body consisted of 12,179 students, with 8,448 undergraduates, 2,138 graduate and professional and 1,593 professional (Law, M. Div., Business, MEd) students. Around 21 -- 24 % of students are children of alumni, and although 37 % of students come from the Midwestern United States, the student body represents all 50 states and 100 countries. 32 % of students are U.S. students of color or international citizens. As of March 2007 The Princeton Review ranked the school as the fifth highest ' dream school ' for parents to send their children. As of March 2015 The Princeton Review ranked Notre Dame as the ninth highest. It has also been commended by some diversity oriented publications; Hispanic Magazine in 2004 ranked the university ninth on its list of the top -- 25 colleges for Latinos, and The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education recognized the university in 2006 for raising enrollment of African - American students.
The strictly measured federal graduation rate for athletes was 90 % for freshmen who entered between 2005 and 2008. This is the second highest in the country.
With 6,000 participants, the university 's intramural sports program was named in 2004 by Sports Illustrated as the best program in the country, while in 2007 The Princeton Review named it as the top school where "Everyone Plays Intramural Sports. '' The annual Bookstore Basketball tournament is the largest outdoor five - on - five tournament in the world with over 700 teams participating each year, while the Notre Dame Men 's Boxing Club hosts the annual Bengal Bouts tournament that raises money for the Holy Cross Missions in Bangladesh. In the fall, the Notre Dame Women 's Boxing Club hosts an annual Baraka Bouts tournament that raises money for the Congregation of the Holy Cross Missions in Uganda.
Many of the most popular student events held on campus are organized by the 30 Residential Halls, which are the core of the student community. Among these, the most notable are the Keenan Revue, the Fisher Hall Regatta, Keenan Hall Muddy Sunday, the Morrissey Hall Medallion Hunt, the Dillon Hall Pep Rally, the Keough Hall Chariot Race and many others. Each dorm also hosts many formal and informal balls and dances each year.
Residentiality is a primary and defining characteristic of a Notre Dame undergraduate education and is embedded in the Mission Statement of the University. About 80 % of undergraduates and 20 % of graduate students live on campus. The majority of the graduate students on campus live in one of four graduate housing complexes on campus, while all on - campus undergraduates live in one of the 31 residence halls. All residence halls are single - sex, with 16 male dorms, 14 female dorms, and one small house of formation for male college students discerning entrance into the Congregation of Holy Cross. The university maintains a visiting policy (known as parietal hours) for those students who live in dormitories, specifying times when members of the opposite sex are allowed to visit other students ' dorm rooms; however, all residence halls have 24 - hour social spaces for students regardless of gender.
Every hall is led by a rector. Rectors are made up of priests, religious sisters or brothers, and laypersons trained in ministry and / or education. They are full - time, live - in professionals who serve as pastoral leaders, chief administrators, community builders and university resources to their residents. Rectors often coordinate with professors, academic advisors, and counselors to look after students and guide their formation into adulthood. They select, hire, train, and supervise hall staff: resident advisors (only chosen from the seniors) and assistant rectors (graduate students). Many residence halls also have at least one priest or lay faculty member in residence. Every hall has its own chapel and liturgical schedule with masses celebrated multiple times per week during the academic year.
There are no traditional social fraternities or sororities at the university, but a majority of students live in the same residence hall for all four years. The residence halls are the primary places for students to develop community and identity. Every hall has its own colors, mascot, signature events, and lore. Hence, when two alumni meet, the first question asked is often, "Where did you live? ''. Most intramural (interhall) sports are based on residence hall teams, where the university offers the only non-military academy program of full - contact intramural American football. At the end of the interhall football season, the championship game is played on the field in Notre Dame Stadium.
The university is affiliated with the Congregation of Holy Cross (Latin: Congregatio a Sancta Cruce, abbreviated postnominals: "CSC ''). While religious affiliation is not a criterion for admission, more than 93 % of students identify as Christian, with over 80 % of the total being Catholic. There are 47 chapels on campus, including one in every residence hall. Collectively, Catholic Mass is celebrated over 100 times per week on campus, and a large campus ministry program provides for the faith needs of the community. Fifty - seven chapels are located throughout the campus. There are also the Baptist Collegiate Ministry (BCM), Jewish Club, Muslim Student Association, Orthodox Christian Fellowship, The Mormon Club, and many more.
The university is the major seat of the Congregation of Holy Cross (albeit not its official headquarters, which are in Rome). Its main seminary, Moreau Seminary, is located on the campus across St. Joseph lake from the Main Building. Old College, the oldest building on campus and located near the shore of St. Mary lake, houses undergraduate seminarians. Retired priests and brothers reside in Fatima House (a former retreat center), Holy Cross House, as well as Columba Hall near the Grotto.
As at most other universities, Notre Dame 's students run a number of news media outlets. The nine student - run outlets include three newspapers, both a radio and television station, and several magazines and journals. Begun as a one - page journal in September 1876, the Scholastic magazine is issued twice monthly and claims to be the oldest continuous collegiate publication in the United States. The other magazine, The Juggler, is released twice a year and focuses on student literature and artwork. The Dome yearbook is published annually. The newspapers have varying publication interests, with The Observer published daily and mainly reporting university and other news, and staffed by students from both Notre Dame and Saint Mary 's College. Unlike Scholastic and The Dome, The Observer is an independent publication and does not have a faculty advisor or any editorial oversight from the University. In 1987, when some students believed that The Observer began to show a conservative bias, a liberal newspaper, Common Sense was published. "Common Sense '' is no longer published. In 2003, when other students believed that the paper showed a liberal bias, the Irish Rover went into production. The Irish Rover is a fully independent non-profit paper that is published twice a month and features regular columns from alumni and faculty in addition to coverage of campus matters. The Observer and the Irish Rover are both distributed to all students. Finally, in Spring 2008 an undergraduate journal for political science research, Beyond Politics, made its debut.
The television station, NDtv, grew from one show in 2002 to a full 24 - hour channel with original programming by September 2006. WSND - FM serves the student body and larger South Bend community at 88.9 FM, offering students a chance to become involved in bringing classical music, fine arts and educational programming, and alternative rock to the airwaves. Another radio station, WVFI, began as a partner of WSND - FM. More recently, however, WVFI has been airing independently and is streamed on the Internet.
Notre Dame teams are known as the Fighting Irish. They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I, primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) for all sports since the 2013 -- 14 school year. The Fighting Irish previously competed in the Horizon League from 1982 to 1983 to 1985 -- 86, and again from 1987 to 1988 to 1994 -- 95, and then in the Big East Conference through 2012 -- 13. Men 's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis and track & field; while women 's sports include basketball, cross country, fencing, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, and volleyball. The football team competes as a Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) Independent since its inception in 1887. Both fencing teams compete in the Midwest Fencing Conference, and the men 's ice hockey team competes in the Big Ten Conference
Notre Dame 's conference affiliations for all of its sports except football and fencing changed in July 2013 as a result of major conference realignment, and its fencing affiliation changed in July 2014. The Irish left the Big East for the ACC during a prolonged period of instability in the Big East; while they maintain their football independence, they have committed to play five games per season against ACC opponents. In ice hockey, the Irish were forced to find a new conference home after the Big Ten Conference 's decision to add the sport in 2013 -- 14 led to a cascade of conference moves that culminated in the dissolution of the school 's former hockey home, the Central Collegiate Hockey Association, after the 2012 -- 13 season. Notre Dame moved its hockey team to Hockey East. After Notre Dame joined the ACC, the conference announced it would add fencing as a sponsored sport beginning in the 2014 -- 15 school year.
There are many theories behind the adoption of the athletics moniker but it is known that the Fighting Irish name was used in the early 1920s with respect to the football team and was popularized by alumnus Francis Wallace in his New York Daily News columns. The official colors of Notre Dame are navy blue and gold, which are worn in competition by its athletic teams. In addition, the color green is often worn because of the Fighting Irish nickname. The Notre Dame Leprechaun is the mascot of the athletic teams. Created by Theodore W. Drake in 1964, the leprechaun was first used on the football pocket schedule and later on the football program covers. The leprechaun was featured on the cover of Time in November 1964 and gained national exposure.
On July 1, 2014, the University of Notre Dame and Under Armour reached an agreement in which Under Armour provides uniforms, apparel, equipment, and monetary compensation to Notre Dame for 10 years. This contract, worth almost $100 million, is the most lucrative in the history of the NCAA. The university marching band plays at home games for most of the sports. The band, which began in 1846 and has a claim as the oldest university band in continuous existence in the United States, was honored by the National Music Council as a "Landmark of American Music '' during the United States Bicentennial. The band regularly plays the school 's fight song the Notre Dame Victory March, which was named as the most played and most famous fight song by Northern Illinois Professor William Studwell. According to College Fight Songs: An Annotated Anthology published in 1998, the "Notre Dame Victory March '' ranks as the greatest fight song of all time.
According to some analysts without direct connection to the university or its athletic department, Notre Dame promotes Muscular Christianity through its athletic programs.
The Notre Dame football team 's history began when the Michigan Wolverines football team brought the game of football to Notre Dame in 1887 and played against a group of students. Since then, 13 Fighting Irish teams have won consensus national championships (although the university only claims 11), along with another nine teams being named national champion by at least one source. Additionally, the program has the most members in the College Football Hall of Fame, is tied with Ohio State University with the most Heisman Trophies won, and have the highest winning percentage in NCAA history. With the long history, Notre Dame has accumulated many rivals, and its annual game against USC for the Jeweled Shillelagh has been named by some as one of the most important in college football and is often called the greatest intersectional rivalry in college football in the country.
George Gipp was the school 's legendary football player during 1916 -- 20. He played semiprofessional baseball and smoked, drank, and gambled when not playing sports. He was also humble, generous to the needy, and a man of integrity. It was in 1928 that famed coach Knute Rockne used his final conversation with the dying Gipp to inspire the Notre Dame team to beat the Army team and "win one for the Gipper. '' The 1940 film, Knute Rockne, All American, starred Pat O'Brien as Knute Rockne and Ronald Reagan as Gipp. The team competes in Notre Dame Stadium, an 80,795 - seat stadium on campus. The current head coach is Brian Kelly, hired from the University of Cincinnati on December 11, 2009. Kelly 's record in midway through his sixth season at Notre Dame is 52 -- 21. In 2012, Kelly 's Fighting Irish squad went undefeated and played in the BCS National Championship Game. Kelly succeeded Charlie Weis, who was fired in November 2009 after five seasons. Although Weis led his team to two Bowl Championship Series bowl games, his overall record was 35 -- 27, mediocre by Notre Dame standards, and the 2007 team had the most losses in school history. The football team generates enough revenue to operate independently while $22.1 million is retained from the team 's profits for academic use. Forbes named the team as the most valuable in college football, worth a total of $101 million in 2007.
Football gameday traditions
During home games, activities occur all around campus and different dorms decorate their halls with a traditional item (e.g., Zahm Hall 's two - story banner). Traditional activities begin at the stroke of midnight with the Drummers ' Circle. This tradition involves the drum line of the Band of the Fighting Irish and ushers in the rest of the festivities that will continue the rest of the gameday Saturday. Later that day, the trumpet section will play the Notre Dame Victory March and the Notre Dame Alma Mater under the dome. The entire band will play a concert at the steps of Bond Hall, from where they will march into Notre Dame Stadium, leading fans and students alike across the campus to the game.
As of the 2014 -- 2015 season, the men 's basketball team has over 1,898 wins; only 8 other schools have more wins, and Fighting Irish teams have appeared in 28 NCAA tournaments. Former player Austin Carr holds the record for most points scored in a single game of the tournament with 61. Although the team has never won the NCAA Tournament, they were named by the Helms Athletic Foundation as national champions twice. The team has orchestrated a number of upsets of number one ranked teams, the most notable of which was ending UCLA 's record 88 - game winning streak in 1974. The team has beaten an additional eight number - one teams, and those nine wins rank second, to UCLA 's 10, all - time in wins against the top team. The team plays in newly renovated Purcell Pavilion (within the Edmund P. Joyce Center), which reopened for the beginning of the 2009 -- 2010 season. The team is coached by Mike Brey, who, as of the 2015 -- 16 season, his fifteenth at Notre Dame, has achieved a 356 -- 177 record. In 2009 they were invited to the NIT, where they advanced to the semi-finals but were beaten by Penn State who went on and beat Baylor in the championship. The 2010 -- 11 team concluded its regular season ranked number seven in the country, with a record of 25 -- 5, Brey 's fifth straight 20 - win season, and a second - place finish in the Big East. During the 2014 -- 15 season, the team went 32 -- 6 and won the ACC conference tournament, later advancing to the Elite 8, where the Fighting Irish lost on a missed buzzer - beater against then undefeated Kentucky. Led by NBA draft picks Jerian Grant and Pat Connaughton, the Fighting Irish beat the eventual national champion Duke Blue Devils twice during the season. The 32 wins were the most by the Fighting Irish team since 1908 -- 09.
Notre Dame has been successful in other sports besides football, with an additional 14 national championships in various sports. Three teams have won multiple national championships with the fencing team leading them with ten, followed by the men 's tennis and women 's soccer teams each with two. The men 's cross country, men 's golf, teams have one one and the women 's basketball has won two in their histories.
In the first ten years that Notre Dame competed in the Big East Conference its teams won a total of 64 championships. As of 2010, the women 's swimming and diving team holds the Big East record for consecutive conference championships in any sport with 14 straight conference titles (1997 -- 2010).
The Band of the Fighting Irish is the oldest university band in continuous existence. It was formed in 1846. The all - male Glee Club was formed in 1915. The Internationally recognized "Notre Dame Folk Choir '' was founded by Steven "Cookie '' Warner in 1980.
The "Notre Dame Victory March '' is the fight song for the University of Notre Dame. It was written by two brothers who were Notre Dame graduates. The Rev. Michael J. Shea, a 1904 graduate, wrote the music, and his brother, John F. Shea, who earned degrees in 1906 and 1908, wrote the original lyrics. The lyrics were revised in the 1920s; it first appeared under the copyright of the University of Notre Dame in 1928. The chorus is, "Cheer cheer for old Notre Dame, wake up the echos cheering her name. Send a volley cheer on high, shake down the thunder from the sky! What though the odds be great or small, old Notre Dame will win over all. While her loyal sons are marching, onward to victory! ''
The chorus of the song is one of the most recognizable collegiate fight songs in the United States, and was ranked first among fight songs by Northern Illinois University Professor William Studwell, who remarked it was "more borrowed, more famous and, frankly, you just hear it more ''.
In the film Knute Rockne, All American, Knute Rockne (played by Pat O'Brien) delivers the famous "Win one for the Gipper '' speech, at which point the background music swells with the "Notre Dame Victory March ''. George Gipp was played by Ronald Reagan, whose nickname "The Gipper '' was derived from this role. This scene was parodied in the movie Airplane! with the same background music, only this time honoring George Zipp, one of Ted Striker 's former comrades. The song also was prominent in the movie Rudy, with Sean Astin as Daniel "Rudy '' Ruettiger, who harbored dreams of playing football at the University of Notre Dame despite significant obstacles.
Notre Dame alumni number near 120,000, and are members of 275 alumni clubs around the world. Many alumni give yearly monetary support to the university, with a school - record 53.2 % giving some donation in 2006. Many buildings on campus are named for those whose donations allowed their building, including residence halls, classroom buildings, and the performing arts center.
Notre Dame alumni work in various fields. Alumni working in political fields include state governors, members of the United States Congress, and former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. Notable alumni from the College of Science are Eric F. Wieschaus, winner of the 1995 Nobel Prize in medicine, and Philip Majerus, discoverer of the cardioprotective effects of aspirin. A number of university heads are alumni, including Notre Dame 's current president, the Rev. John Jenkins. Additionally, many alumni are in the media, including talk show hosts Regis Philbin and Phil Donahue, and television and radio personalities such as Mike Golic and Hannah Storm. With the university having high - profile sports teams itself, a number of alumni went on to become involved in athletics outside the university, including professional baseball, basketball, football, and ice hockey players, such as Joe Theismann, Joe Montana, Tim Brown, Ross Browner, Rocket Ismail, Ruth Riley, Jeff Samardzija, Jerome Bettis, Brett Lebda, Olympic gold medalist Mariel Zagunis, professional boxer Mike Lee, former football coaches such as Charlie Weis, Frank Leahy and Knute Rockne, and Basketball Hall of Famers Austin Carr and Adrian Dantley. Other notable alumni include prominent businessman Edward J. DeBartolo, Jr. and astronaut Jim Wetherbee.
66th United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice (MA, 1975)
Television personality Regis Philbin (BA, 1953)
1995 Nobel Prize for Medicine Eric F. Wieschaus (BS, 1969)
Scientist and explorer Rev. John Augustine Zahm (BA, 1871)
Indiana Senator and former Representative Joe Donnelly (1977, JD. 1981)
Football Coach Knute Rockne (1914)
Associate Justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court and member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame Alan Page (BA, 1967)
Talk show host and creator of The Phil Donahue Show Phil Donahue (BBA, 1957)
Anchor of ESPN 's SportsCenter Hannah Storm (BA, 1983)
Former Deputy Administrator of NASA Dava Newman (BS, 1986)
United States Air Force Colonel and a NASA astronaut Kevin Ford (BS, 1982)
United States Navy Captain and a NASA astronaut Jim Wetherbee (BS, 1974)
Current CEO of Bank of America Brian Moynihan (JD, 1985)
Cardinal, Archbishop of Philadelphia, president of Notre Dame (1943 -- 1945) John Francis O'Hara (1911)
The University of Notre Dame is the setting for numerous works of fiction, as well of the alma mater of many fictional characters. In mid-20th century America it became "perhaps the most popular symbol of Catholicism, '' as noted by The Routledge Companion to Religion and Popular Culture:
Dealing with the era before coeducation, James P. Leary, an alumnus who is now a folklore professor at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison, has contrasted two self - images of the Notre Dame student. They coexist uneasily, the first appearing in official documents the second in popular culture. Leary states:
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who does the voice of the cloud in trolls | Trolls (film) - Wikipedia
Trolls is a 2016 American computer - animated musical film based on the Troll dolls created by Thomas Dam. The film was directed by Mike Mitchell and co-directed by Walt Dohrn, written by Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger and based on a story by Erica Rivinoja. The film features the voices of Anna Kendrick, Justin Timberlake, Zooey Deschanel, Russell Brand, James Corden and Gwen Stefani. The film follows two trolls who go on a quest to save their village from destruction by the Bergens, creatures who eat trolls.
The 33rd animated feature film produced by DreamWorks Animation, the film premiered on October 8, 2016, at the BFI London Film Festival and was theatrically released in the United States on November 4, 2016, by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed $346 million worldwide against its $125 million budget and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! ''. A sequel, Trolls World Tour, is scheduled to be released on April 17, 2020.
The Trolls are small creatures who live in an almost perpetual state of happiness, singing, dancing and hugging all day. However, they are discovered by the Bergens, large miserable creatures, who can feel happy only after eating a Troll. The Bergens imprison the trolls and eat them every year on a special occasion, called Trollstice. The Trolls, led by their king, King Peppy, with his baby daughter, Princess Poppy, escape through underground tunnels on the day of Trollstice, when Prince Gristle Jr. was going to eat his first Troll. Enraged, Gristle Jr. 's father King Gristle Sr. banishes his Chef who was in charge of the Trollstice preparation.
20 years later, (at the age of 20) Poppy throws a big party to celebrate the Trolls ' escape, despite the fears and warnings of the gray troll, Branch, that loud parties will attract the Bergens. A Zen troll named Creek arrives and tells Branch to start being happy instead of being grumpy; Branch refuses. At the party, Branch 's fears come true, when Chef sees the fireworks and kidnaps Guy Diamond, Biggie with Mr. Dinkles, Fuzzbert, Smidge, Satin with Chenille, D.J. Suki, Cooper, and Creek (which Poppy tried to rescue). Chef, then takes the kidnapped Trolls back to Bergen Town, while secretly plotting to overthrow its monarchy in revenge for her banishment.
Alone inside the bunker, Branch looks at a bunch of homemade party invitations, indicating that he appreciates Poppy 's offers of friendship and internally would like to have fun with the rest of the trolls. Meanwhile, Poppy goes on a rescue mission alone, as no other troll is willing to venture to Bergen Town, including Branch. But later on, when Poppy gets into trouble, she is saved by Branch, who thinks she will not make it if she goes alone.
Once inside the Bergen king 's castle, Poppy and Branch witness Creek apparently get eaten by Gristle Jr. (who is now king), but Poppy remains hopeful that Creek survived. Poppy and Branch find the rest of the captured Trolls being guarded by a scullery maid named Bridget. Poppy discovers that Bridget is secretly in love with King Gristle Jr. and offers to help her get a date with the king while trying to confirm if Creek is alive.
While setting Bridget up for the date, Branch refuses to sing and triggers an argument with Poppy, revealing that, as a child, his grandmother was captured and got killed while trying to save him, because his singing compromised his location to Chef. Branch 's guilt and shame over his grandmother 's death caused his color to turn from blue to gray.
After Poppy comforts him with a hug, Branch decides to help Bridget and the trolls, though he still refuses to sing. Bridget, disguised under the name of ' Lady Glitter Sparkles ' gets her date with Gristle Jr. at a roller rink and arcade restaurant and Gristle Jr. asks her to be his "plus one '' at Trollstice. Poppy notices Creek being held captive inside the jewel adorning the king 's mantle.
Having helped Bridget, the Trolls attempt to rescue Creek from Gristle 's room and steal his jewel but discover that it is empty. The Trolls are then captured by Chef and are shocked to discover that Creek sold them out to the Bergens to spare himself from being eaten. Creek lures out every troll from Troll village and they are captured by Chef and the other Bergen cooks. With all the Trolls captured and soon to be eaten, a heartbroken Poppy becomes sad after she had been betrayed by her friend, loses hope as she and all the other Trolls turn gray.
Branch sings "True Colors '' for the princess to cheer her up, and also confesses his affection for her. Poppy, after regaining her colors, returns Branch 's feelings, and they both end up restoring all the trolls ' colors including Branch 's. Bridget saves the trolls, willing to sacrifice herself. Poppy wishes to return the favor, and with Branch and her friends, shows the Bergens that Bridget was Lady Glitter Sparkles and that they too, can find happiness within themselves.
Chef refuses to accept the peace and tries to kill the Trolls, but is knocked into a serving cart that is sent rolling out of Bergen Town. Chef is set on fire with Creek, who was still in her pouch. Both species celebrate, bringing new life to the town and renewing the life of the troll tree. Poppy is then declared queen of the Trolls, and Poppy and Branch share a hug.
In a mid-credits scene, Chef and Creek 's cart stops rolling. Chef prepares to eat Creek herself, but they soon find out they are on top of a monster, who opens his mouth and eats them.
DreamWorks announced plans for a film based on the Troll toyline as early as 2010. This version was to be written by Adam Wilson and his wife Melanie. By 2012, Chloë Grace Moretz had already been cast in the female lead role and Jason Schwartzman was reported to have been offered the male lead. In September 2012, 20th Century Fox and DreamWorks Animation announced that the film with the working title Trolls would be released on June 5, 2015, with Anand Tucker set to direct the film, written by Wallace Wolodarsky and Maya Forbes.
By April 2013, DreamWorks Animation had acquired the intellectual property for the Trolls franchise from the Dam Family and Dam Things. Having "big plans for the franchise, '' DreamWorks Animation became the exclusive worldwide licensor of the merchandise rights, except for Scandinavia, where Dam Things remains the licensor. In May 2013, the film was pushed back for a year to November 4, 2016. The same month, DreamWorks Animation announced that Mike Mitchell and Erica Rivinoja has been hired as a director and screenplay writer to "reimagine '' the film as a musical comedy, which will present the origin of the Trolls ' colorful hair. On June 16, 2014, Anna Kendrick joined the cast to voice Poppy, a princess. On September 15, 2015, Deadline Hollywood reported that Justin Timberlake will voice a character named Branch. Timberlake previously worked with DreamWorks Animation as the voice of Arthur "Artie '' Pendragon in Shrek the Third in 2007. The full cast announced their respective roles via announcements on Twitter on January 6, 2016.
Justin Timberlake served as an executive producer for the film 's music and released the original song "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '' on May 6, 2016. The song reached No. 1 in the official charts of 17 countries, including the United States and Canada. Timberlake along with the film cast, with guest appearances from Earth, Wind & Fire and Ariana Grande, contributed to the soundtrack. The soundtrack album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and the Australian Recording Industry Association.
The film 's opening premiere opened at the BFI London Film Festival Event on October 8, 2016 as a special BFI presentation, and was theatrically released on November 4, 2016, in the United States by 20th Century Fox.
Trolls was released on Digital HD on January 24, 2017, and on DVD and Blu - ray on February 7, 2017. The film topped the home video sales chart for two consecutive weeks.
Trolls grossed $153.7 million in the US and Canada and $193.2 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $346.8 million, against a budget of $125 million.
In the United States and Canada, Trolls was released alongside the releases of Doctor Strange and Hacksaw Ridge, and was projected to gross $35 -- 40 million from 4,060 theaters in its opening weekend. On its first day, the film grossed $12.3 million (including $900,000 made from Thursday night previews). It went on to open to $46.5 million, finishing second at the box office behind Doctor Strange.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 74 % based on 148 reviews; the average rating is 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Trolls brings its instantly recognizable characters to the big screen in a colorful adventure that, while geared toward the younger set, is n't without rewards for parents. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 56 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 80 % overall positive score.
Lindsey Bahr of Associated Press gave the film a positive review and said, "Ultimately, the ' get happy ' moral of the story, while trite compared to something like Inside Out, is sufficiently sweet enough for its audience. Did you expect more from a piece of candy? '' Bill Zwecker of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four and said, "You simply will walk out -- or perhaps dance out -- of the theater feeling very happy yourself. '' Andy Webster of The New York Times said, "Exuberant, busy and sometimes funny, DreamWorks Animation 's Trolls is determined to amuse. ''
The Hollywood Reporter called the film "an admittedly vibrant - looking but awfully recognizable animated musical comedy concoction. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap said the film "combines the barely - there characterization and irritating cutesiness of The Smurfs with the hideous character design and awful pop covers of Strange Magic. '' Betsy Bozdech of Common Sense Media gave the movie 4 stars. She said, "Make no mistake: Kids are going to love this movie. Trolls is cute, it 's colorful, it has tons of catchy songs, and the messages are positive and easy to understand (happiness is inside everyone, if you know where / how to find it, and you should n't have to change who you are to get someone to like you). ''
DreamWorks Trolls: The Experience was the first of multiple properties mobile pop - up attractions Feld Entertainment and Universal Brand Development had agreed to develop in April 2018. The pop - up attraction opening in New York City on October 22, 2018.
On February 28, 2017, Universal Pictures, the studio 's new distributor and parent company since 2016, and DreamWorks Animation announced that a sequel titled Trolls 2 would be released on April 10, 2020, with Kendrick and Timberlake reprising their roles of Poppy and Branch. On October 4, 2017, the release date for the sequel was moved up to February 14, 2020, as Fast & Furious 9 took its original April 10, 2020 slot. Along with the new release date, it was announced that Dohrn will be returning to direct and Shay will return to produce the sequel. On December 6, 2017, the film was pushed back to an April 17, 2020 release.
In May 2018, it was confirmed that Sam Rockwell, Chance the Rapper, Anthony Ramos, Karan Soni, Flula Borg, and Jamie Dornan joined the cast. Corden, Icona Pop, Funches, and Nayyar will also reprise their roles.
A new title for the sequel, Trolls World Tour, was announced in June 2018.
Trolls Holiday is a half - hour television special that aired on November 24, 2017 on NBC. Set after the film, Poppy realizes that the Bergens have no holidays to celebrate. She enlists Branch and their friends (the Snack Pack) to show their best friend Bridget and other Bergens the importance of holidays. Most of the original cast (including Kendrick, Timberlake, Deschanel, Mintz - Plasse, Corden, Funches, Nayyar and Dohrn) all reprise their roles from the film. The likely - Christmas Special is also directed by Crawford and written by Josh Bycel & Jonathan Fener with music by Jeff Morrow. Its soundtrack album that features seven songs was released on October 27, 2017. It is now available on Netflix and on DVD by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. The bonus features of the DVD also include one episode of Spirit Riding Free and two of Home: Adventures with Tip & Oh.
A 26 - episode animated series based on the film, entitled Trolls: The Beat Goes On! that airs on Netflix premiered on January 19, 2018. The show stars Amanda Leighton as Poppy, Skylar Astin as Branch, and Funches who is reprising his role as Cooper.
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what is the equation for any straight line | Linear equation - wikipedia
A linear equation is an algebraic equation in which each term is either a constant or the product of a constant and (the first power of) a single variable (however, different variables may occur in different terms). A simple example of a linear equation with only one variable, x, may be written in the form: ax + b = 0, where a and b are constants and a ≠ 0. The constants may be numbers, parameters, or even non-linear functions of parameters, and the distinction between variables and parameters may depend on the problem (for an example, see linear regression).
Linear equations can have one or more variables. An example of a linear equation with three variables, x, y, and z, is given by: ax + by + cz + d = 0, where a, b, c, and d are constants and a, b, and c are non-zero. Linear equations occur frequently in most subareas of mathematics and especially in applied mathematics. While they arise quite naturally when modeling many phenomena, they are particularly useful since many non-linear equations may be reduced to linear equations by assuming that quantities of interest vary to only a small extent from some "background '' state. An algebraic equation is linear if the sum of the exponents of the variables of each term is one.
Equations with exponents greater than one are non-linear. An example of a non-linear equation of two variables is axy + b = 0, where a and b are constants and a ≠ 0. It has two variables, x and y, and is non-linear because the sum of the exponents of the variables in the first term, axy, is two.
This article considers the case of a single equation for which one searches the real solutions. All its content applies for complex solutions and, more generally for linear equations with coefficients and solutions in any field.
A linear equation in one unknown x may always be rewritten
If a ≠ 0, there is a unique solution
If a = 0, then, if b = 0, every number is a solution of the equation, and, if b ≠ 0, there are no solutions (and the equation is said to be inconsistent).
A common form of a linear equation in the two variables x and y is
where m and b designate constants (parameters). The origin of the name "linear '' comes from the fact that the set of solutions of such an equation forms a straight line in the plane. In this particular equation, the constant m determines the slope or gradient of that line, and the constant term b determines the point at which the line crosses the y - axis, known as the y - intercept.
Since terms of linear equations can not contain products of distinct or equal variables, nor any power (other than 1) or other function of a variable, equations involving terms such as xy, x, y, and sin (x) are nonlinear.
Linear equations can be rewritten using the laws of elementary algebra into several different forms. These equations are often referred to as the "equations of the straight line. '' In what follows, x, y, t, and θ are variables; other letters represent constants (fixed numbers).
In the general (or standard) form the linear equation is written as:
where A and B are not both equal to zero. The equation is usually written so that A ≥ 0, by convention. The graph of the equation is a straight line, and every straight line can be represented by an equation in the above form. If A is nonzero, then the x-intercept, that is, the x-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the x-axis (where, y is zero), is C / A. If B is nonzero, then the y - intercept, that is the y - coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the y - axis (where x is zero), is C / B, and the slope of the line is − A / B. The general form is sometimes written as:
where a and b are not both equal to zero. The two versions can be converted from one to the other by moving the constant term to the other side of the equal sign.
where m is the slope of the line and b is the y intercept, which is the y coordinate of the location where the line crosses the y axis. This can be seen by letting x = 0, which immediately gives y = b. It may be helpful to think about this in terms of y = b + mx; where the line passes through the point (0, b) and extends to the left and right at a slope of m. Vertical lines, having undefined slope, can not be represented by this form.
where m is the slope of the line and (x, y) is any point on the line.
The point - slope form expresses the fact that the difference in the y coordinate between two points on a line (that is, y − y) is proportional to the difference in the x coordinate (that is, x − x). The proportionality constant is m (the slope of the line).
where (x, y) and (x, y) are two points on the line with x ≠ x. This is equivalent to the point - slope form above, where the slope is explicitly given as (y − y) / (x − x).
Multiplying both sides of this equation by (x − x) yields a form of the line generally referred to as the symmetric form:
Expanding the products and regrouping the terms leads to the general form:
Using a determinant, one gets a determinant form, easy to remember:
where a and b must be nonzero. The graph of the equation has x-intercept a and y - intercept b. The intercept form is in standard form with A / C = 1 / a and B / C = 1 / b. Lines that pass through the origin or which are horizontal or vertical violate the nonzero condition on a or b and can not be represented in this form.
Using the order of the standard form
one can rewrite the equation in matrix form:
Further, this representation extends to systems of linear equations.
becomes:
Since this extends easily to higher dimensions, it is a common representation in linear algebra, and in computer programming. There are named methods for solving system of linear equations, like Gauss - Jordan which can be expressed as matrix elementary row operations.
and
These are two simultaneous equations in terms of a variable parameter t, with slope m = V / T, x-intercept (VU - WT) / V and y - intercept (WT - VU) / T. This can also be related to the two - point form, where T = p - h, U = h, V = q - k, and W = k:
and
In this case t varies from 0 at point (h, k) to 1 at point (p, q), with values of t between 0 and 1 providing interpolation and other values of t providing extrapolation.
The equation of a line can also be written as the determinant of two vectors. If P 1 (\ displaystyle P_ (1)) and P 2 (\ displaystyle P_ (2)) are unique points on the line, then P (\ displaystyle P) will also be a point on the line if the following is true:
One way to understand this formula is to use the fact that the determinant of two vectors on the plane will give the area of the parallelogram they form. Therefore, if the determinant equals zero then the parallelogram has no area, and that will happen when two vectors are on the same line.
To expand on this we can say that P 1 = (x 1, y 1) (\ displaystyle P_ (1) = (x_ (1), \, y_ (1))), P 2 = (x 2, y 2) (\ displaystyle P_ (2) = (x_ (2), \, y_ (2))) and P = (x, y) (\ displaystyle P = (x, \, y)). Thus P 1 P → = (x − x 1, y − y 1) (\ displaystyle (\ overrightarrow (P_ (1) P)) = (x-x_ (1), \, y - y_ (1))) and P 1 P 2 → = (x 2 − x 1, y 2 − y 1) (\ displaystyle (\ overrightarrow (P_ (1) P_ (2))) = (x_ (2) - x_ (1), \, y_ (2) - y_ (1))), then the above equation becomes:
Thus,
Ergo,
Then dividing both side by (x 2 − x 1) (\ displaystyle (x_ (2) - x_ (1))) would result in the "Two - point form '' shown above, but leaving it here allows the equation to still be valid when x 1 = x 2 (\ displaystyle x_ (1) = x_ (2)).
This is a special case of the standard form where A = 0 and B = 1, or of the slope - intercept form where the slope m = 0. The graph is a horizontal line with y - intercept equal to b. There is no x-intercept, unless b = 0, in which case the graph of the line is the x-axis, and so every real number is an x-intercept.
This is a special case of the standard form where A = 1 and B = 0. The graph is a vertical line with x-intercept equal to a. The slope is undefined. There is no y - intercept, unless a = 0, in which case the graph of the line is the y - axis, and so every real number is a y - intercept. This is the only type of straight line which is not the graph of a function (it obviously fails the vertical line test).
A linear equation, written in the form y = f (x) whose graph crosses the origin (x, y) = (0, 0), that is, whose y - intercept is 0, has the following properties:
and
where a is any scalar. A function which satisfies these properties is called a linear function (or linear operator, or more generally a linear map). However, linear equations that have non-zero y - intercepts, when written in this manner, produce functions which will have neither property above and hence are not linear functions in this sense. They are known as affine functions.
An everyday example of the use of different forms of linear equations is computation of tax with tax brackets. This is commonly done with a progressive tax computation, using either point -- slope form or slope -- intercept form.
A linear equation can involve more than two variables. Every linear equation in n unknowns may be rewritten
where, a, a,..., a represent numbers, called the coefficients, x, x,..., x are the unknowns, and b is called the constant term. When dealing with three or fewer variables, it is common to use x, y and z instead of x, x and x.
If all the coefficients are zero, then either b ≠ 0 and the equation does not have any solution, or b = 0 and every set of values for the unknowns is a solution.
If at least one coefficient is nonzero, a permutation of the subscripts allows one to suppose a ≠ 0, and rewrite the equation
In other words, if a ≠ 0, one may choose arbitrary values for all the unknowns except x, and express x in term of these values.
If n = 3 the set of the solutions is a plane in a three - dimensional space. More generally, the set of the solutions is an (n -- 1) - dimensional hyperplane in a n - dimensional Euclidean space (or affine space if the coefficients are complex numbers or belong to any field).
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what is the story of the elf on a shelf | The Elf on the Shelf - wikipedia
The Elf on the Shelf: A Christmas Tradition is a 2005 children 's picture book, written by Carol Aebersold and her daughter Chanda Bell, and illustrated by Coë Steinwart. The book tells a Christmas - themed story, written in rhyme, that explains how Santa Claus knows who is naughty and who is nice. It describes elves visiting children between Thanksgiving and Christmas Eve, after which they return to the North Pole until the next holiday season. The Elf on the Shelf comes in a keepsake box that features a hardbound picture book and a small soft toy in the form of a pixie scout elf.
This story describes how Santa 's "scout elves '' hide in people 's homes to watch over events. Once everyone goes to bed, the scout elf flies back to the North Pole to report to Santa the activities, good and bad, that have taken place throughout the day. Before the family wakes up each morning, the scout elf flies back from the North Pole and hides. By hiding in a new spot each morning around the house, the scout elf plays an ongoing game of hide and seek with the family.
The Elf on the Shelf explains that scout elves get their magic by being named and being loved by a child. In the back of each book, families have an opportunity to write their elf 's name and the date that they adopted it. Once the elf is named, the scout elf receives its special Christmas magic, which allows it to fly to and from the North Pole.
The book tells how the magic might disappear if the scout elf is touched, so the rule for The Elf on the Shelf states, "There 's only one rule that you have to follow, so I will come back and be here tomorrow: Please do not touch me. My magic might go, and Santa wo n't hear all I 've seen or I know. '' Although families are told not to touch their scout elf, they can speak to it and tell it all their Christmas wishes so that it can report back to Santa accurately.
The story ends on Christmas Day with the elf leaving to stay with Santa for the rest of the year until the following Christmas season.
The Elf on the Shelf was written in 2004 by Carol Aebersold and daughter Chanda Bell over a cup of tea. Bell suggested they write a book about an old tradition of an elf sent from Santa who came to watch over them at Christmas time. Aebersold 's other daughter, Christa Pitts, was recruited by the family to share her expertise in sales and marketing. Together, the trio devoted the next three years promoting their self - published book and attending book signings and trade shows.
The Elf on the Shelf won the Best Toy Award by Learning Express, won Book of the Year Award from Creative Child Awards and National Best Books Award sponsored by USA Book News in 2008. In 2012, The Elf on the Shelf made its first appearance in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade alongside fellow parade newcomers Hello Kitty and Papa Smurf. In 2013, The Elf on the Shelf hit the # 1 spot on the USA Today Bestsellers List.
On 26 November 2011, the book aired on CBS as a 30 - minute animated TV show, An Elf 's Story: The Elf on the Shelf, directed by Chad Eikhoff. The Washington Post criticized the quality of the animation and dismissed it as "just a half - hour advertisement for a book and a toy '', which it felt would not join "the canon of prime - time animated Christmas specials that actually move the spirit ''. Common Sense Media disagreed, calling the special "a great addition to families ' holiday TV traditions ''; however, they also warn parents about the consumer - driven nature of the story, and make note of its lack of educational value.
In October 2013, The Elf on the Shelf: A Birthday Tradition was released. Written and illustrated by the same team that created the first book, it offers instructions for inviting a scout elf to visit for a child 's birthday party and describes how the elf decorates a chair for the child. In April 2014, two supplemental birthday products were released: The Elf on the Shelf Birthday Countdown Game and The Elf on the Shelf Birthday Chair Decoration Kit.
The Elf on the Shelf was parodied as "The Gnome in the Home '' in "The Nightmare After Krustmas, '' a 2016 episode of The Simpsons.
A Jewish counterpart to Elf On The Shelf was created: "Mensch on a Bench, '' a stuffed toy that looks a bit like a rabbi or a Hasidic Jew. Jewish father Neal Hoffman, a former Hasbro Toys toy marketing executive, raised more than $20,000, using the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to fund creation of the toy in the Spring of 2011. "Mensch '', in Yiddish, means a person of integrity or honor.
Cody Decker, the starting left fielder for Team Israel at the 2017 World Baseball Classic, brought the team 's mascot, a five - foot version of "Mensch on a Bench, '' with him to Asia from the United States for the World Baseball Classic. Decker said he "tried getting him a first - class ticket. But that did n't fly, so he was put in a duffel bag and checked. '' The mascot proved to be a big hit. He has his own locker, sits on Team Israel 's bench in the dugout during every game, and sat alongside Decker at a press conference in South Korea. Decker said:
"He 's a mascot, he 's a friend, he 's a teammate, he 's a borderline deity to our team... He brings a lot to the table... Every team needs their Jobu. He was ours. He had his own locker, and we even gave him offerings: Manischewitz, gelt, and gefilte fish... He is everywhere and nowhere all at once. His actual location is irrelevant because he exists in higher metaphysical planes. But he 's always near. ''
Team Israel Manager Jerry Weinstein said: "He 's on the team. Everybody brings something to the team, and certainly The Mensch is a unifying factor for the ball club. '' Pitcher Gabe Cramer said: "The Mensch on a Bench is... a symbol we can rally around as a team. We are proud to be Jewish, but we know how to make and take a joke, something Jews have a long history of doing. The Mensch is a great way to have fun in the dugout while reminding us of why we 're here and who we 're representing. ''
The Elf has received some criticism from cultural reviewers. The Atlantic columnist Kate Tuttle calls it "a marketing juggernaut dressed up as a tradition '' whose purpose is "to spy on kids '' and that one should n't "bully your child into thinking that good behavior equals gifts. '' Washington Post reviewer Hank Stuever characterized the concept as "just another nannycam in a nanny state obsessed with penal codes ''. Writing for Psychology Today, Dr. David Kyle Johnston calls it a "dangerous parental crutch '', with much the same reasoning as what he terms the "Santa lie ''. Professor Laura Pinto suggests that it conditions kids to accept the surveillance state and that it communicates to children that "it 's okay for other people to spy on you, and you 're not entitled to privacy. '' She argues that "if you grow up thinking it 's cool for the elves to watch me and report back to Santa, well, then it 's cool for the NSA to watch me and report back to the government... The rule of play is that kids get to interact with a doll or video game or what have you, but not so with the Elf on the Shelf: The rule is that you do n't touch the elf. Think about the message that sends. ''
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when did the tv series the flash start | The Flash (2014 TV series) - wikipedia
The Flash is an American television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg and Geoff Johns, airing on The CW. It is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, a costumed superhero crime - fighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds. It is a spin - off from Arrow, existing in the same fictional universe. The series follows Allen, portrayed by Grant Gustin, a crime scene investigator who gains super-human speed, which he uses to fight criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities.
Initially envisioned as a backdoor pilot, the positive reception Gustin received during two appearances as Barry on Arrow led to executives choosing to develop a full pilot to make use of a larger budget and help flesh out Barry 's world in more detail. Colleen Atwood, costume designer for Arrow, was brought in to design the Flash 's suit. The creative team wanted to make sure that the Flash would resemble his comic book counterpart, and not simply be a poor imitation. The series is primarily filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
The Flash premiered in North America on October 7, 2014, where the pilot became the second-most watched premiere in the history of The CW, after The Vampire Diaries in 2009. It has been well received by critics and audiences, and won the People 's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Drama '' in 2014. The series, together with Arrow, has spun characters out to their own show, Legends of Tomorrow, which premiered on January 21, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the show for a fourth season, which is scheduled to debut on October 10, 2017.
After witnessing his mother 's supernatural murder, Barry Allen is taken in by Detective Joe West and his family. Barry becomes a brilliant but socially awkward crime scene investigator for the Central City Police Department. A particle accelerator malfunctions, bathing the city center with a radiation during a thunderstorm, and Barry is struck by lightning. Awakening after a coma, he discovers he can move at superhuman speeds. Harrison Wells, the accelerator 's designer, describes Barry 's nature as "metahuman ''. Barry vows to use his gifts to protect Central City. As the Flash, Barry also pursues his mother 's murderer, the Reverse - Flash.
In the second season, after a singularity event, the Flash is recognized as Central City 's hero. However, the event brings a new threat from a parallel earth: Zoom, a demonic speedster who seeks to eliminate all speedsters throughout the multiverse. Harrison Wells ' parallel universe counterpart nicknamed "Harry '', and his daughter Jesse, work to help Barry stop Zoom and explore the multiverse. Joe and his daughter, Iris, struggle with the arrival of Iris 's brother Wally West. After Zoom kills Barry 's father, Barry travels back in time to save his mother 's life.
By changing his past, Barry alters the timeline, resulting in "Flashpoint ''. Though he is somewhat able to restore the timeline, this creates new threats, including Savitar. After Harry and Jesse return to Earth - 2, another Wells doppelgänger is recruited: the novelist "H.R. '' Wells. Both Wally and Caitlin Snow begin to manifest metahuman abilities; Wally suits up as the speedster Kid Flash, while Caitlin is forced to suppress her ice - powers to prevent becoming Killer Frost. When Barry accidentally travels to the future and sees Iris killed by Savitar, he is desperate to change the future to prevent that from happening. After saving Iris and defeating Savitar, Barry takes his place in the Speed Force.
On July 30, 2013, it was announced that Arrow co-creators Greg Berlanti and Andrew Kreisberg, Arrow pilot director David Nutter, and DC Comics CCO Geoff Johns would develop a television series based on the Flash for The CW, and it would detail Barry Allen 's origin. Kreisberg revealed after the announcement that Allen would first appear as a recurring character on Arrow in three episodes of season two -- all written by Berlanti, Kreisberg and Johns -- and the last of the episodes would act as a backdoor pilot for the new show. Kreisberg added that Allen would be a forensic scientist and the introduction of his superpowers, as well as the reactions to this, will be very human and grounded. Johns stated that the character of the Flash in the show would resemble his comic book counterpart, complete with his trademark red costume, and not be a poor imitation. Kreisberg elaborated: "No sweat suits or strange code names; he will be The Flash. '' While researching the best way to depict the Flash 's lightning speed, Johns stated it would not just be the standard "blurring around ''.
Barry ultimately appeared twice in Arrow 's second season, with the planned backdoor pilot cancelled in favor of a traditional pilot by The CW executives, who had been impressed by early cuts of Barry 's first two episodes on Arrow. This allowed the creative team to flesh out Barry 's story and his world on a bigger budget, as opposed to a backdoor pilot 's constraint of incorporating characters from the parent show. The pilot was officially ordered on January 29, 2014, and was written by Berlanti, Kreisberg, and Johns, and directed by Nutter. On May 8, 2014, The Flash was officially picked up as a series, with an initial order of 13 episodes. Three more scripts were ordered in September 2014 following a positive response to newly completed episodes by executives, while a back ten was ordered the next month for a full 23 - episode season.
With the commencement of production on the series ' second season, former Arrow and Ugly Betty writer Gabrielle Stanton was promoted to executive producer and showrunner; after having served as consulting producer and writer on the first season 's finale "Fast Enough ''. However, it was later reported that Kreisberg would be returning to sole showrunner duties at an unspecified time. That time was later proved to be at the start of 2016, "Potential Energy '', when Stanton was no longer credited as being involved with the show. In May 2017, it was reported that Aaron Helbing would be departing the series. Helbing had served as a writer since the first season, and as co-showrunner, along with his brother Todd and Kreisberg, since the second.
The costume was designed by Colleen Atwood, who also designed the costumes for Arrow. It features a burgundy color scheme, a masked helmet, and gold accents throughout, and went through multiple adjustments from the moment it was placed in computer renderings to the day of filming the pilot. Primarily made of leather, the suit contains areas with a stretchable material to allow Gustin room to bend. According to Atwood "It was all about a costume that could sell speed, Grant (Gustin) was continually moving in the suit, so it had to be designed to make that all happen visually and functionally. '' It initially took Gustin approximately 40 minutes to get into his costume, as the first cowl was prosthetic and had to be zipped and glued to his face. This was cut down to approximately 15 minutes by episode eight, when designers were able to develop a new cowl that easily slid over Gustin 's face and locked into place. Maya Mani replaced Atwood as the costume designer for the second season and made slight changes to the Flash costume, such as changing the color of his crest from yellow to white, being faithful to the Flash costume from the comics.
Production on the pilot began in March 2014, with filming taking place in Vancouver, British Columbia; additional filming for the series takes place in Portland, Oregon. On how action sequences are shot for the series, compared to Arrow, Gustin said, "When (Arrow) shoot (s) action sequences, pretty much what you see is what you get and they 're really doing everything. We do a lot of plate shots that are empty shots of the area we 're going to be in and then they 're putting us in later in post. I do a lot of the fighting. I do n't have to do it full speed and then they ramp it up and a lot of people have to freeze and I keep moving. Then I have to clear frame and step back into frame. It 's really tedious stuff that we have to do. On theirs, they learn fight choreography and they shoot it from the perfect angles and what you see is what you get. '' Production on the third season began in early July 2016.
Arrow composer Blake Neely is the primary composer of the series, and was first hired in April 2014 to score the pilot. He had previously composed a theme for Barry Allen which was featured in Arrow 's season two episodes "The Scientist '' and "Three Ghosts ''. The theme was titled "The Scientist '' when it was released on the Arrow: Season 2 soundtrack. According to Neely, "It had to be different (from Arrow)... but it also could n't be so different that it could n't fit in the Arrow universe,... it had to be in a style that could hold hands with Arrow. '' On December 18, 2014, WaterTower Music released a selection of music from The Flash / Arrow crossover episodes, as well as two bonus tracks from their respective 2014 midseason finales. The first season, two - disc soundtrack was released on October 16, 2015. The second season 's soundtrack was released digitally on July 22, 2016, and in CD format on July 26, 2016.
The sound design for the show is handled by Mark Camperell. The sound effect for Barry is made up of elements of thunder, electricity, jets, fireballs, and various custom whooshes and impacts. Speaking about designing the sound for The Flash 's ability, Mark says: "My approach for the sounds of The Flash 's ability was to editorially treat him like a really aggressively driven hot rod. This does n't mean that I used car sounds for him, though. What I mean is that when thinking about how to edit his sounds, I thought about it like cutting a car chase. ''
The Flash was screened at the Warner Bros. Television and DC Entertainment panel at San Diego Comic - Con International in July 2014. The series officially premiered on The CW on October 7, 2014, during the 2014 -- 15 television season and also premiered in Canada on the same night. The second episode was screened at New York Comic Con on October 9, 2014, as a way to repay the viewers that watched the series ' premiere episode. The series premiered in the United Kingdom and Ireland on October 28, 2014, and in Australia on December 3, 2014.
Regarding Gustin 's debut as Barry Allen in Arrow and the potential for a series, IGN 's Jesse Schedeen stated his concern: "Gustin does n't come across as leading man material. His awkward bumbling intertwining with Felicity 's was cute, but rarely did I get the impression that this character could or should be given his own spinoff series. '' Schedeen eventually warmed up to the character, however, once the "dorkiness and social awkwardness '' were downplayed a bit and the emphasis was placed on "his keen scientific mind ''.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 97 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.5 / 10 based on 58 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "The Flash benefits from its purposefully light atmosphere, making it a superhero show uniquely geared toward genre fans as well as novices. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 73 out of 100, based on 27 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. IGN 's Eric Goldman and Joshua Yehl praised the show 's premise and cast after viewing a press screening copy of the pilot. Goldman and Yehl favorably compared it to Arrow, stating that The Flash progresses with a confidence that Arrow did not get until later in the series. Reviews for the series became increasingly positive as the season progressed, with the finale receiving critical acclaim. Noel Murray of The A.V. Club gave the season a B+ overall, giving praise to the pacing of the plot, the performances of the cast and the special effects, and also pointing out the series ' boldness to embrace its comic book influences, something that conventional superhero shows tend not to do. Weekly episode reviewer Scott Von Doviak gave consistently high ratings to the season and awarded the season finale a perfect A grade, calling the episode "richly satisfying '' and also commending the show for "(capturing) the essence of its source material in a fun, light - on - its - feet way that few other comic book adaptations have managed. '' He also gave high praise to the emotional value and performances of the cast, as well as the cliffhanger and multiple easter eggs found in the episode. The second season of The Flash scored a Metacritic rating of 81 out of 100 indicating "universal acclaim ''.
In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked the show # 23 on its list of the "40 Best Science Fiction TV Shows of All Time ''.
The first episode of The Flash was watched by 4.8 million viewers and had a 1.9 18 -- 49 demographic rating, making it The CW 's most watched and highest rated series premiere since The Vampire Diaries in 2009. It also became The CW 's second-most watched series premiere ever, behind 90210, and the third - highest rated in the 18 -- 49 demographic. Factoring Live + 7 day ratings, the pilot was watched by a total of 6.8 million viewers, becoming The CW 's most - watched telecast and the highest - rated premiere among men 18 -- 34 (2.5 rating). It broke the previous record for the most - watched telecast held by the cycle 8 finale of America 's Next Top Model in 2007 (6.69 million). Additionally, across all platforms, including initiated streams on digital platforms and total unduplicated viewers on - air over two airings the week of October 7, 2014, the premiere was seen more than 13 million times.
The Canadian premiere was watched by 3.11 million viewers, making it the most - watched broadcast that night and the second for that week. In the United Kingdom, the premiere was the fourth highest - rated broadcast of the week and the eleventh of that month, with 1.53 million viewers. The timeshifted version got 82,000 viewers. The premiere in Australia was the most - watched broadcast on pay television, with 129,000 viewers tuning in.
In 2016, according to an analysis from Parrot Analytics, which used ratings data (where available), peer - to - peer sharing, social media chatter, and other factors to estimate viewer demand for various shows, The Flash was the 5th most popular show in the world with 3.1 million demand expressions per day, behind Game of Thrones, The Walking Dead, Pretty Little Liars, and Westworld. TorrentFreak also gauged The Flash as the fourth most - torrented television show of 2016.
The Flash: Season Zero, written by Kreisberg, Brooke Eikmeier and Katherine Walczak, with art by Phil Hester and Eric Gapstur, is intended to take place between the pilot episode and episode 2. Kreisberg stated, "Barry will (already) be the Flash, he will have his team, everyone will be in that world, and we 'll (sic) introducing a new set of villains that we wo n't be seeing on the TV show. It 'll feel like the same heart, humor and spectacle that you get watching Flash. '' The comic will showcase the entire TV cast, plus new rogues, a group of circus performers who gained super powers as a result of the S.T.A.R. Labs particle accelerator explosion. The group is led by Mr. Bliss, a character who first appeared in Starman. The comic launched digitally biweekly on September 8, 2014, with its first physical release featuring a collection of the digital releases, releasing on October 1.
On April 19, 2016, a four - part web series titled Chronicles of Cisco, premiered. The series, which was presented by AT&T, features Valdes and Britne Oldford reprise their role as Cisco Ramon and Shawna Baez / Peek - a-Boo, respectively. Set in the second season of the television series, the series sees Cisco attempting to make the Flash suit bulletproof and body - odor proof. While working on these, he receives a late - night Meta - Human Alert within S.T.A.R. Labs, and learns that Peek - a-Boo triggered the alert. She has come to S.T.A.R. Labs to make Cisco create a weapon for her, as he did for Golden Glider, Captain Cold, and Heatwave. When he does not cooperate, she shoots him. Cisco survives being shot, realizing that the orange soda he spilt on his shirt was the missing catalyst to his bulletproof formula. Cisco tries to bring Peek - a-Boo back to the pipeline, but she locks him in the cell instead. Cisco is then seen being woken up due to a call from Barry. He believes he dreamt the whole experience, until he finds the bullet that shot him on the ground.
The series has also been featured in other video games based off DC Comics property. In the mobile version of Injustice: Gods Among Us, the show 's versions of the Flash and Reverse - Flash appear as alternate costumes for the Flash. The show 's version of S.T.A.R. Labs also appears as a hidden area in Lego Dimensions.
On November 29, 2016, Titan Books released Flash: The Haunting of Barry Allen, a tie - in novelization written by Susan and Clay Griffith, set during the course of the second season, after Barry has closed the temporal anomaly that nearly destroyed Central City. Barry must seek help from Oliver Queen, due to his own abilities beginning to break down, in order to deal with five members of his Rogues Gallery -- including Pied Piper, Weather Wizard, and Peekaboo. The story continued in Arrow -- A Generation of Vipers, released on March 28, 2017.
On October 21, 2016, "The Art and Making of The Flash '' by Abbie Bernstein was released. This is a 160 - page behind - the - scenes book with production art and behind - the - scenes photography. The book also includes interviews with the cast and crew from the show.
In January 2015, The CW president Mark Pedowitz announced the intention to do a Flash / Arrow crossover every season, and The CW announced that an animated web - series, Vixen, featuring the DC heroine of the same name and set in the universe of Arrow and The Flash, would be debuting on CW Seed in late 2015. The character is expected to make a live - action appearance on Arrow and / or The Flash as well. The next month, it was reported that a spin - off series, which is described as a superhero team - up show, was in discussion by The CW for a possible 2015 -- 16 midseason release. Berlanti and Kreisberg would executive produce alongside Guggenheim and Sarah Schechter. The potential series would be headlined by several recurring characters from both Arrow and The Flash, with the potential for other Arrow / Flash characters to cross over to the new series as well. In May 2015, The CW officially picked up the series, titled DC 's Legends of Tomorrow.
The second season begins to explore the concept of the multiverse, by introducing Earth - 2, which features doppelgängers of the inhabitants in the Arrowverse (or Earth - 1), along with Jay Garrick, the Flash of Earth - 2, and Zoom. In the episode "Welcome to Earth - 2 '', as Barry, Cisco and Harrison Wells of Earth - 2 travel to Earth - 2, glimpses of the multiverse are seen, including an image of Supergirl star Melissa Benoist as Supergirl and an image of John Wesley Shipp as the Flash from the 1990 television series, implying the two characters and their respective television series exist on alternate Earths to the Arrowverse; Supergirl 's world is later designated Earth - 38 in the Arrowverse multiverse. Gustin as Barry appeared on the eighteenth episode of Supergirl, "Worlds Finest '', which aired on CBS on March 28, 2016. Intersecting with the events of the eighteenth episode of The Flash, which aired on April 19, 2016, Barry accidentally arrives on Earth - 38 and helps Kara battle two of her enemies, Silver Banshee (Italia Ricci) and Livewire (Brit Morgan), before returning home.
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who sings more more how do you like it | More, More, More - wikipedia
"More, More, More '' is a song written by Gregg Diamond and recorded by American disco artist Andrea True, who performed as part of her "Andrea True Connection '' project. It was released in February 1976 and became her signature track and one of the most popular songs of the disco era. In the U.S., it reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and spent three weeks at number three on the Cashbox chart in July of that year. In Canada, it was a number - one hit.
The song was originally recorded in Jamaica where True, a porn star, had been appearing in a television commercial. An attempted coup prevented her from leaving the country with her wages from the commercial. Resourcefully, True called on Gregg Diamond to come down to Jamaica to write and record the song with her, along with other studio musicians which formed the backbone of the "Connection '' project.
Buddah Records originally released the song only to discos in the winter of 1975 / 1976. The popularity of "More, More, More '' was immense. Widespread listener interest convinced Buddah to release the single commercially in the spring. The song rose to number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and number twenty three on the soul singles chart. The single was a successful disco hit peaking at number two. Overseas, the song peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart.
The song has been covered a number of times since by artists including Samantha Fox, Bananarama, Rachel Stevens, Dannii Minogue, and Dagny. In 1999, Canadian band Len sampled the instrumental break in "More, More, More '' and used it as the backdrop for their top - ten single "Steal My Sunshine ''.
The song has also been used in television promotional advertisements, such as for American television series Sex and the City. The title hook line is used as a jingle by Canadian supermarket chain Save - On - Foods. Recently, the song has been featured in an advertisement campaign for American retail chain Target.
"More, More, More '' was covered by English group Bananarama for their album Please Yourself. It was produced by Mike Stock and Pete Waterman of Stock Aitken Waterman fame. Their version retained the disco feel of the original and also incorporated elements of ABBA - like production, as was the case with the entire Please Yourself album. Sara Dallin, Keren Woodward, Stock and Waterman added a second verse to their version of the song. The music video, directed by Saffie Ashtiany, featured them performing the song and dancing (in one of their few unchoreographed videos) in a cabaret - style club with several male dancers backing them up.
Bananarama 's single version (which was remixed from their album version) climbed to number twenty - four in the UK singles chart. It was their last single to be released by London Records, their label since 1983. The duo would not see another single - release in the UK until "Move in My Direction '' in 2005.
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"More More More '' was a 2004 hit for former S Club member Rachel Stevens. The song was taken from her debut album Funky Dory and was her final release from that album. The song was featured in an advertising campaign for Sky Sports ' football coverage for the 2004 - 05 season. It sold a total of 68,000 copies, of which 25,600 were in its first week. Stevens ' version hit number three in the UK, outpeaking all of the previous versions of the track, and also reached number five in Ireland.
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The Andrea True Connection 's version of "More, More, More '' has appeared in two episodes of The Simpsons. In the 2003 episode "Dude, Where 's My Ranch? '', after Moe Szyslak kidnaps David Byrne (who guest - starred in the episode as himself), a parody version of the song plays on the radio featuring Moe singing, "Moe, Moe, Moe! How do you like me? How do like me? Moe, Moe, Moe! Why do n't you like me? Nobody likes me. '' The song is credited to "The Moe Szyslak Connection ''. The song also appears in the episode "Sweets and Sour Marge '', where Disco Stu plays the song after "snorting '' lines of sugar.
"More, More, More '' also appears in the documentary Inside Deep Throat. In 2006, the song appeared in Click and was used during one of the flashback scenes. On the show The King of Queens, the episode "High Def Jam '' opened with Doug Heffernan singing a parody version, "Doug, Doug, Doug ''. The song was featured in American Dad!, Season 3, Episode 2, "Meter Made ''. The late professional wrestler Larry Sweeney formerly used the song as his entrance theme.
Stevens ' version of the song is used in adverts for the UK sofa company ScS. A version of the song by Dagny was used by Target in a commercial campaign introducing its line of new products in the fall of 2017.
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who sang when we get behind closed doors | Behind Closed Doors (Charlie Rich song) - Wikipedia
"Behind Closed Doors '' is a country song written by Kenny O'Dell. It was first recorded by Charlie Rich for his 1973 album Behind Closed Doors. The single was Rich 's first number - one hit on the country charts, spent 20 weeks on this chart, and was also a crossover hit on the pop charts. It was certified Platinum by the RIAA for U.S. sales in excess of two million copies. Background vocals were provided by The Nashville Edition.
Rich 's producer, Billy Sherrill, encouraged O'Dell to write music for the singer. O'Dell recalled the creation of "Behind Closed Doors '' to Tom Roland in The Billboard Book of Number One Country Hits. "It was just a title I had written down, and I had a little guitar riff that I 'd carried with me for a couple of years. The chorus was pretty much a little deviation on that. '' Sherrill later changed some lines at the end of the second verse, but some radio stations banned the record initially as being racy.
"Behind Closed Doors '' earned awards for Song of the Year (for O'Dell) and Single of the Year (for Rich) from both the Country Music Association and the Academy of Country Music, and Rich also received a Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance. In 2003, it ranked # 9 in CMT 's 100 Greatest Songs in Country Music.
Numerous other artists have covered the song "Behind Closed Doors '', using the original or slightly modified lyrics. For example, Loretta Lynn and Dolly Parton sang versions in which the genders were reversed and a few words changed or added, while Diana Ross sang a version with both gender change and added lines. Other artists who covered this song include Bettye LaVette, Ronnie Milsap, Hank Thompson, Cal Smith, Perry Como, Percy Sledge, Little Milton, Mike Cooley, Stan Ridgway and Tom Jones.
Joe Diffie covered the song on the 1998 album Tribute to Tradition. His version peaked at number 64 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.
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this battle resulted in union control of the entire mississippi river | Mississippi River campaigns - wikipedia
The Mississippi River campaigns were a series of military actions by the Union Army during the American Civil War in which Union troops, helped by Union Navy gunboats and river ironclads, took control of the Cumberland River, the Tennessee River and the Mississippi River, main north - south avenues of transport. In July 1863, the Trans - Mississippi Department of the Confederate States of America was split from the Confederate States east of the river when the Union gained control of the entire Mississippi River. The Union then controlled a main artery of transportation for the South, depriving the rest of the Confederacy of men, food and other supplies from the Confederate States west of the river. While not commonly lumped together under this designation, the river campaigns were undertaken mainly for reasons found in Union General - in - Chief Winfield Scott 's 1861 Anaconda Plan. Scott proposed to defeat the Confederacy largely through blockade of ports and control of rivers leading to the economic ' strangulation ' of the Confederacy, which he hoped would prevent a large number of bloody land battles.
The original Union Army expedition to control the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers was under the overall command Major General Henry W. Halleck although Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant commanded the forces in the field. Flag officer Andrew H. Foote commanded the Navy 's squadrons. The Vicksburg and Port Hudson campaigns were commanded by Major Generals Grant and Nathaniel P. Banks, respectively while the Mississippi River Squadron was commanded by then Rear Admiral David Farragut from the south and Flag Officer David Dixon Porter from the north.
The campaign on and along the Mississippi River started in February 1862 with Union forces pushing down from Cairo, Illinois into disputed territory in Missouri and Kentucky and Confederate territory in Tennessee and ended with the surrender of the last Confederate strongholds on the Mississippi River, Vicksburg, Mississippi on July 4, 1863 and of Port Hudson, Louisiana on July 9, 1863. Flag Officer Foote initially commanded the Union naval forces, which were later led by Farragut and Porter.
Although an important role in the Mississippi River campaign was played by armored paddle steamers, the campaign was a Union Army undertaking, as the ships used were under Army command and were used as army transports and floating gun stations rather than independent battleships. Most of their boats were either converted paddle steamers or purpose - built gunboats that had never seen the sea. Because of this, the Mississippi River Squadron quickly became known as the Brown - water navy. This was a reference to the brown, muddy water of the Mississippi, as compared to the deep blue commonly associated with the sea. The only exception was at the Siege of Vicksburg where the army, marching downstream met up with the Union Navy under Rear Admiral David Farragut sailing upstream and the two combined their forces for an all - out land - and - sea shelling of the town.
The river campaigns saw the first practical use of river gunboats and river ironclads, in particular the City - class ironclads, ironclad paddle steamers built by James B. Eads in St. Louis and Cairo, Illinois. It also saw the use of sea mines, which at that time were called torpedoes, a term applied to self - propelled warheads only later, torpedo rams and a brief Confederate experiment in deploying a casemate ironclad, the CSS Arkansas, in a river defense role.
Important battles in the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers campaign were the capture of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, where the Union forces were under the direct command of Brigadier General U.S. Grant, who reported to Major General Halleck, and the naval forces of the Western Gunboat Flotilla, predecessor of the Mississippi River Squadron, were led by Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote. Key military actions along the Mississippi River included the Island No. 10, the Battle of Memphis, Siege of Vicksburg, and Siege of Port Hudson.
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where do dogs trust get their dogs from | Dogs Trust - wikipedia
Dogs Trust, formerly known as the National Canine Defence League, is an animal welfare charity and humane society in the United Kingdom which specialises in the well - being of dogs. The charity rehabilitates and finds new homes for dogs which have been abandoned or given up by their owners. People are encouraged to sponsor a dog for at least £ 1 a week, even if they are not able to rehome the dog. It also runs microchipping and neutering schemes in the United Kingdom and abroad, in order to reduce the number of unwanted litters of puppies and stray dogs euthanized by other organisations.
Dogs Trust has 20 rehoming centres across the UK, and its first international rehoming centre opened in November 2009 in Dublin, Ireland. The charity does not put any healthy dogs down.
The National Canine Defence League (NCDL) was founded in 1891 at a meeting during the first Crufts show chaired by Lady Gertrude Stock. The NCDL campaigned against vivisection, unnecessary muzzling and prolonged chaining, as well as providing care for stray dogs. It also campaigned against cruel treatment of dogs by railway companies, who often refused to provide water for dogs. More unusually, in the 1920s, it provided AA wardens with pistols. This was because dogs and other animals were often involved in car accidents, and the pistols were provided to allow the wardens to euthanise the animal as a last resort in the worst cases. In 1957, the NCDL campaigned against the use of the Russian space dogs in space flight, organising a minute 's silence in honour of Laika, who died in orbit from overheating and stress. In 2003, the NCDL was rebranded as Dogs Trust. In 2015 the Trust declared an income of £ 89 million and expenditure of £ 5 million.
The charity is best known for its slogan "A Dog is for Life, not just for Christmas '', which is used either in full or shortened to "A Dog is for Life '' in advertising. The phrase was created by Clarissa Baldwin, the former Chief Executive of the charity, to reduce the number of dogs which are abandoned as unwanted. The slogan is a registered trademark. More recently it has adopted another slogan: "Dogs Trust Never Put a Healthy Dog Down ''.
Dogs Trust tries to rehome most dogs which it cares for and it runs 21 rehoming centres across the UK and one in Ireland, as well as two large mobile rehoming units known as Dogmobiles. These are large vehicles fitted with air conditioned kennels and are specially designed to tour the local area, carrying a small number of dogs from nearby rehoming centres that are desperately seeking new homes.
Dogs Trust never euthanises healthy dogs, however some dogs may have had a particularly bad start in life and would not be happy living in a normal home environment. The charity takes care of these dogs under its popular Sponsor a Dog scheme.
They have also created a sanctuary where selected dogs can live together free from excessive human contact.
There are currently centres in:
At the beginning of June 2012, the charity opened its eighteenth UK rehoming centre in Leicestershire. Dogs Trust Loughborough aims to be the greenest animal rescue centre in the world. The centre runs on renewable energy from its biomass boiler, green roofs, under - floor heating, solar thermal panels, photovoltaic panels and a rainwater recycling system. The project will be constructed with the aim to achieve BREEAM (BRE Environment Assessment Method) outstanding classification and the highest levels of sustainability. The charity says the facilities will significantly reduce running costs.
Dogs Trust has campaigned against docking of tails and unnecessary euthanasia, such as that carried out on foxhounds after fox hunting was banned by the Hunting Act 2004. It also offers free neutering services in certain poorer countries and runs international training programmes for other animal welfare charities with the aim of reducing feral populations.
In 2010 the charity introduced the term ' battery farming of dogs ' to associate the practice of Puppy farming in the minds of the public with that of battery farming of chickens, and aims to educate the public as to where they can safely go to buy a ' cruelty free dog '.
From 2009 to 2011, Dogs Trust held an annual charity event held at locations across the UK, where members of the public could complete either a 5 km or 10 km walk around a course in an area which is usually close to the rehoming centre for that location.
In 2008, the charity created Dogs Trust Honours, an annual ' Doggy Pride of Britain Awards ' ceremony celebrating the relationship between Human and dog and honouring dogs who have greatly helped their owner, local community or society.
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a major base associated with the formation of nucleic acids is | Nucleic acid structure - wikipedia
Nucleic acid structure refers to the structure of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Chemically speaking, DNA and RNA are very similar. Nucleic acid structure is often divided into four different levels: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
Primary structure consists of a linear sequence of nucleotides that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. It is this linear sequence of nucleotides that make up the Primary structure of DNA or RNA. Nucleotides consist of 3 components:
The nitrogen bases adenine and guanine are purine in structure and form a glycosidic bond between their 9 nitrogen and the 1 ' - OH group of the deoxyribose. Cytosine, thymine and uracil are pyrimidines, hence the glycosidic bonds forms between their 1 nitrogen and the 1 ' - OH of the deoxyribose. For both the purine and pyrimidine bases, the phosphate group forms a bond with the deoxyribose sugar through an ester bond between one of its negatively charged oxygen groups and the 5 ' - OH of the sugar. The polarity in DNA and RNA is derived from the oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the backbone. Nucleic acids are formed when nucleotides come together through phosphodiester linkages between the 5 ' and 3 ' carbon atoms. A Nucleic acid sequence is the order of nucleotides within a DNA (GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule that is determined by a series of letters. Sequences are presented from the 5 ' to 3 ' end and determine the covalent structure of the entire molecule. Sequences can be complementary to another sequence in that the base on each position is complementary as well as in the reverse order. An example of a complementary sequence to AGCT is TCGA. DNA is double - stranded containing both a sense strand and an antisense strand. Therefore, the complementary sequence will be to the sense strand.
There are three potential metal binding groups on nucleic acids: phosphate, sugar and base moieties. Solid - state structure of complexes with alkali metal ions have been reviewed.
Secondary structure is the set of interactions between bases, i.e., which parts of strands are bound to each other. In DNA double helix, the two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides on one strand base pairs with the nucleotide on the other strand. The secondary structure is responsible for the shape that the nucleic acid assumes. The bases in the DNA are classified as purines and pyrimidines. The purines are adenine and guanine. Purines consist of a double ring structure, a six membered and a five membered ring containing nitrogen. The pyrimidines are cytosine and thymine. It has a single ringed structure, a six membered ring containing nitrogen. A purine base always pairs with a pyrimidine base (guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) and adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) or uracil (U)). DNA 's secondary structure is predominantly determined by base - pairing of the two polynucleotide strands wrapped around each other to form a double helix. Although the two strands are aligned by hydrogen bonds in base pairs, the stronger forces holding the two strands together are stacking interactions between the bases. These stacking interactions are stabilized by Van der Waals forces and hydrophobic interactions, and show a large amount of local structural variability. There are also two grooves in the double helix, which are called major groove and minor groove based on their relative size.
The secondary structure of RNA consists of a single polynucleotide. Base pairing in RNA occurs when RNA folds between complementarity regions. Both single - and double - stranded regions are often found in RNA molecules. The antiparallel strands form a helical shape. The four basic elements in the secondary structure of RNA are helices, loops, bulges, and junctions. Stem - loop or hairpin loop is the most common element of RNA secondary structure. Stem - loop is formed when the RNA chains fold back on themselves to form a double helical tract called the stem, the unpaired nucleotides forms single stranded region called the loop. Secondary structure of RNA can be predicted by experimental data on the secondary structure elements, helices, loops and bulges. Bulges and internal loops are formed by separation of the double helical tract on either one strand (bulge) or on both strands (internal loops) by unpaired nucleotides. A tetraloop is a four - base pairs hairpin RNA structure. There are three common families of tetraloop in ribosomal RNA: UNCG, GNRA, and CUUG (N is one of the four nucleotides and R is a purine). UNCG is the most stable tetraloop. Pseudoknot is a RNA secondary structure first identified in turnip yellow mosaic virus. Pseudoknots are formed when nucleotides from the hairpin loop pairs with a single stranded region outside of the hairpin to form a helical segment. H - type fold pseudoknots are best characterized. In H - type fold, nucleotides in the hairpin loop pairs with the bases outside the hairpin stem forming second stem and loop. This causes formation of pseudoknots with two stems and two loops. Pseudoknots are functional elements in RNA structure having diverse function and found in most classes of RNA. DotKnot - PW method is used for comparative pseudoknots prediction. The main points in the DotKnot - PW method is scoring the similarities found in stems, secondary elements and H - type pseudoknots.
Tertiary structure refers to the locations of the atoms in three - dimensional space, taking into consideration geometrical and steric constraints. It is a higher order than the secondary structure, in which large - scale folding in a linear polymer occurs and the entire chain is folded into a specific 3 - dimensional shape. There are 4 areas in which the structural forms of DNA can differ.
The tertiary arrangement of DNA 's double helix in space includes B - DNA, A-DNA and Z - DNA.
B - DNA is the most common form of DNA in vivo and is a more narrow, elongated helix than A-DNA. Its wide major groove makes it more accessible to proteins. On the other hand, it has a narrow minor groove. B - DNA 's favored conformations occur at high water concentrations; the hydration of the minor groove appears to favor B - DNA. B - DNA base pairs are nearly perpendicular to the helix axis. The sugar pucker which determines the shape of the a-helix, whether the helix will exist in the A-form or in the B - form, occurs at the C2 ' - endo.
A-DNA, is a form of the DNA duplex observed under dehydrating conditions. It is shorter and wider than B - DNA. RNA adopts this double helical form, and RNA - DNA duplexes are mostly A-form, but B - form RNA - DNA duplexes have been observed. In localized single strand dinucleotide contexts, RNA can also adopt the B - form without pairing to DNA. A-DNA has a deep, narrow major groove which does not make it easily accessible to proteins. On the other hand, its wide, shallow minor groove makes it accessible to proteins but with lower information content than the major groove. Its favored conformation is at low water concentrations. A-DNAs base pairs are tilted relative to the helix axis, and are displaced from the axis. The sugar pucker occurs at the C3 ' - endo and in RNA 2 ' - OH inhibits C2 ' - endo conformation. Long considered little more than a laboratory artifice, A-DNA is now known to have several biological functions.
Z - DNA is a relatively rare left - handed double - helix. Given the proper sequence and superhelical tension, it can be formed in vivo but its function is unclear. It has a more narrow, more elongated helix than A or B. Z - DNA 's major groove is not really a groove, and it has a narrow minor groove. The most favored conformation occurs when there are high salt concentrations. There are some base substitutions but they require an alternating purine - pyrimidine sequence. The N2 - amino of G H - bonds to 5 ' PO, which explains the slow exchange of protons and the need for the G purine. Z - DNA base pairs are nearly perpendicular to the helix axis. Z - DNA does not contain single base - pairs but rather a GpC repeat with P-P distances varying for GpC and CpG. On the GpC stack there is good base overlap, whereas on the CpG stack there is less overlap. Z - DNA 's zigzag backbone is due to the C sugar conformation compensating for G glycosidic bond conformation. The conformation of G is syn, C2 ' - endo and for C it is anti, C3 ' - endo.
A linear DNA molecule having free ends can rotate, to adjust to changes of various dynamic processes in the cell, by changing how many times the two chains of its double helix twist around each other. Some DNA molecules are circular and are topologically constrained. More recently circular RNA was described as well to be a natural pervasive class of nucleic acids, expressed in many organisms (see circRNA).
A covalently closed, circular DNA (also known as cccDNA) is topologically constrained as the number of times the chains coiled around one other can not change. This cccDNA can be supercoiled, which is the tertiary structure of DNA. Supercoiling is characterized by the linking number, twist and writhe. The linking number (Lk) for circular DNA is defined as the number of times one strand would have to pass through the other strand to completely separate the two strands. The linking number for circular DNA can only be changed by breaking of a covalent bond in one of the two strands. Always an integer, the linking number of a cccDNA is the sum of two components: twists (Tw) and writhes (Wr).
Twists are the number of times the two strands of DNA are twisted around each other. Writhes are number of times the DNA helix crosses over itself. DNA in cells is negatively supercoiled and has the tendency to unwind. Hence the separation of strands is easier in negatively supercoiled DNA than in relaxed DNA. The two components of supercoiled DNA are solenoid and plectonemic. The plectonemic supercoil is found in prokaryotes, while the solenoidal supercoiling is mostly seen in eukaryotes.
The quaternary structure of nucleic acids is similar to that of protein quaternary structure. Although some of the concepts are not exactly the same, the quaternary structure refers to a higher - level of organization of nucleic acids. Moreover, it refers to interactions of the nucleic acids with other molecules. The most commonly seen form of higher - level organization of nucleic acids is seen in the form of chromatin which leads to its interactions with the small proteins histones. Also, the quaternary structure refers to the interactions between separate RNA units in the ribosome or spliceosome.
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what does roman culture have in common with greek culture | Culture of Greece - wikipedia
The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece, continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and states such as the Persian Empire, and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, Genoese Republic, and British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, but historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single entity of its multi-faceted culture.
Greece is widely considered to be the cradle of Western culture and democracy. Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history, philosophy, and physics. They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.
Ancient Greek architecture is best known through its temples and theatres.
Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine architecture emphasized a Greek cross layout, the Byzantine capitol style of column (a mixture of Ionic and Corinthian capitols) and a central dome surrounded by several small domes
During the Ottoman conquest, the Greek architecture was concentrated mainly on the Greek Orthodox churches of the Greek diaspora. These churches, much like other intellectual centres (foundations, schools, etc.) built by Greeks in Diaspora, were heavily influenced by the western European architecture. After the independence of Greece and during the nineteenth century, the Neoclassical architecture was heavily used for both public and private building. The 19th - century architecture of Athens and other cities of the Greek Kingdom is mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture, with architects like Theophil Hansen, Ernst Ziller and Stamatios Kleanthis. Regarding the churches, Greece also experienced the Neo-Byzantine revival.
In 1933 the Athens Charter, a manifesto of the modernist movement, was signed, and was published later by Le Corbusier. Architects of this movement were among others: the Bauhaus - architect Ioannis Despotopoulos, Dimitris Pikionis, Patroklos Karantinos and Takis Zenetos. After World War II and the Greek civil war, the massive construction of condominiums in the major Greek city centres, was a major contributory factor for the Greek economy and the post-war recovery. The first skyscrapers were also constructed during the 1960s and 1970s, such as the OTE Tower and the Athens Tower Complex.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Xenia was a nationwide hotel construction program initiated by the Hellenic Tourism Organisation (Ελληνικός Οργανισμός Τουρισμού, EOT) to improve the country 's tourism infrastructure. It constitutes one of the largest infrastructure projects in modern Greek history. The first manager of the project was the architect Charalambos Sfaellos (from 1950 to 1958) and from 1957 the buildings were designed by a team under Aris Konstantinidis.
Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896 but the first actual cine - theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914 the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films begun. Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is the first Greek long movie, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), contained the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944 Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls.
The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many as the Greek Golden age of Cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Melina Mercouri, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti, Irene Papas etc. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements. Notable films were Η κάλπικη λίρα (1955 directed by Giorgos Tzavellas), Πικρό Ψωμί (1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956 directed by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955 directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis). Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed to this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο, Η Θεία από το Σικάγο, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more. During the 1970s and 1980s Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There were also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora such as the Greek - American Elia Kazan.
Greece has a diverse and highly influential musical tradition, with ancient music influencing the Roman Empire, and Byzantine liturgical chants and secular music influencing middle eastern music and the Renaissance. Modern Greek music combines these elements, to carry Greeks ' interpretation of a wide range of musical forms.
The history of music in Greece begins with the music of ancient Greece, largely structured on the Lyre and other supporting string instruments of the era. Beyond the well - known structural legacies of the Pythagorean scale, and the related mathematical developments it upheld to define western classical music, relatively little is understood about the precise character of music during this period; we do know, however, that it left, as so often, a strong mark on the culture of Rome. What has been gleaned about the social role and character of ancient Greek music comes largely from pottery and other forms of Greek art.
Ancient Greeks believed that dancing was invented by the gods and therefore associated it with religious ceremony. They believed that the gods offered this gift to select mortals only, who in turn taught dancing to their fellow - men.
Periodic evidence in ancient texts indicates that dance was held in high regard, in particular for its educational qualities. Dance, along with writing, music, and physical exercise, was fundamental to the commenced in a circle and ended with the dancers facing one another. When not dancing in a circle the dancers held their hands high or waved them to left and right. They held cymbals (very like the zilia of today) or a kerchief in their hands, and their movements were emphasized by their long sleeves. As they danced, they sang, either set songs or extemporized ones, sometimes in unison, sometimes in refrain, repeating the verse sung by the lead dancer. The onlookers joined in, clapping the rhythm or singing. Professional singers, often the musicians themselves, composed lyrics to suit the occasion.
The Byzantine music is also of major significance to the history and development of European music, as liturgical chants became the foundation and stepping stone for music of the Renaissance (see: Renaissance Music). It is also certain that Byzantine music included an extensive tradition of instrumental court music and dance; any other picture would be both incongruous with the historically and archaeologically documented opulence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There survive a few but explicit accounts of secular music. A characteristic example is the accounts of pneumatic organs, whose construction was further advanced in the eastern empire prior to their development in the west following the Renaissance.
Byzantine instruments included the guitar, single, double or multiple flute, sistrum, timpani (drum), psaltirio, Sirigs, lyre, cymbals, keras and kanonaki.
Popular dances of this period included the Syrtos, Geranos, Mantilia, Saximos, Pyrichios, and Kordakas. Some of these dances have their origins in the ancient period and are still enacted in some form today.
A range of domestically and internationally known composers and performers across the musical spectrum have found success in modern Greece, while traditional Greek music is noted as a mixture of influences from indigenous culture with those of west and east. A few Ottoman elements can be heard in the traditional songs, dhimotiká, as well as in the modern bluesy rembétika music. A well - known Greek musical instrument is the bouzouki. "Bouzouki '' is a descriptive Turkish name, but the instrument itself is probably of Greek origin (from the ancient Greek lute known as pandoura, a kind of guitar, clearly visible in ancient statues, especially female figurines of the "Tanagraies '' playing cord instruments).
Famous Greek musicians and composers of modern era include the central figure of 20th - century European modernism Iannis Xenakis, a composer, architect and theorist. Maria Callas, Nikos Skalkottas, Mikis Theodorakis, Dimitris Mitropoulos, Manos Hadjidakis and Vangelis also lead twentieth - century Greek contributions, alongside Demis Roussos, Nana Mouskouri, Yanni, Georges Moustaki, Eleni Karaindrou and others.
The birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή) came through the Ionian Islands (notable composers include Spyridon Samaras, Nikolaos Mantzaros and Pavlos Carrer), while Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School.
Greece is one of the few places in Europe where the day - to - day role of folk dance is sustained. Rather than functioning as a museum piece preserved only for performances and special events, it is a vivid expression of everyday life. Occasions for dance are usually weddings, family celebrations, and paneyeria (Patron Saints ' name days). Dance has its place in ceremonial customs that are still preserved in Greek villages, such as dancing the bride during a wedding and dancing the trousseau of the bride during the wedding preparations. The carnival and Easter offer more opportunities for family gatherings and dancing. Greek taverns providing live entertainment often include folk dances in their program.
Regional characteristics have developed over the years because of variances in climatic conditions, land morphology and people 's social lives. In later years, wars, international pacts and consequent movement of populations, and even movements of civil servants around the country, intermingled traditions. People learned new dances, adapted them to their environment, and included them in their feasts. Kalamatianos and Syrtos are considered Pan-Hellenic dances and are danced all over the world in diaspora communities. Others have also crossed boundaries and are known beyond the regions where they originated; these include the Pentozali from Crete, Hasapiko from Constantinople, Zonaradikos from Thrace, Serra from Pontos and Balos from the Aegean islands.
The avant - garde choreographer, director and dancer Dimitris Papaioannou was responsible for the critically successful opening ceremony of the 2004 Olympic Games, with a conception that reflected the classical influences on modern and experimental Greek dance forms.
There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae.
Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome (from Greek πολυχρωμία, πολύ = many and χρώμα = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases.
Byzantine art is the term created for the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century AD until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract, '' or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies.
The term Cretan School describes an important school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the Fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements. The most famous product of the school, El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe.
The Heptanese School of painting succeeded the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the Ionian islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century.
Modern Greek painting, after the independence and the creation of the modern Greek state, began to be developed around the time of Romanticism and the Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art. Notable painters of the era include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Nikiphoros Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis and Theodoros Vryzakis.
Ancient Greek monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high - intensity lamps, ultraviolet light, specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that the entire Parthenon, including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted.
The Byzantines inherited the early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only reliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life - size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief.
The so - called "minor arts '' were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation Consular diptychs or caskets such as the Veroli casket, hardstone carvings, enamels, jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver.
After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom and the western influence of Neoclassicism, sculpture was re-discovered by the Greek artists. Main themes included the ancient Greek antiquity, the War of Independence and important figures of the Greek history.
Notable sculptors of the new state were Leonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at the Academy of Athens, Lazaros Sochos, Georgios Vitalis, Dimitrios Filippotis, Ioannis Kossos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Georgios Bonanos and Lazaros Fytalis.
Theatre was born in Greece. The city - state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a common cultural identity.
The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia), from which the word "tragedy '' is derived, is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος (tragos) or "goat '' and ᾠδή (ode) meaning "song '', from ἀείδειν (aeidein), "to sing ''. This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy.
During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state. Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.
The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas ' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.
The National Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Angelos Terzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.
Greek cuisine has a long tradition and its flavors change with the season and its geography. Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence -- via ancient Rome -- throughout Europe and beyond.
Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the "Mediterranean triad '': wheat, olive oil, and wine, with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common. It was Archestratos in 320 B.C. who wrote the first cookbook in history. Greece has a culinary tradition of some 4,000 years.
The Byzantine cuisine was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, basil, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the ancient Greek doctor Claudius Aelius Galenus.
The modern Greek cuisine has also influences from the Ottoman and Italian cuisine due to the Ottoman and Venetian dominance through the centuries.
Greece is one of the oldest wine - producing regions in the world. The earliest evidence of Greek wine has been dated to 6,500 years ago where wine was produced on a household or communal basis. In ancient times, as trade in wine became extensive, it was transported from end to end of the Mediterranean; Greek wine had especially high prestige in Italy under the Roman Empire. In the medieval period, wines exported from Crete, Monemvasia and other Greek ports fetched high prices in northern Europe.
Education in Greece is compulsory for all children 6 -- 15 years old; namely, it includes Primary (Dimotiko) and Lower Secondary (Gymnasio) Education. The school life of the students, however, can start from the age of 2.5 years (pre-school education) in institutions (private and public) called "Vrefonipiakoi Paidikoi Stathmi '' (creches). In some Vrefonipiakoi Stathmoi there are also Nipiaka Tmimata (nursery classes) which operate along with the Nipiagogeia (kindergartens).
Post-compulsory Secondary Education, according to the reforms of 1997 and 2006, consists of two main school types: Genika Lykeia (General Upper Secondary Schools) and the Epaggelmatika Lykeia (Vocational Upper Secondary Schools), as well as the Epaggelmatikes Sxoles (Vocational Schools). Musical, Ecclesiastical and Physical Education Gymnasia and Lykeia are also in operation.
Post-compulsory Secondary Education also includes the Vocational Training Institutes (IEK), which provide formal but unclassified level of education. These Institutes are not classified as an educational level, because they accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates according to the relevant specializations they provide. Public higher education is divided into Universities and Technological Education Institutes (TEI). Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place at the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students are admitted to the Hellenic Open University upon the completion of the 22 year of age by drawing lots.
Nea Dimokratia (New Democracy), the Greek conservative right political party, has claimed that it will change the law so that private universities gain recognition. Without official recognition, students who have an EES degree are unable to work in the public sector. PASOK took some action after EU intervention, namely the creation of a special government agency which certifies the vocational status of certain EES degree holders. However, their academic status still remains a problem. The issue of full recognition is still an issue of debate among Greek politicians.
The Institute of Entrepreneurship Development (iED) is a Greek Non-governmental organization formed for the promotion of innovation and for enhancing the spirit of entrepreneurship intending to link with other European initiatives.
The origins of Western literature and of the main branches of Western learning may be traced to the era of Greek greatness that began before 700 BC with the epics of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Hesiod, the first didactic poet, put into epic verse his descriptions of pastoral life, including practical advice on farming, and allegorical myths. The poets Alcaeus of Mytilene, Sappho, Anacreon, and Bacchylides wrote of love, war, and death in lyrics of great feeling and beauty. Pindar celebrated the Panhellenic athletic festivals in vivid odes. The fables of the slave Aesop have been famous for more than 2,500 years. Three of the world 's greatest dramatists were Aeschylus, author of the Oresteia trilogy; Sophocles, author of the Theban plays; and Euripides, author of Medea, The Trojan Women, and The Bacchae. Aristophanes, the greatest author of comedies, satirized the mores of his day in a series of brilliant plays. Three great historians were Herodotus, regarded as the father of history, known for The Persian Wars; Thucydides, who generally avoided myth and legend and applied greater standards of historical accuracy in his History of the Peloponnesian War; and Xenophon, best known for his account of the Greek retreat from Persia, the Anabasis. Outstanding literary figures of the Hellenistic period were Menander, the chief representative of a newer type of comedy; the poets Callimachus, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautica; and Polybius, who wrote a detailed history of the Mediterranean world. Noteworthy in the Roman period were Strabo, a writer on geography; Plutarch, the father of biography, whose Parallel Lives of famous Greeks and Romans is a chief source of information about great figures of antiquity; Pausanias, a travel writer; and Lucian, a satirist.
The leading philosophers of the period preceding Greece 's golden age were Thales, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Protagoras, and Democritus. Socrates investigated ethics and politics. His greatest pupil, Plato, used Socrates ' question - and - answer method of investigating philosophical problems in his famous dialogues. Plato 's pupil Aristotle established the rules of deductive reasoning but also used observation and inductive reasoning, applying himself to the systematic study of almost every form of human endeavor. Outstanding in the Hellenistic period were Epicurus, the philosopher of moderation; Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism; and Diogenes of Sinope, the famous Cynic. The oath of Hippocrates, the father of medicine, is still recited by newly graduating physicians. Euclid evolved the system of geometry that bears his name. Archimedes discovered the principles of mechanics and hydrostatics. Eratosthenes calculated the earth 's circumference with remarkable accuracy, and Hipparchus Founded scientific astronomy. Galen was an outstanding physician of ancient times.
The sculptor Phidias created the statue of Athena and the figure of Zeus in the temple at Olympia and supervised the construction and decoration of the Parthenon. Another renowned sculptor was Praxiteles.
The legal reforms of Solon served as the basis of Athenian democracy. The Athenian general Miltiades the Younger led the victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC, and Themistocles was chiefly responsible for the victory at Salamis 10 years later. Pericles, the virtual ruler of Athens for more than 25 years, added to the political power of that city, inaugurated the construction of the Parthenon and other noteworthy buildings, and encouraged the arts of sculpture and painting. With the decline of Athens, first Sparta and then Thebes, under the great military tactician Epaminondas, gained the ascendancy; but soon thereafter, two military geniuses, Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, gained control over all of Greece and formed a vast empire stretching as far east as India. It was against Philip that Demosthenes, the greatest Greek orator, directed his diatribes, the Philippics.
The most renowned Greek painter during the Renaissance was El Greco, born in Crete, whose major works, painted in Spain, have influenced many 20th - century artists. An outstanding modern literary figure is Nikos Kazantzakis, a novelist and poet who composed a vast sequel to Homer 's Odyssey. Leading modern poets are Kostis Palamas, and Constantine P. Cavafy, as well as George Seferis, and Odysseus Elytis, winners of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1963 and 1979, respectively. The work of social theorist Cornelius Castoriadis is known for its multidisciplinary breadth. Musicians of stature are the composers Nikos Skalkottas, Iannis Xenakis, and Mikis Theodorakis; the conductor Dmitri Mitropoulos; and the soprano Maria Callas. Filmmakers who have won international acclaim are Greek - Americans John Cassavetes and Elia Kazan, and Greeks Michael Cacoyannis and Costa - Gavras. Actresses of note are Katina Paxinou; Melina Mercouri, who was appointed minister of culture and science in the Socialist cabinet in 1981; and Irene Papas.
Outstanding Greek public figures in the 20th century include Cretan - born Eleutherios Venizelos, prominent statesman of the interwar period; Ioannis Metaxas, dictator from 1936 until his death; Constantine Karamanlis, prime minister (1955 -- 63, 1974 -- 80) and president (1980 -- 85) of Greece; George Papandreou, head of the Center Union Party and prime minister (1963 -- 65); and his son Andreas Papandreou, the PASOK leader who became prime minister in 1981. Costas Simitis was leader of PASOK and prime minister from 1996 -- 2004. He was succeeded by Kostas Karamanlis.
The Greek language is the official language of the Hellenic Republic and has a total of 15 million speakers worldwide; it is an Indo - European language. It is particularly remarkable in the depth of its continuity, beginning with the pre-historic Mycenaean Greek and the Linear B script, and maybe the Linear A script associated with Minoan civilization, though Linear A is still undeciphered. Greek language is clearly detected in the Mycenaean language and the Cypriot syllabary, and eventually the dialects of Ancient Greek, of which Attic Greek bears the most resemblance to Modern Greek. The history of the language spans over 3400 years of written records.
Greek has had enormous impact on other languages both directly on the Romance languages, and indirectly through its influence on the emerging Latin language during the early days of Rome. Signs of this influence, and its many developments, can be seen throughout the family of Western European languages.
More recently, the rise of internet - based communication services as well as cell phones have caused a distinctive form of Greek written partially, and sometimes fully in Latin characters to emerge; this is known as Greeklish, a form that has spread across the Greek diaspora and even to the two countries with majority Greek population, Greece and Cyprus.
Katharévousa is a purified form of the Greek Language midway between modern and ancient forms set in train during the early nineteenth century by Greek intellectual and revolutionary leader Adamantios Korais, intended to return the Greek language closer to its ancient form. Its influence, in recent years, evolved toward a more formal role, and it came to be used primarily for official purposes such as diplomacy, politics, and other forms of official documentation. It has nevertheless had significant effects on the Greek language as it is still written and spoken today, and both vocabulary and grammatical and syntactical forms have re-entered Modern Greek via Katharevousa.
There are a variety of dialects of the Greek language; the most notable include Cappadocian, Cretan Greek (which is closely related to most Aegean Islands ' dialects), Cypriot Greek, Pontic Greek, the Griko language spoken in Southern Italy, and Tsakonian, still spoken in the modern prefecture of Arcadia and widely noted as a surviving regional dialect of Doric Greek.
Greece has a remarkably rich and resilient literary tradition, extending over 2800 years and through several eras. The Classical era is that most commonly associated with Greek Literature, beginning in 800 BCE and maintaining its influence through to the beginnings of Byzantine period, whereafter the influence of Christianity began to spawn a new development of the Greek written word. The many elements of a millennia - old tradition are reflected in Modern Greek literature, including the works of the Nobel laureates Odysseus Elytis and George Seferis.
The first recorded works in the western literary tradition are the epic poems of Homer and Hesiod. Early Greek lyric poetry, as represented by poets such as Sappho and Pindar, was responsible for defining the lyric genre as it is understood today in western literature. Aesop wrote his Fables in the 6th century BC. These innovations were to have a profound influence not only on Roman poets, most notably Virgil in his epic poem on the founding of Rome, The Aeneid, but one that flourished throughout Europe.
Classical Greece is also judged the birthplace of theatre. Aeschylus introduced the ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting and in doing so, he effectively invented "drama '': his Oresteia trilogy of plays is judged his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were Sophocles and Euripides. Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defined and shaped the idea of comedy as a theatrical form.
Herodotus and Thucydides are often attributed with developing the modern study of history into a field worthy of philosophical, literary, and scientific pursuit. Polybius first introduced into study the concept of military history.
Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues of Plato, while his pupil Aristotle, in his work the Poetics, formulated the first set criteria for literary criticism. Both these literary figures, in the context of the broader contributions of Greek philosophy in the Classical and Hellenistic eras, were to give rise to idea of political Science, the study of political evolution and the critique of governmental systems.
The growth of Christianity throughout the Greco - Roman world in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, together with the Hellenization of the Byzantine Empire of the period, would lead to the formation of a unique literary form, combining Christian, Greek, Roman and Oriental (such as the Persian Empire) influences. In its turn, this would promote developments such as Cretan poetry, the growth of poetic satire in the Greek East and the several pre-eminent historians of the period.
Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in the Greek language from the 11th century, with texts written in a language that is more familiar to the ears of Greeks today than is the language of the early Byzantine times.
The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this early period of modern Greek literature, and represents one of its supreme achievements. It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553 -- 1613). The other major representative of the Cretan literature was Georgios Chortatzis and his most notable work was Erofili. Other plays include The Sacrifice of Abraham by Kornaros, Panoria and Katsourbos by Chortatzis, King Rodolinos by Andreas Troilos, Stathis (comedy) and Voskopoula by unknown artists.
Much later, Diafotismos was an ideological, philological, linguistic and philosophical movement among 18th century Greeks that translate the ideas and values of European Enlightenment into the Greek world. Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures. In 1819, Korakistika, written by Iakovakis Rizos Neroulos, was a lampoon against the Greek intellectual Adamantios Korais and his linguistic views, who favoured the use of a more conservative form of the Greek language, closer to the ancient.
The years before the Greek Independence, the Ionian islands became the center of the Heptanese School (literature). Its main characteristics was the Italian influence, romanticism, nationalism and use of Demotic Greek. Notable representatives were Andreas Laskaratos, Andreas Kalvos, Aristotelis Valaoritis and Dionysios Solomos.
After the independence the intellectual center was transferred in Athens. A major figure of this new era was Kostis Palamas, considered "national poet '' of Greece. He was the central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so - called New Athenian School (or Palamian School). Its main characteristic was the use of Demotic Greek. He was also the writer of the Olympic Hymn.
Moving into the twentieth century, the modern Greek literary tradition spans the work of Constantine P. Cavafy, considered a key figure of twentieth - century poetry, Giorgos Seferis (whose works and poems aimed to fuse the literature of Ancient and Modern Greece) and Odysseas Elytis, both of whom won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Nikos Kazantzakis is also considered a dominant figure, with works such as The Last Temptation of Christ and The Greek Passion receiving international recognition.
The Greek world is widely regarded as having given birth to scientific thought by means of observation, thought, and development of a theory without the intervention of a supernatural force. Thales, Anaximander and Democritus were amongst those contributing significantly to the establishment of this tradition. It is also, and perhaps more commonly in the western imagination, identified with the dawn of Western philosophy, as well as a mapping out of the natural sciences. Greek developments of mathematics continued well up until the decline of the Byzantine Empire. In the modern era Greeks continue to contribute to the fields of science, mathematics and philosophy.
The tradition of philosophy in ancient Greece accompanied its literary development. Greek learning had a profound influence on Western and Middle Eastern civilizations. The works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers profoundly influenced Classical thought, the Islamic Golden Age, and the Renaissance.
In medicine, doctors still refer to the Hippocratic oath, instituted by Hippocrates, regarded as foremost in laying the foundations of medicine as a science. Galen built on Hippocrates ' theory of the four humours, and his writings became the foundation of medicine in Europe and the Middle East for centuries. The physicians Herophilos and Paulus Aegineta were pioneers in the study of anatomy, while Pedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive treatise on the practice of pharmacology.
The period of Classical Greece (from 800BC until the rise of Macedon, a Greek state in the north) is that most often associated with Greek advances in science. Thales of Miletus is regarded by many as the father of science; he was the first of the ancient philosophers to seek to explain the physical world in terms of natural rather than supernatural causes. Pythagoras was a mathematician often described as the "father of numbers ''; it is believed that he had the pioneering insight into the numerical ratios that determine the musical scale, and the Pythagorean theorem is commonly attributed to him. Diophantus of Alexandria, in turn, was the "father of algebra ''. Many parts of modern geometry are based on the work of Euclid, while Eratosthenes was one of the first scientific geographers, calculating the circumference of the earth and conceiving the first maps based on scientific principles.
The Hellenistic period, following Alexander 's conquests, continued and built upon this knowledge. Hipparchus is considered the pre-eminent astronomical observer of the ancient world, and was probably the first to develop an accurate method for the prediction of solar eclipse, while Aristarchus of Samos was the first known astronomer to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, though the geocentric model of Ptolemy was more commonly accepted until the seventeenth century. Ptolemy also contributed substantially to cartography and to the science of optics. For his part Archimedes was the first to calculate the value of π and a geometric series, and also the earliest known mathematical physicist discovering the law of buoyancy, as well as conceiving the irrigation device known as Archimedes ' screw.
The Byzantine period remained largely a period of preservation in terms of classical Greco - Roman texts; there were, however, significant advances made in the fields of medicine and historical scholarship. Theological philosophy also remained an area of study, and there was, while not matching the achievements of preceding ages, a certain increase in the professionalism of study of these subjects, epitomized by the founding of the University of Constantinople.
Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, the architects of the famous Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, also contributed towards mathematical theories concerning architectural form, and the perceived mathematical harmony needed to create a multi-domed structure. These ideas were to prove a heavy influence on the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan in his creation of the Blue Mosque, also in Constantinople. Tralles in particular produced several treatises on the Natural Sciences, as well as his other forays into mathematics such as Conic Sections.
The gradual migration of Greeks from Byzantium to the Italian city states following the decline of the Byzantine Empire, and the texts they brought with them combined with the academic positions they held, was a major factor in lighting the first sparks of the Italian Renaissance.
Greeks continue to contribute to science and technology in the modern world. John Argyris, a mathematician and engineer, was among the creators of the finite element method and the direct stiffness method. Constantin Carathéodory made significant contributions to the theory of functions of a real variable, calculus of variations and measure theory, credited with the introduction of several mathematical theorems. In physics, John Iliopoulos is known for the prediction of the charm quark and the proposition of the GIM mechanism, as well as the Fayet -- Iliopoulos D - term formula, while Dimitri Nanopoulos is one of the principal developers of the Flipped SU (5) model.
Biologist Fotis Kafatos pioneers in the field of molecular cloning and genomics, and he was the founding president of the European Research Council. In medicine, Georgios Papanikolaou contributed heavily to the development of cervical screening inventing the Pap test, which is among the most common methods of cervical screening worldwide.
Car designer Alec Issigonis designed the groundbreaking and iconic Mini automobile, while Michael Dertouzos was amongst the pioneers of the Internet, instrumental in defining the World Wide Web Consortium and director for 27 years of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, which innovated in a variety of areas during his term. Nicholas Negroponte, is the founder of the MIT Media Lab and the One Laptop per Child project aiming to extend Internet access in the developing world. Joseph Sifakis, a computer scientist, has won a Turing Award for his pioneering work on model checking.
Greece is a Parliamentary Republic with a president assuming a more ceremonial role than in some other republics, and the Prime Minister chosen from the leader of the majority party in the parliament. Greece has a codified constitution and a written Bill of Rights embedded within it. The current Prime Minister is Alexis Tsipras.
The politics of the third Hellenic Republic have been dominated by two main political parties, the self - proclaimed socialists of PASOK and the conservative New Democracy. Until recently PASOK had dominated the political scene, presiding over favourable growth rates economically but in the eyes of critics failing to deliver where unemployment and structural issues such as market liberalization were concerned.
New Democracy 's election to government in 2004 has led to various initiatives to modernize the country, such as the education university scheme above as well as labour market liberalization. Politically there has been massive opposition to some of these moves owing to a large, well organized workers ' movement in Greece, which distrusts the right wing administration and neo-liberal ideas. The population in general appears to accept many of the initiatives, reflected in governmental support; on the economic front many are so far warming to the reforms made by the administration, which have been largely rewarded with above average Eurozone growth rates. New Democracy were re-elected in September 2007.
A number of other smaller political parties exist. They include the third largest party (the Communist Party), which still commands large support from many rural working areas as well as some of the immigrant population in Greece, as well as the far - right Popular Orthodox Rally, with the latter, while commanding a mere three and a half per cent of votes, seeking to capitalise on opposition in some quarters regarding Turkey 's EU accession and any tension in the Aegean. There is also a relatively small, but well organized anarchist movement, though its status in Greece has been somewhat exaggerated by media overseas.
The political process is energetically and openly participated in by the people of Greece, while public demonstrations are a continual feature of Athenian life; however, there have been criticisms of a governmental failure to sufficiently involve minorities in political debate and hence a sidelining of their opinions. In general, politics is regarded as an acceptable subject to broach on almost every social occasion, and Greeks are often very vocal about their support (or lack of it) for certain policy proposals, or political parties themselves -- this is perhaps reflected in what many consider the rather sensationalist media on both sides of the political spectrum; although this is a feature of most European tabloids.
According to Greek Law every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. In addition, there are four obligatory, official public holidays: March 25 (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, August 15 (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin) and December 25 (Christmas). Two more days, May 1 (Labour Day) and October 28 (Ohi Day), are regulated by law as optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed National Holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven National Holidays each year.
In addition to the National Holidays, there Public Holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint '', also called "Name Day '', or a "Liberation Day '', and at this day is customary for schools to have a day off.
Notable festivals include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe,
Classical Athens may be suggested to have heralded some of the same religious ideas that would later be promoted by Christianity, such as Aristotle 's invocation of a perfect God, and Heraclitus ' Logos. Plato considered there were rewards for the virtuous in the heavens and punishment for the wicked under the earth; the soul was valued more highly than the material body, and the material world was understood to be imperfect and not fully real (illustrated in Socrates 's allegory of the cave).
Alexander 's conquests spread classical concepts about the divine, the afterlife, and much else across the eastern Mediterranean area. Jews and early Christians alike adopted the name "hades '' when writing about "sheol '' in Greek. Greco - Buddhism was the cultural syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed in the Indo - Greek Kingdoms. By the advent of Christianity, the four original patriarchates beyond Rome used Greek as their church language.
The Greek Orthodox Church, largely because of the importance of Byzantium in Greek history, as well as its role in the revolution, is a major institution in modern Greece. Its roles in society and larger role in overarching Greek culture are very important; a number of Greeks attend Church at least once a month or more and the Orthodox Easter holiday holds special significance.
The Church of Greece also retains limited political influence through the fact the Greek constitution does not have an explicit separation of Church and State; a debate suggested by more conservative elements of the church in the early 2000s about identification cards and whether religious affiliation might be added to them highlights the friction between state and church on some issues; the proposal unsurprisingly was not accepted. A widely publicised set of corruption scandals in 2004 implicating a small group of senior churchmen also increased national debate on introducing a greater transparency to the church - state relationship.
Greek Orthodox Churches dot both the villages and towns of Greece and come in a variety of architectural forms, from older Byzantine churches, to more modern white brick churches, to newer cathedral - like structures with evident Byzantine influence. Greece (as well as Cyprus), also polled as, ostensibly, one of the most religious countries in Europe, according to Eurostat; however, while the church has wide respect as a moral and cultural institution, a contrast in religious belief with Protestant northern Europe is more obvious than one with Catholic Mediterranean Europe.
Greece also has a significant minority of Muslims in Eastern Thrace (numbering around 100 - 150,000), with their places of worship guaranteed since the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. The Greek state has fully approved the construction a main mosque for the more recent Muslim community of Athens under the freedom of religion provisions of the Greek constitution.
Other religious communities living in Greece include Roman Catholics, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Protestants, Armenians, followers of the ancient Greek religion (see Hellenism (religion)), Jews and others.
Greece has risen to prominence in a number of sporting areas in recent decades. Football in particular has seen a rapid transformation, with the Greek national football team winning the 2004 UEFA European Football Championship. Many Greek athletes have also achieved significant success and have won world and olympic titles in numerous sports during the years, such as basketball, wrestling, water polo, athletics, weightlifting, with many of them becoming international stars inside their sports. The successful organisation of the Athens 2004 Olympic and Paralympic Games led also to the further development of many sports and has led to the creation of many World class sport venues all over Greece and especially in Athens. Greek athletes have won a total 146 medals for Greece in 15 different Olympic sports at the Summer Olympic Games, including the Intercalated Games, an achievement which makes Greece one of the top nations globally, in the world 's rankings of medals per capita.
The national colours of Greece are blue and white. The coat of arms of Greece consists of a white cross on a blue escutcheon which is surrounded by two laurel branches. The Flag of Greece is also blue and white, as defined by Law 851 / 1978 Regarding the National Flag. It specifies the colour of "cyan '' (Greek: κυανό, kyano), meaning "blue '', so the shade of blue is ambiguous.
The Order of the Redeemer and military decoration Cross of Valour both have ribbons in the national colours.
Since it was first established, the national emblem has undergone many changes in shape and in design. The original Greek national emblem depicted the goddess Athena and an owl. At the time of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the phoenix, the symbol of rebirth, was added.
Other recognizable symbols include the (throughout the Byzantine empire) double - headed eagle and the Vergina Sun.
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who do u think u are tv show | Who Do You Think You Are? (US TV series) - wikipedia
Who Do You Think You Are? is an American genealogy documentary series that is an adaptation of the British BBC series of the same name. In each episode, a different celebrity goes on a journey to trace parts of his or her family tree. The show premiered on NBC on March 5, 2010, as one of the replacement shows of The Jay Leno Show. It ran on NBC for three seasons before being cancelled in 2012; it was then picked up by TLC, where it has aired for six additional seasons.
Lisa Kudrow is an executive producer for the series, which is a partnership between Shed Media, NBC Entertainment and Ancestry.com.
NBC ordered a second season for the reality series on April 5, 2010. The second season of the series began on February 4, 2011, and consisted of eight episodes. The first episode featured Vanessa Williams. Following episodes featured Tim McGraw, Rosie O'Donnell, Kim Cattrall, Lionel Richie, Steve Buscemi, Gwyneth Paltrow and Ashley Judd. Cattrall 's episode is an edited version of the original one that she made for the British series in 2009.
The show was renewed for a third season by NBC on February 22, 2011, and aired during the 2011 -- 2012 television season. The 12 celebrities included in season 3 were Marisa Tomei, Rob Lowe, Paula Deen, Rashida Jones, Jerome Bettis, Reba McEntire, Helen Hunt, Edie Falco, Rita Wilson, Jason Sudeikis, Martin Sheen and Blair Underwood. The show returned on February 3, 2012.
After being cancelled by NBC, TLC picked up the series and the new season began on July 23, 2013. Celebrities taking part in the fourth season were Christina Applegate, Cindy Crawford, Zooey Deschanel, Chelsea Handler, Kelly Clarkson, Trisha Yearwood, Jim Parsons and Chris O'Donnell.
TLC renewed the show on September 10, 2013. The season premiered on July 23, 2014 and featured Cynthia Nixon, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Rachel McAdams, Valerie Bertinelli, and Kelsey Grammer. Initially, an episode featuring Lauren Graham was planned but cancelled. Just like Kim Cattrall 's episode, the network chose to air an edited version of an episode that Minnie Driver had made for the original BBC series in 2013.
Season 6 premiered on March 8, 2015.
Season 7 premiered on July 26, 2015. This season featured Ginnifer Goodwin, J.K. Rowling, Alfre Woodard, Bryan Cranston, and Tom Bergeron. Rowling 's episode was an edited version of her appearance on the original BBC series in 2011.
Season 8 premiered on April 3, 2016. The list of celebrity participants included Aisha Tyler, Scott Foley, Lea Michele, Chris Noth, Katey Sagal, and Molly Ringwald.
On June 9, 2016, the series was renewed for a ninth season to consist of 8 episodes which premiered on March 5, 2017. The list of celebrities that participated includes Jessica Biel, Julie Bowen, Courteney Cox, Jennifer Grey, Smokey Robinson, John Stamos, Liv Tyler and Noah Wyle.
The series has been renewed for its tenth season, airing in spring 2018.
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what do they do with the drunken sailor | Drunken Sailor - wikipedia
"Drunken Sailor '' is a sea shanty, also known as "What Shall We Do with a / the Drunken Sailor? ''
The shanty was sung to accompany certain work tasks aboard sailing ships, especially those that required a bright walking pace. It is believed to originate in the early 19th century or before, during a period when ships ' crews, especially those of military vessels, were large enough to permit hauling a rope whilst simply marching along the deck. With the advent of merchant packet and clipper ships and their smaller crews, which required different working methods, use of the shanty appears to have declined or shifted to other, minor tasks.
"Drunken Sailor '' was revived as a popular song among non-sailors in the 20th century, and grew to become one of the best - known songs of the shanty repertoire among mainstream audiences. It has been performed and recorded by many musical artists and appeared in many popular media.
Although the song 's lyrics vary, they usually contain some variant of the question, "What shall we do with a drunken sailor, early in the morning? '' In some styles of performance, each successive verse suggests a method of sobering or punishing the drunken sailor. In other styles, further questions are asked and answered about different people.
The song is No. 322 in the Roud Folk Song Index.
The air of the song, in the Dorian mode and in duple march rhythm, has been compared to the style of a bagpipe melody. The authorship and origin of "Drunken Sailor '' are unknown.
The first published description of the shanty is found in an account of an 1839 whaling voyage out of New London, Connecticut to the Pacific Ocean. It was used as an example of a song that was, "performed with very good effect when there is a long line of men hauling together ''. The tune was noted, along with these lyrics:
Although this is the earliest discovered published mention, there is some indication that the shanty is at least as old as the 1820s. In Eckstorm and Smyth 's collection Minstrelsy of Maine (published 1927), the editors note that one of their grandmothers, who sang the song, claimed to have heard it used during the task of tacking on the Penobscot River "probably considerably over a hundred years ago ''.
Despite these indications of the song 's existence in the first half of the 19th century, references to it are rare. They include a reference in a work of fiction from 1855 in which a drunken female cook is portrayed singing,
A five - verse set of lyrics and tune were published in the third edition of Davis and Tozer 's shanty collection, Sailor Songs or ' Chanties '. However, the title did not appear in any of the other major shanty collections or articles of the 19th century.
When John Masefield next published the lyrics in 1906, he called it a "bastard variety '' of shanty which was "seldom used '' -- an assertion supported by the lack of many earlier references. This style of shanty, called a "runaway chorus '' by Masefield, and as a "walk away '' or "stamp and go '' shanty by others (see: Sea shanty: Types), was said to be used for tacking and which was sung in "quick time ''. The verses in Masefield 's version asked what to do with a "drunken sailor '', followed by a response, then followed by a question about a "drunken soldier '', with an appropriate response.
Capt. W.B. Whall, a veteran English sailor of the 1860s -- 70s, was the next author to publish on "Drunken Sailor ''. He claimed that this was one of only two shanties that was sung in the British Royal Navy (where singing at work was generally frowned upon). Moreover, the song had largely gone out of use as a "walk away '' shanty when the size of ships ' crews was reduced and it was no longer possible to use that working method. The lyrics given by Whall are essentially the same as those from Masefield: about a "drunken sailor '', then a "drunken soldier ''. Significantly, he stated that these were the only lyrics, as evidently the task did not take long to complete.
The above - mentioned and other veteran sailors characterized "Drunken Sailor '' as a "walk away '' shanty, thus providing a possible explanation for why it was not noted more often in the second half of the 19th century. Later sailors ' recollections, however, attested that the song continued to be used as a shanty, but for other purposes. Richard Maitland, an American sailor of the 1870s, sang it for song collector Alan Lomax in 1939, when he explained,
Now this is a song that 's usually sang when men are walking away with the slack of a rope, generally when the iron ships are scrubbing their bottom. After an iron ship has been twelve months at sea, there 's a quite a lot of barnacles and grass grows onto her bottom. And generally, in the calm latitudes, up in the horse latitudes in the North Atlantic Ocean, usually they rig up a purchase for to scrub the bottom.
Another American sailor of the 1870s, Frederick Pease Harlow, wrote in his shanty collection that "Drunken Sailor '' could be used when hauling a halyard in "hand over hand '' fashion to hoist the lighter sails. This would be in contradistinction to the much more typical "halyards shanties '', which were for heavier work with an entirely different sort of pacing and formal structure. Another author to ascribe a function, Richard Runciman Terry, also said it could be used for "hand over hand '' hauling. Terry was one of few writers, however, to also state the shanty was used for heaving the windlass or capstan.
"Drunken Sailor '' began its life as a popular song on land at least as early as the 1900s, by which time it had been adopted as repertoire for glee singing at Eton College. Elsewhere in England, by the 1910s, men had begun to sing it regularly at gatherings of the Savage Club of London.
The song became popular on land in America as well. A catalogue of "folk - songs '' from the Midwest included it in 1915, where it was said to be sung while dancing "a sort of reel ''. More evidence of lands - folk 's increasing familiarity with "Drunken Sailor '' comes in the recording of a "Drunken Sailor Medley '' (ca. 1923) by U.S. Old Time fiddler John Baltzell. Evidently the tune 's shared affinities with Anglo - Irish - American dance tunes helped it to become readapted as such, as Baltzell included it among a set of reels.
Classical composers utilized the song in compositions. Australian composer Percy Grainger incorporated the song into his piece "Scotch Strathspey And Reel '' (1924). Malcolm Arnold used its melody in his Three Shanties for Woodwind Quintet, Op. 4 (1943).
The glut of writings on sailors ' songs and published collections that came starting in the 1920s and which supported a revival of interest in shanty - singing for entertainment purposes on land. As such, R.R. Terry 's very popular shanty collection, which had begun to serve as a resource for renditions of shanties on commercial recordings in the 1920s, was evidently used by the Robert Shaw Chorale for their 1961 rendition. The Norman Luboff Choir recorded the song in 1959 with the yet uncharacteristic phrasing, "What 'll we do...? ''
The song has been widely recorded under a number of titles by a range of performers including the King 's Singers, Pete Seeger, The Blaggards, and most notably The Irish Rovers. It also forms part of a contrapuntal section in the BBC Radio 4 UK Theme by Fritz Spiegl, in which it is played alongside Greensleeves.
For over 50 years The Irish Rovers have played the song as their usual show - closer. Several of their recordings of the song, sometimes under the name "Weigh Hey and up She Rises '' have gone viral on YouTube. As a response, the band released the 2012 album, "Drunken Sailor '' including the title track and a prequel that tells the earlier life of the ' Drunken Sailor ', called "Whores and Hounds ''.
Don Janse produced an arrangement in the early 1960s which has been included in several choral music anthologies. The arrangement was first recorded by The Idlers, and has been performed by several collegiate groups over the years, including the Yale Alley Cats.
Refrain:
Traditional verses:
Additional verses:
Parody verses:
The word "early '' is often pronounced as / ˈɜːrlaɪ / ("earl - aye '') in modern performances. Publications in the 19th and early 20th century, however, did not note this was the case. Neither the field recordings of Richard Maitland by Alan Lomax (1939) nor those of several veteran sailors in Britain by James Madison Carpenter in the 1920s use this pronunciation. However, opera singer Leonard Warren recorded the song in July 1947 and pronounced "earl - eye ''. Later, on his popular recording of 1956, Burl Ives also pronounced "earl - eye ''. Subsequently, Stan Hugill, whose influential Shanties from the Seven Seas was published in 1961, stated in that work that the word was "always '' pronounced "earl - aye ''.
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who has to stop at weigh stations canada | Weigh station - wikipedia
A weigh station is a checkpoint along a highway to inspect vehicular weights. Usually, trucks and commercial vehicles are subject to the inspection.
Weigh stations are equipped with truck scales, some of which are weigh in motion and permit the trucks to continue moving while being weighed, while older scales require the trucks to stop. There are a many different scales used, from single axle scales to multi-axle sets. Signal lights indicate if the driver should pull over for additional inspection or if they are allowed to return to the highway.
Many jurisdictions employ the use of portable scales, allowing weigh stations to be set up at any point. Portable scales allow states to set up temporary scales for situations such as seasonal check points, temporary checkpoints on isolated roads often used by trucks, and help prevent drivers from avoiding scales at fixed locations. Portable scales may be set up at purpose built locations that are not normally manned. A common reason for setting up portable scales is to monitor trucks during harvest season.
A weigh station located near a state border is called a port of entry. States may also locate weigh stations in the interior of the state. Interior weigh stations are often located at choke points or areas where freight originates or is delivered.
Weigh stations were primarily created to collect road use taxes before IFTA created an integrated system of doing so. While taxes can still be paid at weigh stations, their primary function is now enforcement of tax and safety regulations. These include: to check freight carrier compliance with fuel tax laws; to check weight restrictions; to check equipment safety; to check compliance with Hours of Service Regulations. Weigh stations are regulated by individual state governments and therefore have vastly different requirements from state to state. They are typically operated by the state 's Department of Transportation (DOT) or Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in conjunction with the state highway patrol or state police, thus enabling enforcement of applicable laws. The federal maximum weight is set at 80,000 pounds. Trucks exceeding the federal weight limit can still operate on the country 's highways with an overweight permit, but such permits are only issued before the scheduled trip and expire at the end of the trip. Overweight permits are only issued for loads that can not be broken down to smaller shipments that fall below the federal weight limit, and if there is no other alternative to moving the cargo by truck. Permitted oversize trucks are often required to coordinate with the Departments of Transportation and law enforcement agencies of the transited states before the trip begins, as most states require oversize trucks to be escorted. Many states have weigh in motion technology that allow a continuous flow of truck weighing.
Many states also check freight paperwork, vehicle paperwork, and logbooks to ensure that fuel taxes have been paid and that truck drivers are obeying the Hours of Service (a federal requirement). Also, the truck and driver may have to undergo a DOT inspection, as most states perform the bulk of their DOT inspections at their weigh stations. In some cases, if a truck is found to be overweight, the vehicle is ordered to stop until the situation can be fixed by acquiring an overweight permit. In other cases, the driver may receive an overweight ticket and may or may not be required to offload the extra freight. Offloading the extra freight may not be practical for perishable or hazardous loads. The first state to implement a weight law was Maine, which set a limit of 18,000 pounds (9 tons; 8,200 kg) in 1918.
Two types of loads may result in overweight trucks: divisible and non-divisible. A divisible load is a load which can be easily divided into smaller parts, such as products that are shipped on pallets, automobiles or grains. A non-divisible load is a load which is unable to be divided into smaller parts, like a piece of equipment or a steel beam. All states provide permits for non-divisible loads though the truck may have restricted routing. Some states allow tolerances for any over weight truck. Some states have specific allowances for types of loads for which they will allow tolerances. For example, Wyoming allows 2000 pounds for chains, tarps and dunnage that accompany a non-divisible load.
Truckers often refer to weigh stations as "chicken coops. ''
Many states now use electronic bypass systems (or AVI - Automatic Vehicle Identification) to alleviate some of the truck traffic through the weigh station. Some of the best known are PrePass, NORPASS and Drivewyze. The system may consist of equipment at the weigh station itself, as well as a truck mounted transponder or smartphone, usually placed on the inside of the windshield or on the dashboard. These are similar to transponders used for toll collection. Each transponder is directly registered to a specific truck, and contains a unique identification. The registration process propagates information such as carrier name, unit number, and elected gross weight to weigh stations. In addition, the system keeps a basic safety and compliance record for each vehicle. As a truck approaches a weigh station (approximately one mile before), an electronic "reader '' on a boom over the freeway reads the information from the truck transponder. It also looks at the safety and compliance record on the database. A display shows the results to the weigh master, including the speed of the vehicle. The weigh master may have the system automatically determine if a truck needs to stop or may override the system. Approximately one - half to one full mile after passing under the "reader '', the truck will pass under another boom which has an electronic unit to send the transponder a signal. If the safety information is acceptable the truck may receive a green light and can continue without entering the weigh station at all. There are weight detecting devices in the roadway itself. A driver may get a red light. On these occasions, the truck must pull into the weigh station for the normal weigh - in procedure. The most common reason a truck is "redlighted '' is a weight problem, or a random check. Each time a truck is randomly pulled in, it is noted in the system whether the driver was compliant or not during the check. This affects how often a truck (or different trucks from the same company) are pulled in. For example, a company which is very compliant with the law will probably only have 5 % of its trucks "redlighted. ''
Weigh Stations (aka "Scales '') are usually on the right - hand side of the travelled highway, but median scales are appearing (as of 2005) on divided highways, often combined with "weigh - in - motion '' technology.
A median scale is placed between the opposing lanes of traffic, necessitating heavy vehicles exiting from the left lane (rather than the right) and re-entering traffic from the left, potentially at a lower speed than the normal "free - flow '' traffic would expect in the left (often thought of as "fast '') lane.
"Weigh - in - motion '' technology allows heavy vehicles that do not exceed limits of weight (and size) to pass the scale, thus improving both freight and weigh scale operation efficiency.
In Alberta, scales can be on either side of the road, on the median or off - highway. Flashing lights inform drivers as to whether the scale is operational. Occasionally, the lights may be operational in only one direction.
Alberta scales are all of the ' weigh - in - motion ' type, and vehicles are not required to stop; they merely have to slow to 10 km / h.
Scales which are not operational are often available to drivers as a ' self - weigh ' site, where drivers can check their axle loads without enforcement officials being involved.
The government of the North West Territories operates only one scale. It is situated in the townsite of Enterprise, 83 kilometres north of the border with Alberta, and issues permits for vehicles from other jurisdictions as well as weighing vehicles and enforcing hours of service legislation.
In Taiwan, weigh stations (Chinese: 地磅 站) are located on major highways, especially at all toll booths on freeways. Advanced signs tell that trucks must enter the weigh stations when the attached lights are flashing, usually when tolls are collected.
Since the National Highway 1 was built with older designs, all weigh stations have older scales so trucks must stop. Weigh stations along the National Highway 3 have weigh - in - motion scales at 7 central and southern toll stations, but northern stations at Cidu, Shulin, and Longtan have traditional scales where trucks must stop.
The Taiwan Area National Freeway Bureau applies for periodical inspections of truck scales every three months. Truckers entering a weigh - in - motion scale are advised not to accelerate or decelerate suddenly, or they may be required to be weighed again.
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bone thugs for the love of money free mp3 download | Bone Thugs - N - Harmony - wikipedia
Bone Thugs - N - Harmony is an American hip hop group. It consists of rappers Bizzy Bone, Wish Bone, Layzie Bone, Krayzie Bone, and Flesh - n - Bone. American West Coast rapper Eazy - E signed Bone Thugs - N - Harmony to Ruthless Records in late 1993, when Bone Thugs debuted with their EP Creepin on ah Come Up. The EP included their breakout hit single "Thuggish Ruggish Bone ''.
In 1995, the group released its second album, E. 1999 Eternal, which included hits "1st of tha Month '' and "East 1999 ''. A tribute to then - recently deceased Eazy - E, titled "Tha Crossroads '', won a Grammy award in 1997. The Art of War, the group 's third album, was also released in 1997. Bone Thugs is the only group that has worked with 2Pac, Notorious B.I.G., Eazy - E, and Big Pun while they were still alive. The editors of About.com ranked them # 12 on their list of the "25 Best Rap Groups of All Time '', and MTV called them "the most melodic hip - hop group of all time ''.
In 2000, BTNHResurrection reached platinum in one month, while 2002 's Thug World Order received more moderate sales and promotion, going gold and peaking at # 3 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart. After that album, the group went on hiatus from their label and released their sixth studio album, Thug Stories, independently in 2006. In 2007 they had another major - label release, Strength & Loyalty, on Swizz Beatz 's label Full Surface Records. Bone Thugs - N - Harmony "officially '' returned with their 2010 album Uni5: The World 's Enemy, released by their own record label, BTNH Worldwide, with distribution by Warner Bros.
Due to conflicts within the group, longtime members Krayzie Bone and Wish Bone officially left the group in April 2011 to work with their independent label, The Life Entertainment. They would later return, officially re-unifying the group. In August 2013, however, Layzie Bone announced that he would be stepping aside to work more on his solo career. In the same month, BTNH signed with eOne Entertainment (formerly known as Koch Records), who they had previously partnered with to release 2006 's Thug Stories. Layzie Bone has since re-united with the group. On April 28th the entire group performed a show in Biloxi, MS along with Juvenile & Nelly. On June 1st of 2018, Bone Thugs will be reuniting for a show just outside Boston, Massachusetts, at the Wonderland Ballroom in Revere, MA. On June 22, 2018 Bone Thugs N Harmony also performed a show in Kansas City, Mo at the CrossroadsKC with longtime friend Twista. All 5 Members were present.
Formed in Cleveland, Ohio in 1991, the group was originally called "Baind Aid - Boys ''. They then formed B.O.N.E. Enterpri $ e, which consisted of four members -- Krayzie Bone, Layzie Bone, Bizzy Bone, and Wish Bone (all except for Flesh - n - Bone) -- and recorded an album entitled Faces of Death in the studio of their then - mentor, Kermit Henderson (Krayzie Bone 's older brother) on his indie label Stoney Burke in 1993. Like so many aspiring rappers around the country, they put in calls to executives at record companies, hoping to find someone who would listen. In hopes of securing a record deal, the group was given an audition over the phone, receiving an unfulfilled promise from rapper Eazy - E to call them back. Determined to reach him, they scrounged together the money for one - way bus tickets to Los Angeles. They left for a three - day Greyhound trek and spent four months on the city streets, putting in frequent calls to find him. Nothing came of their search except the news that Eazy - E was, in fact, on his way to Cleveland for a show.
The quartet returned to Ohio, where Diego Blak (born Diego Hodge), a marketer and promoter who had been co-executive producer of Faces Of Death, introduced them to Eazy - E at a concert he promoted in Cleveland. There, on November 2, 1993, they auditioned for Eazy in his dressing room; Krayzie performed his verse of "Flow Motion '' from the Faces of Death album, and Eazy was impressed. B.O.N.E Enterpri $ e then traveled back to Los Angeles after the Cleveland show to seal the deal. At this point, Eazy renamed them Thugs - N - Harmony, but as they wanted to keep the bone name, they made their name Bone Thugs - N - Harmony. Eazy signed the group (minus Flesh - n - Bone) to his label Ruthless Records.
Released in June 1994, the EP Creepin on ah Come Up was Bone Thugs - N - Harmony 's debut with Ruthless. The album 's subject matter was focused almost entirely on violent criminal activity. Peaking at # 12 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums chart and # 2 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart, it included the hit singles "Thuggish Ruggish Bone '' and "Foe tha Love of $ '', the second of which featured a verse by Eazy - E. "Thuggish Ruggish Bone '' peaked at # 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and # 2 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart, and "Foe tha Love of $ '' peaked at # 41 on the Hot 100 and # 4 on Rap Tracks. After a slow start that saw the album 's success limited to gangsta rap audiences, it broke through to the mainstream. The EP marked a major change in style for the group, as they now fully embraced the G - funk common in West Coast hip hop of the time. Beats were supplied by DJ Yella, Rhythum D, and Kenny McCloud, and it was the group 's first collaboration with newcomer producer DJ U-Neek, who would craft the group 's signature sound by producing the majority of their next two albums. For over a year, Eazy - E nurtured their career, continuing to serve as their executive producer and teaching them the business skills he had taught himself over the years. The growing relationship was cut short, however, when Eazy - E died on March 26, 1995, from complications from AIDS. Briefly, the young rappers thought they had lost everything with the loss of their friend and mentor. However, the group 's potential was already apparent, and Ruthless Records continued to support them.
In 1995, the group 's second album, E. 1999 Eternal, was released. It included the singles "1st of tha Month '', which peaked at # 14 on the Hot 100 and # 4 on Hot Rap Tracks, and "Tha Crossroads '', which reached # 1 on both the Hot 100 and Hot Rap Tracks charts. The album generally saw positive reviews from critics as Bone had diversified its content and musical style. Critics were particularly intrigued by the album due to Bone Thugs - N - Harmony 's ability to reduce the banality associated with gangsta rap in their music at a time when the subgenre had become exceedingly cliché. A considerable portion of the album 's concept was built upon violent subject matter, yet they also incorporated deeper themes, as its songs dealt with more spirituality and occult mysticism. The album was produced by DJ U-Neek (with co-production from Tony C. and Kenny McCloud). E. 1999 Eternal also introduced Bone 's trademark tracks devoted entirely to the use of marijuana. The album name originated from one of the street names of a corner (E. 99th street & St. Clair) that was a familiar hangout to Bone members, as well as Eazy - E 's album, Eternal E. Naming it after Eazy - E 's album was just another way of showing respect and tribute to the rapper who had helped them reach success. Also in 1995, Flesh - n - Bone would become the first member of the group to release a debut album, entitled T.H.U.G.S, which was certified gold by the RIAA. In 1996, due to their success, the Cleveland clan established their own label, Mo Thugs Records, and released the Family Scriptures compilation album to introduce many of the Cleveland - based and other artists whom they were developing. E. 1999 Eternal is the group 's most commercially successful album; it has since been certified 5x platinum by the RIAA.
There were plans for Bone Thugs - N - Harmony to collaborate with West Coast rapper 2Pac on a studio album called One Nation. The project would bring together other hip hop artists from all areas of the American map such as Boot Camp Clik, OutKast, Scarface, E-40, and more. As 2Pac was unfortunately shot the album never came into fruition. However, bootlegs of songs produced while Pac was still alive have been distributed.
In 1997, the group released the double - disc set The Art of War. The album saw Bone further explore a wide variety of subjects and styles, with even more focus on God and family and an overall more ambient, mellow sound. The group still incorporated violent lyrics, however, with a large portion of the album dedicated to what they labeled "clones '' who claimed Bone had stolen their quick - tongued rapping style and vice versa. The album had been rumored to be titled "DNA Level C '' which is Cleveland backwards. The single "Look into My Eyes '' appeared on the soundtrack of the film Batman & Robin. It peaked at # 4 on the Hot 100 and # 2 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. "If I Could Teach The World '', the other single from The Art of War, peaked at # 27 on the Hot 100 and # 3 on the Hot Rap Tracks, and won an American Music Award. The album also included "Thug Luv '' with Tupac Shakur. The group 's promotional efforts were dampened by the absence of Bizzy Bone from the album 's videos and from large portions of the ensuing tour and other public appearances. This absence eventually fueled rumors of a break - up.
In 2000, Bone Thugs - N - Harmony released BTNHResurrection, featuring the single "Resurrection (Paper, Paper) '', which peaked on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart at # 52. The album 's first half featured a slew of hardcore and dark tracks, with the second half being considerably more introspective and soft. Other singles from the album, including "Ca n't Give it Up '', failed to crack the Billboard Hot 100, and the big - budget video for "Change the World '' failed to receive any rotation. This was their first group album to prominently feature Flesh - n - Bone, whose presence had been limited on previous releases because he had never signed with the group 's label, Ruthless Records. Flesh was convicted for assault with a firearm and criminal possession of a weapon in June 2000. Pleading guilty, Flesh was sentenced to 11 years in prison.
The group again began having public disputes with Bizzy Bone. Bizzy Bone abstained from promoting BTNHResurrection because he felt that Ruthless Records owed him money. He dropped a million - dollar lawsuit he had filed against Sony Music and Loud Records in exchange for a termination of his Sony contract. Three members of Bone Thugs - N - Harmony released solo albums in 2001: Bizzy Bone with The Gift, Layzie Bone (under the name L - Burna) with Thug by Nature, and Krayzie Bone with Thug on da Line.
In 2002, the group released Thug World Order. This album, made up of what were described as overly - violent and political songs, saw a drastic change in subject matter and tone for the group. The lyrics were almost completely void of any violence, while a larger number of tracks focused on the group itself. In contrast, several songs originally intended to be included on the album that were leaked after its release portrayed a much different album. The album debuted at # 12 on the Billboard 200. The first single released from the album was "Get Up & Get It '', featuring 3LW. The second single, "Home '', which featured Phil Collins performing part of his song "Take Me Home '', peaked at # 33 on the Rhythmic Top 40, impacting the charts in a number of countries, most notably the United Kingdom. Bizzy Bone was expelled from the group in January 2003, leaving only 3 active members: Krayzie Bone, Layzie Bone, and Wish Bone. Thug World Order was also Bone Thugs - N - Harmony 's final album with Ruthless Records; after their original contract with Ruthless had expired, they decided they wanted to do their own thing.
Thug Stories, Bone Thugs - N - Harmony 's seventh album, was recorded on Koch Records and released on September 19, 2006. It marked the first time Bone Thugs had recorded as a trio since they released an internet - only EP album called Bone 4 Life in September 2005. Thug Stories featured a slightly more mature style, and the group leaned more heavily towards its harmonic roots than its "thug '' origins. The album sold 38,000 in its first week and peaked at # 25 on the Billboard 200 and # 1 on the Independent Albums chart.
Originally to be called The Bone Thugs Story, Strength & Loyalty was released on May 8, 2007 on Interscope Records imprint Full Surface Records. Being their first major album after an absence of nearly five years, the album debuted at # 2 on the Billboard 200, and # 1 on iTunes and the Billboard urban music charts. The album contains guest appearances by Mariah Carey, The Game, will.i.am, Akon, Twista, Bow Wow, Yolanda Adams, and Felecia. Producers on the album included Swizz Beatz, Akon, Pretty Boy & Bradd Young, DJ Toomp, Jermaine Dupri, will.i.am, and others. The executive producer of the album was Swizz Beatz. The first single was "I Tried '', which was their first top - 10 hit in 10 years, peaking at number 6 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. The second single was "Lil Love '', which failed to reach the success of its predecessor. The album has been certified gold by the RIAA.
2007 also saw the release of the semi-autobiographical film I Tried, directed by Rich Newey, which explored what might have happened to Bone Thugs - N - Harmony had they not gotten their break with Eazy - E. Layzie, Krayzie, and Wish Bone starred in the film, playing themselves. Also in 2007, Bone Thugs - N - Harmony won the American Music Award for Favorite Rap / Hip - Hop Band, Duo or Group.
T.H.U.G.S., an album featuring previously - unreleased, largely remixed Bone Thugs - N - Harmony songs that had n't made the final cut of the BTNHResurrection and Thug World Order albums, was released on November 13, 2007 by their former record label, Ruthless Records. Although the album embodies old tracks, there are some notable changes: new beats, distorted production, voice manipulation, and new song titles. The sole single off the album was "Young Thugs '', which was accompanied by a newly filmed music video featuring Krayzie, Layzie, Bizzy, and Wish.
In November 2007, Layzie Bone confirmed that he had completed the Bone Brothers III album with Bizzy Bone, spurring speculation about a full Bone reunion. In a video interview, Krayzie Bone stated that they all wanted to reunite but that record label issues might prevent an official reunion. Bizzy Bone had attended a Bone Thugs performance during that time, and he and the three then - active members had a "good conversation ''.
After nearly a decade of incarceration, Flesh - n - Bone was released from prison on July 13, 2008. In an interview, Bizzy confirmed his return, the group having reunited in time for Flesh 's release.
Bone Thugs - N - Harmony 's five members officially returned with their new album Uni5: The World 's Enemy, released on May 4, 2010 by their own record label, BTNH Worldwide, with distribution by Warner Bros. Uni5 also marks the return of long - time Bone collaborator DJ U-Neek, who was absent from 2007 's Strength & Loyalty but had produced for the group throughout their career, including on hits "Thuggish Ruggish Bone '' and "Tha Crossroads ''. This studio effort leans toward radio - friendly numbers and proper grown - man tracks, with the core four members offering life lessons as Bizzy gives his Biblical perspective. They released the singles "See Me Shine '', featuring Jay Rush and Lyfe Jennings, and "Rebirth '', featuring Thin - C, a member of the Mo Thugs. A third single, "Meet Me in the Sky '', was released on March 22.
Bone Thugs - N - Harmony announced on their blog over the summer of 2011 that they were planning a new album for 2012. They reiterated those plans in a November interview.
Throughout 2011, Krayzie Bone, Bizzy Bone, and Layzie Bone spoke about many new projects coming in 2012. Those projects were to include an anniversary album featuring all 5 members; a Bizzy & Krayzie duet album; and compilation albums of unreleased Bone Thugs - N - Harmony material from the mid to late 90 's and 2000 's, prospectively titled Lost Archives Vol. 1. The group put their differences aside to reunite and belatedly mark their 20th anniversary at the Rock the Bells festival series of summer 2012.
During the summer of 2012, West Coast rapper Game sampled Bone Thugs - N - Harmony 's "1st Of Tha Month '' on his new posse cut "Celebration '', with the legendary group 's blessing. Game also posted a picture on his Twitter showing the word "bone '' constructed out of cannabis. He later confirmed that he was working in the studio with Bone Thugs - N - Harmony on a remix of "Celebration '' for his album Jesus Piece.
The Art of War: World War III was officially announced by Bone Thugs - N - Harmony in an interview with The Source (magazine) on March 25, 2013.. In early November 2013, Krayzie Bone told HipHopDX that the Art of War III album would feature only Layzie, Bizzy, and Flesh - N - Bone, and that neither he nor Wish Bone had recorded any material for that album. However, Krayzie and Wish both ended up appearing on the album in the form of previously unreleased tracks that had been cut from Uni5: The World 's Enemy. The Art of War: World War III was released on December 10, 2013.
On July 15, 2014, it was announced that Bone Thugs - N - Harmony would release their final album in 2015. There would be only a single copy released, to be auctioned off, with bidding starting at $1 million. The group also announced they would be conducting a 20 - country world tour beginning in December 2014. The following day, Krazyie Bone revealed that the album would be titled E. 1999 Legends. He then told XXL that he had approached the group about a reunion album in the middle of the previous year, and they had begun recording it at the end of 2013. Krayzie estimated that Bone Thugs - N - Harmony had probably recorded 75 to 100 songs since they began work on the album, which was planned as a double - disc project. The first disc was to contain Bone Thugs - N - Harmony content exclusively, with no features, and would have 18 -- 20 songs. The second disc was planned to feature a large number of big - name guest appearances such as Mariah Carey, Kendrick Lamar, Phil Collins, Wiz Khalifa, Drake, A $ AP Mob, and Linkin Park, along with beats from Dr. Dre & DJ U-Neek, who had each been tapped for the album. Damizza would be producing / overseeing the entire E. 1999 Legends album project, which was projected to be distributed through Damizza 's Baby Ree Records label.
On February 14, 2015 -- Valentine 's Day -- producer and long - time Bone collaborator Damizza officially presented the single "More Than Thugs '', slated to appear on the Damizza Presents album. The group 's vocal delivery on the song would be considered by many as vintage Bone Thugs - N - Harmony vocal sound. As of late April 2015, the video for "More Than Thugs '' was in the editing stage and featured all 5 members. Flesh Bone and Wish Bone were in the studio with Damizza in 2015 to complete the eight Bone songs that were close to finished for the E. 1999 Legends album. Under direction from A&R team and long - time manager Steve Lobel and agent Jamie Adler, they are also working on the remix of Machine Gun Kelly 's Cleveland anthem single "Till I Die ''. In August 2015, Krayzie announced that the first bid of at least $1 million had been received for E. 1999 Legends.
In 2017, Krayzie Bone and Bizzy Bone announced that they would be releasing their long - awaited duet album together entitled New Waves under the name Bone Thugs. The album 's lead single "Coming Home '' featuring Stephen Marley was released on March 24. Krayzie confirmed that the full Bone Thugs - n - Harmony group was working on a new album, but said that they would no longer be auctioning off the album 's rights.. All five members of the group would appear on rapper Wiz Khalifa 's 2018 album Rolling Papers 2, each providing a verse for the song "Reach for the Stars. ''
Studio albums
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where did most of the fighting on western front take place | Western Front (World War I) - wikipedia
Decisive Entente victory
Entente Powers: France
British Empire
Central Powers:
~ 7,500,000
~ 5,500,000
1915
1916
1917
1918
The Western Front was the main theatre of war during the First World War. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a meandering line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France, which changed little except during early 1917 and in 1918.
Between 1915 and 1917 there were several offensives along this front. The attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. Entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire and artillery repeatedly inflicted severe casualties during attacks and counter-attacks and no significant advances were made. Among the most costly of these offensives were the Battle of Verdun, in 1916, with a combined 700,000 casualties (estimated), the Battle of the Somme, also in 1916, with more than a million casualties (estimated), and the Battle of Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres), in 1917, with 487,000 casualties (estimated).
To break the deadlock of trench warfare on the Western Front, both sides tried new military technology, including poison gas, aircraft and tanks. The adoption of better tactics and the cumulative weakening of the armies in the west led to the return of mobility in 1918. The German Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk that ended the war of the Central Powers against Russia and Romania on the Eastern Front. Using short, intense "hurricane '' bombardments and infiltration tactics, the German armies moved nearly 100 kilometres (60 miles) to the west, the deepest advance by either side since 1914, but the result was indecisive.
The inexorable advance of the Allied armies during the second half of 1918 caused a sudden collapse of the German armies and persuaded the German commanders that defeat was inevitable. The German government surrendered in the Armistice of 11 November 1918, and the terms of peace were settled by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
At the outbreak of the First World War, the German Army, with seven field armies in the west and one in the east, executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, moving quickly through neutral Belgium to attack France, and then turning southwards to encircle the French Army and trap it on the German border. The Western Front was the place where the most powerful military forces in Europe, the German and French armies, met and where the war was decided. Belgian neutrality had been guaranteed by Britain under the Treaty of London, 1839; this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914. Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5 -- 16 August. Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, falling to the Germans on 20 August. Although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20 -- 23 August.
The French deployed five armies on the frontier. The French Plan XVII was intended to bring about the capture of Alsace - Lorraine. On 7 August, the VII Corps attacked Alsace to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with the First and Second Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg - Morhange in Lorraine. In keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French Third and Fourth Armies advanced toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau but were repulsed. The French VII Corps captured Mulhouse after a brief engagement on 7 August but German reserve forces engaged them in the Battle of Mulhouse and forced a French retreat.
The German Army swept through Belgium, executing civilians and razing villages. The application of "collective responsibility '' against a civilian population further galvanised the allies. Newspapers condemned the German invasion, violence against civilians and destruction of property, which became known as the "Rape of Belgium ''. After marching through Belgium, Luxembourg and the Ardennes, the Germans advanced into northern France in late August, where they met the French Army, under Joseph Joffre, and the divisions of the British Expeditionary Force under Field Marshal Sir John French. A series of engagements known as the Battle of the Frontiers ensued, which included the Battle of Charleroi and the Battle of Mons. In the former battle the French Fifth Army was almost destroyed by the German 2nd and 3rd Armies and the latter delayed the German advance by a day. A general Allied retreat followed, resulting in more clashes at the Battle of Le Cateau, the Siege of Maubeuge and the Battle of St. Quentin (also called the First Battle of Guise).
The German Army came within 70 km (43 mi) of Paris but at the First Battle of the Marne (6 -- 12 September), French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap which appeared between the 1st and 2nd Armies, ending the German advance into France. The German Army retreated north of the Aisne River and dug in there, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years. Following this German retirement, the opposing forces made reciprocal outflanking manoeuvres, known as the Race for the Sea and quickly extended their trench systems from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea. The territory occupied by Germany held 64 percent of French pig - iron production, 24 percent of its steel manufacturing and 40 percent of the coal industry -- dealing a serious blow to French industry.
On the Entente side (those countries opposing the German alliance), the final lines were occupied with the armies of each nation defending a part of the front. From the coast in the north, the primary forces were from Belgium, the British Empire and then France. Following the Battle of the Yser in October, the Belgian army controlled a 35 km (22 mi) length of West Flanders along the coast, known as the Yser Front, along the Yser river and the Yperlee canal, from Nieuwpoort to Boesinghe. Meanwhile, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) occupied a position on the flank, having previous occupied a more central position.
From 19 October until 22 November, the German forces made their final breakthrough attempt of 1914 during the First Battle of Ypres, which ended in a mutually - costly stalemate. After the battle, Erich von Falkenhayn judged that it was no longer possible for Germany to win the war by purely military means and on 18 November 1914 he called for a diplomatic solution. The Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann - Hollweg, Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg, commanding Ober Ost (Eastern Front high command), and Hindenburg 's deputy, Erich Ludendorff, continued to believe that victory was achievable through decisive battles. During the Lodz offensive in Poland (11 -- 25 November), Falkenhayn hoped that the Russians would be made amenable to peace overtures. In his discussions with Bethmann - Hollweg, Falkenhayn viewed Germany and Russia as having no insoluble conflict and that the real enemies of Germany were France and Britain. A peace with only a few annexations of territory also seemed possible with France and that with Russia and France out of the war by negotiated settlements, Germany could concentrate on Britain and fight a long war with the resources of Europe at its disposal. Hindenburg and Ludendorff continued to believe that Russia could be defeated by a series of battles which cumulatively would have a decisive effect, after which Germany could finish off France and Britain.
Between the coast and the Vosges was a westward bulge in the trench line, named the Noyon salient for the captured French town at the maximum point of advance near Compiègne. Joffre 's plan for 1915 was to attack the salient on both flanks to cut it off. The Fourth Army had attacked in Champagne from 20 December 1914 -- 17 March 1915 but the French were not able to attack in Artois at the same time. The Tenth Army formed the northern attack force and was to attack eastwards into the Douai plain across a 16 - kilometre (9.9 mi) front between Loos and Arras. On 10 March, as part of the larger offensive in the Artois region, the British Army fought the Battle of Neuve Chapelle to capture Aubers Ridge. The assault was made by four divisions along a 2 mi (3.2 km) front. Preceded by a surprise bombardment lasting only 35 minutes, the initial assault made rapid progress and the village was captured within four hours. The advance then slowed because of supply and communication difficulties. The Germans brought up reserves and counter-attacked, forestalling the attempt to capture the ridge. Since the British had used about one - third of their supply of artillery ammunition, General Sir John French blamed the failure on the shortage of ammunition, despite the early success.
All sides had signed the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare. In 1914, there had been small - scale attempts by both the French and Germans to use various tear gases, which were not strictly prohibited by the early treaties but which were also ineffective. The first use of more lethal chemical weapons was against the French near the Belgian town of Ypres.
Despite the German plans to maintain the stalemate with the French and British, Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, commander of the 4th Army planned an offensive at Ypres, site of the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914. The Second Battle of Ypres, April 1915, was intended to divert attention from offensives in the Eastern Front and disrupt Franco - British planning. After a two - day bombardment, the Germans released a cloud of 168 long tons (171 t) of chlorine gas onto the battlefield. Though primarily a powerful irritant, it can asphyxiate in high concentrations or prolonged exposure. Being heavier than air, the gas crept across no man 's land and drifted into the French trenches. The green - yellow cloud started killing some defenders and those in the rear fled in panic, creating an undefended 3.7 - mile (6 km) gap in the Allied line. The Germans were unprepared for the level of their success and lacked sufficient reserves to exploit the opening. Canadian troops on the right drew back their left flank and halted the German advance. The gas attack was repeated two days later and caused a 3.1 mi (5 km) withdrawal of the Franco - British line but the opportunity had been lost.
The success of this attack would not be repeated, as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures. An example of the success of these measures came a year later, on 27 April in the Gas attacks at Hulluch 40 km (25 mi) to the south of Ypres, where the 16th (Irish) Division withstood several German gas attacks. The British retaliated, developing their own chlorine gas and using it at the Battle of Loos in September 1915. Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German. French, British and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks through the rest of the war, developing the more deadly phosgene gas in 1915, then the infamous mustard gas in 1917, which could linger for days and could kill slowly and painfully. Countermeasures also improved and the stalemate continued.
Specialised aeroplanes for aerial combat were introduced in 1915. Aircraft were already in use for scouting and on 1 April, the French pilot Roland Garros became the first to shoot down an enemy aircraft by using a machine - gun that shot forward through the propeller blades. This was achieved by crudely reinforcing the blades to deflect bullets. Several weeks later Garros force - landed behind German lines. His aeroplane was captured and sent to Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker, who soon produced a significant improvement, the interrupter gear, in which the machine gun is synchronised with the propeller so it fires in the intervals when the blades of the propeller are out of the line of fire. This advance was quickly ushered into service, in the Fokker E.I (Eindecker, or monoplane, Mark 1), the first single seat fighter aircraft to combine a reasonable maximum speed with an effective armament. Max Immelmann scored the first confirmed kill in an Eindecker on 1 August. Both sides developed improved weapons, engines, airframes and materials, until the end of the war. It also inaugurated the cult of the ace, the most famous being Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron). Contrary to the myth, anti-aircraft fire claimed more kills than fighters.
The final Entente offensive of the spring was the Second Battle of Artois, an offensive to capture Vimy Ridge and advance into the Douai plain. The French Tenth Army attacked on 9 May after a six - day bombardment and advanced 5 kilometres (3 mi) to capture Vimy Ridge. German reinforcements counter-attacked and pushed the French back towards their starting points because French reserves had been held back and the success of the attack had come as a surprise. By 15 May the advance had been stopped, although the fighting continued until 18 June. In May the German Army captured a French document at La Ville - aux - Bois describing a new system of defence. Rather than relying on a heavily fortified front line, the defence was to be arranged in a series of echelons. The front line would be a thinly manned series of outposts, reinforced by a series of strongpoints and a sheltered reserve. If a slope was available, troops were deployed along the rear side for protection. The defence became fully integrated with command of artillery at the divisional level. Members of the German high command viewed this new scheme with some favour and it later became the basis of an elastic defence in depth doctrine against Entente attacks.
During the autumn of 1915, the "Fokker Scourge '' began to have an effect on the battlefront as Allied reconnaissance aircraft were nearly driven from the skies. These reconnaissance planes were used to direct gunnery and photograph enemy fortifications but now the Allies were nearly blinded by German fighters. However, the impact of German air superiority was diminished by their primarily defensive doctrine in which they tended to remain over their own lines, rather than fighting over Allied held territory.
In September 1915 the Entente allies launched another offensive, with the French Third Battle of Artois, Second Battle of Champagne and the British at Loos. The French had spent the summer preparing for this action, with the British assuming control of more of the front to release French troops for the attack. The bombardment, which had been carefully targeted by means of aerial photography, began on 22 September. The main French assault was launched on 25 September and, at first, made good progress in spite of surviving wire entanglements and machine gun posts. Rather than retreating, the Germans adopted a new defence - in - depth scheme that consisted of a series of defensive zones and positions with a depth of up to 8.0 km (5 mi).
On 25 September, the British began the Battle of Loos, part of the Third Battle of Artois, which was meant to supplement the larger Champagne attack. The attack was preceded by a four - day artillery bombardment of 250,000 shells and a release of 5,100 cylinders of chlorine gas. The attack involved two corps in the main assault and two corps performing diversionary attacks at Ypres. The British suffered heavy losses, especially due to machine gun fire during the attack and made only limited gains before they ran out of shells. A renewal of the attack on 13 October fared little better. In December, French was replaced by General Douglas Haig as commander of the British forces.
Falkenhayn believed that a breakthrough might no longer be possible and instead focused on forcing a French defeat by inflicting massive casualties. His new goal was to "bleed France white ''. As such, he adopted two new strategies. The first was the use of unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off Allied supplies arriving from overseas. The second would be attacks against the French army intended to inflict maximum casualties; Falkenhayn planned to attack a position from which the French could not retreat, for reasons of strategy and national pride and thus trap the French. The town of Verdun was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold, surrounded by a ring of forts, that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to Paris.
Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to 5 -- 6 kilometres (3 -- 4 mi) to concentrate artillery firepower and to prevent a breakthrough from a counter-offensive. He also kept tight control of the main reserve, feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going. In preparation for their attack, the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress. In the opening phase, they swept the air space of French aircraft, which allowed German artillery - observation aircraft and bombers to operate without interference. In May, the French countered by deploying escadrilles de chasse with superior Nieuport fighters and the air over Verdun turned into a battlefield as both sides fought for air superiority.
The Battle of Verdun began on 21 February 1916 after a nine - day delay due to snow and blizzards. After a massive eight - hour artillery bombardment, the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts. Sporadic French resistance was encountered. The Germans took Fort Douaumont and then reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February.
The Germans turned their focus to Le Mort Homme on the west bank of the Meuse which blocked the route to French artillery emplacements, from which the French fired across the river. After some of the most intense fighting of the campaign, the hill was taken by the Germans in late May. After a change in French command at Verdun from the defensive - minded Philippe Pétain to the offensive - minded Robert Nivelle, the French attempted to re-capture Fort Douaumont on 22 May but were easily repulsed. The Germans captured Fort Vaux on 7 June and with the aid of diphosgene gas, came within 1 kilometre (1,100 yd) of the last ridge before Verdun before being contained on 23 June.
Over the summer, the French slowly advanced. With the development of the rolling barrage, the French recaptured Fort Vaux in November and by December 1916 they had pushed the Germans back 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi) from Fort Douaumont, in the process rotating 42 divisions through the battle. The Battle of Verdun -- also known as the ' Mincing Machine of Verdun ' or ' Meuse Mill ' -- became a symbol of French determination and self - sacrifice.
In the spring, Allied commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French Army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun. The original plans for an attack around the River Somme were modified to let the British make the main effort. This would serve to relieve pressure on the French, as well as the Russians who had also suffered great losses. On 1 July, after a week of heavy rain, British divisions in Picardy began the Battle of the Somme with the Battle of Albert, supported by five French divisions on their right flank. The attack had been preceded by seven days of heavy artillery bombardment. The experienced French forces were successful in advancing but the British artillery cover had neither blasted away barbed wire, nor destroyed German trenches as effectively as was planned. They suffered the greatest number of casualties (killed, wounded and missing) in a single day in the history of the British Army, about 57,000.
The Verdun lesson learnt, the Allies ' tactical aim became the achievement of air superiority and until September, German aircraft were swept from the skies over the Somme. The success of the Allied air offensive caused a reorganisation of the German air arm and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat. After regrouping, the battle continued throughout July and August, with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines. By August, General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely and instead, switched tactics to a series of small unit actions. The effect was to straighten out the front line, which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with a major push.
The final phase of the battle of the Somme saw the first use of the tank on the battlefield. The Allies prepared an attack that would involve 13 British and Imperial divisions and four French corps. The attack made early progress, advancing 3,200 -- 4,100 metres (3,500 -- 4,500 yd) in places but the tanks had little effect due to their lack of numbers and mechanical unreliability. The final phase of the battle took place in October and early November, again producing limited gains with heavy loss of life. All told, the Somme battle had made penetrations of only 8 kilometres (5 mi) and failed to reach the original objectives. The British had suffered about 420,000 casualties and the French around 200,000. It is estimated that the Germans lost 465,000, although this figure is controversial.
The Somme led directly to major new developments in infantry organisation and tactics; despite the terrible losses of 1 July, some divisions had managed to achieve their objectives with minimal casualties. In examining the reasons behind losses and achievements, once the British war economy produced sufficient equipment and weapons, the army made the platoon the basic tactical unit, similar to the French and German armies. At the time of the Somme, British senior commanders insisted that the company (120 men) was the smallest unit of manoeuvre; less than a year later, the section of ten men would be so.
In August 1916 the German leadership along the western front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The new leaders soon recognised that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German Army. They decided that the German Army in the west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917, while the Central powers would attack elsewhere.
During the Somme battle and through the winter months, the Germans created a fortification behind the Noyon Salient that would be called the Hindenburg Line, using the defensive principles elaborated since the defensive battles of 1915, including the use of Eingreif divisions. This was intended to shorten the German front, freeing 10 divisions for other duties. This line of fortifications ran from Arras south to St Quentin and shortened the front by about 50 kilometres (30 mi). British long - range reconnaissance aircraft first spotted the construction of the Hindenburg Line in November 1916.
The Hindenburg Line was built between 2 and 50 kilometres (30 mi) behind the German front line. On 25 February German forces began retreating to the line and the withdrawal was completed on 5 April, leaving behind a devastated territory to be occupied by the Allies. This withdrawal negated the French strategy of attacking both flanks of the Noyon salient, as it no longer existed. However, offensive advances by the British continued as the High Command claimed, with some justice, that this withdrawal resulted from the casualties the Germans received during the Battles of the Somme and Verdun, despite the Allies suffering greater losses.
Meanwhile, on 6 April the United States declared war on Germany. In early 1915, following the sinking of the Lusitania, Germany had stopped its unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic because of concerns of drawing the United States into the conflict. With the growing discontent of the German public due to the food shortages, however, the government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917. They had calculated that a successful submarine and warship siege of Britain would force that country out of the war within six months, while American forces would take a year to become a serious factor on the Western Front. The submarine and surface ships had a long period of success before Britain resorted to the convoy system, bringing a large reduction in shipping losses.
By 1917, the size of the British Army on the Western Front had grown to two - thirds the total numbers in the French forces. In April 1917 the BEF began the Battle of Arras. The Canadian Corps and the 5th Division, attacked German lines at Vimy Ridge, capturing the heights and the First Army to the south achieved the deepest advance since trench warfare began. Later attacks were confronted by German reinforcements defending the area using the lessons learned on the Somme in 1916. British attacks were contained and, according to Gary Sheffield, a greater rate of daily loss was inflicted on the British than in "any other major battle ''.
During the winter of 1916 -- 1917, German air tactics had been improved, a fighter training school was opened at Valenciennes and better aircraft with twin guns were introduced. The result was near disastrous losses for Allied air power, particularly for the British, Portuguese, Belgians and Australians who were struggling with outmoded aircraft, poor training and weak tactics. As a result, the Allied air successes over the Somme would not be repeated and heavy losses were inflicted by the Germans. During their attack at Arras, the British lost 316 air crews and the Canadians lost 114 compared to 44 lost by the Germans. This became known to the Royal Flying Corps as Bloody April.
The same month, the French Commander - in - Chief, General Robert Nivelle, ordered a new offensive against the German trenches, promising that it would end the war within 48 hours. The 16 April attack, dubbed the Nivelle Offensive (also known as the Second Battle of the Aisne, after the area where the offensive took place), would be 1.2 million men strong, preceded by a week - long artillery bombardment and accompanied by tanks. The offensive proceeded poorly as the French troops, with the help of two Russian brigades, had to negotiate rough, upward - sloping terrain in extremely bad weather. Planning had been dislocated by the voluntary German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line. Secrecy had been compromised and German aircraft gained air superiority, making reconnaissance difficult and in places, the creeping barrage moved too fast for the French troops. Within a week the French suffered 120,000 casualties. Despite the casualties and his promise to halt the offensive if it did not produce a breakthrough, Nivelle ordered the attack to continue into May.
On 3 May the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Lacking the means to punish an entire division, its officers did not immediately implement harsh measures against the mutineers. Mutinies occurred in 54 French divisions and 20,000 men deserted. Other Allied forces attacked but suffered massive casualties. Appeals to patriotism and duty followed, as did mass arrests and trials. The French soldiers returned to defend their trenches but refused to participate in further offensive action. On 15 May Nivelle was removed from command, replaced by Pétain who immediately stopped the offensive. The French would go on the defensive for the following months to avoid high casualties and to restore confidence in the French High Command, while the British assumed greater responsibility.
On 25 June the first US troops began to arrive in France, forming the American Expeditionary Force. However, the American units did not enter the trenches in divisional strength until October. The incoming troops required training and equipment before they could join in the effort, and for several months American units were relegated to support efforts. In spite of this, however, their presence provided a much - needed boost to Allied morale, with the promise of further reinforcements that could tip the manpower balance towards the Allies.
In June, the British launched an offensive in Flanders, in part to take pressure off the French armies on the Aisne, after the French part of the Nivelle Offensive failed to achieve the strategic victory that had been planned and French troops began to mutiny. The offensive began on 7 June, with a British attack on Messines Ridge, south of Ypres, to retake the ground lost in the First and Second battles in 1914. Since 1915 specialist Royal Engineer tunnelling companies had been digging tunnels under the ridge, and about 500 t (490 long tons) of explosives had been planted in 21 mines under the German defences. Following several weeks of bombardment, the explosives in 19 of these mines were detonated, killing up to 7,000 German troops. The infantry advance that followed relied on three creeping barrages which the British infantry followed to capture the plateau and the east side of the ridge in one day. German counter-attacks were defeated and the southern flank of the Gheluvelt plateau was protected from German observation.
On 11 July 1917, during Unternehmen Strandfest (Operation Beachparty) at Nieuport on the coast, the Germans introduced a new weapon into the war when they fired a powerful blistering agent Sulfur mustard (Yellow Cross) gas. The artillery deployment allowed heavy concentrations of the gas to be used on selected targets. Mustard gas was persistent and could contaminate an area for days, denying it to the British, an additional demoralising factor. The Allies increased production of gas for chemical warfare but took until late 1918 to copy the Germans and begin using mustard gas.
From 31 July to 10 November the Third Battle of Ypres included the First Battle of Passchendaele and culminated in the Second Battle of Passchendaele. The battle had the original aim of capturing the ridges east of Ypres then advancing to Roulers and Thourout to close the main rail line supplying the German garrisons on the Western front north of Ypres. If successful the northern armies were then to capture the German submarine bases on the Belgian coast. It was later restricted to advancing the British Army onto the ridges around Ypres, as the unusually wet weather slowed British progress. The Canadian Corps relieved the II ANZAC Corps and took the village of Passchendaele on 6 November, despite rain, mud and many casualties. The offensive was costly in manpower for both sides for relatively little gain of ground against determined German resistance but the ground captured was of great tactical importance. In the drier periods, the British advance was inexorable and during the unusually wet August and in the Autumn rains that began in early October, the Germans achieved only costly defensive successes, which led the German commanders in early October to begin preparations for a general retreat. Both sides lost a combined total of over a half million men during this offensive. The battle has become a byword among some British revisionist historians for bloody and futile slaughter, whilst the Germans called Passchendaele "the greatest martyrdom of the war ''.
On 20 November the British launched the first massed tank attack and the first attack using predicted artillery - fire (aiming artillery without firing the guns to obtain target data) at the Battle of Cambrai. The Allies attacked with 324 tanks (with one - third held in reserve) and twelve divisions, advancing behind a hurricane bombardment, against two German divisions. The machines carried fascines on their fronts to bridge trenches and the 13 ft (4 m) German tank traps. Special "grapnel tanks '' towed hooks to pull away the German barbed wire. The attack was a great success for the British, who penetrated further in six hours than at the Third Ypres in four months, at a cost of only 4,000 British casualties. The advance produced an awkward salient and a surprise German counter-offensive began on 30 November, which drove back the British in the south and failed in the north. Despite the reversal, the attack was seen as a success by the Allies, proving that tanks could overcome trench defences. The Germans realised that the use of tanks by the Allies posed a new threat to any defensive strategy they might mount. The battle had also seen the first mass use of German stosstruppen on the Western front in the attack, who used infantry infiltration tactics to penetrate British defences, bypassing resistance and quickly advancing into the British rear.
Following the successful Allied attack and penetration of the German defences at Cambrai, Ludendorff and Hindenburg determined that the only opportunity for German victory lay in a decisive attack along the Western front during the spring, before American manpower became overwhelming. On 3 March 1918, the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk was signed and Russia withdrew from the war. This would now have a dramatic effect on the conflict as 33 divisions were released from the Eastern Front for deployment to the west. The Germans occupied almost as much Russian territory under the provisions of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk as they did in the Second World War but this considerably restricted their troop redeployment. The Germans achieved an advantage of 192 divisions in the west to the 178 Allied divisions, which allowed Germany to pull veteran units from the line and retrain them as sturmtruppen (40 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions were retained for German occupation duties in the east).
The Allies lacked unity of command and suffered from morale and manpower problems, the British and French armies were severely depleted and not in a position to attack in the first half of the year, while the majority of the newly arrived American troops were still training, with just six complete divisions in the line. Ludendorff decided on an offensive strategy beginning with a big attack against the British on the Somme, to separate them from the French and drive them back to the channel ports. The attack would combine the new storm troop tactics with over 700 aircraft, tanks and a carefully planned artillery barrage that would include gas attacks.
Operation Michael, the first of the German Spring Offensives, very nearly succeeded in driving the Allied armies apart, advancing to within shelling distance of Paris for the first time since 1914. As a result of the battle, the Allies agreed on unity of command. General Ferdinand Foch was appointed commander of all Allied forces in France. The unified Allies were better able to respond to each of the German drives and the offensive turned into a battle of attrition. In May, the American divisions also began to play an increasing role, winning their first victory in the Battle of Cantigny. By summer, between 250,000 and 300,000 American soldiers were arriving every month. A total of 2.1 million American troops would be deployed on this front before the war came to an end. The rapidly increasing American presence served as a counter for the large numbers of redeployed German forces.
In July, Foch began the Second Battle of the Marne, a counter-offensive against the Marne salient which was eliminated by August. The Battle of Amiens began two days later, with Franco - British forces spearheaded by Australian and Canadian troops, along with 600 tanks and 800 aircraft. Hindenburg named 8 August as the "Black Day of the German army ''. The Italian 2nd Corps, commanded by General Alberico Albricci, also participated in the operations around Reims. German manpower had been severely depleted after four years of war and its economy and society were under great internal strain. The Allies fielded 216 divisions against 197 German divisions. The Hundred Days Offensive beginning in August proved the final straw and following this string of military defeats, German troops began to surrender in large numbers. As the Allied forces advanced, Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed as Chancellor of Germany in October to negotiate an armistice. Ludendorff was forced out and fled to Sweden. The German retreat continued and the German Revolution put a new government in power. The Armistice of Compiègne was quickly signed, stopping hostilities on the Western Front on 11 November 1918, later known as Armistice Day. The German Imperial Monarchy collapsed when General Groener, the successor to Ludendorff, backed the moderate Social Democratic Government under Friedrich Ebert, to forestall a revolution like those in Russia the previous year.
The war along the Western Front led the German government and its allies to sue for peace in spite of German success elsewhere. As a result, the terms of the peace were dictated by France, Britain and the United States, during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The result was the Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 by a delegation of the new German government. The terms of the treaty constrained Germany as an economic and military power. The Versailles treaty returned the border provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to France, thus limiting the coal required by German industry. The Saar, which formed the west bank of the Rhine, would be demilitarised and controlled by Britain and France, while the Kiel Canal opened to international traffic. The treaty also drastically reshaped Eastern Europe. It severely limited the German armed forces by restricting the size of the army to 100,000 and disallowing a navy or air force. The navy was sailed to Scapa Flow under the terms of surrender but was later scuttled, under the order of German admirals, as a reaction to the treaty.
The war in the trenches of the Western Front left tens of thousands of maimed soldiers and war widows. The unprecedented loss of life had a lasting effect on popular attitudes toward war, resulting later in an Allied reluctance to pursue an aggressive policy toward Adolf Hitler. Belgium suffered 30,000 civilian dead and France 40,000 (including 3,000 merchant sailors). The British lost 16,829 civilian dead, 1,260 civilians were killed in air and naval attacks, 908 civilians were killed at sea and there were 14,661 merchant marine deaths. Another 62,000 Belgian, 107,000 British and 300,000 French civilians died due to war - related causes.
Germany in 1919 was bankrupt, the people living in a state of semi-starvation and having no commerce with the remainder of the world. The Allies occupied the Rhine cities of Cologne, Koblenz and Mainz, with restoration dependent on payment of reparations. In Germany a Stab - in - the - back myth (Dolchstoßlegende) was propagated by Hindenburg, Ludendorff and other defeated generals, that the defeat was not the fault of the ' good core ' of the army but due to certain left - wing groups within Germany who signed a disastrous armistice; this would later be exploited by nationalists and the Nazi party propaganda to excuse the overthrow of the Weimar Republic in 1930 and the imposition of the Nazi dictatorship after March 1933.
France lost more casualties relative to its population than any other great power and the industrial north - east of the country was devastated by the war. The provinces overrun by Germany had produced 40 percent of French coal and 58 percent of its steel output. Once it was clear that Germany was going to be defeated, Ludendorff had ordered the destruction of the mines in France and Belgium. His goal was to cripple the industries of Germany 's main European rival. To prevent similar German attacks in the future, France later built a massive series of fortifications along the German border known as the Maginot Line.
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when was five nights at freddy's made | Five Nights at Freddy 's - wikipedia
Five Nights at Freddy 's (often abbreviated to FNaF) is a media franchise based around an indie video game series created, designed, developed, and published by Scott Cawthon for Microsoft Windows, iOS, and Android.
The series is centered on the story of a fictional restaurant named Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, a pastiche of restaurants like Chuck E. Cheese 's and ShowBiz Pizza Place. The first three games involve the player working as a nighttime security guard, in which they must utilize several tools, most notably checking security cameras, to survive against animatronic characters, which become mobile and homicidal after - hours. The fourth game, which uses different gameplay mechanics from its predecessors, takes place in the house of a child who must defend against nightmarish versions of the animatronics by closing doors and fleeing on foot. The fifth game takes place in a maintenance facility owned by a sister company of Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. In this game, the player character is a technician instead of a night guard, who must do different tasks each night as told by an AI voice heard in the game.
The series has gained widespread popularity since its release. Two novel adaptations, Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes and Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Twisted Ones, were released on December 17, 2015 and June 27, 2017, respectively, while a third upcoming novel is set to be released on June 26, 2018. A guidebook based on the series, The Freddy Files, was released on August 29, 2017.
A horror attraction based on the series was featured in the Adventuredome in Halloween of 2016. Additionally, the series appeared in the Guinness Book of Records: Gamer 's Edition, breaking the record for the largest number of sequels released in a year.
The idea for Five Nights at Freddy 's stems from the negative reception towards Scott Cawthon 's previous game, the family friendly Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., as players commented that the main character (a young beaver) looked like "a scary animatronic animal '', with reviewer Jim Sterling calling the game unintentionally "terrifying ''. Although initially discouraged by the poor reception to Chipper & Sons, Cawthon, who had previously mainly developed Christian - oriented games, eventually used it to inspire himself to make something intentionally scarier.
The first Five Nights at Freddy 's game was released via Desura on August 8, 2014. On August 20, 2014, after it was approved by the service 's crowdsourcing platform Greenlight, Five Nights at Freddy 's was also released via Steam. The games that followed were released on November 10, 2014; March 2, 2015; July 23, 2015; and October 7, 2016, respectively. A spin - off of the series, FNaF World was announced on a Steam post by Cawthon in September 2015, and was released in January 2017. Cawthon releases most pictorial teasers of his games to his website, "Scott Games '', and releases teaser trailers on his YouTube channel.
Cawthon uses Clickteam Fusion 2.5 to create the Five Nights at Freddy 's games and Autodesk 3ds Max to model and render the 3D graphics of the games. For the enhancement of FNaF World and Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, Cawthon hired professional voice actors. Cawthon has announced that all titles will be remade by third - party companies for release on consoles.
Cawthon posted a teaser on his official website in 2015 that announced he had plans to release his first novel called Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Untold Story (that would later be renamed to Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes) sometime in the near future, and that it was to be written separate - canon to the games. On June 20, 2016, Scholastic announced that it would be collaborating with Scott Cawthon on a multi-book deal. Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes, was to be re-printed in paperback on October that year. It was then rescheduled for release on September in the same year. The next two novels were scheduled for release in 2017 and 2018 respectively. A guidebook based on the series was also scheduled for release in 2017.
The main Five Nights at Freddy 's series consists of horror - themed video games, in which the player usually takes on the role of a night - time employee at a location canonically connected to Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, a fictional children 's - oriented restaurant similar to Chuck E. Cheese 's and ShowBiz Pizza. The restaurant uses life - size animatronic characters that sing and dance for children 's parties. These animatronics wander in the restaurant at night, and the guard is instructed to keep watch on these, as the restaurants have had "incidents '' of previous guards being attacked and killed by the characters. To progress through the games, the player must guard themself from the animatronics by using various tools to their advantage. For the most part, however, the player must remain stationary in their defence. In the first game, the player can control the two security doors that connect the office to the adjacent hallways, and may close them to provide a barricade against any animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a limited power supply that depletes quicker when a tool is used; if the player exhausts the power supply, the doors permanently open, allowing any animatronic to breach the office.
Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 provides different tools to work with. Protective doors are not present in the office, and the player must instead defend themselves with an empty Freddy Fazbear head, which fools most animatronics. The power usage is also removed, instead being replaced with a limited flashlight, which is used to ward off one animatronic. Lights may also be used to brighten darker areas of the pizzeria. The game introduces the music box, which must be kept wound to prevent an attack from a certain animatronic. 8 - bit minigames make their inauguration, in which the player can interact with randomly after death.
Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 replaces these tools with a monitor panel, where the player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning, so as not to hinder the player 's ability to successfully complete the night. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly, or by hallucinations of past iterations of the animatronics. The ability to seal vents is also added, and must be used to prevent the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can also use an audio - based function as a means of defense, which triggers a childlike voice to play, luring the animatronic away from the player 's office. The 8 - bit minigames return, and are activated via completing certain side - tasks, such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into the wall. If the player fully completes all minigames, they unlock a secret ending.
Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 reintroduces removed tools, specifically the doors and flashlight, albeit with slightly altered usage. The doors can only be closed when the player is next to them, and will re-open if the player moves away. However, if the player shuts the doors too early, the animatronics will jump scare the player when the door is opened. The flashlight can no - longer run out, but only alerts player to the presence of animatronics as opposed to warding them away, excluding the miniature Freddies that appear on the bed. If the player flashes the flashlight while an animatronic is in the doorway, the player will be jumpscared. There is one new mechanic, where the player must listen for breathing audio. This can determine whether to use the flashlight or close the door.
Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location once again keeps the doors, albeit for the secret ending. The flashlight returns, but now loses all functionality, only being stuck permanently on when in certain rooms, and permanently off in others. An elevated control pad is introduced in the game, with the ability to light up rooms and / or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include another control pad inside the "breaker room '', controlling the power to the whole facility, and a flash beacon, which allows the player to see in the darkened "Funtime auditorium '' and avoid the sole animatronic in that room. Sister Location is also the only game where the player is able to move between rooms.
Each game requires the player to survive five nights, with each night increasing the difficulty. There is an unlockable sixth night present in all games (excluding Sister Location), with further additional nights varying between games: the first two games feature a customizable seventh night which allows the player to customize the AI level of each animatronic. A custom night DLC is also available for Sister Location. The third game does not feature any night after the sixth, while the fourth game includes a seventh and eighth night, neither of which are customizable. The fifth game is currently the only game with only five nights, if the custom night DLC is not included.
The spin - off game, FNaF World, has the player explore a light - hearted RPG world battling for experience points. The player unlocks different areas as they continue on their adventure. Eventually, after completing certain tasks, the player wins one of eight different endings, all of which will unlock a trophy on the title screen once completed. The game also received an update titled "Update 2 '' which introduced the animatronic characters in the FNAF4 Halloween Edition and some characters from Scott Cawthon 's older games. The update also introduced another boss character which the player must defeat as well as minigames to unlock the aforementioned new characters.
The ability to use a security camera system is found in all of the main games except the fourth, and is used to observe the positions of the animatronic characters through security cameras that are set throughout the location. However, only one location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the aforementioned cameras. Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes close to black and white in color, and covered in static. In the third game, cameras become dysfunctional if the associated system fails. Security cameras are only used in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location as a mechanic in the "Fake Ending '' and custom night DLC, not in the main game.
The lights, and, by extension, the flashlight and flash beacon, are found in all main games, excluding the third. While use varies per game, lights are generally used to ward off animatronics, or warn the player of their presence. Lights in the first game and second games are activated via buttons mounted into the walls, and light up the player 's ' blind spot ', being the doorway or vent exit, respectively. The fifth game has the lights work similarly, however, they are now mounted onto a control pad, and serve no purpose other than the ability to see the animatronics, due to the different gameplay style. The flashlight in the second and fourth game works in the same fashion as its real life counterpart, in the sense that it has a limited battery life, albeit only in the second game, and must be toggled on and off. The flash beacon was introduced in Sister Location, and is used to quickly gather bearings in the pitch black room seen on the third and fifth nights.
Jumpscares are present in all of the series ' main games, and occur when any animatronic manages to reach and attack the player - character. Most jumpscares involve an animatronic character suddenly appearing in the player 's view, followed by a loud, bellowing sound. Some jumpscares, including those of Golden Freddy, Nightmare, and Nightmarionne, consist of a single screen supplemented with shrill, distorted audio. These jumpscares usually crash or restart the game. The player can utilise the tools listed above to prevent attacks, thus preventing any jumpscares from occurring.
In all games from the second onwards, the player will gain access to a series of (predominantly 8 - bit) minigames, sometimes randomly after death, as in the second game, and sometimes once the player has completed a specific task. These minigames usually tell a story or event relevant to the game 's lore, although mostly presented in a cryptic way. For example, minigames in Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 are speculated to portray the homicidal incidents previously mentioned in the games. Minigames in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 tell the story of a character, possibly the player character, who dies in a tragic accident.
In all main games except for the fourth and fifth, the player receives a telephone voice message from a previous worker, or owner of the location. These "phone calls '' act as a tutorial to the player, and usually go through several gameplay mechanics, and outline the backstory of the players ' location. In the first and second game, the voice heard in the messages remains the same, while in the third game, it holds a strong Californian accent. Sister Location uses something similar, an A.I. voice which acts as a tutor for the player, although it is not from a telephone. Phone calls from the first game can be heard in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4, albeit only as an easter egg.
In the first three main games, the location in which the player character is based in closes down shortly after the end of the game. In the first Five Nights at Freddy 's, the location is said to close by the year 's end, due to a "tragedy that took place there many years ago ''. The location of Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 closes down due to malfunctions of the animatronics. Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 's location closed down after it was unexpectedly burnt down. In Sister Location 's case, the location in which the game 's story is centered around, "Circus Baby 's Pizza World '', was closed down prior to the game, apparently due to gas leaks.
The main characters in the Five Nights at Freddy 's series are generally security guards working at a Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza or related location. None of them have distinct personalities and most of the gameplay takes place from their point of view. In Five Nights at Freddy 's, the guard 's name is Mike Schmidt. In Five Nights at Freddy 's 2, the guard is named Jeremy Fitzgerald for all of the main five nights and the bonus sixth night, though he is replaced in the custom seventh night by another guard, Fritz Smith. The security guard for Fazbear 's Fright: The Horror Attraction in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3, is unknown. The main character of Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 is an unnamed boy, who experiences nightmares of the animatronics. The player in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location is a technician who has their name jokingly autocorrected to Eggs Benedict. The technician 's name is assumed, although not confirmed to be, Mike.
Apart from Mike Schmidt, Jeremy Fitzgerald, Fritz Smith, and Michael (a character whose voice is heard in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location), none of the other human characters in the series have any real, or at least confirmed, names. In the first three games, a man simply identified as "Phone Guy '' leaves a recording over the phone at the beginning of each night which serves as advice to the player on how to deal with the animatronics. Phone Guy is present through all five nights of Five Nights at Freddy 's 2, four of the main nights in Five Nights at Freddy 's, and four of the main nights in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 (as well as in Night 6 for the second and third games.) He is not present in the fourth and fifth games, though his first night recording from the original game is sometimes played backwards as ambiance in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. His call at the start of Night 4 in Five Nights at Freddy 's implies that he was killed by the animatronics. In the third game, he is heard over archival recordings discovered by the creators of Fazbear 's Fright. Sister Location instead features a human A.I. named "HandUnit '', who like Phone Guy, acts as a tutor to the player. The first two nights of the third game also feature "Phone Dude '', one of the creators of Fazbear 's Fright.
The main antagonist of the series is "Purple Guy '', who is presumably a former Fazbear Entertainment employee who murdered at least five children, whose spirits now inhabit the animatronics. In mini-games from the second game, he murders a child, whose spirit is largely believed to inhabit the Puppet. In the third game, it is revealed that he returned to Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza after it closed down to dismantle the animatronics. This released the spirits of the children he murdered, scaring him into hiding inside a spring lock suit, where he was crushed to death by the suit 's faulty internal workings. It is believed that his body resides in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 's main antagonist, Springtrap. In the novel adaptation of the series, Purple Guy receives a possible identity, with the name William Afton. It was also revealed that he was the co-owner of Fazbear Entertainment. Scott Cawthon has stated that although "the book is canon, just as the games are (, t) hat does n't mean that they are intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces ''. Most of the gaming community accepts it as Purple Guy 's true name and work. A certain "Mr. Afton '', mentioned in Sister Location 's prologue, is thought to be Purple Guy, creating the possibility of him being the creator of the animatronics seen in game.
A character named Michael was introduced in Sister Location, whose identity and motives are currently unknown. The character was introduced in a cutscene, in which he seems to be speaking to his father.
There are four main animatronics in the first game: Freddy Fazbear, Bonnie the Bunny (referred to as "Bonnie the Rabbit '' in copyright catalogs), Chica the Chicken, and Foxy the Pirate Fox. A fifth animatronic, Golden Freddy, occasionally appears, albeit in the form of a hallucination. His jumpscare is capable of crashing the game. The animatronics return in various forms throughout the following games, except in the fifth installment, in which Chica is completely absent.
Despite being a prequel, the second game introduces upgraded versions of the original characters called Toy Freddy, Toy Bonnie, Toy Chica, and Mangle, along with old, ripped, and worn out versions of the original animatronics. Mangle is meant to be a "toy '' version of Foxy, but was ripped apart so much by children that the staff got tired of reassembling it and left it as a "take apart, put back together '' attraction, according to Phone Guy. He also mentions that the employees nicknamed it "the Mangle ''. Two new characters are also introduced: BB (known as Balloon Boy), who has no jumpscare and can only disable the players ' lights, and The Puppet (also known as The Marionette), who must be quelled by constantly winding up a music box.
The only true animatronic in the third game is Springtrap, who looks like a decayed golden version of Bonnie. Additionally, Freddy, Chica, Foxy, Balloon Boy, Mangle, and The Puppet return as hallucinations (or "phantoms ''), and although their jumpscares do n't kill the player, they can disable certain features that are essential for the player to complete the night easily.
In the fourth game, nightmare versions of the original four animatronics - Nightmare Bonnie, Nightmare Chica, Nightmare Foxy, and Nightmare Freddy -- appear, haunting a small boy. A nightmare version of Golden Freddy is also featured, identified as Nightmare Fredbear, who replaces all animatronics on the fifth night. Two new animatronics also make their debut: Plushtrap, a finger trap toy version of Springtrap, and Nightmare, a version of Nightmare Fredbear whose jumpscare causes the game to reset. The "Halloween Edition '' of the game also features Nightmare Balloon Boy (who replaces Plushtrap), Nightmare Mangle (who replaces Nightmare Foxy), and Nightmarionne, a nightmare version of the Puppet, who replaces Nightmare. Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica also receive reskins in the Halloween Edition, giving them a resemblance to Jack - O ' - Lanterns.
In the fifth game, Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, "Funtime '' versions of Freddy and Foxy appear as well as multiple new characters: Circus Baby, a female humanoid and the main animatronic, Ballora, who appears to be a dancing ballerina animatronic, Bonnet, a miniature rabbit animatronic, Electrobab, a small animatronic capable of draining power in the game 's "custom night '', a bear - like endoskeleton named Yenndo, Lolbit (an alternately coloured Funtime Foxy), and Ennard, who is a hive - mind animatronic and is a hybrid of the endoskeletons of other animatronics from the game. Three of these animatronics are accompanied with smaller companion animatronics: Funtime Freddy, who is accompanied by "Bon - Bon '', a hand - puppet version of Bonnie; Ballora, who is accompanied by Minireenas (small, ballet - dancer like animatronics); and Baby, who is accompanied by multiple baby - shaped animatronics called Bidybabs.
In the spin - off game, FNaF World, there are up to 30 characters the player can unlock, consisting of characters from the first four games, as well as Coffee from The Desolate Hope, Chipper from Chipper and Sons Lumber Co, Funtime Foxy from Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, and Animdude, the character in Scott Cawthon 's logo. Lolbit (a character from Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location 's custom night) is also featured in its debut appearance, but is only an NPC, and thus is not playable. Enemies in FNaF World either resemble original characters in some way, for example "Ballboy '' to Balloon Boy, and "White Rabbit '' to Toy Bonnie, or are designed and named to match their home location, for example "Chop ' N Roll '' in the wood predominated forest, and "Chillax '' in the snowy fields.
After Scott Cawthon 's previous game (Chipper & Sons Lumber Co.) received bad reception for the unsettling appearance of the supposedly kid - friendly characters, Cawthon decided to use these ideas to create an intentionally scary game, Five Nights at Freddy 's.
The game involves a character, whose name is later revealed to be Mike Schmidt, who has started a job working as a night watch security guard at the restaurant Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and will kill anyone they see by stuffing them in a spare animatronic suit. Apparently, this is due to their misinterpretation of the player character as a metal endoskeleton without their costume on. Animatronic movement is explained to the player as a purposely programmed "free - roaming '' mode, as to prevent animatronic servomotors from locking up. The player must survive from midnight to 6 AM.
The player is not able to leave the room, and must use a camera system and two doors with lights in order to defend themselves from the animatronics. The hostility of the animatronics appear to be the result of possession by the vengeful souls of children who were killed on the restaurant 's site. The player is guided by an unknown entity known as "Phone Guy '', who assists them in their defense from the animatronics. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night, due to tampering with the animatronics, odor and general unprofessionalism.
Five Nights at Freddy 's was first released for Microsoft Windows on August 8, 2014, followed by ports for Android and iOS on August 27, 2014 and September 11, 2014, respectively. A version for the Windows Phone was also released, but was taken down soon after due to the down - scaled graphics of the port.
Shortly after the release of the first game, developer Cawthon began to confirm rumors of a sequel. Just one month after the original game 's release, Cawthon posted a teaser of the sequel on his webpage, and continued to post teasers until the game 's release. A teaser trailer was released on October 21, 2015, introducing various new animatronic characters and the absence of doors. Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 was first released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier of its planned release of December 25, 2014. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20 of the same year. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was taken down for the same reasons as the first game.
Set some time before the events of the first game, the main character, whose name is later revealed to be Jeremy Fitzgerald, has started working as a night watch security guard at the "new and improved '' Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. The "upgraded '' versions of the animatronic characters, which have special facial recognition software to protect the children from potential harm, were not programmed with a proper night mode; when things go silent, their programming tells them that they are in the wrong room and they seek out the nearest source of noise to find people to entertain, which happens to be in the player 's office. The player must again listen to the instructions of a "phone guy '', and attempt to defend themselves from the animatronics using several mechanics. Like the previous game, the player must survive from midnight to 6 AM. Jeremy is apparently moved to day shift after Night 6 as the animatronics ' hostility becomes too dangerous, with the restaurant closing down shortly after.
8 - bit minigames are made available randomly after death, which are thought to portray the restaurants ' past and the several murders that occurred on site. An entity portrayed as a purple sprite is also introduced, who is speculated to be the culpable murderer who murdered the children.
In January 2015, a new image was uploaded to Cawthon 's website, teasing a third entry in the series. Various teaser images followed, before a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, 2015, Cawthon made a post on Steam stating that Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 had been cancelled after a hacker supposedly leaked the game. This was later discovered to be a joke, as the "leaked '' download link lead to a humorous clone of Scott 's previous game, There is No Pause Button!. Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 was legitimately released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7, 2015 and March 12, 2015.
Set thirty years after the events of the first game, the main character (who remains unnamed) works at "Fazbear 's Fright '', a horror attraction based off the long - gone Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from a deteriorated animatronic - costume hybrid known as "Springtrap '', which was the sole animatronic the attraction workers were able to discover. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of previous games ' animatronics also appear, but can not directly kill the player, and instead hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems, which may also fail by other means. Failure to maintain these systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras, and the inability to play audio in order to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first couple of nights, but also listens to old tape recordings discovered by the attraction workers related to the backstory of previous locations.
The game has two endings, a good ending and a bad ending. The good ending can only be achieved by completing secret minigames, in which various animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child 's soul. This ending is thought to imply that the souls of the murdered children have been set free, although connoted meanings are disputed.
Beginning April 27, 2015, Cawthon posted images on his website teasing at another game in the series, originally known as Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Final Chapter. A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game took place in the main character 's house. Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 was first announced with a release date of October 31, 2015, before being pushed forward to August 8, 2015, and again to July 23 of the same year, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25, 2015 and August 3, 2015.
The player character is a young boy suffering from delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the original animatronic characters. The player must defend themselves using only a flashlight, doors, and their sense of hearing, to attempt to locate the animatronics. The story of possibly the same young boy is told through minigames, in which he is shown to be bullied due to his irrational fear of a restaurant featuring a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit. He is guided by an animatronic plush toy, whom speaks to the character in times when he is alone. The child is eventually killed by the bear animatronic, "Fredbear '', in a freak accident.
The game received a Halloween - style DLC, in which features "nightmare '' versions of animatronics from the Five Nights at Freddy 's 2. The DLC also gives halloween - themed reskins to Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica.
In April 2016, Cawthon released a teaser image of an upcoming game on his website, entitled Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, featuring a clown - like animatronic, revealed to be named "Circus Baby ''. Several teaser images followed, revealing different characters and hints at their origins. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon 's official YouTube page featuring new animatronics and a new location. The release date was later confirmed to be October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a joke release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a "mature '' edition of the game after the decision to delay the game to make it more "kid friendly ''. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon 's previous game, Sit ' N Survive. Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location was first released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android and iOS on December 22, 2016 and January 3, 2017, respectively.
The player character, seemingly named Mike, and jokingly referred to as "Eggs Benedict '', is a new employee of the underground Circus Baby 's Rentals and Entertainment, a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment featuring animatronics that are rented out to children 's birthday parties; they were originally intended for use in a pizzeria called Circus Baby 's Pizza World, but the pizzeria never officially opened due to gas leaks. ' Mike ' is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone ' Guy ' from previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling the player to disregard safety, however, an animatronic called Circus Baby often gives instructions that directly contradict that of HandUnit 's, and are vital to survival.
The game also offers a "custom night '' DLC, in which the player is able to use mechanics reminiscing those of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system), which were absent from the main game. New minigames are also made available in this DLC, describing the fate of ' Mike ' after the events of Sister Location. A cutscene is also shown after the completion of the "Golden Freddy '' custom night preset, in which a character named "Michael '' speaks to his father in a foreboding manner.
On September 15, 2015, Cawthon announced a spin - off of his series, entitled FNAF World. Unlike the main series, the game is a RPG - based video game, using the various animatronic characters from the first four games. The game takes place in a fanciful world, where the characters must fight enemies and progress through the game by unlocking certain perks and items. Though originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release to January 22, 2016, but eventually launched yet another day earlier, on January 21, 2016, respectively.
Post-release, community and critics criticized the game for missing key features, being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon later apologized, stating, "I got too eager to show the things that were finished, that I neglected to pay attention to the things that were n't. '' The game was subsequently removed by Steam per Cawthon 's decision, and he stated that the game would be improved upon and re-released for no charge at a later date. Cawthon also announced that he asked Valve to refund everyone 's money who bought the game.
In February 2016, Cawthon released a free version of the game, which featured a 3D overworld and an updated character selection screen. In March 2016, Cawthon updated his website with a new teaser, which featured new characters, like the infamous "Purple Guy '' from the main series, and most of the characters from the Halloween update for Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. Cawthon also created minigames for the second update of the game, including Foxy Fighters, FOXY. exe, Chica 's Magic Rainbow, and FNAF 57: Freddy In Space.
In June 2017, Cawthon hinted towards the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel this game, stating that he had been "neglecting other things in (his) life for the sake of trying to keep up with (the) mounting expectations ''. Cawthon noted that he was not planning on abandoning the series, and may even return with a game of a different style, such as one similar to FNaF World. He also announced his plans to develop a virtual reality Five Nights at Freddy 's game in the future.
Ambient music for the first four Five Nights at Freddy 's games consisted mostly of stock music, altered by Cawthon according to the game 's needs. Notable music found in the games include the "Toreador Song '', which is played when the player runs out of power in the first game, and a music box rendition of "My Grandfather 's Clock '', played from The Puppet 's music box as it winds down in Five Nights at Freddy 's 2.
FNaF World and Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location instead receive their own OST, composed by Leon Riskin specifically for the games. Music created for FNaF World varied from battle themes to general ambience for various locations, for example "Dungeon Theme '', for when the player is in the Mysterious Mine, and "Water Theme '', for when they are in Lilygear Lake. Music in Sister Location had a variety of uses: music such as "Turtle Crusher '' and "MVP '' are used for minigames, while ambiance such as "Crumbling Dreams '' play during the main game. A musical piece titled "Dramatic Soap Opera '' was created specifically for the between - night soap opera, The Immortal and The Restless. Additional numbers were added in the Custom Night DLC, notably "Watch Your 6 '', the main ambiance for Custom Night (although this music was also used for the main game 's alternate ending), and "Demolition Inevitable '', music played in the final cutscene of the game.
Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes is the first novel written by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed - Wrisley, released earlier than planned on December 17, 2015 for the Amazon Kindle and with a printed paperback released on September 27, 2016. The story follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets of the once - loved restaurant Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. According to Cawthon, the novel "expands the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games ''. However, he stated that, though the book is technically canon to the Five Nights at Freddy 's universe, the book and the game series may not be "intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces ''. The novel became a # 1 The New York Times best seller in Young Adult Paperbacks soon after its release.
Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Twisted Ones is the second novel written by Cawthon and Breed - Wrisley. The sequel to Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes, the book was first discovered on Amazon in early 2017. While the discovery sparked controversy on the legitimacy of the product, Cawthon confirmed that the novel was in fact official. The book had an early release in some bookstores, but was released publicly on June 27, 2017. The book involves Charlie, the main character from The Silver Eyes, who is inevitably "drawn back into the world of her father 's frightening creations '' after trying to move on.
A third novel adaptation is scheduled for release on June 26, 2018.
The Freddy Files is the first official guidebook of the series, containing character profiles, outlining several in - game mechanics, and expanding on fan theories sprouted from the games. The book was again released in some bookstores earlier than planned, but released publicly on August 29, 2017.
The Five Nights at Freddy 's: Survival Logbook is the series 's second guidebook. It was first discovered on Amazon on mid 2017. Although it has never been confirmed by Cawthon himself, several suggestions have stated that the guidebook will explore simple activities for children as they play the video games, or to familiarize new players to the game play of Five Nights at Freddy 's. This new title is surmised to have crossword puzzles and word searches, instead of hidden lore or narrative hints about the Five Nights at Freddy 's franchise. Unlike most of the previous book releases, the Survival Logbook has no listed Amazon Kindle editions, implying that it will have pages designed for physical writing as opposed to simply reading from a device. The book is scheduled for release on December 26, 2017.
Warner Bros. Pictures announced in April 2015 that it had acquired the rights to adapt the series to film. Roy Lee, David Katzenberg and Seth Grahame - Smith were set to produce. Grahame - Smith stated that they would collaborate with Cawthon "to make an insane, terrifying and weirdly adorable movie ''. In July 2015, Gil Kenan signed to direct the adaptation and co-write it with Tyler Burton Smith.
In January 2017, Cawthon stated that partially due to "problems within the movie industry as a whole '', the film "was met with several delays and roadblocks '' and it was "back at square one '', but he promised "to be involved with the movie from day one this time, and that 's something extremely important to me. I want this movie to be something that I 'm excited for the fanbase to see. ''
In March 2017, Cawthon tweeted a picture at Blumhouse Productions, suggesting the film had a new production company. In May 2017, producer Jason Blum confirmed the news, claiming he was excited and working closely with Cawthon on the adaptation. In June 2017, Kenan said he was no longer directing the film after Warner Bros. Pictures ' turnaround.
The first game has been praised by critics. Indie Game Magazine praised the first game 's artistic design, commenting that "it 's an incredibly terrifying experience to try to save yourself from the single jump scare that ends the game '' and that it was a "fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying ''. PC Gamer, when reviewing the first game, commented on the fact that players will likely experience familiarity with the setting due to restaurants such as Chuck E. Cheese 's. They also noted that while "the AI is n't some masterwork of procedural unpredictability, it would (still) head straight to you and eat your face off, or it 'll play around like an innocent child before closing in for the kill. Your mind will fill in the rest. ''
The second game received mixed to positive reviews, with PC Gamer commenting that what he had hoped for in the sequel "was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I wanted working legs '', and that "what I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety ''. However, he also noted that "enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty ''. Destructoid also gave the game a positive review, saying that "It 's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues '' and also praised the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and calling the game "too hard for its own good ''.
The third game has, however, proven to be slightly less popular among critics, though it received similar reception to the first two games. Critics from PC Gamer stated that although they enjoyed the new reworked camera system, the jumpscares from the animatronics "felt a little stale by the third night '', to the point of becoming a mere annoyance. Destructoid commented that while Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 is "by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet '', he was disappointed that Fazbear 's Fright and Springtrap "(lacked) charm of the original cast and locations ''.
The fourth game received mixed reviews from critics. Destructoid criticized the fourth game for its excessively - loud jumpscares and the breathing mechanic being too difficult and confusing for players. Despite this, it was praised by one reviewer at GameZebo for its intense environment and creepy sounds and graphics, as well as its jumpscares. It was also given a mixed review by PC Gamer, who called it "another rivet in the series ' steel - clad design which immortalized its Let 's Play legacy in a few short months '' and "certainly the scariest of the four (games) '', but also criticized the gameplay, saying that "the humdrum repetition of the same sequence over and over... is too much of a chore to fully pull me in '', as well as criticizing the game 's lack of the series 's signature camera system.
The fifth game has also received mixed reviews. Destructoid called it "slightly above average '' and noted that "fans of the genre should enjoy this game, but a fair few will be left unfulfilled. '' GameCrate summarized that "Sister Location is a fantastic horror game, even if it does n't particularly feel like the rest of the FNaF series. ''
In 2016, a horror attraction based on the series was featured in the Adventuredome during the Halloween season.
From the first game 's release, the Five Nights at Freddy 's series has become increasingly popular among a large group of people, effectively creating a "fan base '' for the game. The series is discussed by fans on many platforms such as Reddit.
The Five Nights at Freddy 's games have proven popular to be played by video streamers to their audience, so as to capture the players ' jump scares and other frightened reactions, becoming a common game for Let 's Play videos. Popular video streamers such as PewDiePie, Markiplier, and Jacksepticeye helped the games to receive additional attention through their playthroughs. In May 2015, YouTube reported that playthroughs of the Five Nights at Freddy 's series were the eighth most - watched of all video game series on the service. Channels such as Game Theory do occasionally feature Five Nights at Freddy 's related videos, although they seldom provide gameplay footage, giving more attention to discussion of the game.
There are a number of fan made games based on the series, inspired by what is often described as the viable, yet intriguing game mechanics Five Nights at Freddy 's offers.
The Five Nights at Freddy 's fandom is often criticized, mostly due to negative generalization of the community. Scott Cawthon made a post on Steam regarding these claims, defending the fandom and criticizing the wider community for the unfair generalization.
In April 2015, fans mistook random numbers that were placed by Cawthon into the source code of the game 's official website to be coordinates that pointed to a location significant to the games. Fans entered these numbers into Google Maps and consequently discovered a pizzeria in Virginia. Mass phone calls were made to the pizzeria by fans, attempting to discover if the company had a connection to the upcoming installment, Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. It was later confirmed by Cawthon that this pizzeria had no connection with the Five Nights at Freddy 's series.
In June 2016, fans discovered a pizzeria and restaurant in Long Branch, New Jersey called Freddie 's, and again called the restaurant in mass numbers to determine affiliation to Five Nights at Freddy 's. The hundreds of phone calls received by the restaurant each day caused difficulty for legitimate customers to be able to place orders through the phone line. A pizzeria called Freddie 's Pizza & Pasta in Roseville, California also suffered from this.
Cawthon has since asked fans to refrain from calling numbers that they believe are associated with the game, as seen in the footer of his webpage.
Five Nights at Freddy 's merchandise is predominantly produces by two companies, Sanshee and Funko. Products created through these companies include stuffed toys, action figures, posters, clothing, keychains, and even stationery. McFarlane Toys also has a line of Five Nights at Freddy 's merchandise, consisting mostly of construction sets. Todd McFarlane said that the line was "the single largest selling product, bar none, by a lot that I 've done in 20 - plus years. '' These merchandise items are available internationally, and have been a large factor for the franchise 's commercial success.
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mark is 6 years old his sister is half his age | Mark Hoppus - wikipedia
Mark Allan Hoppus (born March 15, 1972) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, record producer, and television personality best known as the bassist and co-lead vocalist for the pop punk band Blink - 182.
Born in Ridgecrest, California, Hoppus spent his childhood moving back and forth between his mother and father 's houses, as they divorced when he was in third grade. He became interested in skateboarding and punk rock in junior high, and received a bass guitar from his father at the age of fifteen. After moving to San Diego in 1992, Hoppus ' sister introduced him to Tom DeLonge, and together with drummer Scott Raynor, they formed the band Blink - 182. Following Raynor and DeLonge 's departures from the band in 1998 and 2015, respectively, Hoppus is now the only remaining founding member of Blink - 182.
Blink - 182 produced several rock recordings and toured exhaustively before signing to major label MCA to co-distribute their sophomore effort, 1997 's Dude Ranch, which featured the Hoppus - penned hit "Dammit ''. After replacing Raynor with Travis Barker, the trio recorded Enema of the State (1999), which launched the band into multiplatinum success, becoming the biggest pop punk act of the era. Two more records followed -- the heavier Take Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001) and the more experimental Blink - 182 (2003) -- before the band split in 2005 following internal tension. Hoppus continued playing with Barker in + 44 in the late 2000s. Blink - 182 subsequently reunited in 2009 and continue to record and tour worldwide.
Aside from his musical career, Hoppus has had multiple successes behind the recording console, producing records for groups such as Idiot Pilot, New Found Glory, The Matches, Motion City Soundtrack and PAWS. He has previously co-owned two companies, Atticus and Macbeth Footwear, and has begun a clothing line named Hi My Name is Mark. Hoppus hosted a weekly podcast in 2005 through 2006 which returned in 2015, and he hosted his own television talk show, Hoppus on Music, from 2010 to 2012 on Fuse.
Mark Hoppus was born in Ridgecrest, California, on March 15, 1972, to Kerry Wernz and Tex Hoppus. Ridgecrest is a small town in the California desert, composed mainly of what Hoppus later described as "geniuses, scientists, physicists and then just complete strung - out meth - heads ''. Hoppus ' Finnish paternal great - grandparents, Aaron and Lempi Orrenmaa, emigrated to the U.S. from Laihia. His father, like many in Ridgecrest, worked for the U.S. Department of Defense, designing missiles and bombs for the town 's Navy testing center. Hoppus describes himself as "pretty mellow '' until his parents divorced when he was eight, which had a "drastic, unsettling effect '' on him. "When my parents argued, it was always behind closed doors. I remember sitting outside my parents ' room when I was seven years old, hearing the dulled voice of anger behind the door. It upset me a lot. '' Following these events, he spent two years shuffling between his parents ' homes with sister Anne, until he and his father moved to nearby Monterey. His father was often away earning a postgraduate degree in college. He later would describe his childhood as lonely, remarking, "(I) was living by myself in the fifth grade. ''
Hoppus describes himself as "pretty straight '' until junior high, when he began skateboarding and listening to punk rock. He lived in Fairfax, Virginia (a suburb of Washington, D.C.) during his early high school years and attended Annandale High School during his second year, at which time he received his first bass guitar and attended his first concert: They Might Be Giants at the 9: 30 Club shortly before his sixteenth birthday, March 4, 1988. "I did n't know where I should stand or what I should do, so my friends and I bought some menthol cigarettes and smoked for the first time and tried to look as cool as we could. We probably looked like idiots, '' Hoppus remembered. Hoppus received his first bass (a Mako) as a gift from his father, purchased at a local music shop in Annandale. He earned money for a set of amplifiers by helping him paint his house. Hoppus never took bass lessons, instead he taught himself by playing to bands such as the Descendents, The Cure, and Bad Religion. Hoppus has remarked that "Silly Girl '' by the Descendents was the "song that made me fall in love with punk rock music (...) that song changed my life forever. '' Likewise, Hoppus borrowed a cassette version of The Cure 's Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me from friend Wendy Franklin the summer following junior high school and was taken with "Just Like Heaven ''.
Hoppus began to dress like frontman Robert Smith, donning eyeliner and "occasionally bright red lipstick '' to his high school classes ("This all went over exceedingly well with the faculty and staff in the small desert town where I grew up, '' Hoppus remarked in 2009). Beginning in his first year, Hoppus gained solace through music of both The Cure and The Smiths. Hoppus played by himself and sang in the band Pier 69, primarily covering songs by The Cure, and recorded a live demo with a group named The Attic Children in 1988, featuring covers of The Cure songs. Hoppus returned to Ridgecrest in 1989, completing high school at Burroughs High School. In his teen years, a friend of Hoppus would steal his mother 's car in the middle of the night and pick Hoppus up; the two would sneak out to the desert and burn trees and any objects they could find. After graduating from Burroughs High School in 1990, he began playing in a band called of All Things he formed with two friends, covering songs by Descendents, Social Distortion and Bad Religion, as well as writing original punk numbers. The group primarily performed at friend 's parties and bonfires, and once played Oasis, the local music venue. Hoppus left Ridgecrest in summer 1992 to attend college and get a job at a local music store in San Diego. Hoppus continued playing gigs with of All Things, returning on weekends. Eventually, Hoppus ' manager became suspicious of his weekend activities (Hoppus having told him he worked with mentally disabled children in Ridgecrest) and refused any time off on weekends. His "short lived attempt '' at college, studying at California State University, San Marcos, revolved around plans to become an English teacher. He recalls he "hated '' college and his reasoning behind becoming a teacher involved sights set for educational reform. He dropped out in the early 1990s after "things began to take off with Blink - 182 '' and lived with his mother for many of the early years of the band. Hoppus describes his mother as always supportive in his decisions to drop out of college and tour with Blink - 182; however, he describes his father as "more realistic, (...) he said, ' Have something to fall back on. ' '' "I 'm really fortunate that my mom always completely supported me, even to the point that I dropped out of college and lived at her house for five years before our band started to catch on, '' said Hoppus.
After moving to San Diego in the summer of 1992, Hoppus was reunited with his sister Anne Hoppus, to whom he expressed his desire to be in a band. Anne attended Rancho Bernardo High School, and had become friends with new student Tom DeLonge over the summer. In August 1992, Anne introduced the two, and Hoppus and DeLonge immediately began performing music in DeLonge 's garage. To impress DeLonge, Hoppus climbed to the top of a streetlight outside of DeLonge 's home -- however, he broke both ankles on the way down, resulting in being in crutches for the next few weeks. DeLonge recalled the meeting in 2000: "When I first met Mark, we were running around naked, doing weird stuff. We were up skateboarding until late hours of the morning, antagonizing security guards, and we were just always having fun. '' DeLonge recruited old friend Scott Raynor from his days at Poway to become the drummer for the new band, named Blink.
Hoppus and his girlfriend at this time lived in a basement apartment, barely scraping together funds to pay rent. With money in savings, Hoppus went out and bought his first professional equipment: a new amp and bass cabinet. He came home and his girlfriend proceeded to argue with him, angry that he spent money on something they did not need. "I just kept telling her that this was what mattered to me, this was my life, '' Hoppus recalled. She demanded he make a choice between the band and her, which resulted in Hoppus leaving the band shortly after formation. Shortly thereafter, DeLonge told Hoppus he had borrowed a four track recorder from a friend and was preparing to record a demo tape, which prompted Hoppus to break up with his girlfriend and return to the band. Flyswatter -- a combination of original songs and punk covers -- was recorded in Raynor 's bedroom and landed the band their first shows. Three more demos were recorded over the course of 1993 and the band began performing its irreverent live show at local all - ages venue SOMA, which alerted local independent label Cargo Music. Cargo signed the band on a trial basis, and Hoppus was the only member to sign the contract, as DeLonge was at work at the time and Raynor was still a minor. During this time, Hoppus lived at home in San Diego at his mother 's, where the band would prepare cassette demos and the entire family would fold cassette inserts. Raynor, whose parents moved to Reno, Nevada, stayed with Hoppus in summer 1994.
Blink 's first album, Cheshire Cat (1995), was a strong seller for the independent band and would come to be regarded as iconic within the skate punk scene. In 1995, the band signed on for their first national tour, which extended as far as the East Coast. The band purchased their own tour van and embarked on the GoodTimes tour with Unwritten Law, Sprung Monkey and 7 Seconds. The band slowly built a young, devoted following with indie recordings and an endless series of performances and various clubs and festivals. MCA Records signed the band in 1996 and would co-distribute their next release, the sophomore effort Dude Ranch. Hoppus penned the record 's lead single, "Dammit '', which became a nationwide rock radio hit single as the band toured on the Vans Warped Tour.
Hoppus grew increasingly lonely on these tours, having no significant other while other band members did. The exhaustive schedule created tensions within the band, who would fire Raynor in the summer of 1998 in mysterious circumstances never fully explained. With new drummer Travis Barker behind the kit, the trio hit the studio with producer Jerry Finn and recorded Enema of the State, which launched the band 's career, catapulting them into the "stratosphere of pop music '' and solidifying them as the biggest pop punk act of the era. Three singles were released from the record -- "What 's My Age Again? '', "All the Small Things '', and "Adam 's Song '' -- that crossed over into Top 40 radio format and experienced major commercial success. Hoppus got married in 2000 (see Personal life) just before the band prepared to record their highly anticipated follow - up, Take Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001). Hoppus felt complacent creatively but DeLonge felt otherwise, creating post-hardcore side project Box Car Racer to experiment with ideas he deemed unsuitable for Blink.
Hoppus felt betrayed (Barker was also in Box Car Racer) and a rift developed between Hoppus and DeLonge that would carry on into the band 's future. When the band regrouped to record their next record in 2003, all of the members had become fathers (or, in the case of Barker, becoming one) and the trio took a darker, more "mature '' direction with their eponymous fifth studio album, infusing experimentalist elements into their usual pop punk sound partially inspired by Box Car Racer. Unresolved feelings from that project would arise in late 2004 when the band began to argue regarding their future and recording process. The February 2005 break - up of Blink - 182 affected Hoppus greatly: "I had no idea what to do. After Blink broke up I had such a loss of identity and purpose. I just had a giant sense of void. '' Hoppus then began to work on even darker, electronic demos with Barker in his kitchen. He also turned to producing, hitting the studio with Motion City Soundtrack to record Commit This to Memory (2005). In October 2005, Hoppus and Barker purchased a studio together (named Opra Music), where they would bring together a full band to expand upon those electronic demos, creating + 44 's When Your Heart Stops Beating (2006).
The record, by all accounts, sold poorly and received mixed reviews in the music press. Hoppus and Barker continued touring on the Honda Civic Tour and commenced work on a second + 44 album. The August 2008 death of friend and producer Jerry Finn deeply affected Hoppus, who referred to Finn as a lifelong friend and mentor. The following month, Barker and collaborator Adam Goldstein (aka DJ AM), were involved in a plane crash that killed four people, leaving Barker and Goldstein the only survivors. Hoppus immediately boarded a plane to the burn unit, and DeLonge reconnected with the duo under the tragic circumstances. When the band regrouped in the studio for a day, past acrimony vanished with near immediacy. Regarding these experiences, Hoppus wrote, "The events of the past two months supersede everything that happened before. Life is too short. '' In February 2009, the band 's official website was updated with a statement: "To put it simply, We 're back. We mean, really back. Picking up where we left off and then some. In the studio writing and recording a new album. Preparing to tour the world yet again. Friendships reformed. 17 years deep in our legacy. ''
The band reconnected musically and emotionally on the reunion tour, but were still "on eggshells '' throughout the recording of their comeback album. The recording 's delay was due to the way the band chose to work -- in bits and pieces, alone and together, in a pair of California studios -- in addition to each member 's busy schedules. The band struggled to record juggling individual priorities; in the case of Hoppus, his new television show Hoppus on Music required him flying to New York once a week. Hoppus moved to London with his family late in the recording process, also complicating matters. The band 's comeback album, Neighborhoods (2011), debuted high but undersold label expectations, and Blink - 182 parted with Interscope Records in 2012, going independent for their next release, the EP Dogs Eating Dogs.
The band toured Australia in February 2013 without Barker, who did not attend due to his fear of flying (Brooks Wackerman of Bad Religion filled in for him). The band toured the United States in September 2013, where they planned to begin writing songs for their seventh studio album. "We 're hoping to head into the studio next year (and to have the) album out in late spring / early summer, '' Hoppus told Kerrang!. In the interim, Hoppus began recording songs with frequent engineer and producer Chris Holmes that the duo plan to release by the end of the year. "We probably have seven or eight songs in various stages of completion, '' Hoppus remarked in August 2013. "I still have n't chosen a name (for the project) yet; we still have to figure that out. It 's like guitar mixed with electronics.... at this point. '' Hoppus will share lead vocals with Holmes on the tracks. On April 25, 2014, Hoppus announced, via Twitter, the name of the band as Nothing and Nobody. Their first album is expected to be released in the "not - too - distant future ''.
In 2015, Blink - 182 played three shows in California. With the departure of Tom DeLonge from the band, Matt Skiba of Alkaline Trio, filled in. It was the first time Hoppus performed under the name "Blink - 182 '' without Tom DeLonge by his side. The shows were on March 18, March 20, and March 22.
In non-musical endeavors, Hoppus launched his own clothing line, Hi My Name is Mark (stylized as "HiMyNameIsMark ''), in July 2013.
Hoppus primarily writes most of his songs on an acoustic guitar. Hoppus is self - taught, "and consequently I do n't have the best technique, '' he remarked in 2004. "I think you would learn how to paint by painting, rather than reading books about painters or painting and I think it 's the same with music. You learn by doing and getting influences from other artists. ''
Hoppus used three different bass guitars while recording Enema of the State: a Fender Precision Bass, Fender Jazz Bass and a Music Man StingRay. Hoppus primarily recorded with the two Fender basses, and merged the two together for the Fender Mark Hoppus Jazz Bass, which debuted in 2000. "I took a Jazz Bass body because I thought it looked really cool and gives a good tone and then I put a P - Bass neck on it because it 's a wider neck and it 's easier to play -- especially for my style, which is n't so much finger work, '' he said.
As of 2015, Hoppus has switched to customized Fender Jaguar Basses when performing on stage with Blink - 182, although he still occasionally uses his signature model. For live sound, Hoppus plugs his basses into three Ampeg SVT Classic bass heads running into two Ampeg 8x10 SVT bass cabs. Prior to the use of the all - tube SVT Classic heads, Hoppus used two Ampeg SVT - 4 Pro heads which only feature a tube preamp. As of the Neighborhoods album release, Hoppus has been using New Vintage amplifiers and cabinets, specifically the Undertow 300 amplifier and NW 8x10 bass cabinets.
Hoppus and Tom DeLonge co-owned two companies, Atticus and Macbeth Footwear, Hoppus has since sold his share in both companies; as well as loserkids.com.
Mark Hoppus has made several acting appearances in films and television, often as part of Blink - 182. He first appeared as a member of a garage band in the hugely successful teen comedy American Pie (1999) with bandmates Tom DeLonge and Travis Barker, (Though the film 's credits list Barker as Scott Raynor.) He appeared again with DeLonge, singing a cover of Jan and Dean 's "Dead Man 's Curve '' in the CBS television movie Shake, Rattle and Roll: An American Love Story (1999). Hoppus and DeLonge hosted the MTV show You Idiot! in 1999. The band appeared in the Two Guys and a Girl episode "Au Revoir, Pizza Place '' in 1999, as well as an animated cameo in The Simpsons episode "Barting Over '' in 2003. The band made a guest appearance on MADtv in 2002, in a segment titled "Leave It to Blink - 182 '', spoofing 1950s - era sitcoms. Hoppus was a guest actor on an episode of the show Haunted in 2002. In 2011, he appeared in the documentary film The Other F Word. Hoppus was featured as a panelist on the comedy show Never Mind the Buzzcocks in 2012.
He also wrote columns for Risen Magazine 's March / April and May / June 2005 issues entitled "Beyond Us ''. Mark Hoppus has been confirmed to be a part of a documentary about modern punk music entitled One Nine Nine Four. The film was due to be released in 2009 but has been delayed.
In 2010, he joined the 9th annual Independent Music Awards judging panel to assist independent musicians ' careers.
Mark Hoppus worked to help relief efforts in Japan after the devastating earthquake and tsunami Tōhoku. He announced that his group Blink - 182, will be auctioning off items to benefit the American Red Cross on EBay. "So sad for what 's happening in Japan. Gonna dig in the bins & find some old blink - 182 items to auction for the Red Cross '' said Mark. The items auctioned off included the original lyrics sheet to the group 's hits "The Rock Show '' and "Adam 's Song '', Bad Religion autographed cymbal, hand painted 1.5 FT tall Bunny, blink - 182 tour backstage pass, stickers, postcard / magnets, trading cards, the band 's dressing room sign from the 2000 VMAs, and Hoppus orange sweater from the "Dammit '' music video. Among the 33 items auctioned off for charity he totaled 4,318 dollars.
"HiMyNameIsMark '' is a podcast that was set up in the wake of the Blink - 182 hiatus by Hoppus, and can be found at HiMyNameIsMark.com. Every few weeks he released a show of songs by underground bands, interviews with band members and / or friends, and reminisces about happenings in his life. He is often joined on the show by his friends Chris Holmes (+ 44 's engineer) and James Ingram (+ 44 's assistant engineer). Hoppus has also created various side projects including "Hopp on Popp '' where he reviews one of his favorite up and coming artists, some of which have been Matt & Kim, fun., and Japandroids. In late 2014, the podcast returned from a hiatus.
On June 22, 2010, Fuse announced that Hoppus would be hosting his own weekly, one - hour television series entitled A Different Spin with Mark Hoppus. In relation to the press release, Hoppus stated "I am stoked to join the Fuse family and have a show where I can talk about a topic that I 'm passionate about, music. More importantly, I 'm excited to force millions of people to watch me on a weekly basis on national television. '' According to Fuse senior vice president of programming and development Sal LoCurto, "A Different Spin with Mark Hoppus was developed to compliment the wide variety of music programming on Fuse -- including live concerts, festival coverage and in - depth interview series with the biggest names in music. On August 5, Hoppus revealed the co-host of the show would be comedian Amy Schumer. ''
The show focuses on music news, fun panel discussions and special reports from the show 's correspondents. The show also features musical performances by both mainstream and emerging bands. The show officially premiered on September 16, 2010 on Fuse. The show 's second season premiered in March 2011 and the show was re-titled Hoppus on Music.
Hoppus married Skye Everly on December 2, 2000. Hoppus met Everly at a rehearsal for the music video of "All the Small Things ''. According to a 2004 interview, Everly, who was then an MTV talent executive, initially refused to date Hoppus: "Tom (DeLonge) always used to embarrass me. Any girl he 'd talk to, he 'd say, ' Hey, you wan na go on a date with Mark? ' He asked Skye, my wife, who looked at me and said ' No. ' That 's how it all started. '' Two years after marrying Hoppus, Everly gave birth to a son in 2002.
In 2004, Hoppus told Risen that he was a registered Libertarian. "To me it means to respect other people and let them do their own thing. The government is there to help people but not control them, '' he remarked. A 2000 Rolling Stone profile notes that Hoppus "pray (s) every night ''. He elaborated on his religious views in a 2005 interview: "It 's amazing to me that anyone can say that one thing is right. (...) To draw lines over something that none of us on earth could possibly comprehend seems like a waste of time. ''
In 2011, Hoppus and his family relocated to Mayfair, London, as Blink - 182 were in the process of completing their sixth album, Neighborhoods. They would remain in London for another three years before moving to Beverly Hills, California in 2014. As a resident of London, he enjoyed jogging in the city 's parks and became a fan of Chelsea FC.
Hoppus is a vegan.
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where did the last name outlaw come from | Outlaw (name) - wikipedia
Outlaw is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
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what is the flavor in earl grey tea | Earl Grey tea - wikipedia
Earl Grey tea is a tea blend which has been flavoured with the addition of oil of bergamot. Bergamot is a variety of orange that is often grown in Italy and France. The rind 's fragrant oil is added to black tea to give Earl Grey its signature pungent punch. Traditionally, Earl Grey was made from black teas, but tea companies have since begun to offer Earl Grey in other varieties as well, such as green or oolong.
Tea flavoured with bergamot, which was used to imitate the more expensive types of Chinese tea, has been known in England since at least the 1820s. In 1837 there is a record of court proceedings against Brocksop & Co. who were found to have supplied tea "artificially scented, and, drugged with bergamot in this country. '' A "Grey 's Tea '' is known from the 1850s, but the first known published references to an "Earl Grey '' tea are advertisements by Charlton & Co. of Jermyn Street in London in the 1880s.
The Earl Grey blend, or "Earl Grey 's Mixture '', is assumed to be named after Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, British Prime Minister in the 1830s and author of the Reform Bill of 1832. He reputedly received a gift, probably a diplomatic perquisite, of tea flavoured with bergamot oil.
According to one legend, a grateful Chinese mandarin whose son was rescued from drowning by one of Lord Grey 's men first presented the blend to the Earl in 1803. The tale appears to be apocryphal, as Lord Grey never set foot in China and the use of bergamot oil to scent tea was then unknown in China. However, this tale is subsequently told (and slightly corrected) on the Twinings website, as "having been presented by an envoy on his return from China ''.
Jacksons of Piccadilly claim they originated Earl Grey 's Tea, Lord Grey having given the recipe to Robert Jackson & Co. partner George Charlton in 1830. According to Jacksons, the original recipe has been in constant production and has never left their hands. Theirs has been based on Chinese black tea since the beginning.
According to the Grey family, the tea was specially blended by a Chinese mandarin - speaking individual for Lord Grey, to suit the water at Howick Hall, the family seat in Northumberland, using bergamot in particular to offset the preponderance of lime in the local water. Lady Grey used it to entertain in London as a political hostess, and it proved so popular that she was asked if it could be sold to others, which is how Twinings came to market it as a brand.
A 2010 survey found that a significant minority of people in the United Kingdom associate drinking Earl Grey tea with being "posh '' or upper class.
"Earl Grey '' as applied to tea is not a registered trademark, and numerous tea companies produce their own versions of Earl Grey tea, using a wide variety of tea leaves and additives.
Bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia) is a small citrus tree which blossoms during the winter and is grown commercially in Calabria, Italy. It is probably a hybrid of Citrus limetta (sweet lime) and Citrus aurantium (bitter orange).
Twinings reformulated their Earl Grey tea in April 2011, claiming to have added "an extra hint of bergamot and citrus ''. The overwhelmingly negative comments on the Web site were picked up by the press, who drew attention to the establishment of a related protest group on Facebook.
Earl Grey tea is used as a flavouring for many types of cakes and confectionery, such as chocolates, as well as savoury sauces. For sauces, the flavour is normally created by adding tea bags to the basic stock, boiling for a few minutes and then discarding the bags. For sweet recipes, loose tea is often added to melted butter or hot cream and strained after the flavour is infused.
There is a considerable history of Earl Grey tea being used as a drink mixer, in particular for gin, within the British Isles, somewhat similar in principle to the Irish coffee, though this is seldom practised today. During the later 19th century, poorer working class households began to combine the drinks as a minimum proof alcohol volume began to be meaningfully applied, following an 1855 revision to the Weights and Measures Act, to the relatively inexpensive spirit, making it unpalatable when taken neat. Being somewhat similarly flavoured, the two made for an affordable and pleasant pairing, in addition to which the necessary boiling during preparation plus its proof alcohol level helped disarm water - borne contaminants, then a significant public health risk. The drink became associated briefly with middle - class - particularly, female - alcoholism during the interwar years of the 20th century; it was during this time that the preparation was first referred to as a "Moseley Tea Service '', after the wealthy area of Birmingham. Although the drink was never to achieve the ubiquity of the Irish coffee, it continues like many retro cocktails to be offered as a niche item in some contemporary bars and restaurants.
In several studies, application of high concentrations of some brands of bergamot oil directly to the skin was shown to increase redness after exposure to ultraviolet light; however, this should not apply to ordinary oral consumption of Earl Grey tea. Bergamot is a source of bergamottin which, along with the chemically related compound 6 ', 7 ' - dihydroxybergamottin, is known to be responsible for grapefruit -- drug interactions in which the consumption of the juice affects the metabolism of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs.
In one case study, a patient who consumed four litres of Earl Grey tea per day reported muscle cramps, which were attributed to the function of the bergapten in bergamot oil as a potassium channel blocker. The symptoms subsided upon reducing his consumption of Earl Grey tea to one litre per day.
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who played jennifer in back to the future 1 | Claudia Wells - wikipedia
Claudia Grace Wells (born July 5, 1966) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Jennifer Parker in the film Back to the Future (1985).
Born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Claudia Wells grew up in San Francisco, California, and moved to Los Angeles at the age of 14. She later graduated from Beverly Hills High School.
She started acting with appearances in TV shows.
Wells played Jennifer Parker, Marty McFly 's girlfriend, in the 1985 film Back to the Future. She almost did not end up in the first film of the successful franchise. According to Wells, she had been cast, but a pilot she had done for ABC had been picked up, and she was contractually forced to drop out of Back to the Future. During that time, Eric Stoltz had been shooting for five weeks in the role of Marty McFly. Melora Hardin was slated for the role of Jennifer, though she never actually filmed any scenes. The producers halted filming and replaced Stoltz with Michael J. Fox. By then, Wells ' pilot had been finished and she was recast as Jennifer, now shooting alongside Fox, never having filmed a frame with Stoltz.
After her mother was diagnosed with cancer, Wells said family took precedence and told the studio she would not be available to reprise the role for the two sequels; actress Elisabeth Shue replaced her.
That same year (1985), Wells co-starred in Stop the Madness, an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration, featuring several famous musicians, actors and athletes. The following year, she appeared in the TV movie Babies Having Babies, and the short - lived series Fast Times, a TV adaptation of the 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High (Wells played Linda Barrett, portrayed by Phoebe Cates in the film). Following Fast Times, she did not again appear on - screen until the 1996 independent film Still Waters Burn (released on DVD February 12, 2008).
After a lengthy absence, Wells returned to acting in 2011 with a small role in the independent science - fiction film Alien Armageddon.
The same year Wells had the opportunity to reprise her role from Back to the Future, 26 years after her last appearance in the series. She provided the voice of Jennifer Parker for Back to the Future: The Game by Telltale Games. Wells announced that her next project would be a horror film titled Room & Board.
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when did clemson win the national football championship | Clemson Tigers Football - wikipedia
The Clemson Tigers, known traditionally as the "Clemson University Tigers '', represent Clemson University in the sport of American football. The Tigers compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Atlantic Division of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC).
Formed in 1896, the program has over 700 wins and has achieved two consensus Division I Football National Championships in the modern era and were College Football Playoff National Championship Finalists in 2015 and 2016, winning the championship game over the Alabama Crimson Tide for the 2016 season. Clemson has had 6 undefeated seasons including 3 perfect seasons, 23 conference championships, 6 divisional titles since 2005, and has produced over 100 All - Americans, 17 Academic All - Americans, and over 200 NFL players. Clemson has had seven members inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, including former players Banks McFadden, Terry Kinard, Jeff Davis, and former coaches John Heisman, Jess Neely, Frank Howard, and Danny Ford.
With 23 total conference titles, Clemson is one of the founding members of the ACC, and holds 17 ACC titles, the most of any member, and holds the most combined conference football titles of any Atlantic Coast Conference school. The Tigers ' most recent ACC championships came back - to - back - to back in 2015, 2016, and 2017 the latter with a 12 -- 1 regular season and a 38 - 3 win over the # 7 Miami Hurricanes.
Among its six undefeated regular seasons, Clemson was crowned poll - era National Champions and finished with its third perfect season with a win over Nebraska in the 48th Orange Bowl, and was the National Championship Finalist Runner - up with a 14 -- 1 record in 2015. The next year Clemson won the National Title over # 1 Alabama in college football 's first National Championship rematch in 2016. The Tigers have 41 bowl appearances, 18 of which are among the New Year 's Six Bowls, including 2 during the BCS "big four '' era. Clemson has finished in the Final Top 25 rankings 31 times in the modern era, and finished in either the AP or Coaches Polls a combined 53 times since 1939.
The Tigers play their home games in Memorial Stadium on the university 's Clemson, South Carolina campus. The stadium is also known as "Death Valley '' after a Presbyterian College head coach gave it the moniker in 1948 due to the many defeats his teams suffered there. Currently, it is the 16th largest stadium in college football.
Clemson 's streak of seven consecutive 10 win seasons ranks 2nd in active streaks behind the Alabama Crimson Tide. The Tigers have had 14 total seasons with 10 wins or more, seven of them with 11 to 12 wins or more by the end of the post season.
Walter Merritt Riggs can be characterized as the "Father of Clemson Football '', as he brought the game with him from Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama (now Auburn University). The fact that Auburn and Clemson share the same mascot is no accident. Riggs allowed his players to pick the team mascot and, although he may have influenced their decision, the players chose Tigers because Princeton University had just won the national championship. Riggs helped organize and coach the infant Tiger team in 1896. With little money to spend on uniforms, Riggs brought some of Auburn 's old practice uniforms with him, which happened to have orange and navy jerseys. Because the jerseys had gone through a few washboard scrubbings, they were quite faded, the navy worse than the orange. So Riggs made the school 's predominant color orange and the faded condition of the navy became the purplish color, officially known today as Regalia. The team played as a member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA), the first southern athletics conference.
When the Tigers traveled to Greenville on Halloween to play Furman in their very first match, only Coach Riggs and backfield player Frank Thompkins had ever seen a football game played. Today in Clemson, the soccer field is named Historic Riggs field after Walter Riggs. Riggs took the team to a 2 -- 1 record in the inaugural year. He then stepped aside at the urging of the military cadets / students, who felt that he should concentrate on his scholastic duties rather than coach the team for free.
William M. Williams coached the Tigers in 1897, guiding them to a 2 -- 2 record. The team beat South Carolina for the first time and was state champion. In 1898, John Penton led the Tigers to a 3 -- 1 record.
In 1899, when the Clemson Athletic Association could not afford a coaching salary, Riggs again took over the reins, one of only two Clemson football coaches to return to the position after stepping down. The 1899 squad went 4 -- 2. Riggs ' overall record of 6 -- 3 gives him a. 667 winning percentage.
After decade as a Mechanical Engineering professor, he was named acting president of Clemson Agricultural College in 1910, being confirmed by the Board of Trustees as permanent president on March 7, 1911. He served until his untimely death on January 22, 1924 while on a trip to Washington, D.C. to meet with officials of other land grant institutions.
Riggs hired John Heisman to coach Clemson. Heisman stayed only four years at Clemson, where he compiled a record of 19 -- 3 -- 2, an. 833 percentage, the best in Clemson football history. In four seasons, he had three SIAA titles.
In his first season of 1900, he coached the Tigers to their first undefeated season (6 -- 0), and first conference championship, outscoring their opponents 222 -- 10 -- the 64 -- 0 win over Davidson on opening day was then the largest score ever made in the South. The season had various other "firsts '', including the school 's first defeat of the Georgia Bulldogs and the Alabama Crimson Tide. The only close game was with the South Atlantic school VPI.
The 1902 team again won the SIAA. This was the first season with both Hope Sadler and Carl Sitton at ends. One writer recalls, "Sitton and Hope Sadler were the finest ends that Clemson ever had perhaps. ''
The only loss on the year was the first to rival South Carolina since 1896. "The Carolina fans that week were carrying around a poster with the image of a tiger with a gamecock standing on top of it, holding the tiger 's tail as if he was steering the tiger by the tail, '' Jay McCormick said. "Naturally, the Clemson guys did n't take too kindly to that, and on Wednesday and again on Thursday, there were sporadic fistfights involving brass knuckles and other objects and so forth, some of which resulted, according to the newspapers, in blood being spilled and persons having to seek medical assistance. After the game on Thursday, the Clemson guys frankly told the Carolina students that if you bring this poster, which is insulting to us, to the big parade on Friday, you 're going to be in trouble. And naturally, of course, the Carolina students brought the poster to the parade. If you give someone an ultimatum and they 're your rival, they 're going to do exactly what you told them not to do. ''
As expected, another brawl broke out before both sides agreed to mutually burn the poster in an effort to defuse tensions. The immediate aftermath resulted in the stoppage of the rivalry until 1909.
The 1903 team may have been Heisman 's best at Clemson. Following a 73 -- 0 defeat of Georgia Tech in 1903, the Yellow Jackets hired Heisman as their first full - time football coach. Fullback Jock Hanvey rushed for 104 yards in the first half. The account in the Atlanta Constitution read "Hanvey, the Clemson full back, outclassed them all. Time and time again he was sent through the line for gains of 10, 15 and 20 yards, and his tackles were spectacular. ''
After the 1903 season, Clemson tied 11 -- 11 in a game billed as the "SIAA Championship Game. '' Cumberland rushed out to an early 11 to 0 lead, but Clemson came back to tie. On the second half kickoff, Clemson quarterback John Maxwell raced 100 yards for a touchdown. Clemson missed the try. Later, Cumberland fumbled a punt and Clemson recovered. Cumberland expected a trick play when Fritz Furtick simply ran up the middle and scored.
After Heisman left Clemson to become the head coach at Georgia Tech, Shack Shealy, an end for the Tigers in the 1890s, coached the 1904 team to a 3 -- 3 -- 1 record -- the only Clemson graduate ever to serve as head coach of his alma mater
Eddie Cochems, a future innovator of the former pass, had just lost out to Phil King for the Wisconsin job, when he accepted to coach Clemson 's 1905 team, which lost to Vanderbilt and Georgia Tech, but shut out Georgia, Alabama, and Auburn, featured stars left over from Heisman like Furtick and Puss Derrick.
Bob Williams, who beat Heisman in 1902, came to Clemson in 1906, and also coached the 1909 and 1913 -- 1915 teams. The Tigers went undefeated with a 4 -- 0 -- 3 record in 1906, with wins over Georgia, Auburn, Tennessee, and the John Heisman - coached Georgia Tech team. Clemson 's first forward pass took place during the game with Tech in Atlanta. Left End Powell Lykes, dropped back to kick, but lobbed a 30 - yard pass to George Warren instead. Clemson won, 10 -- 0. The 1909 USC - Clemson was the first game broadcast in the state, by the United Wireless Telegraph Company. William Schilletter starred in 1913 and 1914, and was the son of Augustus "Shorty '' Schilletter, a German immigrant in charge of the Clemson College dining hall.
Frank Shaughnessy led the 1907 team to a. 4 -- 4 record. Captain Mac McLaurin and R.T. Gaston starred at either tackle position. Vanderbilt legend Stein Stone posted just a 1 -- 6 record in 1908. Captain Sticker Coles was All - Southern. Frank Dobson posted 11 -- 12 -- 1 overall record from 1910 -- 1912. Wayne Hart had a 3 -- 6 record in 1916.
Washington & Lee 's Edward Donahue coached the Tigers to 21 -- 12 -- 3 record over three seasons, from 1917 -- 1920. Stumpy Banks scored five touchdowns against Furman in 1917 for a school record. Yen Lightsey starred in 1919 and 1920. Doc Stewart coached the Tigers through the transition from the SIAA to the Southern Conference, with a 6 -- 10 -- 2 record from 1921 -- 1922. Bud Saunders led the Tigers to a 10 -- 22 -- 1 record from 1923 -- 1926.
Josh Cody coached the Tigers from 1927 to 1930, posting a 29 -- 11 -- 1 record. The Tigers were undefeated at home (13 -- 0 -- 1) and against South Carolina (3 -- 0) during Cody 's tenure. In 1927 Cody gave Red Sanders his first coaching job as backfield coach. O.K. Pressley made third - team All - American in 1928. "A better center than Captain O.K. Pressley of Clemson is hard to find, '' remarked former South Carolina head coach Billy Laval.
In May 1929, when rumors were swirling that he might leave to coach a bigger - name program, the students, faculty, and staff took up a collection to buy him a brand new black Buick automobile. Raymond Johnson wrote upon Cody 's death: "Josh Cody wanted to be Vanderbilt 's coach so bad that he gave up the head man 's job at Clemson College after four successful seasons. ''
In 1931, Jess Neely (another McGugin product, and a former head coach at Rhodes and assistant at Alabama) became Clemson 's head football coach. During his tenure, Neely led the Tigers to a 43 -- 35 -- 7 record. His final season at Clemson was the turning point in the Tigers ' program. His team went 9 -- 1 during that season, finishing second to Duke in the Southern Conference. The Tigers also received their first bowl invitation and bowl victory that year, defeating nationally ranked Boston College 6 -- 3 in the 1940 Cotton Bowl Classic. The 1939 Tigers finished with a # 12 ranking in the final AP poll. Clemson also had their first Associated Press All - American that year in Banks McFadden. Jess Neely, along with then athletic director Rupert Fike, founded the IPTAY Scholarship Fund, which supports the Clemson Athletic Department.
After Jess Neely left to become the head coach at Rice, Frank Howard (an assistant coach under Neely) was named head coach. Known for his colorful persona, and penchant for imaginative language with both probable, and improbable stories, in his 30 years at Clemson, Howard compiled a 165 -- 118 -- 12 record, a 3 -- 3 bowl record, won two Southern Conference championships, and six ACC championships. Seven of Howard 's teams finished the year ranked in at least one final poll. During his stay at Clemson, Howard also oversaw the athletic department, ticket sales, and was an assistant coach for the baseball team. He also incorporated the Single Wing, T - formation, and I - formation offenses at different points during his coaching career at Clemson. Clemson had two undefeated season under Howard, one in 1948 (11 -- 0), and one in 1950 (9 -- 0 -- 1).
As a line tutor and coach, Howard was part of Clemson 's successful 1939 season under Neely, achieving an 8 -- 1 record and a bid to the 1940 Cotton Bowl in Dallas to play undefeated Boston College. When Neely left Clemson in 1940, the Clemson Athletic Council met to name a successor and council member Prof. Sam Rhodes suggested Howard 's name. Howard, standing in the back of the room, said "I second the nomination. '' He got the job, becoming Clemson 's seventeenth head football coach and never left. He signed a one - year contract that he promptly lost, and he never had another in thirty years.
Although Clemson was still a small military college until 1957, under Frank Howard 's command, the Tigers remained nationally recognized contenders throughout the 1950s. In the sterling 1948 season, the team won a Southern Conference championship (Howard 's first of eight). The Tiger 's also won their second bowl game, a 1948 Gator Bowl win over Missouri, and finished eleventh in the national rankings. For the rest of his life, Howard credited the 1948 team with saving his job.
Howard nearly repeated the 1948 success in 1950 when the Tigers were ranked tenth by the Associated Press with a 9 -- 0 -- 1 season and a 15 -- 14 win over Miami (Florida) in Clemson 's first Orange Bowl win. Under Howard 's guidance, the Tigers were thus, champions on their first three bowl ventures.
In January 1952, after a 7 -- 2 regular season campaign, the Tiger 's were invited back to the Gator Bowl, and by being conference champions once again in 1956, Clemson played in the 1957 Orange Bowl. In their second Gator Bowl trip, Miami downed Clemson 14 -- 0; Colorado led Clemson 20 -- 0, then trailed 21 -- 20, in a comeback game, before finally defeating the Tigers 27 -- 21 in Clemson 's second Orange Bowl appearance. Two season 's later, after an 8 -- 3 season, the Tigers played in the 1959 Sugar Bowl and with their tough defense, held the # 1 - ranked LSU Tigers to a standstill before losing 7 -- 0, leading to an LSU National Championship.
The invitation to play in the first Bluebonnet Bowl in Houston in December 1959 was the eighth bowl that Howard had been a part of either as a player, assistant coach or head coach. It was the seventh bowl trip for a Clemson team and the sixth in 12 years. Howard said that Clemson 's 23 -- 7 triumph over seventh ranked Texas Christian in the Bluebonnet Bowl was the best performance he had ever witnessed by a Clemson team. Clemson was the first school to play in two bowls in the same calendar year.
A Single Wing expert for 22 seasons (including nine as a line coach), Howard changed to the T - formation and its many variations in 1953. Still another major change in the offense was installed in 1965 with the "I '' and pro-type set. In his 13 seasons as head coach using the single wing, Clemson won 69, lost 47 and tied 7. In 12 years of "T '' teams, the Tigers won 71, lost 47 and tied 4. While using the "I '' in his last five years of coaching, Clemson recorded a 25 -- 24 -- 1 record.
Howard was named Southern Conference Coach - of - the - Year in 1948. In 1959 he was named Atlantic Coast Conference Coach - of - the - Year and was accorded the honor again in 1966. As the style of football evolved in the 1960s, Howard 's ground game became outdated, and Clemson 's gridiron fortunes declined. The Tigers last winning season under Howard came in 1967. On December 10, 1969, he stepped down as the fifth winningest coach in the nation, with 165 victories, 96 of them in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Howard also managed the athletic department during his tenure, and continued on as athletic director until February 4, 1971, when he was named assistant to the vice president of the university. On June 30, 1974, he retired from the university payroll, but continued to come into his office daily until failing health slowed him down, serving as Clemson 's ambassador until his death in 1996.
The tradition of rubbing "Howard 's Rock '' prior to running down the hill before home games began during Coach Howard 's tenure. The playing field at Memorial Stadium was named "Frank Howard Field '' in 1974 following his retirement to honor his many years of service for the university. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, the South Carolina Sports Hall of Fame, the Clemson Hall of Fame, the Clemson Ring of Honor, the Helms Athletic Hall of Fame, the State of Alabama Hall of Fame, National Football Foundation Hall of Fame, the Orange Bowl Hall of Honor, and the Gator Bowl Hall of Fame.
Clemson struggled during the years following Frank Howard 's retirement. His successor, Hootie Ingram, only compiled a 12 -- 21 record. During his tenure, the tradition of running down the hill was stopped from 1970 to the end of the 1972 season, when the team decided it wanted to come down the hill for the final home game against South Carolina. The traditional "tiger paw '' logo, which was designed by John Antonio of Henderson Advertising, was introduced in 1970 by Ingram and Clemson President R.C. Edwards.
After a successful run as head coach of The Citadel from 1966 to 1972, Jimmy "Red '' Parker coached the Tigers from 1973 to 1976, compiling a 17 -- 25 -- 2 record. Clemson had a 7 -- 4 season under Parker in 1974, with Parker being named ACC Coach of the Year. The Tigers went 2 -- 9 in 1975, and 3 -- 6 -- 2 in 1976. Red Parker was cut loose by the Board of Trustees at the end of the Bicentennial season. Athletic Director Bill McClellan got the task of informing Parker he was gone when Parker refused to fire his assistants. Though Parker is largely credited with building and recruiting a foundation that would ultimately set the stage for much of Clemson 's success in the following seasons.
Utilizing some of the talent enrolled during the Parker seasons, Charlie Pell coached the Tigers for two seasons, winning the ACC Coach of the Year award twice and leading the Tigers to the 1978 ACC Championship en route to an 18 -- 4 -- 1 record.
Dual - threat quarterback Steve Fuller and the running back tandem of Lester Brown and Marvin Sims spearheaded a dynamic rushing attack that helped the Tigers win the ACC. The only loss came in Week 2 against SEC power Georgia, and, after a Gator Bowl win over No. 20 Ohio State, Clemson posted its second - best final AP poll finish in school history with a No. 6 ranking.
In both seasons, Clemson earned berths to the Gator Bowl, although Pell left before the latter game. Pell became involved in NCAA rules and recruiting violations that came to light under the tenure of his successor, Danny Ford. Charlie Pell would leave after 1978 to become head coach at Florida, where his coaching career would end in 1984 following more NCAA rules violations.
Danny Ford was promoted from offensive line coach to head coach in 1978, after Charlie Pell left for the University of Florida. He won his first game, the 1978 Gator Bowl, with a 17 -- 15 victory over Ohio State and legendary coach Woody Hayes, who punched LB Charlie Bauman in the throat after making the game - clinching interception. In his third season, Ford guided Clemson to the summit of college football by winning the National Championship, and recording the program 's fifth undefeated season. The Tigers, who were unranked in the preseason, downed three top - 10 teams (Georgia, North Carolina and Nebraska) during the course of the 12 -- 0 season that concluded with a 22 -- 15 victory over Nebraska in the 1982 Orange Bowl. Ford, named National Coach - of - the - Year in 1981, holds the record as the youngest coach (33 years old) to win a national championship on the gridiron.
The 1981 college football season was one of the craziest and most unpredictable in the history of the sport. It seemed nobody wanted to win the national championship. At several points in the season, six different teams were ranked # 1 by the Associated Press. Most of them were beaten just as quickly as they earned the top spot. The Tigers slow rise to # 1 quickly gained momentum with an early season 13 -- 3 upset victory over defending national champion Georgia. The Clemson defense contained Georgia 's great tailback Herschel Walker and kept him out of the end zone. Week after week, Clemson was getting better. Offensively the team was led by junior quarterback Homer Jordan, who was a dual threat as a runner and passer. It was a run - oriented offense featuring a fine tandem of tailbacks in Cliff Austin and Chuck McSwain. When they needed a big play, Jordan often threw deep to receiver Perry Tuttle, who later became a first round draft choice of the Buffalo Bills. But the true strength of the Clemson team was its defense. The Tigers had three All Americans including safety Terry Kinard, linebacker Jeff Davis and defensive end Jeff Bryant. All three went on to solid pro careers. But the most famous member of the Clemson defense was a large freshman defensive tackle named William Perry. Perry would later gain fame for his nickname "The Refrigerator '' and became a football folk hero with the Chicago Bears as a lovable overweight defensive lineman who sometimes scored touchdowns while lining up at fullback.
After finishing the regular season with a perfect 11 -- 0 record, Clemson was invited to the Orange Bowl to play Big 8 champion Nebraska. To mark its first trip to the Orange Bowl in over 30 years, Clemson wore all orange uniforms for the second time. The Tigers took a quick 3 -- 0 lead in the first quarter behind a Donald Igwebuike 41 - yard field goal. But Nebraska came back with some trickery when I - back Mike Rozier threw a 25 - yard option pass to Anthony Steels for a touchdown to take the lead 7 -- 3. Leading 13 -- 7 in the third quarter, Clemson took control for good when Homer Jordan threw a 13 - yard touchdown pass to Perry Tuttle, giving the Tigers a commanding 19 -- 7 lead. Clemson held on to win 22 -- 15 bringing home a consensus national championship. At 34 - years - old, Danny Ford became the youngest coach to lead his team to a national title.
Ranked # 10 before the 1982 season began, with six players entering the NFL Draft, including First Round picks DE Jeff Bryant and WR Perry Tuttle, along with Hollis Hall, Center Tony Berryhill, Brian Clark, and linebacker and former team captain Jeff Davis, there were obvious questions as to how well the team would perform in 1982 in the aftermath of a championship season. The Tigers opened the season on the road playing border rival and SEC champion Georgia, losing this time in another close game by 6 points in front of a crowd of over 82,000. The following weekend, Clemson hosted Boston College, in another fourth quarter game that resulted in a 17 -- 17 tie. Like the previous season, the Tigers gradually improved as the season progressed. In November, Clemson 's defense was resilient enough to hold of # 18 Maryland and # 18 North Carolina. Clemson went on to run the table the rest of the season with nine straight wins, and finish with the regular season with a record of 9 -- 1 -- 1. After the # 8 Tigers received a bid to the Cotton Bowl with only one loss on the season, the senior class voted to decline the invitation.
On November 22, 1982, the football program at Clemson was placed on probation for a 2 - year period to include the 1983 and 1984 seasons. This sanction was enforced on the program by the NCAA Committee on Infractions due to a lengthy history of recruiting violations to gain an athletic advantage that had taken place from 1977 through the Tigers ' 1981 National Championship season and into 1982, under the administration of two head coaches, Charlie Pell and Danny Ford. More than 150 documented violations and 69 charges were cited under NCAA bylaws in the categories of improper recruiting inducements, extra benefits to student - athletes, ethical conduct, improper financial aid, improper campus visits, improper transportation and entertainment, improper use of funds, improper employment, and improper recruiting contact.
As a result of these violations, Clemson was publicly reprimanded and censured by the NCAA. The football team was barred from participating in bowl games following the 1982 and 1983 seasons, and barred from appearing on live television in the 1983 and 1984 seasons. Also, the number of scholarships that the university could allocate to football players was restricted to 20 (from the normal limit of 30) for the 1983 -- 84 and 1984 -- 85 academic years. Charles Alan Wright, chairman of the NCAA Committee on Infractions said at the time, "Due to the large number and serious nature of the violations in this case, the committee believed that institutional sanctions related to appearances on television and in postseason football bowl games were appropriate. In addition, because the violations indicated a pattern of improper recruiting activities, the committee determined that a two - year limitation on financial aid to new recruits should be imposed to offset any recruiting advantage that was gained improperly by the university. ''
The 1983 team, like the previous season, had a loss and a tie early in the season, this time with a 16 -- 16 tie with rival # 11 Georgia and a loss at Boston College. The team finished the rest of the season without a loss and going unbeaten in conference play, while finishing with another 9 -- 1 -- 1 season and # 10, and # 11 rankings. The reduction of scholarships could be felt, in the next two seasons as Clemson still remained motivated, posting a winning 7 -- 4 season in 1984, and an even 6 -- 6 campaign in 1985.
From 1987 to 1990, Clemson posted four consecutive 10 win seasons and won three straight ACC titles, including a 35 -- 10 victory over Penn State and a 13 -- 6 defeat of the Oklahoma Sooners in the Florida Citrus Bowl. At that time, no team in Clemson history started higher in the AP poll than the 1988 team beginning the year as the No. 4 - ranked team in the nation and a preseason favorite to win the national title. After an early upset by # 10 FSU, the Tigers finished with a # 9 final ranking following their bowl win over Oklahoma. The 1988 team played one of the school 's toughest schedules, beating three ranked opponents and losing to two others. Rodney Williams paced the passing attack while Terry Allen rushed for 1,192 yards and 10 touchdowns for the ACC champions. In an age of offense, the ' 88 team was fourth in the nation in scoring defense. In 1989, Clemson registered a 10 -- 2 season and top - 12 national ranking for the fourth straight season, and ended his career at Clemson with a 27 -- 7 win over West Virginia (and All - America quarterback Major Harris) in the 1989 Gator Bowl.
Just five years after their first probation under Ford ended, Clemson once again found their football program accused of multiple recruiting violations in January 1990. The NCAA accused Clemson coaches of committing 14 rules violations, which ranged from giving cash in amounts of $50 to $150 to players to having illegal contact with recruits over a period from 1984 to 1988. Although later cleared by the NCAA of direct involvement, this chain of events led directly to the forced resignation of Clemson 's popular head coach.
While at Clemson, Ford also coached wins over a number of coaches later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, including Joe Paterno, Tom Osborne, Barry Switzer, Bobby Bowden, Vince Dooley, and Woody Hayes. Coach Ford compiled a 96 -- 29 -- 4 (. 760) record at Clemson, 5 ACC Championships, and a 6 -- 2 bowl record. He is tied for second on the school 's wins list with Dabo Swinney and behind only Frank Howard. Ford was the third winningest coach in the country on a percentage basis after the 1989 season. Ford also coached 21 All - Americans and 41 players who went on to play in the NFL, during his 11 seasons at Clemson. After a few years away from coaching, Ford was hired by Arkansas in 1992, where he would spend five seasons guiding the Razorbacks.
In 2017, Ford was named to the College Football Hall of Fame.
Ken Hatfield, former coach at Air Force and Arkansas, took over as head coach at Clemson in late 1989. He had a 32 -- 13 -- 1 record with the Tigers and led them to three bowl games.
Hatfield worked to clean up the program 's image in the wake of the Ford - era sanctions. However, in the wake of Ford 's success, Hatfield and many in the Clemson fanbase did not see eye - to - eye. A common saying among Tiger fans during this time was "Howard built it. Ford filled it. Hatfield killed it. '' This sentiment followed Clemson 's first losing season (1992) since 1976.
Largely due to this discontent, school officials refused to grant him a one - year extension on his contract after the 1993 season, even though the Tigers had rebounded from 5 -- 6 in 1992 to an 8 -- 3 record that year and were invited to the Peach Bowl. Expressing "much disappointment '' in what he saw as a lack of support by Clemson fans and several university officials, Hatfield resigned at the end of the regular season. He was later hired at Rice.
The purple home jerseys used by Clemson in special games made their debut during the 1991 ACC championship season, with the Tigers wearing them in the regular season against NC State and in the Citrus Bowl vs. California.
Tommy West replaced Ken Hatfield at the end of the 1993 season, coaching the Tigers to a 14 -- 13 victory in the 1993 Peach Bowl against Kentucky. West had a 31 -- 28 record during his five seasons at Clemson and led the Tigers to three bowl games but no ACC championships. West was fired after a dismal 1998 campaign which saw Clemson go 3 -- 8 and finish last in the ACC. West went on to be the head coach at Memphis.
After Tommy West 's dismissal following the 1998 season, Clemson hired Tommy Bowden, son of Bobby Bowden and coach at Tulane. Bowden led the Tigers to a 6 -- 6 record and a Peach Bowl bid in 1999, with the team that navigated its way through a schedule that included MAC champions and undefeated Marshall, Big East champion and BCS runner - up Virginia Tech (who went undefeated during the regular season), and eventual National Champion Florida State (who finished the year undefeated). The 1999 meeting between the Tigers and Seminoles was dubbed the "Bowden Bowl '' and was the first time that a father and son coached against each other in Division I football. FSU won the game 17 -- 14 in front of the largest crowd in the history of Death Valley.
During Bowden 's tenure, the Tigers were bowl eligible every season but did n't win any ACC championships (the 2004 team turned down a bowl invitation as punishment for a massive brawl during a game against the University of South Carolina). Bowden has been criticized for his teams underachieving. The 2000 Tigers started 8 -- 0 and rose as high as # 5 in the polls before losing three of their last four. The same thing happened during the 2006 season following a 7 -- 1 start and with the team on the verge of winning the ACC Atlantic Division. The Tigers have also shown great resolve at points during Bowden 's tenure. The 2003 team won four games at the end of the season to finish 9 -- 4, which included victories over # 3 Florida State and # 7 Tennessee in the Chick - Fil - A Peach Bowl. The 2004 season saw the Tigers start 1 -- 4 only to win five of their last six games (which included an overtime upset of # 10 Miami), while the 2005 team overcame a 2 -- 3 start to finish the season 9 -- 4.
Tommy Bowden agreed to resign for $3.5 million on October 13, 2008, after leading the team to a disappointing 3 -- 3 record (1 -- 2 ACC) at the midpoint of a season in which the Tigers were an almost unanimous preseason pick to win their first ACC title under Bowden and were ranked # 9 in the preseason polls. Assistant coach Dabo Swinney was named interim head coach.
Following the departure of Tommy Bowden, wide receivers coach Dabo Swinney was dubbed interim head coach and led the Tigers to a 4 -- 2 record, finishing the 2008 regular season at 7 -- 6. On December 1, 2008, Swinney signed a five - year contract as Clemson 's permanent head coach.
On November 21, 2009, Swinney and the Tigers qualified for their first ACC title game berth, only to lose to the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 39 -- 34. They were awarded a trip to the 2009 Music City Bowl, and defeated the Kentucky Wildcats 21 -- 13, avenging their upset loss in the 2006 Music City Bowl.
During the 2010 season, after a close 24 -- 27 overtime loss to national champion Auburn on the road, Clemson was later defeated in the Meineke Car Care Bowl in Charlotte, North Carolina. In January 2011, Swinney hired new offensive coordinator Chad Morris. Morris became tied with Gus Malzahn as the highest paid assistant in college football after Clemson gave Morris a six - year contract worth $1.3 million annually. Dabo also added on running backs coach Tony Elliott, and defensive line coach Marion Hobby.
On September 17, 2011, Clemson beat the defending national champions, the # 21 - ranked Auburn Tigers, and ended Auburn 's 17 - game winning streak, the longest winning streak in the nation. On October 1, 2011, Clemson became the first ACC team to beat three nationally ranked opponents in a row: # 21 - ranked Auburn, # 11 - ranked Florida State, and # 11 - ranked Virginia Tech. On November 12, 2011, Clemson defeated Wake Forest, winning the ACC Atlantic Division title. On November 26, 2011, Clemson lost to South Carolina for the third straight year, the first time Clemson had lost three straight to its instate rival since the seasons from 1968 to 1970. On December 3, the Tigers won their first ACC Championship since 1991, defeating Virginia Tech 38 -- 10 in the Championship Game. # 15 Clemson would go on to lose to the # 23 West Virginia Mountaineers in the 2012 Orange Bowl 70 -- 33, giving up an all - time record number of points scored in a quarter (35), half (49) and game (70) in the 109 - year history of bowl games.
On December 31, 2012, Clemson achieved its first 11 - win season since the national championship year with a last - second upset win over the # 8 LSU Tigers in the Chick - fil - A Bowl. Clemson trailed 24 -- 13 in the fourth quarter, but rallied back with a game - winning drive that saw a 4th and 16 conversion deep in their own territory that would lead to Chandler Catanzaro 's 37 - yard field goal as time expired to give Clemson a 25 -- 24 win.
The 2013 season was historic for the Clemson football program. The Tigers began the season with a 38 -- 35 home victory over rival and fifth - ranked Georgia and ended the regular season with a record fifth - straight loss to arch - rival South Carolina, 31 -- 17, in the first Top 10 meeting of the two schools (Clemson # 4, Carolina # 9). The Tigers finished 11 -- 2 in 2013 and secured the school 's first ever BCS bowl win with a 40 -- 35 victory over # 7 Ohio State in the Orange Bowl. Quarterback Tajh Boyd and wide receiver Sammy Watkins set Orange Bowl yardage records. Boyd compiled 505 total yards and threw five touchdowns. It was the Tigers fourth win over a top 10 opponent under Swinney.
Clemson finished 10 -- 3 in 2014, highlighted by a 35 -- 17 win over arch - rival South Carolina and a 40 -- 6 win over Oklahoma in the Russell Athletic Bowl. The Tigers took on ACC rival Florida State in week 3 of their season only to suffer a heartbreaking loss in overtime as # 22 Clemson lost to # 1 Florida State 17 -- 23. The Tigers then claimed a six - game winning streak in the middle of their season but lost to Georgia Tech as star freshman quarterback Deshaun Watson went out with a knee injury early in the 1st quarter. The Tigers claimed the nation 's number 1 - ranked defense under defensive coordinator Brent Venables in 2014, and the emergence of freshman quarterback Deshaun Watson propelled the Tigers to another 10 - win season for the 4th time in Dabo Swinney 's six years as head coach.
The 2015 season is regarded by sports writers as one of the most successful seasons in Clemson history. The Tigers possessed the nation 's number 1 ranking throughout the second half of the regular season and ended with 14 -- 1 overall record. Behind the leadership of Heisman Trophy finalist Deshaun Watson, the Tigers won the 2015 ACC Championship against number 10 North Carolina by a score of 45 -- 37. The Tigers were selected to participate in the 2016 College Football Playoff as the top - seeded team in the tournament. Clemson defeated the # 4 ranked Oklahoma Sooners in the 2015 Orange Bowl by a score of 37 -- 17 to advance to the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship game against the number 2 - ranked Alabama Crimson Tide on January 11, 2016. Clemson lost the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship Game to Alabama, 45 -- 40 ending the school 's 17 - game winning streak. Heisman finalist quarterback Deshaun Watson had a historic performance setting the record for most total yards in national championship game history, with 478 yards (405 passing; 73 rushing) against the nation 's best defense, and becoming the first player in history to amass over 4000 yards passing and 1,000 yards rushing in a single season.
In August 2016, ESPN.com reported that the 2016 -- 2017 preseason Coaches Top 25 poll ranked Clemson Tigers football as the # 2 team in the nation. With a loaded offense and plenty of young talent waiting to emerge on defense, Clemson entered 2016 as one of the frontrunners to contend for the national championship. However, the odds of another trip to the CFB Playoff were working against the Tigers. Only one team, Alabama, went back - to - back as national champions and Florida State was expected to emerge once again as a title contender from the ACC. However, Clemson once again set the standard for the rest of the conference and finished the regular season at 12 -- 1. Clemson finished the season with wins at Auburn, Georgia Tech, and # 12 Florida State on the road and defeated # 3 Louisville in Memorial Stadium. The Tigers suffered a controversial 43 -- 42 home loss to Pitt in November, due partially to questionable officiating but also to three interceptions thrown by Deshaun Watson and a failure to convert a 4th - and - 1 late in the fourth quarter, but benefited from losses by a couple of other playoff contenders on that Saturday and finished the season with three straight victories to rank No. 2 in the final CFP rankings. As expected from last season 's returning starters, quarterback Deshaun Watson anchored an explosive offense that averaged 503 yards per game. The defense reloaded behind a standout defensive line and limited opponents to just 18.4 points a game. Clemson finished with a regular season record of 12 -- 1, which culminated with a 56 -- 7 win at home over arch - rival South Carolina, Swinney 's largest margin of victory over the Gamecocks during his career. Clemson won the ACC championship and secured its second trip to the CFP National Championship with a 31 -- 0 shutout of semi-finalist # 3 Ohio State in the 2016 Fiesta Bowl. The Tigers competed in the College Football Playoff National Championship game in Tampa, Florida on January 9, 2017, beating the previously undefeated Alabama Crimson Tide 35 -- 31 on a game - winning touchdown with one second remaining, and winning the 2016 National Championship.
The Clemson - South Carolina rivalry is the largest annual sporting event in terms of ticket sales in the state of South Carolina. Clemson holds a 69 -- 42 -- 4 lead in the series which dates back to 1896. From 1896 to 1959, the Clemson - South Carolina game was played, on the fairgrounds, in Columbia, South Carolina and was referred to as "Big Thursday. '' In 1960 an alternating - site format was implemented utilizing both teams ' home stadiums. The annual game has since been designated "The Palmetto Bowl. '' The last eight contests between the programs have been nationally televised (4 on ESPN, 4 on ESPN2).
Clemson 's rivalry with Georgia Tech dates to 1898 with the first game being played in Atlanta. The game was played in Atlanta for 44 of the first 47 match - ups, until Georgia Tech joined the ACC. When Georgia Tech joined the ACC in 1978, the series went to a more traditional home - and - home setup beginning with the 1983 game. When the ACC expanded to 12 teams and split into two divisions in 2005, Clemson and Georgia Tech were placed in opposite divisions but were designated permanent cross-divisional rivals so that the series may continue uninterrupted. The two schools are 127 miles apart and connected to each other by Interstate 85. This distance is slightly closer than that between Clemson and traditional rival South Carolina (137 miles). Georgia Tech leads the series 50 -- 30 -- 2. However, Clemson leads the series 19 -- 17 since Georgia Tech joined the ACC in 1983.
The yearly conference and divisional match - up with NC State is known as the Textile Bowl for the schools ' similar missions in research and development for the textile industry in the Carolinas. The first meeting of the two schools occurred in 1899, and Clemson currently holds a 57 -- 28 -- 1 series advantage, including having won 12 of the last 13 games played. The series has been played annually since 1971.
The O'Rourke -- McFadden Trophy was created in 2008 by the Boston College Gridiron Club in order to honor the tradition at both schools and to honor the legacy of Charlie O'Rourke and Banks McFadden, who played during the leather helmet era. The club plans to make this an annual presentation. Clemson first met Boston College on the football field in the 1940 Cotton Bowl Classic, the first ever bowl game for the Tigers and Eagles. Over the next 43 years, the teams met a total of 13 times. In 2005, Boston College joined the ACC and the Atlantic Division. Since then, the game has been played on an annual basis with Clemson winning in 7 of the last 8 meetings. As of 2017 the Tigers lead the series 16 -- 9 -- 2.
Between 1999 and 2007 the ACC Atlantic Division matchup between Clemson and Florida State was referred to as the "Bowden Bowl '' to reflect the father - son head coach matchup between Bobby Bowden (Father, FSU) and Tommy Bowden (Son, Clemson). Their first meeting, in 1999, was the first time in Division I-A history that a father and a son met as opposing head coaches in a football game. Bobby Bowden won the first four matchups extending FSU 's winning streak over Clemson to 11 dating back to 1992. Since 2003, Clemson is 7 -- 6, including a 26 -- 10 win in Clemson over then - # 3 FSU. Also during this time the Tigers recorded a 27 -- 20 win in Tallahassee in 2006 which broke a 17 - year losing streak in Doak Campbell Stadium. 2007 was the last Bowden Bowl game as Tommy resigned as head coach in October 2008. # 3 Clemson pulled off a thriller in Tallahassee in 2016, 37 -- 34, over the # 12 - ranked Seminoles. As of 2017, Florida State leads the overall series 20 -- 11.
The Bulldogs and the Tigers have played each other 64 times beginning in 1897, with the 64th meeting played in 2014. Clemson 's only regular - season losses of the 1978, 1982, and 1991 campaigns all came at the hands of Georgia "between the hedges '', whereas Georgia 's only regular - season setback during the three years of the Herschel Walker era came in Death Valley during Danny Ford 's 1981 national championship run.
During the two programs ' simultaneous glory days of the early 1980s, no rivalry in all of college football was more important at the national level. The Bulldogs and Tigers played each other every season from 1973 to 1987, with Scott Woerner 's dramatic returns in 1980 and the nine turnovers forced by the Tigers in 1981 effectively settling the eventual national champion. No rivalry of that period was more competitive, as evidenced by the critical eleventh - hour field goals kicked by Kevin Butler in 1984 and by David Treadwell more than once later in the decade. Despite blowouts in 1990 by the Tigers and in 1994 and 2003 by the Bulldogs, the series typically has remained very competitive with evenly matched games.
Georgia currently maintains a 41 -- 18 -- 4 lead in the series, with 34 games having been played at Georgia, 21 games having been played at Clemson, and 8 games having been played at a neutral site (either Augusta, Georgia or Anderson, South Carolina). Georgia had won 5 games in a row, dating back to 1991, until Clemson won a top - 10 match - up to open the 2013 season in Death Valley. On August 31, 2013, No. 8 Clemson hosted No. 5 Georgia as the season opener for both teams featuring senior starting quarterbacks, star - studded offenses and questions to be answered on both teams ' defenses. This top - 10 match - up was chosen as the ESPN game of the week, and Clemson hosted ESPN 's College Gameday for just the second time. Clemson won the game by the score of 38 to 35.
Their last match - up was in 2014 in Athens where the Bulldogs defeated Clemson, 45 -- 21.
Clemson finished their undefeated 1981 season with a 22 -- 15 victory over the # 4 Nebraska Cornhuskers in the 1982 Orange Bowl, and were named the national champions by all major selectors.
† Other consensus selectors included Berryman, Billingsley, DeVold, FACT, FB News, Football Research, FW, Helms, Litkenhous, Matthews, National Championship Foundation, NFF, New York Times, Poling, Sagarin, and Sporting News
Clemson was selected as the one seed in the second College Football Playoff and defeated the fourth seed Oklahoma on December 31, 2015 in the 2015 Orange Bowl. They lost to the Alabama Crimson Tide in the championship game on January 11, 2016.
Clemson was selected to the third College Football Playoff as the second seed and defeated the third seed Ohio State on December 31, 2016 in the 2016 PlayStation Fiesta Bowl. The Tigers defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide in the national championship game on January 9, 2017.
Since its beginnings in 1896, Clemson has completed six undefeated seasons. This includes three perfect seasons in which the Tigers were undefeated and untied.
† The 2015 Clemson Tigers football team went undefeated in the regular season (12 -- 0), and additionally won the ACC Championship Game and were Orange Bowl Champions, before qualifying for a supplementary game due to the new CFP format.
Clemson won the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association in 1900 and 1902 (tied 1903 and 1906) along with the Southern Conference title in 1940 and 1948. Their 16 ACC titles (15 outright, 1 tied) is the most ACC football championships.
In 1965, South Carolina violated participation rules relating to two ineligibile players and was required to forfeit wins against North Carolina State and Clemson. North Carolina State and Clemson were then declared co-champions.
Conference affiliations
In 2005, the Atlantic Coast Conference divided into two divisions of six teams each and began holding an ACC Championship Game at the conclusion of the regular football season to determine the ACC Football Champions. Clemson won its first outright ACC Atlantic Division championship in 2009 and again in 2011. In 2012, Clemson tied for a share of the Atlantic Division Championship and was named co-champion of the division.
† On 7 / 18 / 2011, Georgia Tech was required to vacate their victory due to NCAA violations and the game is considered by the NCAA and ACC to have no winner.
‡ Clemson finished 7 -- 1 in the ACC and was named co-champion of the Atlantic Division per ACC rules. Florida State played in the ACC Championship by owning the tie - breaker advantage.
‡ Clemson finished 7 -- 1 in the ACC and was named co-champion of the Atlantic Division per ACC rules. Clemson played in the ACC Championship by owning the tie - breaker advantage.
Clemson has ended their football season ranked 31 times in either the AP or Coaches Poll. Clemson currently has seven consecutive 10 win seasons. It is the 2nd longest active streak behind Alabama with ten.
† AP Poll began selecting the nation 's Top 20 teams in 1936. Only the Top 10 teams were recognized from 1962 to 1967. The AP Poll expanded back to the Top 20 teams in 1968. In 1989, it began recognizing the Top 25 teams.
‡ UPI / Coaches Poll began selecting its Top 20 teams on a weekly basis in 1950 before expanding to the nations 's Top 25 teams in 1990.
This is a partial list of the ten most recent bowl games Clemson competed in. For the full Clemson bowl game history, see List of Clemson Tigers bowl games.
In 1951, the College Football Hall of Fame opened in South Bend, Indiana. Clemson has had 3 players and 4 former coaches inducted into the Hall of Fame.
+ Steve Fuller 's number 4 was retired in 1979. However, it was brought out of retirement in 2014 to be worn by Clemson 's 5 star quarterback recruit, Deshaun Watson.
+ C.J. Spiller ' s number 28 was retired in 2010. However, it was brought out of retirement in 2016 to be worn by Clemson 's 5 star running back recruit Tavien Feaster
Clemson players have been honored 25 times as consensus All - Americans.
On July 23, 2002 in celebration of the Atlantic Coast Conference 's 50th Anniversary, a 120 - member blue ribbon committee selected the Top 50 football players in ACC history. Clemson led all conference schools with the most players selected to the Golden Anniversary team. Each of Clemson 's honorees are All - Americans and former NFL players. The nine selectees from Clemson are:
* Practice Squad Only
Announced schedules as of August 23, 2017
Clemson Tigers Football from Rivals.com team recruitment rankings:
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i'm a celebrity and get me outta here | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! - Wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! is a reality TV series in which up to 12 celebrities live together in a jungle environment for a number of weeks. They have no luxuries, and compete to be crowned king or queen of the jungle.
The show was originally created in the United Kingdom by the factual programmes department of ITV 's then London franchise, London Weekend Television and developed by a team including James Allen, Natalka Znak, Brent Baker and Stewart Morris. The first episode aired on 25 August 2002. It is now produced by ITV Studios and has been licensed globally to countries including the United States, Germany, France, Hungary, Sweden, the Netherlands, Denmark, Romania, Australia and India. As of 2017, the UK, German, Hungarian and Australian versions are still in production.
The UK, the German and the 2003 US versions of the series take place in Australia, at a permanently built up camp at the edge of a sub-tropical rain forest that extends from Numinbah Nature Reserve and Springbrook National Park. However the first series of the show was filmed on a smaller site at King Ranch, near Tully, Queensland. The Australian series is filmed in Kruger National Park, South Africa.
Other versions of the show have been filmed in Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Suriname, Indonesia and Malaysia.
This series has been criticised by the UK former Secretary of State for Culture, Tessa Jowell. In an interview with the Financial Times during the second UK series, she said, "If they were n't mostly -- save their blushes -- has - been celebrities, there might be more interest (...) I think that if we saw many more programming hours taken over by reality TV, "I hope you 'd begin to see a viewers ' revolt. ''
In 2002, CBS, broadcaster of the popular American reality show Survivor, unsuccessfully sued ABC and Granada TV over a planned American version of I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, alleging similarities.
The show 's use of live insects and other living creatures in the bushtucker trials has led to some public criticism of the show and its producers and those involved in the programming. This issue was highlighted during the 2009 UK series, where celebrity chef Gino D'Acampo killed, cooked and ate a rat. The RSPCA Australia investigated the incident and sought to prosecute D'Acampo and actor Stuart Manning for animal cruelty after this episode of the show was aired. ITV was fined £ 1,600 and the two celebrities involved were not prosecuted for animal cruelty despite being charged with the offence by the New South Wales Police. This incident did, however, highlight among certain groups such as Buglife, a British charity for the conservation of insects, and the RSPCA, the controversy surrounding the killing of living creatures for human entertainment.
There has been criticism that the producers pretend that the celebrities have to live in "dangerous '' jungle even though they are in a controlled environment, with some of the scenery being artificial, e.g. a pond and a small waterfall.
In November 2014, TV presenter Chris Packham wrote an open letter to Ant & Dec asking them and ITV to end the "abuse of animals '' in I 'm A Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!. He described the trials as "out of date '' and "silly ''.
Colour: In production or returning No longer airing
Season 1, 2015: Freddie Flintoff Season 2, 2016: Brendan Fevola Season 3, 2017: Casey Donovan Season 4, 2018: Upcoming season
Season 1, Early 2004: Costa Cordalis Season 2, Late 2004: Désirée Nick Season 3, 2008: Ross Antony Season 4, 2009: Ingrid van Bergen Season 5, 2011: Peer Kusmagk Season 6, 2012: Brigitte Nielsen Season 7, 2013: Joey Heindle Season 8, 2014: Melanie Müller Season 9, 2015: Maren Gilzer Season 10, 2016: Menderes Bağcı Season 11, 2017: Marc Terenzi
Season 1, October 2008: Mariann Falusi Season 2, Oct -- Nov 2008: Andrea Keleti Season 3, October 2014: Zsolt Erdei Season 4, Oct -- Nov 2014: Andrea Molnár Season 5, Nov - Dec 2017: Péter Kabát
Series 1, 2002: Tony Blackburn Series 2, 2003: Phil Tufnell Series 3, Early 2004: Kerry Katona Series 4, Late 2004: Joe Pasquale Series 5, 2005: Carol Thatcher Series 6, 2006: Matt Willis Series 7, 2007: Christopher Biggins Series 8, 2008: Joe Swash Series 9, 2009: Gino D'Acampo Series 10, 2010: Stacey Solomon Series 11, 2011: Dougie Poynter Series 12, 2012: Charlie Brooks Series 13, 2013: Kian Egan Series 14, 2014: Carl "Foggy '' Fogarty Series 15, 2015: Vicky Pattison Series 16, 2016: Scarlett Moffatt Series 17, 2017: Georgia "Toff '' Toffolo
Murwillumbah, Australia (2003) Costa Rica (2009)
Season 1, 2003: Cris Judd Season 2, 2009: Lou Diamond Phillips
John Lehr (2003) Damien Fahey (2009) Myleene Klass (2009)
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who plays nicky and alex in full house | List of Full House and Fuller House characters - wikipedia
This is a list of the characters from the American television sitcom Full House and its sequel series Fuller House. The former ran for eight seasons on ABC from September 22, 1987 to May 23, 1995. Fuller House followed 21 years later, airing on Netflix beginning February 26, 2016. The first nine episodes of the third season were released on September 22, 2017, and the back nine was released on December 22, 2017.
^ Note 1: Scott Weinger, John Brotherton, Ashley Liao and Adam Hagenbuch are credited after the opening credits and only for the episodes in which they appear.
^ Note 2: Scott Weinger is credited as a Special Guest Star in the sixth episode of season two but as starring in all of his other appearances.
Jesse Katsopolis (portrayed by John Stamos; the character 's last name in season one was Cochran, but was changed reportedly due to John Stamos wanting his character to better reflect his Greek heritage) is Danny 's brother - in - law, Pam 's younger brother, husband of Rebecca Donaldson and father of twin sons Nicky and Alex. Born Hermes Katsopolis (as revealed in the season five episode "The Legend of Ranger Joe ''), he was named after his great - grandfather, who in turn is named after the Greek god of swiftness. However, he did not like his birth name, as other kids teased him for it; so when he was in kindergarten, he begged his parents to have his name changed to Jesse, thinking that one had to have a "cool name '' to be in the in - crowd. As an adult, he was more confident with his true name, telling the girls about the Greek god of speed, and how his great - grandfather saved a village from a volcano, but still goes by Jesse.
In contrast with Danny, Jesse is portrayed as being irresponsible most of the time, but occasionally serves as a responsible adult when a responsible adult is needed (such as when he discovers Stephanie 's classmate is a child abuse victim in the season 6 episode "Silence is Not Golden ''). Jesse is revealed as a high school dropout in season six 's "Educating Jesse '', though in an earlier plot (in season four 's "One Last Kiss '') about a high school reunion, he mentions not wearing his cap to his graduation because he did not want to mess up his hair.
Jesse 's obsession with his hair becomes a major trait of his throughout the series, as well as his obsession with Elvis Presley. His obsession with the former is fully established in the season two premiere "Cutting it Close '', which focuses on Jesse 's tough time coping when Stephanie accidentally cuts off a hunk of his mullet, which leads to him getting into a motorcycle accident that lands him in a full arm cast; later episodes reveal that he has a special comb called Mr. Goodpart (which gets damaged in a melee to purchase a Mighty Mutant Super Kids Super Fortress for Michelle in season eight 's "I 've Got a Secret '') and that he gives pep talks to his hair (as revealed in season seven 's "Wrong - Way Tanner '').
Jesse first moves into the house with virtually no experience in taking care of young children or babies, but starts to learn the ropes along the way. He becomes closer to all of his nieces over the course of the series, especially Michelle, whom he affectionately nicknames "munchkin '' and "shorty '', among others. In the first season, Jesse works for his father Nick 's exterminating business before leaving to pursue work in advertising, frequently working with Joey. He later works with Joey as co-hosts of an afternoon drive time show on local radio station KFLH called The Rush Hour Renegades. Further along in the series, in season seven 's "Smash Club: The Next Generation '', Jesse becomes the new owner of The Smash Club. Although he was shown to be a sports fan as well as a good athlete in the earlier seasons, it is revealed in later seasons that Jesse hated all sports (especially basketball, as revealed in "Air Jesse '' from season eight) and was not very athletic. Jesse 's main passion is music, and struggles to "hit it big '' with his band, Jesse and the Rippers (in the earlier part of the series). However, his increasing responsibilities to his family, radio job, and as owner of a club, lead his band members to kick him out of the band (in the season eight premiere "Comet 's Excellent Adventure ''); in "Making Out is Hard to Do '', he briefly decides to quit being a musician until he has a nightmare in which he appears on Downbeat (a Behind the Music - style show - within - a-dream - sequence) has him dream that his family hates him, Rebecca has divorced him (and moved on with Joey) and Jesse himself was a mechanic, as well as overweight and balding (because of a scalp infection), with Kimmy Gibbler (dressed in the attire of the Married... with Children character Peggy Bundy) as a wife. Two episodes later in "To Joey, With Love, '' he subsequently starts a new band called Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets.
In Fuller House, Jesse, Becky, and Danny all move to Los Angeles. Jesse becomes the music composer for General Hospital while Becky and Danny start a new nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. In the season two finale, Jesse and Becky adopt a baby girl whom they name Pamela after his sister. Somewhere along the line Jesse became a stay at home dad. When Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA, they try to get their old jobs back but the station only wanted her back to co-host an all women 's talk show. Jesse, Becky and Pamela are all moving back to San Francisco, and he also bought back the Smash Club (which is now a laundromat) along with Joey.
Daniel Ernest "Danny '' Tanner (portrayed by Bob Saget, John Posey in the unaired pilot) is left with three young daughters to raise after his wife, Pam, dies in a car accident caused by a drunk driver. At the beginning of the series, he works as a sportscaster for Channel 8 News. In the season two episode "Tanner vs. Gibbler '', he is chosen by his station 's general manager Mr. Strowbridge to be the co-host for the station 's new morning talk show, Wake Up, San Francisco, alongside Rebecca Donaldson. In season one 's "The Big Three - O, '' Danny 's beloved car, "Bullet, '' is severely damaged after another driver rear - ends the vehicle, leading it roll out of park and become submerged in the San Francisco Bay as Jesse and Joey shop for new seat covers for the car to surprise Danny with as a present for his 30th birthday; Jesse and Joey end up bidding for a new car that is identical in appearance, unknowingly competing with Danny, who purchases the car (and later named it "Walter '') after he calls the car dealership that Jesse and Joey are and places a bid over the phone.
Danny goes on his first date since his wife 's death in the season one episode "Sea Cruise, '' as part of a fishing trip that was intended to only include himself, Jesse and Joey; he is seen going out on dates on select occasions throughout the series. While Rebecca goes on maternity leave in season five just before giving birth to his nephews Nicky and Alex, Danny ends up falling in love with her co-host replacement, Vicky Larson. The two of them begin dating in season five 's "Easy Rider, '' becoming Danny 's most serious relationship since he became a widower, and the two later become engaged in the season six finale "The House Meets the Mouse ''. However, their relationship turned into a long - distance situation as Vicky was assigned various reporting jobs away from San Francisco. In season seven 's "The Perfect Couple, '' Vicky ended up getting her dream job of anchoring the network news in New York City, but a long - distance relationship did not work for either of them, so Danny decides to break up with her; this leads him to a mass feng shui habit in the following episode, "Is It True About Stephanie?, '' to which his family acknowledges was his way of trying to cope with his breakup. Danny eventually meets fellow single parent Claire Mahan in season eight episode "Making Out Is Hard to Do, '' and go on a date in the episode "Claire and Present Danger. ''
Although he is not established with this trait early on (season one 's "The Return of Grandma '' depicts him as begrudgingly trying to clean the messy house with Jesse and Joey after their mothers threaten to move in if they can not keep the place clean), much of the humor surrounding Danny 's character comes from his obsession with cleaning and cleanliness. Danny can often be found cleaning for cleaning 's sake, sometimes even cleaning his cleaning products (in a version of the original season three opening titles, seen during episodes in which Lori Loughlin does not appear as Rebecca Donaldson, Danny is even shown to be cleaning his floor vacuum with a handheld vacuum). He says the family motto is "clean is good, dirt is bad ''. Danny views spring cleaning as his equivalent to Christmas and home movies as his New Year 's Eve (as revealed in the season two episode "Goodbye, Mr. Bear ''). His quirkiness and generally "unhip dad '' personality are also targets for humor. He is a skilled pool, dart player and guitarist (as respectively revealed in season four 's, "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun, '' and season eight 's, "To Joey, with Love '').
Like most other characters, he generally can not stand Kimmy Gibbler, considering her as "an annoying, obnoxious nuisance ''; at times, urging D.J. to make new friends whenever Kimmy does something that irritates him. Danny also has one brother and one sister, and his parents are divorced. Unlike his brother - in - law Jesse (who is more into rock - and - roll), Danny has a taste for 1970s Disco music; one of his favorite songs is "Play That Funky Music '' by Wild Cherry.
In the first episode of Fuller House, Danny and Becky relocate to Los Angeles for their new talk show, Wake Up USA, and it is revealed that Danny got remarried to a woman named Teri. During the second season Danny goes through a little bit of a mid-life crisis since he just turned 60. In season three Danny reveals that him and Teri got divorced. Danny and Becky asked for raises on their show but since they asked for too much they are fired and replaced by Mario Lopez. After feeling sorry for themselves they go back to Wake Up San Francisco to ask for their old jobs back but the station only wants Becky back. To cheer him up, the girls somehow tracked down Vicky and surprised him with her. He invites her to the 30th "Dadi - versary '' party the girls threw for him, Jesse and Joey. Since Becky, Jesse and Joey are all moving back to San Francisco, Danny announces he 's moving back too, and back into the house.
Joseph Alvin "Joey '' Gladstone (portrayed by Dave Coulier) is the childhood best friend of Danny Tanner, and adulthood best friend of Jesse Katsopolis. Joey moved in with Danny shortly after the death of Danny 's wife, Pam, to help raise D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle. Joey works as a stand - up comedian, whose act usually includes vocal imitations of cartoon characters such as Popeye, Bullwinkle J. Moose, Pepé Le Pew and others. Joey initially slept in the alcove of Danny 's living room. However, after complaining of not being able to find privacy, Danny reconstructs his basement garage into a bedroom for him in the season one episode "Joey 's Place '' (prior to the reveal, Joey contemplates moving out after the family 's behavior makes him believe that Jesse and Danny can handle taking care of the girls and that he is not needed). Joey nearly quits comedy in the season one episode "But Seriously, Folks, '' after Phyllis Diller (who was there as an audience member) hogs his slot at a comedy club, deciding to change his name to Joe and become a serious businessman. He reverses his decision after D.J. decides to quit practicing the guitar, realizing that he is not setting a good example. Although there was some tension between Joey and Jesse when they first move in with the Tanners, they quickly become good friends to the point where Jesse asks Joey to be his best man at his wedding. Even so, Joey 's perceived immaturity does irritate Jesse at times. Joey usually handles the day - to - day raising of the kids by doing chores like making meals, driving the kids to school appointments, and after school activities, taking care of Michelle as a baby, and helping the kids with their homework. Joey also buys D.J. her first car for her 16th birthday in the season six episode "Grand Gift Auto, '' which ends up getting repossessed after the police discover that the car had been stolen; Joey nearly moves out again after the family 's attempts to try illustrate that Joey is not capable of committing a crime make him believe that the rest of the family thinks of him as a big joke. It is in this episode that Joey reveals that he had wished to have siblings as he grew up as an only child (even imaging that he was part of The Brady Bunch), and that being part of the Tanner family gave him the extended family he always wanted. In season four 's "Viva Las Joey, '' Joey is reunited with his estranged father (at the arrangement of Stephanie and D.J.), a former serviceman in the Armed Forces, with whom Joey did not get along with growing up due to his strict parenting style and his disapproval of Joey 's dream of being a comedian; his father realizes that Joey made the right career decision when he sees his son 's routine when Joey is invited as an opening act for Wayne Newton in Las Vegas.
Joey has held various jobs in addition to his work as a stand - up comic. For a while during seasons two and three, Joey and Jesse run an advertising business, J&J Creative Services, in which they partnered to compose jingles for television and radio commercials. In season four 's "Joey Goes Hollywood, '' Joey wins a role he secretly auditions for in a sitcom co-starring Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello called Surf 's Up. Joey 's most successful job was portraying "Ranger Joe, '' on an afternoon children 's variety television show. He was given the job to replace retiring original host "Ranger Roy '' in season five 's "The Legend of Ranger Joe, '' only to be fired after triggering Roy 's acute physical paranoia when hugging him as a thank you; after Danny informs Joey of this while telling him of his firing, Joey ends up saving Roy from a "hug - o - gram '' that he had sent to gratitude for the job; he then gets rehired after Roy becomes impressed with Joey 's hosting skills when he takes over for Roy on his last show. Ranger Joe 's sidekick is his wise - cracking woodchuck marionette puppet "Mr. Woodchuck '' (first seen in "The Legend of Ranger Joe '' and last seen in "Michelle Rides Again ''). Joey quits his job in season six 's "Radio Days, '' after he becomes disgruntled with his boss Mr. Strowbridge 's wife as his co-host. Jesse and Joey subsequently become co-hosts of a successful afternoon show on radio station KFLH called, Rush Hour Renegades. Besides his impressions, much of Joey 's humor comes from his depiction as a man child, particularly the fact that he still watches cartoons as an adult and has an extensive knowledge of animation.
Joey has moved to Las Vegas in Fuller House, and is now married with four kids. His wife Ginger is a magician, and their kids, Phyllis, Lewis, Joan, and Jerry are very loud and obnoxious kids. Joey and his kids are moving back to San Francisco since his wife will be working as a magician on a cruise ship for six months. He also bought back the Smash Club with Jesse.
Donna Jo Margaret "D.J. '' Tanner (portrayed by Candace Cameron Bure) is Danny and Pam 's oldest child. Over the course of the show 's run, D.J. attends Frasier Street Elementary, Van Atta Junior High and Bayview High School. In the pilot episode "Our Very First Show, '' she ends up having to share her bedroom with Stephanie in order to allow Jesse to move into Stephanie 's old bedroom; due to problems with privacy regarding Stephanie, in the season five episode "Take My Sister, Please, '' she sells Danny on an idea to switch rooms with Michelle, who in turn would move in with Stephanie (only after convincing Michelle to move in with Stephanie, after she rejects the offer to move in with her older sister).
D.J. is typically the daughter who acts the most practical, often giving advice to her younger sisters, Michelle and Stephanie. Although she sometimes bickers with them, she cares for them deeply. As D.J. entered into middle school, she started to deal with more serious issues like puberty and dating. She has her first serious relationship with Steve Hale (who was first introduced in the season five episode "Sisters in Crime ''), who later becomes a real fixture in her life (and a regular character beginning in season six) when their characters return from a summer abroad in Spain. Their relationship lasts until they break up in the season seven episode "Love on the Rocks, '' when they realize that the passion in their relationship is gone, but they agree to remain friends. D.J. has on - and - off relationships (during the show 's final season) with guitarist Viper (a member of Jesse 's new band Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets) and rich kid Nelson, but both relationships do not last (the two end up vying for D.J. 's affections in the season eight episode "D.J. 's Choice, '' only for D.J. to reject them both after their fighting gets to be too much for her to bear). In the series finale "Michelle Rides Again, '' Steve shows up at the Tanner house to take D.J. to her senior prom and they share a kiss. Her best friend throughout the show was next - door neighbor Kimmy Gibbler, who was the complete opposite of D.J. in every way. In season eight, D.J. gets accepted to University of California, Berkeley and it is implied she will go to college there after graduating high school (after she was rejected from her first choice, Stanford University).
In Fuller House, D.J. is a recent widow and mother of three kids; Jackson, Max and Tommy, and moves in with Stephanie and Kimmy. D.J. has since become a veterinarian. When her boss retires he has his son, Matt Harmon and D.J. take over the pet clinic. Matt and Steve fight for D.J. 's affection but they both end up dating other people when she 's not ready to commit someone new yet. Realizing they have feelings for each other, Matt breaks up with his girlfriend, and starts dating D.J. On the way to Steve 's wedding in Japan, D.J. who 's preparing to fall asleep, and wearing a sleeping mask reveals to Kimmy that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she 's losing her soulmate. Unbeknownst to her Steve was the one who heard her confession not Kimmy. Steve tells Kimmy what she said, and he was going to confront D.J. but he saw Matt proposing to her. The next day before the wedding starts Kimmy tells D.J. that Steve was the one who heard what she said on the plane. At the alter Steve calls off the wedding, and D.J. breaks off her engagement to Matt. Back home the two wait a month before they will start dating again. After her their third first date, Steve tells her that the Lakers want him to be the team 's foot specialist. He chooses to stay with her but D.J. called the team and said that he will take the job.
Stephanie Judith Tanner (portrayed by Jodie Sweetin) is the witty, sarcastic middle child of Danny and Pam, the younger sister of D.J., and the older sister of Michelle. Her mother died when she was five years old. Her catchphrases during the early seasons of the series include "how rude!, '' "well, pin a rose on your nose! '' and "hot dog ''. She eventually evolved into something of a tomboy in seasons four and five. Stephanie has a habit of spying on D.J. 's life by reading her diary and eavesdropping on her telephone calls (having been caught in the act several times), and is generally the most athletic and nosiest of the Tanner girls. Her best friends in school are Gia Mahan and Mickey, whom she meets in season seven (the former is the only one who appears through to season eight). Of the three sisters, Stephanie has dealt with the toughest issues, such as peer pressure into smoking (in season seven 's "Fast Friends ''), "make - out '' parties (in season eight 's "Making Out is Hard to Do ''), joyriding (in season eight 's "Stephanie 's Wild Ride ''), and uncovering a classmate 's child abuse (in season six 's "Silence is Not Golden ''), as well as the death of her mother when she was only five. In her early years, she is very sentimental about Mr. Bear, a stuffed animal that her mother gave to her after Michelle was born (this was the focal point of the season two episode "Goodbye Mr. Bear ''). She and Jesse are the most abrasive when it comes to how they feel about Kimmy Gibbler.
In Fuller House, Stephanie volunteers to give up her life in London to move back into her childhood home to help take care of her sister 's three kids. Kimmy volunteers to move in as well much to Stephanie 's dismay but she soon puts her abrasive feelings aside, and becomes friends with her. Stephanie confesses to D.J. that she ca n't have kids but wants to. Stephanie starts a relationship with Kimmy 's younger brother Jimmy. Becky schedules Stephanie for a pelvic exam and turns out she has three vivable eggs and can have a baby via surrogacy. Since she has n't been dating Jimmy for that long she does n't want to put pressure on him for being the father, and throwing him into a lifelong commitment so soon in their relationship. He wants to be the father. They are able to make embryos and Kimmy volunteers to be the surrogate mother. Kimmy is able to get pregnant with the embryos.
Michelle Elizabeth Tanner (played by twins Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen), is Danny and Pam 's youngest daughter. Danny is more overprotective of Michelle than the other girls. Michelle was just a baby when Pam died, so she hardly remembers her mom. Jesse and Joey 's misadventures in taking care of her when she was a baby provided a great deal of humor. Once Michelle started to grow up, she became the focus of more of the show 's storylines. Her best friends, Teddy and Denise, appear frequently in later seasons. She also has other friends, such as Derek Boyd, Lisa Leeper, and bossy Aaron Bailey, who Michelle has an uneasy friendship with. Her favorite toys (in earlier seasons) are Barney, a plush bear who hangs on the wall above her bed, and her stuffed pig. It is apparent that Jesse is somewhat closer to her than her sisters, and he gives her nicknames such as "munchkin '', "shorty '' and "rugrat ''. She is known for her many recurring catchphrases such as "you got it, dude! '', "you 're in big trouble, mister! '', "oh, puh - lease! '', "aw, nuts! '', "duh! '', and "no way, José! ''
Michelle does not appear in Fuller House but it is mentioned that she is now living in New York, and owns a fashion company. (a real - life reference to the character 's actresses being fashion designers currently)
Rebecca Donaldson Katsopolis (portrayed by Lori Loughlin), is the sarcastic, practical, but very loving and well - educated woman who becomes the love interest and later wife of Jesse Katsopolis. Becky was born in Valentine, Nebraska and decided to pursue journalism as a career while she was in high school. Becky moves to San Francisco to become the co-host of Wake Up, San Francisco, being paired with Danny as her co-host; the two become close friends, although she often quips about Danny 's quirks and tendency to ramble in his conversations. She was reluctant to admit her feelings for Jesse at first, but she eventually falls in love with him. The two almost elope in Lake Tahoe in the season two finale "Luck Be a Lady '', but backed out when Becky realized that she and Jesse were not really ready to get married. They eventually get married (in the second part of the season four episode "The Wedding '') on Valentine 's Day.
After Jesse has a bittersweet farewell to the rest of the family when he decides to move into Rebecca 's apartment in the season four episode "Fuller House '', Rebecca agrees to move in with the Tanners and Joey when she discovers how much Jesse misses them, living together in the attic (which Jesse and Joey have converted into an apartment). Becky helps to transform Jesse, although she still teases him about his obsession with his hair and love of Elvis. She also serves as a mother figure to the girls at times; most prominently giving advice to D.J. as she becomes a teenager. Becky gives birth to twin boys Nicholas and Alexander on Michelle 's fifth birthday in part two of the season five episode "Happy Birthday, Babies ''. She and Jesse name Alexander after a teacher who inspired her to become a journalist and Nicholas after Jesse 's father. Becky is offered a producer role on Wake Up, San Francisco in the season eight episode "The Producer '', which results in Danny briefly quitting the show due to him being passed over for such a promotion.
In Fuller House, she, Jesse, and Danny all move to Los Angeles to start their new jobs. She and Danny now host a nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. Becky gets baby fever when around D.J. 's youngest son, Tommy. She and Jesse end up adopting a baby girl whom they name Pamela. Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA when they asked for too much money. They ask for their old jobs back at Wake Up San Francisco but the station only wants her back. They want her to host an all women 's talk show called The Gab. She, Jesse and Pamela are moving back to San Francisco.
Kimberly Louise "Kimmy '' Gibbler (portrayed by Andrea Barber, recurring since season one and upgraded to a series regular in season five) is D.J. 's best friend and the Tanners ' annoying but well - meaning next - door neighbor. Kimmy and D.J. have been best friends since the Gibblers moved next door to the Tanners, despite their differing personalities; the two have temporarily ended their friendship multiple times during the show 's run due to disputes over various situations, but always end up reconciling and forgiving each other. Most of the Tanner family can not stand her (Danny, Stephanie and Jesse are especially annoyed by her, with Stephanie often making jabs at her lack of intelligence and other unusual quirks and Danny urging D.J. to make new friends and often asking Kimmy to leave the house). She is often known to be a poor student in school, and had copied D.J. 's homework during most of the early seasons. Kimmy is the subject of a recurring gag in the series, regarding her terrible foot odor, which becomes noticeable to other people mainly once she removes her shoes; Kimmy also becomes aware of this in a scene in the season seven episode "The Apartment '', in which she accidentally grabs one of her shoes while searching for her phone when Danny calls her to find out the whereabouts of D.J. (who had fallen asleep on her boyfriend Steve 's couch while watching a movie in his apartment). She is also known to be addicted to shopping.
In the episode "Another Opening, Another No Show '', Jesse and Kimmy get locked in a closet on the night of the grand re-opening of The Smash Club, after the door handle breaks off in Jesse 's hand; while there, Kimmy finally tells Jesse how much it hurts when he and the other Tanners (except for D.J.) pick on her. He finally tries to stop picking on her and tells the Tanners to try to go easy on her. However, their behavior towards her remains the same in later episodes, although she never seems to mind it anymore.
Kimmy 's only serious relationship is with Duane (who is introduced in season eight episode "Taking the Plunge ''), a very air - headed boy who was only known to say "whatever ''. Ironically, he was shown to have a fondness for Shakespearean works as he passionately quoted a line from Shakespeare 's 18th sonnet. In "Taking the Plunge, '' Kimmy decides to run off to Reno and elope with Duane after she was rejected by the colleges that she had applied to, and is afraid that D.J. will go off to school and forget her. When D.J., Jesse, and Danny arrive at the chapel to stop her from getting married too young, D.J. tells her that she will always be her best friend no matter what. In the two - part series finale "Michelle Rides Again, '' she tries to find D.J. a blind date for prom, and ends up surprising her with her ex-boyfriend Steve instead.
Sometime after high school Kimmy got married to a race car driver named Fernando, and has a daughter named Ramona. In the sequel series she and Ramona move into the Tanner family home after D.J 's husband passed away. She moved in to help her along with Stephanie. Kimmy has become a party planner. Kimmy volunteers to be Stephanie and Jimmy 's surrogate mother,
Steven "Steve '' Hale (originally introduced as Steve Peters; portrayed by Scott Weinger) is D.J. 's first steady boyfriend. He is introduced in the season five episode "Sisters in Crime '' as D.J. 's date to a movie that she ends up taking Michelle and Stephanie to, and returns to the series as a regular character in the sixth - season premiere "Come Fly With Me '' (which establishes the character as played by Weinger in his original appearance the season prior). Steve is two years older than D.J. and is a star member of the high school wrestling team. He is known for having a healthy appetite, and often eats at the Tanners ' when he visits.
In "A Very Tanner Christmas, '' Steve receives an acceptance letter to a party school in Florida that he had applied to (this causes the two to briefly break up due to D.J. 's concern that she would miss him), but decides to go to a local community college in order to improve his grades and continue his relationship with D.J. In the season six episode "Prom Night, '' both he and D.J. attend Steve 's prom where he is elected prom king (although his ex-girlfriend -- whose affections he later rejects -- is named prom queen). Steve and D.J. break up in the season seven episode "Love on the Rocks, '' after they realize that their relationship was not as passionate as it used to be, but they decide to remain friends. When D.J. needs a date for her senior prom, Kimmy surprises her and gets Steve to be her date.
After college Steve becomes a podiatrist. In Fuller House Steve is a divorcee and his ex took half what he 's worth. With him and D.J. both now single he tries to start a relationship with her again. He ends up later getting engaged to woman named C.J. who is just like D.J. On the way to Japan, thinking that Kimmy is sitting next to her, D.J. confesses that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she is losing her soulmate. Steve was the one who actually heard it. At the alter he realizes he still loves D.J. and ca n't marry C.J. so he calls the wedding off. D.J who still has feelings for Steve break up with Matt. A month after the almost wedding they start dating again. There is bad news for the reunited couple when the Lakers want him to be their foot specialist. He declines to stay with D.J. but she calls the team to say he will take the job. Steve tells her they will back together in six months.
Nicholas "Nicky '' and Alexander "Alex '' Katsopolis, (played by Daniel and Kevin Renteria as babies during season 5; Blake and Dylan Tuomy - Wilhoit as toddlers for seasons 6 -- 8) are the twin sons of Jesse and Becky Katsopolis. The two were born in the season five episode "Happy Birthday, Babies, '' on the date of Michelle 's fifth birthday. Becky named Alex after a high school teacher who inspired her to venture into a career in journalism, while Jesse chose to name Nicky after his father, for giving him great hair. They have strawberry - blond hair and are fun - loving toddlers, with minor distinctions between them. Nicky is more quiet and sweet, while Alex is more outspoken and mischievous. They often repeat each other 's words.
In Fuller House, the twins follow their parents to Los Angeles, and decide to run a fish taco food truck.
Jackson Fuller (portrayed by Michael Campion) is D.J. 's oldest son. When Kimmy and her daughter, Ramona moves in Jackson has to give up his room and move in with his brother Max. Jackson and Ramona do n't get along at first but become like brother and sister. Jackson has shown to be a good older brother to Max and Tommy. Jackson likes to do stunts, and joins the football team to impress Ramona 's friend, Lola. He likes to call himself "J. Money '' and "Action Jackson ''. He briefly dates Lola but she breaks up with him for being too clingy. While attending summer school he becomes friends with Gia 's daughter Rocki, much to D.J 's dislike.
Max Fuller (portrayed by Elias Harger) is D.J. 's well dressed and intelligent middle child. He likes science, and is shown to be a clean freak like his grandfather. Max has rivalries with Kimmy 's fiancé Fernando and classmate Taylor. Max 's girlfriend is Rose, the daughter of Steve 's fiancée C.J.
Ramona Gibbler (portrayed by Soni Nicole Bringas) is the daughter of Kimmy Gibbler and her ex-husband / fiancé, Fernando. She is not thrilled when she has to move into the Tanner family home and change schools. Ramona quickly befriends one of the popular girls in school, Lola Wong, and briefly dates Jackson 's friend, Bobby Popko. She is an aspiring dancer.
Tommy Fuller, Jr. (portrayed by twins, Dashiell and Fox Messitt) is D.J. 's youngest son. Like his aunt Michelle he also loses a parent as a baby.
Fernando Hernandez - Guerrero - Fernandez - Guerrero (portrayed by Juan Pablo Di Pace), is Kimmy Gibbler 's race car driving ex-husband / fiancé. At the start of Fuller House, him and Kimmy are separated due to his unfaithfulness to her. Fernando begins to miss her and tries to win her back. It works but he ends up finally signing their divorce papers. Though he only does this to repropose which she accepts. Fernando retires from his racing career, and moves in. Ten months after moving in, he buys Kimmy 's childhood home and moves in with her brother.
Matt Harmon (portrayed by John Brotherton) is D.J. 's partner at the Harmon / Fuller Pet Care. He originally intended to fill in for his dad while he was away on a trip to India but decides to stay in San Francisco. When his dad retires he has Matt and D.J. take over the business. Matt and Steve fight for D.J. 's affection. She and him eventually begin dating. While in Japan for Steve and C.J 's wedding, Matt proposed to D.J. and she says yes. The next day at the wedding Steve calls off his wedding, and D.J. breaks off her engagement. A heartbroken Matt walks off. He goes on an eight - day vacation and when he comes back to work he tells D.J. he does n't know how he able to work with her if they 're not together anymore. He takes some time off to think, and when he returns he tells her that he will be opening up a new pet clinic two blocks down.
Lola Wong (portrayed by Ashley Liao) is Ramona 's best friend and Jackson 's ex-girlfriend. Lola 's father gets a job in Fresno and she moves.
Jimmy Gibbler (portrayed by Adam Hagenbuch) is Kimmy 's younger brother. One day he walks into the family 's backyard and hears Stephanie singing. The two end up kissing, and are interrupted by Kimmy who informs Stephanie that he is her brother. Jimmy and Stephanie begin dating. When Stephanie gets the news that she can have a baby via surrogacy, she thinks it 's too soon in their relationship to ask him to be the father. After finding that out from Kimmy, he tells her that he wants to be her baby 's father. Kimmy volunteers to be his and Stephanie 's surrogate.
Fuller House
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how many episodes of into the badlands season 2 | Into the Badlands (TV series) - wikipedia
Into the Badlands is an American television series that premiered on AMC November 15, 2015. The series features a story about a warrior and a young boy who journey through a dangerous feudal land together seeking enlightenment. AMC renewed the show for a 10 - episode second season, which premiered on March 19, 2017. On April 25, 2017, AMC renewed the series for a 16 - episode third season which will premiere on April 22, 2018.
Opening introduction, narrated by M.K. (Aramis Knight):
The series is set in a post-apocalyptic world approximately 500 years after a war that left civilization in ruins. Many elements of technology, such as electricity and ground vehicles, have survived the apocalypse but society now shuns guns, leading to a reliance on melee weaponry.
In a territory known as the Badlands, which is somewhere in the former United States, a feudal society has developed to fill the power vacuum left by the war. Barons control land and monopolies over commodities like opium and fuel, trading amongst themselves to maintain the peace. Each baron is served by a massive workforce of slaves called cogs, as well as a prostitute class called dolls. A Baron maintains power through a corps of young men and women called clippers: highly trained and loyal warriors. Clippers are forbidden from marrying and having children lest their loyalties be divided. Each Clipper force is captained by a regent.
Several groups exist outside the strict hierarchy of the barons. Nomads are the most common, mostly lawless homicidal bandits who subsist on stealing from trade convoys between the baronies but some live in organized clans. The River King and his men control water trade in the Badlands and beyond and is considered a neutral party in the Barons ' power struggles. An ascetic religious movement is also shown to exist on the fringes of society, living in isolated communities and practicing a form of idol worship. The Widow leads a revolutionary group of anti-feudal fighters from her late husband 's barony; although nominally recognized as a baron by her peers they do not respect her, and the contempt is mutual.
Little is known of the world beyond the Badlands, but it is implied that it is far less politically stable and environmentally sound than the Badlands. The mythical utopian city of Azra is believed to exist outside the Badlands but most dismiss it as a legend.
Episode eleven is written by Stephanie Hicks & Matt Lambert, and directed by Tricia Brock.
Described as a "genre - bending martial arts series ''. AMC ordered 6 one - hour - long episodes of the action - drama developed by AMC Studios for a premiere in late 2015. Mike Shinoda of Linkin Park composed the title theme. Executive producer Stephen Fung also serves as the series ' action director alongside veteran Hong Kong choreographer, Ku Huen - chiu.
Internationally, the series premiered in Australia on November 17, 2015, on Showcase. In Germany, Austria, Italy, and the UK, the series is available through Amazon Prime Instant Video with each episode accessible the day after the U.S. air date. BBC America began airing double episodes on August 20, 2016, at 10pm ET.
The first season received mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 54 % approval rating with an average rating of 4.72 / 10 based on 39 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Into the Badlands is loaded with off - kilter potential that 's left largely unfulfilled -- although its well - choreographed action sequences should satisfy martial arts fans. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 54 out of 100 based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The second season received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes reports a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.53 / 10 based on 5 reviews.
Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter gave a generally positive review and wrote, "AMC finds a bloody, fun and entertaining non-zombie counterpart to The Walking Dead and turns Sundays into an escapist red zone. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety wrote, "The action scenes scattered throughout Into the Badlands are not just stirringly presented, they represent a test passed with flying, and bloody, colors. This efficient AMC series is an homage to classic Samurai films and kinetic action fare churned out by Hong Kong maestros of furious fists, and if the TV drama had failed to meet the standards set by the sturdiest examples of those genres, it would have seemed superfluous at best. Fortunately, star Daniel Wu is more than up to the task of occupying the center of this streamlined story of vengeance, tyranny and roundhouse kicks. ''
Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
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are the members of greta van fleet brothers | Greta Van Fleet - Wikipedia
Greta Van Fleet is an American rock band from Frankenmuth, Michigan, formed in 2012. It consists of vocalist Josh Kiszka, guitarist Jake Kiszka, bassist Sam Kiszka and drummer Danny Wagner. They were signed to Lava Records in March 2017 and in April the band released their debut studio EP, Black Smoke Rising. Their debut single, "Highway Tune '', topped the Billboard US Mainstream Rock and Active Rock Rock stations in September 2017 as number one for four weeks in a row. A second EP From the Fires, containing the four songs from Black Smoke Rising and four new songs, was released on November 10, 2017, alongside a second single, "Safari Song ''. The band 's heavy rock sound is influenced by the work of Led Zeppelin and many other rock and blues bands, with lead vocalist Josh Kiszka having a voice that has been compared to Robert Plant 's "husky growl ''.
The band was formed in Frankenmuth, Michigan in 2012 by brothers Joshua "Josh '' Kiszka, Samuel "Sam '' Kiszka, Jacob "Jake '' Kiszka and Kyle Hauck. Hauck subsequently left the band in October 2013 and was replaced by Daniel "Danny '' Wagner the same year. The band name was created when one of its members heard a relative mention Gretna Van Fleet, a resident of Frankenmuth; their use of the variation on her name was done with her blessing. In the time Hauck was the drummer, the band recorded and released three songs: "Highway Tune '', "Cloud Train '', and "Standing On ''. On February 28, 2014, a live EP was recorded in one take and subsequently released on June 7, 2014. In 2014, their song "Standing On '' was featured in 2014 Chevy Equinox advertisements in the Detroit area. It is one of several songs, along with "By the Riverside '', "Cloud Train '', "Lover, Leaver, Taker, Believer '', "Down to the River '', "Sing in the Rain '', "Thunder Stomp '', "You 're the One '', and "Written in Gold '', that were previously released but are currently unavailable.
On January 17, 2016 the song "Highway Tune '' was featured on the Showtime show Shameless. On March 31, 2017 the first single "Highway Tune '' was released on iTunes. On April 2, 2017 they started streaming the song "Highway Tune ''. On April 18, 2017 the music video for the song "Highway Tune '' was released exclusively on Loudwire. Their debut EP titled Black Smoke Rising was released April 21, 2017. On April 21, 2017 they were named Apple Music 's new artist of the week. Black Smoke Rising is planned to be the first of three EP 's that will make an album when all released. They started touring in May 2017 to promote the EP with The Struts.
In October 2017, the band won Best New Artist at the Loudwire Music Awards. On the same day it was announced that an eight - song double EP titled From the Fires would be released on November 10, 2017. In addition to the four tracks from Black Smoke Rising, From the Fires features the new recordings "Edge of Darkness '' and "Talk on the Street '', as well as covers of Sam Cooke 's "A Change Is Gonna Come '' and Fairport Convention 's "Meet on the Ledge ''. The four new tracks were recorded in September 2017 at Rust Belt Studios in Detroit and produced by Al Sutton and Marlon Young, the same duo that produced Black Smoke Rising. A second single, "Safari Song '', was also released.
Greta Van Fleet opened for fellow Michigan native Bob Seger at the Dow Event Center on September 7. In November 2017, the band announced that they would begin recording their first full - length studio album shortly after the release of From the Fires, and that they expected its release by mid-2018.
The group performed at Elton John 's Academy Award Party on March 4, 2018 at the host 's personal request. John joined Greta Van Fleet onstage for his "Saturday Night 's Alright for Fighting '' and their "You 're the One ''.
Greta Van Fleet 's music has been categorized as hard rock and blues rock. Although all four members bonded over blues, each does have their own music tastes; Jake gravitates towards rock and roll, Sam likes jazz, Danny prefers folk, and Josh likes world music. Sam stated that "It 's not like we set out to be a rock and roll band, it 's just that sound that comes out (when) we get together and play. '' Songwriting is done by the band as a whole after one of the four members finds the concept for a song. Danny said a lot of their songs are first written in a "folk set up '' before evolving into something else.
Greta Van Fleet are often compared to Led Zeppelin. Although Jake admitted to "intensely studying '' Jimmy Page, he said there was no intention to imitate their sound. Likewise, on his voice being compared to Robert Plant 's, Josh said he was an influence "though it 's not what I was going for. '' Claiming that he did not even know who Led Zeppelin was until high school, he explained that his singing style came out naturally one day while struggling to be heard over the rest of the band.
Some of Jake 's guitar influences include John Lee Hooker, Elmore James, Eric Clapton, Keith Richards and Pete Townshend. Some of the drummers that inspired Danny are Carmine Appice, John Bonham, Mitch Mitchell and Michael Shrieve. Sam 's favorite bass player is Motown session bassist James Jamerson.
Current members
Former member
Timeline
Loudwire Music Awards
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what is the average height of a 25 year old woman | List of average Human height worldwide - wikipedia
Below are average adult human heights by country or geographical region. The original studies and sources should be consulted for details on methodology and the exact populations measured, surveyed, or considered.
As with any statistical data, the accuracy of such data may be questionable for various reasons:
Note: Letters in grey indicate non-measured height.
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who is the most winning nfl team of all time | NFL win -- loss records - wikipedia
The following is a list of win -- loss records for each of the 32 active National Football League (NFL) teams.
The following is a listing of all 32 current National Football League (NFL) teams ranked by their regular season win -- loss record percentage, accurate as of the end of the 2016 NFL regular season. For teams that previously played in the All - America Football Conference (AAFC), their AAFC win - loss records are not included as the NFL does not officially count AAFC statistics despite the 1950 NFL -- AAFC merger. However, for teams that played in the American Football League (AFL), their AFL win - loss records are included and officially counted by the NFL. Ties are registered as a half win and a half loss when calculating the win - loss record.
The following is a listing of all 32 current National Football League (NFL) teams ranked by their playoff win - loss record percentage, accurate as of the end of Super Bowl LI.
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who played the maid in american horror story | Alexandra Breckenridge - wikipedia
Alexandra Hetherington Breckenridge (born May 15, 1982) is an American actress and photographer. She began her career with supporting roles in the teen comedy films Big Fat Liar (2002) and She 's the Man (2006). She later played reporter Willa McPherson in the series Dirt, and had a supporting role on the short - lived series The Ex List. She is also the voice of various characters on the animated television series Family Guy. She starred in the first season of FX 's American Horror Story: Murder House as young Moira O'Hara, and portrayed Kaylee in the third season, American Horror Story: Coven. She portrayed Jessie Anderson in the AMC series The Walking Dead, and Sophie on the NBC series This Is Us.
Breckenridge was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut. She lived in Darien, Connecticut, until the age of 10, when she and her mother moved to Los Angeles. A year later, they moved to Mill Valley, California. At age 13, Breckenridge became interested in acting, photography, and singing. At age 15, she and her mother moved back to Los Angeles to pursue Breckenridge 's acting career. She is the niece of actor Michael Weatherly.
Breckenridge guest starred as Shelly Weaver on Freaks and Geeks in 2000. When she was 15, she met James Franco at an audition. She was surprised that Franco recognized her on the set of Freaks and Geeks. She also guest starred on Dawson 's Creek, CSI, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Charmed, Undeclared, Medium, and JAG. She guest - starred as Francise in three episodes of Opposite Sex. In 2002, she appeared in the film Big Fat Liar, starring Frankie Muniz, as Jason Shepherd 's older sister Janie.
Breckenridge has had numerous voice roles on the animated television series Family Guy. During an interview with FHM, she stated, "When I first went for Family Guy, I auditioned for a guest voice. I do n't know why, but (creator) Seth MacFarlane really likes the sound of my voice. I 'll never understand that. He just liked me and they call me back all the time to do different things. '' Breckenridge often does celebrity impressions on the show, such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Renée Zellweger. She also had roles on MacFarlane 's web series Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy. She guest starred in the episode "With Friends Like Steve 's '' of American Dad!, also created by MacFarlane.
In 2006, Breckenridge starred as Monique in the film She 's the Man. She starred as Willa McPherson in the series Dirt from 2007 to 2008. She has appeared in a couple of shows that have later been cancelled. In 2009, Breckenridge co-starred in the independent film The Bridge to Nowhere by Blair Underwood. She also had a role in the film Ticket Out.
Breckenridge had a recurring role in season four of HBO 's True Blood, and also in season one of FX 's American Horror Story as Moira O'Hara, the ghost of a maid trapped in the house in which she was employed. She also returned for several episodes in season three of the show, American Horror Story: Coven, as Kaylee: a young witch who excels in pyrokinesis.
In 2015, Breckenridge began playing Jessie Anderson in season five of the AMC series The Walking Dead. In 2015, she next co-starred in the psychological thriller Dark from executive producer Joe Dante and director Nick Basile. In 2017 Breckenridge appeared in the recurring role of Sophie, Kate 's childhood friend and Kevin 's ex-wife, on the first season of NBC drama series This Is Us; she was promoted to the full - time cast for the series ' second season.
Breckenridge is interested in photography and has her own darkroom in her apartment. At age 24, she began taking photography seriously as a form of self - expression. Her then - boyfriend Bryten Goss helped her with lighting. In 2008, she had her first exhibit with Shalon Goss hosted by her uncle Michael Weatherly and presented by Edgar Valera. She said, "I had so much to express emotionally with this show. Each photo is an expression of myself and the things I have gone through in the last three years. From my perspective, the purpose of art is to evoke feeling and to inspire. That 's all I hope to achieve. ''
In September 2015, Breckenridge married guitarist Casey Hooper. In September 2016, she gave birth to the couple 's first child, a son. In August 2017, she announced that they were expecting their second child; their daughter was born in December 2017.
Breckenridge has several tattoos, which get covered by make - up for her on - screen projects, but not during photoshoots. She has said about them, "We cover them up. Some make - up artists are better than others, but there 's airbrushing, and there 's a sort of latex waterproof paint, body paint obviously. ''
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what are the names of the ponies in my little pony | List of My Little pony: Friendship is Magic characters - Wikipedia
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic is an animated television series based on the My Little Pony toyline, created by American toy and game manufacturer Hasbro. It features characters and settings developed by Lauren Faust, who sought to create more in - depth characters than the stereotypical "girly '' icons used in previous iterations of the franchise. The series began airing on October 10, 2010 in the United States on the Hub Network cable channel, which was re-branded as Discovery Family in October 2014.
The show follows a studious unicorn named Twilight Sparkle as her mentor Princess Celestia guides her to learn about friendship in the town of Ponyville. Twilight becomes best friends with five other ponies: earth ponies Applejack and Pinkie Pie, pegasi Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy, and unicorn Rarity. Each represents a different facet of friendship, and Twilight discovers herself to be a key part of the magical artifacts known as the Elements of Harmony. The six ponies -- collectively known as the "Mane Six '' -- share adventures and help out other residents of Ponyville, while working out the troublesome moments in their own friendships. This eventually leads to Twilight ascending and becoming a winged unicorn known as an alicorn.
Several episodes focus on the exploits of Spike, Twilight 's baby dragon assistant, and a younger trio of pony characters (Apple Bloom, Scootaloo, and Sweetie Belle) who call themselves the "Cutie Mark Crusaders '' and share adventures trying to discover their talents in life and receive their "cutie marks '' until the season five episode "Crusaders of the Lost Mark '', where they receive their cutie marks. Beginning in season six, the reformed villain Starlight Glimmer also becomes a focus character.
The characters have been well received by critics, and are cited as one of the reasons the series ' older fans, called "bronies '', became attracted to the show. Fans have made several background characters popular, and these characters are often incorporated into jokes within the show. The series later spawned numerous spin - off media, including a comic book series, a children 's book series, and a spin - off film series titled My Little Pony: Equestria Girls, where several of the television series ' characters are re-envisioned as humanoids in a high school setting.
Hasbro initially hired Faust to create a pitch bible for the show, allowing her to get additional help with conceptualization. Faust said she was "extremely skeptical '' about taking the job at first because she had always found shows based on girls ' toys to be boring and unrelatable. She was disappointed that what she thought of the toys at the time was nothing like the animated shows, in which the characters, according to her, had "endless tea parties, giggled over nothing and defeated villains by either sharing with them or crying. '' With the chance to work on My Little Pony, one of her favorite childhood toys, she hoped to prove that "cartoons for girls do n't have to be a puddle of smooshy, cutesy - wootsy, goody - two - shoeness. '' To do this, she incorporated many elements into the show that subverted stereotypes of girls, such as diverse personalities, the message that friends can be different and can get into arguments but still be friends, and the idea that girls should not be limited by what others say they can or can not do. Elements of the characters ' personalities and the show 's settings were based on her own childhood imagination of the ponies ' adventures, in part inspired by the animated shows that her brothers would watch while growing up, such as Transformers and G.I. Joe. Faust still aimed for the characters to be "relatable '' characters, using stereotypical "icons of girliness '' (such as the waif or the bookworm), as to broaden the appeal of the characters for the young female audience.
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic focuses on six core characters, also identified as the "Mane Six '', a group of friends who are brought together by the "Elements of Harmony '', a set of six mystical jewels and an "unstoppable force of good '' that are used to defend Equestria against powerful threats. Each character was designed to represent a different element and positive aspect of friendship -- honesty (Applejack), kindness (Fluttershy), laughter (Pinkie Pie), generosity (Rarity), and loyalty (Rainbow Dash) -- which come together to form the sixth element of "magic '' (Twilight Sparkle).
Twilight Sparkle is the central character of the series, based on the first generation or "G1 '' unicorn toy Twilight. She is depicted in the show 's first three seasons as a purple unicorn with a pink - streaked indigo mane, and as a winged unicorn called an "alicorn '' after the season three finale "Magical Mystery Cure ''. She leads the Mane Six during their adventures and helps resolve her friends ' differences. She is an intelligent and dutiful scholar with an avid love of learning and skill in unicorn magic such as levitation, teleportation, and the creation of force fields. Director Jayson Thiessen describes her as "kind of a neurotic perfectionist '' who has "a touch OCD '', prone to suffering from nervous breakdowns when confronted with a problem that goes against her understanding.
Twilight begins the story as the protégée of Princess Celestia, who tasks her with studying the magical properties of friendship in Ponyville and reporting her findings. Twilight resents her assignment in the two - parter series premier, owing her reclusiveness to her obsession with books, but comes to form strong friendships with the rest of the Mane Six, which she realizes is key to harnessing the Elements of Harmony. She resides with her assistant Spike and pet owl named Owlowiscious (pronounced "Aloysius '') in Ponyville 's Golden Oak Library, where she also serves as town librarian. Her apprenticeship to Celestia ends in the season three finale "Magical Mystery Cure '' when she reverses an ancient spell by creating new magic based on her studies of friendship, transforms into an alicorn, and is crowned a princess. Assuming the title of "Princess of Friendship '', Twilight becomes responsible for spreading friendship across Equestria from the Castle of Friendship, a mystical castle that replaces the library after its destruction in the season four finale "Twilight 's Kingdom ''. After the season eight premiere "School Daze '', Twilight runs the School of Friendship to teach other creatures the benefits of friendship and appoints her friends as teachers.
Rainbow Dash is a blue pegasus with a rainbow - colored mane and tail who is based on the "G1 '' Firefly toy and shares her name with the "G3 '' earth pony. She is obsessed with speed and adventure. Her goal at the beginning of the series is to join her heroes, the elite Wonderbolts aerobatic team. This is accomplished in the season six episode "Newbie Dash '' after she impresses them with the multiple heroic feats she performs in the first five seasons. She helps other pegasi manage the weather around Ponyville and spends her time practicing flight maneuvers such as the "Sonic Rainboom '', a rainbow - hued sonic boom; it is shown in the episode "The Cutie Mark Chronicles '' that Rainbow Dash 's first Sonic Rainboom as a filly caused an chain of events that produced the Mane Six 's cutie marks. She lives with a propeller - fitted pet tortoise named Tank in a floating condominium of clouds called the Cloudominium, which is sparingly seen in the show because she "does n't sit still for very long '', according to director Jim Miller. Faust struggled to find a suitable aspect for Rainbow Dash 's Element of Harmony, seeing the character as "self - absorbed and rather irresponsible. '' She eventually settled on "loyalty '' because it "brought out (Rainbow Dash 's) positive traits. ''
Pinkie Pie (fully named Pinkamena Diane Pie) is a pink earth pony based on the "G3 '' toy of the same name. Her character, which Thiessen summarized as "a frenetic sugar rush '', was inspired by the "G1 '' pegasus toy Surprise. She is a party planner at Sugarcube Corner, a bakery and confectionery store in Ponyville that resembles a gingerbread house, where she also keeps a toothless baby alligator named Gummy. A comedic character who was raised on a "dreary rock farm '', Pinkie is cheerful, energetic, and talkative. She is defined by her desire to entertain her friends by randomly throwing parties and acting as outlandish as possible; but has a lack of confidence and a fear of being rejected by others. Pinkie is a source of much of the series ' humor, and several of the show 's "wacky gags '' are kept exclusive to her. Her running gags include breaking the fourth wall and "appearing suddenly in unexpected places '', as well as an ability to predict future events through various body reactions, which she calls the "Pinkie Sense ''. In early episodes, Faust worked to depict Pinkie as a "free spirit '' to address concerns of the character being seen as too "hyper '' and "ditzy ''. As the creative team grew more comfortable with Pinkie 's character and humor, she became "really over-the - top strange and bordering on crazy, with a wacky cartoonish magic all her own. ''
Rarity is a white unicorn with a curled violet mane who was based on the "G1 '' ponies Glory and Sparkler and named after the "G3 '' pony Rarity. She is a ladylike fashionista who speaks with a Mid-Atlantic accent and runs a haute couture salon in Ponyville called Carousel Boutique. Despite her vain and melodramatic tendencies, she has a generous spirit and strives to create dresses that capture their wearers ' inner beauty. She owns a pet Persian cat named Opalescence who is commonly nicknamed Opal. Faust 's original idea for Rarity 's Element of Harmony was "inspiration '', but it was changed to "generosity '' after the production team deemed the former "too much of a thinker, especially for kids. '' Faust was pleased with the change, saying it "really helped pull (Rarity) away from the stereotypical, unlikable debutante. '' She cites Audrey Hepburn as her biggest influence for Rarity, and also says that Tabitha St. Germain 's performance "added a humor to Rarity that was unexpected and wonderful. ''
Applejack is an orange, blonde - haired earth pony based on the "G1 '' character of the same name. She is characterized as a "farm gal '' who sports a cowboy hat and lasso, and speaks with a Southern accent. She works as an apple farmer at the Sweet Apple Acres orchard in Ponyville, using her strength to "buck '' apples out of trees. She lives with her grandmother Granny Smith, older brother Big McIntosh, younger sister Apple Bloom, and pet collie Winona. According to Faust, Applejack 's parents -- Bright Mac (voiced by Bill Newton) and Pear Butter (voiced by Felicia Day), first seen in the season seven episode "The Perfect Pear '' -- are deceased. Applejack is honest, reliable, and the most "down - to - earth '' of the Mane Six. She also has a stubborn streak, with several episodes focusing on her taking up some sort of "herculean task ''. Author Begin says that her apple - themed cutie mark "not only represents her name, but also is a symbol of the down - home simplicity found in a classic and common fruit. ''
Fluttershy is a yellow pink - maned pegasus based on the "G1 '' earth pony Posey. True to her name, she is "defined by her shy sweetness; soft, whispery voice; and tender, nurturing nature '', as described by author Begin. She possesses a unique affinity for animals that allows her to communicate with them. She lives in a secluded meadow cottage in Ponyville where she cares for multiple forest creatures such as her "conniving and willful '' pet rabbit Angel Bunny. In many episodes, Fluttershy exhibits an authoritative personality that emerges whenever a friend or animal is harmed, in contrast to her normally fearful and submissive self. Her most prominent ability, "the Stare '', causes any creature that meets her gaze to become "powerless and moved to meekness '' while it is in effect. Faust enjoyed writing for Fluttershy the most out of the show 's characters due to her "relatable '' struggles with fear, which Faust says brings potential "not just for great storytelling but (also for) great filmmaking ''.
Spike the Dragon is a purple baby dragon with green spines based on the "G1 '' and "G3 '' character of the same name. Hatched from an egg by a young Twilight Sparkle as part of her entrance exam for Celestia 's academy, he fulfills the role of Twilight 's "number one assistant '', named so for his loyalty and skill at helping Twilight solve problems and learn lessons. He is also described as having an incurable crush on Rarity, an insatiable appetite for sparkly gems, and the ability to send letters via his fiery dragon breath. '' He gained wings in the season eight episode "Molt Down ''. Author Begin calls Spike a foil to the Mane Six in terms of personality, size, and shape, which "provides plenty of opportunity for exploring this difference in story lines. '' He adopts a newborn phoenix named Peewee as a pet in the second - season episode "Dragon Quest '' and returned Peewee to his family in the season three episode "Just for Sidekicks ''. Faust envisioned the character as "the sensitive little boy who has a lot of sisters and just seems to get along better with girls. '' On Spike 's role as a dragon outsider living among ponies, Meghan McCarthy says, "He 's trying to figure out who he is. What beyond being Twilight 's assistant is his role in this world? I think he really reflects how everybody feels at some point in their life. ''
Princess Celestia, based on the "G1 '' unicorn Majesty, is a white alicorn and Equestria 's benevolent ruler. She has a flowing, multicolored mane and tail. As detailed in The Journal of the Two Sisters, Celestia has ruled Equestria for over one thousand years due to the slowed aging of alicorns. Her status as an alicorn is seen as a symbol of harmony between unicorns, pegasi and earth ponies. She is responsible for magically raising the sun each day from her castle in Canterlot and lowering it to make way for the night She also acts as a mentor and, as described by Faust, "a bit of a surrogate parent '' to Twilight Sparkle, guiding her throughout the series ' first three seasons to her eventual destiny as a princess of Equestria. She owns a mischievous pet phoenix named Philomena, who appears to be a "squaking old bird '' before bursting into flames and renewing herself. Faust 's original concept for Celestia was a queen rather than a princess, reflecting her status as the "highest authority '' in the series ' setting. The change was made at Hasbro 's statement that "girls assume that Queens are evil (...) and Princesses are good, '' and that "the perceived youth of a Princess is preferable to consumers. ''
Princess Luna, also named "Selena '' in earlier drafts, is a dark blue alicorn and Princess Celestia 's younger sister, designed and developed by Lynne Naylor. She serves as co-ruler of Equestria alongside Celestia, using her magic to maintain the moon and safeguard her subjects ' dreams during nighttime. Luna is introduced in the two opening episodes as Nightmare Moon, a malevolent black mare who was transformed by bitterness and jealousy towards her more beloved sister; as expounded in the comic series, her alter ego is a creation of the Nightmare Forces, a dark lunar miasma that preys on Luna 's insecurities to convince her to become their host. Banished to the moon by the reluctant Celestia in the series ' past, Nightmare Moon returns from a thousand - year exile to create eternal night. The Mane Six use the Elements of Harmony to purify and reform Luna, who reconciles with her sister and resumes her royal duties. She sports a different design in later episodes with a darker coloration and starry mane. Several episodes depict Luna 's "difficulty living in her older sister 's shadow '', such as adapting to modern Equestrian customs and repairing her public image. Outside the television series, Luna owns a pet opossum named Tiberius that appears in several comics and chapter books.
The Cutie Mark Crusaders are a trio of fillies bonded by their desire to earn their "cutie marks '', symbols that appear on a pony 's flank once they discover their special talents in life. They are each depicted as younger sibling figures to the main cast except Scootaloo. Several episodes of the series focus on the Crusaders ' misadventures in trying to earn their marks in "the most unorthodox and sometimes less - than - productive ways. '' This goal is achieved in the season five episode "Crusaders of the Lost Mark '', where the members gain similarly - themed cutie marks when they recognize their true purpose in life is helping other ponies discover or interpret their own cutie marks.
In addition to the main trio, there are others who are accepted into the Cutie Mark Crusaders across the series:
Discord is a spirit of chaos who first appeared in "The Return of Harmony ''. Primarily characterized as a nonsensical trickster, he is a Greek mythology - inspired creature called a "draconequus '' (/ drəˈkɒnɛkwʌs /, from the Latin words meaning "dragon horse ''), a serpentine being with a pony 's head and numerous different animal parts. Celestia and Luna opposed him in the past for tormenting ponies with his reality - bending powers, and he similarly faces the Mane Six during the premiere; both times, the ponies use the Elements of Harmony to turn him into stone. In the season three episode "Keep Calm and Flutter On '', Discord is released under Celestia 's decree to reform himself, which he does after Fluttershy treats him like a friend. He appears in later episodes as a reluctant ally of the Mane Six, occasionally causing mischief while struggling to become a better friend to them.
Faust based Discord 's character on Q, an omnipotent trickster played by John de Lancie on the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation. The production team considered casting a soundalike of de Lancie to voice the character, and were surprised to learn that de Lancie himself was available. The creative team developed Discord as "the one character who could break all of the rules of the show '' by including more modern or contemporary references than usual in the series ' "fantasy storybook '' setting. He was not intended to have a recurring role; according to McCarthy, "' reforming ' him allows us to tell new stories with his character. He gets to be the not - always - reliable ally instead of the known enemy. '' Author Begin commented on the "chaotic '' settings that accompany the character, such as his home dimension called Chaosville, likening them to "dream - inspired Salvador Dalí paintings. ''
Princess Cadance and Prince Shining Armor are Twilight Sparkle 's older sister - in - law and brother, respectively, who debuted in the season two finale "A Canterlot Wedding ''. Cadance, a kind alicorn whose full name is Princess Mi Amore Cadenza, is Princess Celestia 's adopted niece and Twilight 's childhood "foal - sitter '' (babysitter); according to the chapter book Twilight Sparkle and the Crystal Heart Spell, Cadance was a pegasus who became an alicorn after reversing an evil sorceress 's love - stealing spell. She married the unicorn Shining Armor, the captain of Canterlot 's royal guard who has a close relationship with his sister and is nicknamed her "Big Brother Best Friend Forever '' (B.B.B.F.F.). In the third - season premiere, Celestia appoints Shining Armor and Cadance to rule the Crystal Empire, an "ancient city '' that Cadance protects using the power of love so the shimmering crystal ponies may project hope and love across Equestria. In the season six premiere "The Crystalling '', Cadance gives birth to an alicorn filly named Flurry Heart (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain).
Starlight Glimmer is a unicorn who debuted in the season five premiere "The Cutie Map ''. Initially appearing as a "perfectly pleasant - looking unicorn '', Starlight is a sinister figure who wishes to build a "perfectly equal society '' by magically removing other ponies ' cutie marks because she believed that differing degrees of ability cause disharmony between friends. This stemmed from her anger at her childhood friend Sunburst (voiced by Ian Hanlin) after he earned his cutie mark before her. She later appears in the season five finale "The Cutie Re-Mark '' to take revenge against the Mane Six by traveling to the past and preventing their friendship before it starts by stopping Rainbow Dash from performing the Sonic Rainboom. After realizing the catastrophic changes this causes in the present, Starlight is convinced to change her ways and make new friends. She appears in season six as Twilight 's pupil, a role she graduates from in the season seven episode "Celestial Advice ''. In season eight, she is made a guidance counselor for the School of Friendship. According to Miller, Starlight 's design was chosen to parallel her role as a "proto - Twilight character ''. Her original name during production was "Aurora Glimmer '', which was changed due to the Walt Disney Company 's trademark of the character name "Aurora ''.
Ponyville is the primary setting of the television series and home of the show 's main characters. The town 's unique locales were designed to reflect their characters, while the overall style of the town was largely influenced by Pennsylvania Dutch design, steampunk artwork, and European and Bavarian folklore. The town also incorporates pony design elements such as horseshoes, hay bales, and troughs.
Canterlot is the mountainside capital of Equestria, named after the castle Camelot of Arthurian legend. The city is home to the country 's upper - class elite, including Princess Celestia and Princess Luna, who reside in the local castle. Canterlot was designed to give the sense of its residents ' royalty and nobility.
Cloudsdale is the home and birthplace of several pegasus characters such as Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy. It is depicted as a floating city of clouds where pegasi produce Equestria 's clouds, weather and rainbows inside a specialized "weather factory ''. The city 's design was influenced by Greek and Roman architecture, which author Begin states "harks back to the original Olympic Games, (...) a fitting reference for Rainbow Dash. ''
The show features an extensive cast of over 200 minor characters, also designated as "background ponies '', that are used to fill out crowd scenes and serve as visual gags in episodes. Several background ponies have been well received by the show 's brony fanbase, who have assigned names and more detailed personalities to them. As a response to fan interest, the series ' creative team have given these characters expanded roles in later episodes and media, such as the show 's one - hundredth episode "Slice of Life '', which presents the characters ' daily lives as the episode 's central focus.
The characters of My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic have received praise, and are cited as one of the reasons the series ' older fans, called "bronies '', became attracted to the show. In his review of the show, Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club complimented the characters ' stylized appearance and defined personalities, while favorably noting that "the show uses them well to come up with fun stories and bounce solid jokes off of each other. '' Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media, an organization focusing on the parenting aspect of children 's media, felt the characters posed a positive influence on children with themes tolerance and respect for one another, and that they "do n't let their diverse personalities keep them from forging relationships. '' However, she advised parents to be wary of the "influence the characters might have on their kids ' desires, since it 's rooted in a well - known product line of books, toys, and just about everything in between. '' Los Angeles Times critic Robert Lloyd praised the show 's diverse female characterization, but noted the smaller male cast by comparison, calling them "largely beside the point ''.
Kathleen Richter of Ms. was dismissive of the characters in her critique of the show in comparison to other girls ' shows, which she considered "so sexist and racist and heteronormative ''. For example, she suggested that the character of Rainbow Dash was used to promote the stereotype that "all feminists are angry, tomboyish lesbians. '' She also considered that the only darker - colored ponies shown at the time were in positions of servitude towards the "white pony overlord ''. Lauren Faust responded to these claims by stating that while Rainbow Dash was a tomboy, "nowhere in the show is her sexual orientation ever referenced '' and "assuming (tomboys) are lesbians is extremely unfair to both straight and lesbian tomboys '', and further stating that "Color has never, ever been depicted as a race indicator for the ponies. '' The portrayal of the character Derpy in the second season episode "The Last Roundup '' received a negative response from some viewers, who felt her crossed eyes and klutzy mannerisms were insulting to mentally handicapped persons; Hasbro 's subsequent modifications to the scene to reduce such character traits were also received poorly.
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what is the meaning of rbd in airline | Fare basis code - wikipedia
A fare basis code (often just referred to as a fare basis) is an alphabetic or alpha - numeric code used by airlines to identify a fare type and allow airline staff and travel agents to find the rules applicable to that fare. Although airlines now set their own fare basis codes, there are some patterns that have evolved over the years and may still be in use.
Fare codes start with a letter called a booking class (indicating travel class among other things) which almost always matches the letter code that the reservation is booked in. Other letters or numbers may follow. Typically a fare basis will be 3 to 7 characters long, but can be up to 8.
The first character of the fare basis code is always a letter, and will almost always match the booking class. Booking codes are the identifiers used by the airline 's revenue management department to control how many seats can be sold at a particular fare level. For example, a plane may have 25 economy seats still available and the airline may show it in a reservation system as Y7 K5 M4 T6 E3 which indicates how many of each booking class can be reserved. Some codes can not be sold by agents, and those seats may be reserved for international connections, loyalty programs, or airline staff relocation.
Booking codes were defined by IATA, but airlines have deviated from the IATA standard and current booking codes are airline - specific. The same code may have different meanings for tickets issued by different airlines. Many airlines use nearly all letters of the alphabet to allow finer yield management. Nevertheless, certain booking codes have retained the same meaning across most airlines:
Letters and numbers in other sections of the fare basis code may provide the following information:
There is an endless list of other codes on modern fares. These are not standardized in any way, and may often be for short - term use. The following are some examples:
Fare construction refers to the application of fares which can cover the flights in the reservation, necessary to price the air ticket for issuance.
It is commonly presented as a single line with standardized codes which can be used for travel agents to price the ticket in global distribution systems. For example, a fare construction may say:
Fare construction is a complicated task because each fare comes with a lot of rules regarding the usage, however the rules are designed to be validatable by computers so the system can decide to accept or reject easily. Most commonly fare construction is done by a computer automatically, but it is not guaranteed that the lowest fares can be found, therefore manual fare construction can also be done, which means finding the suitable fares manually and applying the fares to an itinerary in order to buy a ticket.
It is common for a multi-sector air ticket to have more than one fare basis, particularly if it is for carriage on more than one airline, or different classes of travel are involved. The issuing airline may often have an interline agreement to allow other airlines on the ticket. One disadvantage of this system is that if any change is made, the most restrictive fare rule, and / or the highest change fee, may apply to the entire ticket, not just the portion being changed.
In a Global Distribution System, the fare basis will typically display as part of a fare display, and will not normally be shown in an availability display. Some modern booking systems allow availability searches using parameters such as time of day and lowest fare, and may negate the need for an agent to firstly study the fare basis rules.
The fare basis is normally shown on the air ticket. On older paper tickets, it was highlighted on the relevant coupon for that flight. On modern e-tickets, it is often printed under the flight details.
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who played the bands manager in i can only imagine | I Can Only Imagine (film) - wikipedia
I Can Only Imagine is a 2018 American Christian drama film directed by the Erwin Brothers and written by Alex Cramer, Jon Erwin, and Brent McCorkle, based on the story behind the MercyMe song of the same name, the best - selling Christian single of all time. The film stars J. Michael Finley as Bart Millard, the lead singer who wrote the song about his relationship with his father (Dennis Quaid). Madeline Carroll, Priscilla Shirer, Cloris Leachman, and Trace Adkins also star.
I Can Only Imagine was released in the United States on March 16, 2018. It has grossed $83 million worldwide against a production budget of $7 million, and is the third highest - grossing music biopic of all - time in the United States. Some critics praised it as inspiring and noted it as an improvement compared to other faith - based films, while others called it flat and by - the - numbers.
Coming from a home with an abusive father, 10 - year - old Bart Millard is dropped off at a Christian camp by his mother, where he meets Shannon. Upon his return from camp, Bart finds his mother has left and movers are removing her belongings, leading to a physical confrontation with his father Arthur, who takes custody of him.
Years later, Millard is in Lakeside high school and dating Shannon. Hoping to impress his father, he begins playing football. However, he is injured, breaking both ankles and ending his career. In order to make up the credits he would miss from football, he signs up for music class, the only available class left. Initially, Millard is assigned to be a sound technician. After the director catches him singing in the empty auditorium of Lakeside high school, she casts him as Curly, the lead role in the school production of Oklahoma. He does n't tell his father of his role in the play, and while Bart has risen to the singing demands of the part, Arthur subsequently collapses with severe abdominal pain, but refuses to tell Bart or Shannon about his cancer diagnosis. The following morning, Millard voices his frustrations with his father and is assaulted by his father, who smashes a plate over his head. Shannon presses Bart to open up, but he responds by breaking up with her and leaving to seek his fortune in the city after graduation.
Millard then connects with the band who would become MercyMe, and eventually attracts the attention of Christian music producer Scott Brickell (Trace Adkins), who coaches Millard and gets them a showcase in Nashville, leading to meetings with Amy Grant (Nicole DuPort) and Michael W. Smith (Jake B. Miller). Millard has been unable to reconcile with Shannon, who rejects his invitation to tour with the band to their upcoming Nashville showcase. While the band felt their performance was the best of their career, industry representatives reject the band as not being good enough to sell records. In despair, Millard quits the band. After talking with Brickell, who encourages him to resolve his issues with his father, Millard rejoins the band but asks they wait for him to confront his father and settle the conflict before they play again.
Millard returns home and is greeted enthusiastically by his father, who prepares breakfast for him the next morning. His father claims to have become a Christian, but Bart is initially skeptical and rejects his father 's offer to start over. In anger, Arthur takes a baseball bat and hits his old Jeep, which he had hoped to repair with his son. As Bart prepares to leave, he finds out his father has terminal cancer. Bart and his father reconcile and form a deep bond before Arthur dies of his illness.
After his father 's funeral, Millard rejoins the band and writes "I Can Only Imagine ''. Brickell sends the demo tape to several artists, including Grant, who, deeply moved by the song, asks to record it herself as her next single. The band accepts Grant 's offer. Millard is seated in the audience when Grant intends to unveil the song live in concert. However, Grant decides that Millard should be the one to sing the song, and offers it back to him, calling him to the microphone to sing it before the large audience. Millard 's unexpected performance is wildly applauded and he reunites with Shannon, who had also been in attendance at the concert. The band releases the song as their first single, achieving success on Christian and mainstream radio.
The film was announced in December 2016. Dennis Quaid joined the cast in January 2017. Broadway actor J. Michael Finley makes his film debut as Bart Millard. The same month, it was announced that the film was slated for release in the spring of 2018. In August 2017, Lionsgate and Roadside Attractions signed on as distributors for the film for a nationwide release in the United States.
As of May 13, 2018, I Can Only Imagine has grossed $82.4 million in the United States, and Canada and $1.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $83.5 million, against a production budget of $7 million. It is the third - highest grossing music biopic of all - time in the United States, behind Straight Outta Compton and Walk the Line.
The film was released on March 16, 2018, alongside Tomb Raider and Love, Simon, and was originally projected to gross $2 -- 4 million from 1,620 theaters in its opening weekend. However, after making $6.2 million on its first day (including $1.3 million from Thursday night previews), weekend estimates were increased to $14 million. It ended up grossing $17.1 million, exceeding expectations and finishing third at the box office behind Black Panther and Tomb Raider. 67 % of the opening weekend audience was female while 80 % was over the age of 35. It was the fourth best - ever opening for a faith - based film, following The Passion of the Christ ($83.8 million), Son of God ($25.6 million) and Heaven Is for Real ($22.5 million). In its second weekend the film was added to 624 additional theaters and dropped just 19 % to $13.8 million, again finishing third. It was added to another 395 venues and finished fourth in its third weekend, making $10.4 million (including $3 million on Easter Sunday). The film will be released on DVD, Blu - ray and available at iTunes Store and Google Play Store, June 5, 2018.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 70 % based on 23 reviews, and an average rating of 6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "I Can Only Imagine 's message will have the most impact among Christian audiences, but overall, its performances and storytelling represent a notable evolution in faith - based cinema. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 29 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to earn such a score.
The Arizona Republic 's James Ward gave the film 4 / 5 stars and wrote, "Too often faith - based films -- say anything with Kirk Cameron or the terrible God 's Not Dead series -- tend to preach to the choir or hector their audience. The Erwins ' films -- I Can Only Imagine definitely among them -- are more inclusive, charitable of spirit and hopeful, all qualities that are always appreciated, be they rooted in Christian faith or otherwise. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C -- '' saying: "There 's a reason why all of these movies are so amateurishly made; why they all end with links to religious websites; why they all look like they were shot on an iPhone by a Walmart - brand Janusz Kaminski who lit each interior like the white light of heaven was streaming through every window... Art can be affirmation, but affirmation can not be art. ''
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what does the i mean in bmw 335i | BMW 3 Series (E90) - wikipedia
The BMW E90 / E91 / E92 / E93 series is the fifth generation of the BMW 3 Series, which was produced from 2004 to 2013. The body styles of the range are:
Due to the separate model codes for each body style, the term "E9X '' is sometimes used to describe this generation of the 3 Series.
The E92 335i coupe, introduced in 2006, was the first 3 Series model to be sold with a turbocharged petrol engine. The E9X family also saw the introduction of run - flat tyres to the 3 Series range. Consequently, cars with run - flats are not equipped with a spare tyre.
The E90 / E91 sedans and wagons began to be phased out following the introduction of their F30 / F31 successors in 2012. However, the E92 / E93 coupes and cabriolets remained in production until 2013, when they were replaced by the F32 / F33 models.
The E90 / E92 / E93 M3 is the only generation of M3 to be powered by a V8 engine. Released in 2007, it uses BMW 's S65 engine and was produced in sedan, coupe and cabriolet body styles.
The design for the fifth generation 3 Series was frozen in mid-2002, approximately 30 months before the start of production.
The sedan and Touring were designed by Joji Nagashima, and the coupe and cabriolet were designed by Marc Michael Markefka.
The range was introduced in 2004 with the sedan and estate body styles. The coupe was introduced in 2006 and the cabriolet was introduced in 2007.
E90 sedan
E91 Touring
E92 coupe
E93 convertible
The sedan model was the first model sold of the 5th generation BMW 3 series, being launched on March 5, 2005 (as a 2006 model year) with the 318i, 320i, 320si, 323i, 325i, 325xi, 330i, and 330xi models. In later years, the following sedan models were added: 316i, 320d, 325d, 328i, 330d, 335i, 335xi, 335d and M3.
Optional features (some of which are standard on higher models) include Xenon headlamps, fog lamps, automatic climate control, power - adjustable seats, satellite navigation, premium audio, Dakota leather upholstery, glass sunroof, heated front seats, Bluetooth and USB audio input. In 2011, the BMW 323i Luxury Edition was released, which included an automatic transmission, 17 - inch alloy wheels, electric front seats, Bluetooth and USB compatibility, and an electric glass sunroof.
This would be the last 3 Series to offer a naturally aspirated engine with the N52B30 (used in the 328i) and the S65B40 (used in the M3).
The E91 wagon body style is known as the 3 Series Touring or Sports Wagon. Optional equipment included a panoramic sunroof, which extends to the rear passenger area.
Trim levels typically were similar to the E90 sedan, however there was no M3 variant of the E91. As per the E90, powertrains used a range of petrol and diesel I - 6 and I - 4 engines, paired with RWD and / or xDrive AWD. Markets such as the United States and Canada, however, offered but a small subset of their already limited E90 trims. In these two markets, only the 325xi with AWD was available prior to 2007, and only the 328i in RWD and xDrive AWD forms was offered from 2007 onwards.
The coupe body style of the fifth generation 3 Series became available in August 2006 (as a 2007 model year), one year after the saloon. The E92 is available in the 316i, 318i, 320i, 323i, 325i, 325xi, 328i, 328xi, 330i, 330xi, 335i, 335is, 335xi, 320d, 320xd, 325d, 330d, 330xd, 335d, M3, and M3 GTS. This would be the last model to include the coupe and convertible as a part of the 3 Series; for the sixth generation (F32 / F33 / F36) onwards, these body styles changed to being marketed as the 4 Series.
The coupe has significant differences to the sedan, compared with previous generations. Differences include the tail - light design (L - shaped on the coupe), more steeply angled headlights and smaller side windows. The coupe door panels are also longer, it seats two passengers in the rear instead of the three - person bench, and also includes a rear centre console tray.
The coupé also features frameless doors like its E46 predecessor. There are also retractable arms that extend from the B - pillar to hand the seat belt to the driver and / or passenger when the key fob is in the ignition and the door is closed.
The 3 Series cabriolet is the first model in BMW 's lineup with a 3 - piece folding aluminium hard - top roof, instead of the cloth roof used by previous models. The E93 was one of first retractable hardtops in its price range. Other manufacturers have since produced similar retractable hardtop convertibles, such as the Lexus IS C and Infiniti G 37 convertible. The "Comfort Access '' option allows the roof to be raised and lowered using the key fob.
Overall visibility is up 38 percent, thanks to the side windows which are 30 percent larger, compared to the E46 3 Series Cabriolet.
The BMW 3 Series convertible was often priced higher than direct rivals, however reviewers have praised its passenger / boot space (even with the roof down), driving dynamics, weight and chassis rigidity.
At the front, aluminium MacPherson struts are used. The rear suspension is a steel 5 - link Multi-link suspension.
Options could be ordered individually (such as Xenon headlights and audio upgrades) or combined into packages. Optional interior colours, known as BMW Individual, were also available at extra cost.
The contents of the Premium Package varies according to model year and market. It included items such as leather seats with power adjustments, memory seat function, lumbar support, auto - dimming mirrors, a digital compass, auto - folding exterior mirrors, bluetooth and universal garage opener.
The Cold Weather package includes headlight washers, heated front seats and split / folding rear seats.
The Sports package includes a leather 3 - prong sports steering wheel, sports front seats, 18 - inch wheels, sports suspension and an increase in the speed limiter to 148 mph (238 km / h).
The Technology package includes iDrive, navigation, keyless entry ("Comfort Access ''), selectable driving modes ("M Drive ''), HD radio and Electronic Damping Control.
The M3 model was powered by the BMW S65 V8 engine and produced in sedan, coupe and cabriolet body styles.
To satisfy homologation requirements for the FIA World Touring Car Championship (WTCC), BMW built 2600 units of the 320si.
BMW WTCC works driver Andy Priaulx won two of his three consecutive World Championships in the 320si E90 as well as four other drivers achieving over 35 wins in the championship since the cars release. The BMW 320si is used by a few teams in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC). Colin Turkington won the 2009 BTCC Drivers championship using the BMW 320si.
The 335is was produced in coupé and convertible models for the North American market. It sat between the regular 335i and the M3 in the model line - up, and approximately 6,300 units were produced. The 335is uses a higher performance version (N54T) of the N54 engine from the 2006 - 2013 335i, which increases boost from 8.7 to 11.6 PSI. This results in 320 horsepower and 332 lb - ft of torque, plus an overboost function raises torque to 370 lb - ft for up to 7 seconds.
The 335is has stiffer engine mounts and an upgraded cooling system, with a heavy - duty radiator fan and two heat exchangers, one an engine oil cooler, the other a secondary coolant radiator. To accommodate these heat exchangers, which are located ahead of each front wheel, the 335is has larger air openings, similar to the M3. Fog lights were removed from the coupé version to allow for the openings, although they remain on the convertible version. In addition, the 335is is equipped with a revised, high - flow exhaust system, with the twin exhaust pipes finished in matte black, and a rear bumper that incorporates a diffuser - style piece.
Transmission options were a 7 - speed double clutch transmission (DCT) with launch control (Same DCT transmission as the M3 but with different software programming) or a 6 - speed manual transmission controlled by a short - throw "M '' stick. The manual transmission has a heavy - duty clutch with more holding power than the regular 335i.
Interior upgrades include a thicker, "M '' steering wheel, "M '' steel pedals, standard sport seats, "M '' door sills, and textured aluminium trim with "335is '' badging on dash and in instrument cluster. Exterior differences are black kidney grills, and "Style 313 '' split - five spoke "M '' wheels in 18 - inch or 19 - inch size, standard Shadowline window trim (instead of chrome), gloss - black side mirrors (instead of body colored mirrors).
In September 2008, the facelift (LCI) versions of the Saloon and Estate were released for the 2009 model year. Compared to typically subtle BMW LCI changes, these changes were relatively extensive.
Mechanical changes included an increase in rear track of 24 mm (0.94 in) for some models, a power increase for the 320d from 177 to 184 PS (135 kW; 181 bhp) and the N57 engine replacing the M57 for the 330d model.
Styling changes included front and rear bumpers, wing mirrors, headlights, taillights, boot lid, wider kidney grilles and revised crease lines for the bonnet.
For the interior, crash - activated head restraints were added to the front seats, the optional "Professional '' navigation system was updated, iDrive was updated and the resolution of the display was increased.
E90 sedan (facelift)
E90 sedan (facelift)
E91 Touring (facelift)
E92 coupe (facelift)
E93 convertible (facelift)
For the 2010 model year, the Sport, Lifestyle and Exclusive Edition were introduced for Saloon and Estate models. The 316d estate model was added, as was the 320d EfficientDynamics Edition saloon.
Mechanical changes included compliance with the EU5 emission standard, EU6 emission compliance (optional) for the 320d and 330d models, power increases for the 318d, 320d, 325d and 330d models, the N54 engine in the 335i being replaced by N55 engine, and additional features for BMW ConnectedDrive.
Some E90 / E91 / E92 / E93 models using the N54 engine experienced high pressure fuel pump (HPFP) problems.
The Euro NCAP noted the poor pedestrian protection awarding 4 points out of 36, reporting the 3 Series was "very disappointing '' in this measure.
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) gives the 3 Series a "Good '' overall rating in both the frontal and side impact crash tests. The 3 Series received "Good '' marks in all six of the frontal crash test categories, and "Good '' marks in six of the nine categories in the side impact test. The IIHS also gave the 3 Series the Top Safety Pick award. The convertible is rated "Marginal '' in side impacts, making the 3 Series convertible the lowest rated vehicle currently sold in its class in IIHS tests.
In 2002, Norbert Reithofer and Development Chief Burkhard Goeschel started an initiative to halve the time it took to reach full production of the next generation 3 Series from six months to three.
First marketed in March 2005, the car quickly became BMW Group 's best - selling car worldwide, and by the end of the year 229.900 vehicles had been delivered.
The BMW E90 series was the best - selling luxury car in Canada and the United States. The 2006 E90 marked the 15th consecutive year that the 3 Series was named Car and Driver 's 10Best.
The production dates for each model are as follows:
Units sold according to BMW 's annual reports:
The E92 Art Car entered the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans race, with Andy Priaulx (GB), Dirk Müller (DE) and Dirk Werner (DE) driving the number 78 car which failed to complete the race.
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hundi is a type of which of the following | Hundi - wikipedia
A Hundi is a financial instrument that developed in Medieval India for use in trade and credit transactions. Hundis are used as a form of remittance instrument to transfer money from place to place, as a form of credit instrument or IOU to borrow money and as a bill of exchange in trade transactions. The Reserve Bank of India describes the Hundi as "an unconditional order in writing made by a person directing another to pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order. ''
Hundis have a very long history in India. Written records show their use at least as far back as the sixteenth century. The merchant Banarasi Das, born 1586, received a hundi for 200 rupees from his father to enable him to borrow money to start trading.
During the colonial era, the British government regarded the hundi system as indigenous or traditional, but not informal. They were reluctant to interfere with it as it formed such an important part of the Indian economy and they also wished to tax the transactions taking place within the system. Official hundi forms were produced incorporating revenue stamps bearing the image of British monarchs, including Queen Victoria, and disputes between merchants often entered the court system, so in no way was the system an underground one even though it did not take place through normal banking channels.
There are few other varieties; the Nam - jog hundi, Dhani - jog hundi, Jawabee hundi, Jokhami hundi, Firman - jog hundi, etc.
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when did the north american colonies break away from great britain | American Revolution - wikipedia
The American Revolution was a colonial revolt that took place between 1765 and 1783. The American Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies won independence from Great Britain, becoming the United States of America. They defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War in alliance with France and others.
Members of American colonial society argued the position of "no taxation without representation '', starting with the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. They rejected the authority of the British Parliament to tax them because they lacked representation in Parliament. Protests steadily escalated to the burning of the Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772, followed by the Boston Tea Party in 1773, during which patriots destroyed a consignment of taxed tea. The British responded by closing Boston Harbor, then followed with a series of legislative acts which effectively rescinded Massachusetts Bay Colony 's rights of self - government and caused the other colonies to rally behind Massachusetts. In late 1774, the Patriots set up their own alternative government to better coordinate their resistance efforts against Great Britain; other colonists preferred to remain aligned to the British Crown and were known as Loyalists or Tories.
Tensions erupted into battle between Patriot militia and British regulars when the British attempted to capture and destroy Colonial military supplies at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots (and later their French, Spanish, and Dutch allies) fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 83). Each of the thirteen colonies formed a Provincial Congress that assumed power from the old colonial governments and suppressed Loyalism, and from there they built a Continental Army under the leadership of General George Washington. The Continental Congress determined King George 's rule to be tyrannical and infringing the colonists ' rights as Englishmen, and they declared the colonies free and independent states on July 2, 1776. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, and they proclaimed that all men are created equal.
The Continental Army forced the British out of Boston in 1776, but the British captured and held New York City for the duration of the war. The British blockaded ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but they failed to defeat Washington 's forces. The Patriots unsuccessfully attempted to invade Canada during the winter of 1775 -- 76, but they captured a British army at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, and the French entered the war as allies of the United States as a result. The war later turned to the American South where the British under the leadership of Charles Cornwallis captured an army at South Carolina but failed to enlist enough volunteers from Loyalist civilians to take effective control of the territory. A combined American -- French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nation 's complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of nearly all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada and Spain taking Florida.
Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. The new Constitution established a relatively strong federal national government that included an executive, a national judiciary, and a bicameral Congress that represented states in the Senate and the population in the House of Representatives. The Revolution also resulted in the migration of around 60,000 Loyalists to other British territories, especially British North America (Canada).
Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British coalition victory in the Seven Years ' War in 1763. The North American theater of the Seven Years ' War, commonly known as the French and Indian War in the United States, removed France as a major player in North American affairs and led to the cession of the territory of New France to Great Britain. Lawrence Henry Gipson, the historian of the British Empire, states:
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 may have played a role in the separation of the United States from Great Britain, as colonists at the time wanted to continue in the economically beneficial cultural practice of taking land for one 's own livelihood as part of the drive west. The lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement.
As early as 1651, the English government had sought to regulate trade in the American colonies. On October 9, the Navigation Acts were passed to ensure that trade enriched only Britain, barring trade with other nations. Some argue that the economic impact was minimal on the colonists, but the political friction which the acts triggered was more serious, as the merchants most directly affected were most politically active. King Philip 's War ended in 1678, and much of it was fought without significant assistance from England. This contributed to the development of a unique identity, separate from that of Britain.
In the 1680s, King Charles II determined to bring the New England colonies under a more centralized administration in order to regulate trade more effectively. His efforts were fiercely opposed by the colonists, resulting in the abrogation of their colonial charter by the Crown. Charles ' successor James II finalized these efforts in 1686, establishing the Dominion of New England. Dominion rule triggered bitter resentment throughout New England; the enforcement of the unpopular Navigation Acts and the curtailing of local democracy angered the colonists. New Englanders were encouraged, however, by a change of government in England that saw James II effectively abdicate, and a populist uprising overthrew Dominion rule on April 18, 1689. Colonial governments reasserted their control in the wake of the revolt, and successive governments made no more attempts to restore the Dominion.
Subsequent English governments continued in their efforts to tax certain goods, passing acts regulating the trade of wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 in particular was egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the New England economy, and the taxes were rarely paid as a result, resulting in a surge of smuggling, bribery, and intimidation of customs officials. Colonial wars fought in America were often the source of considerable tension. The British captured the fortress of Louisbourg during the War of the Austrian Succession, but then ceded it back to France in 1748. New England colonists resented their losses of lives, as well as the effort and expenditure involved in subduing the fortress, only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy.
In 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money, fearing that otherwise the colonists might evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles. That same year, Prime Minister George Grenville proposed direct taxes on the colonies to raise revenue, but he delayed action to see whether the colonies would propose some way to raise the revenue themselves. Parliament finally passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets were required to have the stamps -- even decks of playing cards.
The colonists did not object that the taxes were high; they were actually low. They objected to the fact that they had no representation in the Parliament, and thus no voice concerning legislation that affected them. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire. He said that local governments had raised, outfitted, and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France -- as many as Britain itself sent -- and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well - connected British Army soldiers. The decision was to keep them on active duty with full pay, but they had to be stationed somewhere. Stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable, so the decision was made to station them in America and have the Americans pay them. The soldiers had no military mission; they were not there to defend the colonies because there was no threat to the colonies.
The Sons of Liberty were formed in 1765. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable. In Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765. Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances '' stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise.
The Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval. They argued that the colonies were legally British corporations that were completely subordinate to the British parliament and pointed to numerous instances where Parliament had made laws binding on the colonies in the past. They did not see anything in the unwritten British constitution that made taxes special and noted that they had taxed American trade for decades. Parliament insisted that the colonies effectively enjoyed a "virtual representation '' as most British people did, as only a small minority of the British population elected representatives to Parliament. Americans such as James Otis maintained that the Americans were not in fact virtually represented.
In London, the Rockingham government came to power (July 1765) and Parliament debated whether to repeal the stamp tax or to send an army to enforce it. Benjamin Franklin made the case for repeal, explaining that the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood in defense of the empire in a series of wars against the French and Indians, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax (February 21, 1766), but insisted in the Declaratory Act of March 1766 that they retained full power to make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever ''. The repeal nonetheless caused widespread celebrations in the colonies.
In 1767, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts which placed duties on a number of essential goods, including paper, glass, and tea, and established a Board of Customs in Boston to more rigorously execute trade regulations. The new taxes were enacted on the belief that Americans only objected to internal taxes and not to external taxes such as custom duties. The Americans, however, argued against the constitutionality of the act because its purpose was to raise revenue and not regulate trade. Colonists responded by organizing new boycotts of British goods. These boycotts were less effective, however, as the Townshend goods were widely used.
In February 1768, the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay issued a circular letter to the other colonies urging them to coordinate resistance. The governor dissolved the assembly when it refused to rescind the letter. Meanwhile, a riot broke out in Boston in June 1768 over the seizure of the sloop Liberty, owned by John Hancock, for alleged smuggling. Customs officials were forced to flee, prompting the British to deploy troops to Boston. A Boston town meeting declared that no obedience was due to parliamentary laws and called for the convening of a convention. A convention assembled but only issued a mild protest before dissolving itself. In January 1769, Parliament responded to the unrest by reactivating the Treason Act 1543 which called for subjects outside the realm to face trials for treason in England. The governor of Massachusetts was instructed to collect evidence of said treason, and the threat caused widespread outrage, though it was not carried out.
On March 5, 1770, a large crowd gathered around a group of British soldiers. The crowd grew threatening, throwing snowballs, rocks, and debris at them. One soldier was clubbed and fell. There was no order to fire, but the soldiers fired into the crowd anyway. They hit 11 people; three civilians died at the scene of the shooting, and two died after the incident. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre. The soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams), but the widespread descriptions soon began to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This, in turn, began a downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and the Province of Massachusetts.
A new ministry under Lord North came to power in 1770, and Parliament withdrew all taxes except the tax on tea, giving up its efforts to raise revenue while maintaining the right to tax. This temporarily resolved the crisis, and the boycott of British goods largely ceased, with only the more radical patriots such as Samuel Adams continuing to agitate.
In June 1772, American patriots, including John Brown, burned a British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations in what became known as the Gaspee Affair. The affair was investigated for possible treason, but no action was taken.
In 1772, it became known that the Crown intended to pay fixed salaries to the governors and judges in Massachusetts. Samuel Adams in Boston set about creating new Committees of Correspondence, which linked Patriots in all 13 colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence in early 1773, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served.
A total of about 7000 to 8000 Patriots served on "Committees of Correspondence '' at the colonial and local levels, comprising most of the leadership in their communities. Loyalists were excluded. The committees became the leaders of the American resistance to British actions, and largely determined the war effort at the state and local level. When the First Continental Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees took charge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to defy the boycott by importing British goods.
In 1773, private letters were published in which Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson claimed that the colonists could not enjoy all English liberties, and Lieutenant Governor Andrew Oliver called for the direct payment of colonial officials. The letters ' contents were used as evidence of a systematic plot against American rights, and discredited Hutchinson in the eyes of the people; the Assembly petitioned for his recall. Benjamin Franklin, postmaster general for the colonies, acknowledged that he leaked the letters, which led to him being berated by British officials and fired from his job.
Meanwhile, Parliament passed the Tea Act to lower the price of taxed tea exported to the colonies in order to help the East India Company undersell smuggled Dutch tea. Special consignees were appointed to sell the tea in order to bypass colonial merchants. The act was opposed by those who resisted the taxes and also by smugglers who stood to lose business. In most instances, the consignees were forced to resign and the tea was turned back, but Massachusetts governor Hutchinson refused to allow Boston merchants to give in to pressure. A town meeting in Boston determined that the tea would not be landed, and ignored a demand from the governor to disperse. On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke the appearance of American Indians, boarded the ships of the British East India Company and dumped £ 10,000 worth of tea from their holds (approximately £ 636,000 in 2008) into Boston Harbor. Decades later, this event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore.
The British government responded by passing several Acts which came to be known as the Intolerable Acts, which further darkened colonial opinion towards the British. They consisted of four laws enacted by the British parliament. The first was the Massachusetts Government Act which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second act was the Administration of Justice Act which ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third Act was the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party. The fourth Act was the Quartering Act of 1774, which allowed royal governors to house British troops in the homes of citizens without requiring permission of the owner.
In response, Massachusetts patriots issued the Suffolk Resolves and formed an alternative shadow government known as the "Provincial Congress '' which began training militia outside British - occupied Boston. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened, consisting of representatives from each of the colonies, to serve as a vehicle for deliberation and collective action. During secret debates, conservative Joseph Galloway proposed the creation of a colonial Parliament that would be able to approve or disapprove of acts of the British Parliament, but his idea was not accepted. The Congress instead endorsed the proposal of John Adams that Americans would obey Parliament voluntarily but would resist all taxes in disguise. Congress called for a boycott beginning on 1 December 1774 of all British goods; it was enforced by new committees authorized by the Congress.
Massachusetts was declared in a state of rebellion in February 1775 and the British garrison received orders to disarm the rebels and arrest their leaders, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. The Patriots laid siege to Boston, expelled royal officials from all the colonies, and took control through the establishment of Provincial Congresses. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. It was a British victory -- but at a great cost: about 1,000 British casualties from a garrison of about 6,000, as compared to 500 American casualties from a much larger force. The Second Continental Congress was divided on the best course of action, but eventually produced the Olive Branch Petition, in which they attempted to come to an accord with King George. The king, however, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion which stated that the states were "in rebellion '' and the members of Congress were traitors.
In the winter of 1775, the Americans invaded Canada under generals Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery. The attack was a complete failure; many Americans who were n't killed were either captured or died of smallpox.
In March 1776, the Continental Army forced the British to evacuate Boston, with George Washington as the commander of the new army. The revolutionaries were now in full control of all 13 colonies and were ready to declare independence. There still were many Loyalists, but they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the Royal officials had fled.
Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of Massachusetts outside the Boston city limits, and the Loyalists suddenly found themselves on the defensive with no protection from the British army. In all 13 colonies, Patriots had overthrown their existing governments, closing courts and driving away British officials. They had elected conventions and "legislatures '' that existed outside any legal framework; new constitutions were drawn up in each state to supersede royal charters. They declared that they were states now, not colonies.
On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution. In May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. The new states were all committed to republicanism, with no inherited offices. They decided what form of government to create, and also how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. On 26 May 1776, John Adams wrote James Sullivan from Philadelphia:
"Depend upon it, sir, it is dangerous to open so fruitful a source of controversy and altercation, as would be opened by attempting to alter the qualifications of voters. There will be no end of it. New claims will arise. Women will demand a vote. Lads from twelve to twenty one will think their rights not enough attended to, and every man, who has not a farthing, will demand an equal voice with any other in all acts of state. It tends to confound and destroy all distinctions, and prostrate all ranks, to one common level ''.
The resulting constitutions in states such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York, and Massachusetts featured:
In Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New Hampshire, the resulting constitutions embodied:
The radical provisions of Pennsylvania 's constitution lasted only 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America.
In April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress issued the Halifax Resolves, explicitly authorizing its delegates to vote for independence. In May, Congress called on all the states to write constitutions and eliminate the last remnants of royal rule.
By June, nine colonies were ready for independence; one by one, the last four fell into line -- Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New York. Richard Henry Lee was instructed by the Virginia legislature to propose independence, and he did so on June 7, 1776. On the 11th, a committee was created to draft a document explaining the justifications for separation from Britain. After securing enough votes for passage, independence was voted for on July 2. The Declaration of Independence was drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson and presented by the committee; it unanimously adopted by the entire Congress on July 4. Historian George Billias says:
The Second Continental Congress approved a new constitution, the "Articles of Confederation, '' for ratification by the states on November 15, 1777, and immediately began operating under their terms. The Articles were formally ratified on March 1, 1781. At that point, the Continental Congress was dissolved and a new government of the United States in Congress Assembled took its place on the following day, with Samuel Huntington as presiding officer.
According to British historian Jeremy Black, the British had significant advantages, including a highly trained army, the world 's largest navy, and a highly efficient system of public finance that could easily fund the war. However, the British were seriously handicapped by their misunderstanding of the depth of support for the Patriot position. Ignoring the advice of General Gage, they misinterpreted the situation as merely a large - scale riot. London decided that they could overawe the Americans by sending a large military and naval force, forcing them to be loyal again:
Convinced that the Revolution was the work of a full few miscreants who had rallied an armed rabble to their cause, they expected that the revolutionaries would be intimidated.... Then the vast majority of Americans, who were loyal but cowed by the terroristic tactics... would rise up, kick out the rebels, and restore loyal government in each colony.
Washington forced the British out of Boston in the spring of 1776, and neither the British nor the Loyalists controlled any significant areas. The British, however, were massing forces at their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia. They returned in force in July 1776, landing in New York and defeating Washington 's Continental Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn. Following that victory, the British requested a meeting with representatives from Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities.
A delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met Howe on Staten Island in New York Harbor on September 11, in what became known as the Staten Island Peace Conference. Howe demanded a retraction of the Declaration of Independence, which was refused, and negotiations ended. The British then quickly seized New York City and nearly captured Washington 's army. They made New York their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until November 1783. The city became the destination for Loyalist refugees and a focal point of Washington 's intelligence network.
The British also took New Jersey, pushing the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Washington crossed the Delaware River back into New Jersey in a surprise attack in late December 1776 and defeated Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining control of most of New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and have become iconic events of the war.
In 1777, the British sent Burgoyne 's invasion force from Canada south to New York to seal off New England. Their aim was to neutralize the Yankees, whom the British perceived as the primary source of agitators. The British army in New York City went to Philadelphia in a major case of mis - coordination, capturing it from Washington. The invasion army under Burgoyne was much too slow and became trapped in northern New York state. It surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. From early October 1777 until November 15, a siege distracted British troops at Fort Mifflin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army by safely leading his troops to harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge.
In August 1775, George III declared Americans in arms against royal authority to be traitors to the Crown. Following their surrender at the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777, there were thousands of British and Hessian soldiers in American hands. Although Lord Germain took a hard line, the British generals on the scene never held treason trials; they treated captured enemy soldiers as prisoners of war. The dilemma was that tens of thousands of Loyalists were under American control and American retaliation would have been easy. The British built much of their strategy around using these Loyalists, and therefore, no Americans were put on trial for treason. The British maltreated the prisoners whom they held, resulting in more deaths to American sailors and soldiers than from combat operations. At the end of the war, both sides released their surviving prisoners.
The capture of a British army at Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war in support of Congress. Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778, significantly becoming the first country to officially recognize the Declaration of Independence. On February 6, 1778, a Treaty of Amity and Commerce and a Treaty of Alliance were signed between the United States and France. William Pitt spoke out in parliament urging Britain to make peace in America and to unite with America against France, while other British politicians who had previously sympathized with colonial grievances now turned against the Americans for allying with Britain 's international rival and enemy.
Later, Spain (in 1779) and the Dutch (1780) became allies of the French, leaving the British Empire to fight a global war alone without major allies, and requiring it to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic. The American theater thus became only one front in Britain 's war. The British were forced to withdraw troops from continental America to reinforce the valuable sugar - producing Caribbean colonies, which were more lucrative to British investors.
British commander Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Philadelphia and returned to New York City. General Washington intercepted Clinton in the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle fought in the north. After an inconclusive engagement, the British successfully retreated to New York City. The northern war subsequently became a stalemate, as the focus of attention shifted to the smaller southern theater.
The British strategy in America now concentrated on a campaign in the southern states. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders saw the "southern strategy '' as a more viable plan, as the south was perceived as being more strongly Loyalist, with a large population of recent immigrants as well as large numbers of slaves who might be captured or run away to join the British.
Beginning in late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and controlled the Georgia coastline. In 1780, they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston, as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that royal forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping that the Loyalists would rally to the flag.
Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory that they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, fought predominantly between bands of Loyalist and American militia, which negated many of the gains that the British had previously made.
The British army under Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. The fleet showed up, but so did a larger French fleet, so the British fleet returned to New York for reinforcements after the Battle of the Chesapeake, leaving Cornwallis trapped. In October 1781, the British surrendered their second invading army of the war, under a siege by the combined French and Continental armies commanded by Washington.
Historians continue to debate whether the odds for American victory were long or short. John E. Ferling says that the odds were so long that the American victory was "almost a miracle ''. On the other hand, Joseph Ellis says that the odds favored the Americans, and asks whether there ever was any realistic chance for the British to win. He argues that this opportunity came only once, in the summer of 1776, and the British failed that test. Admiral Howe and his brother General Howe "missed several opportunities to destroy the Continental Army... Chance, luck, and even the vagaries of the weather played crucial roles. '' Ellis 's point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of the Howes were fatally flawed because they underestimated the challenges posed by the Patriots. Ellis concludes that, once the Howe brothers failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again. ''
Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathized with the Americans, but now it reached a new low. King George III personally wanted to fight on, but his supporters lost control of Parliament and no further major land offensives were launched in the American Theater.
Washington could not know that the British would not reopen hostilities after Yorktown. They still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on their own in 1782 -- 83. The treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, almost to the point of mutiny or possible coup d'état. The unrest among officers of the Newburgh Conspiracy was personally dispelled by Washington in 1783, and Congress subsequently created the promise of a five years bonus for all officers.
During negotiations in Paris, the American delegation discovered that France would support independence, but no territorial gains. The new nation would be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. The American delegation opened direct secret negotiations with London, cutting the French out. British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne was in full charge of the British negotiations. He now saw a chance to make the United States a valuable economic partner. The US obtained all the land east of the Mississippi River, south of Canada, and north of Florida. It gained fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their property. It was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two - way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as indeed came to pass. Since the blockade was lifted and the old imperial restrictions were gone, American merchants were free to trade with any nation anywhere in the world, and their businesses flourished.
The British largely abandoned the Indian allies living in the new nation. They were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States. However, the British did promise to support the Indians. They sold them munitions and maintained forts in American territory until the Jay Treaty of 1795.
Losing the war and the 13 colonies was a shock to Britain. The war revealed the limitations of Britain 's fiscal - military state when they discovered that they suddenly faced powerful enemies with no allies, and they were dependent on extended and vulnerable transatlantic lines of communication. The defeat heightened dissension and escalated political antagonism to the King 's ministers. Inside parliament, the primary concern changed from fears of an over-mighty monarch to the issues of representation, parliamentary reform, and government retrenchment. Reformers sought to destroy what they saw as widespread institutional corruption.
The result was a powerful crisis from 1776 to 1783. The peace in 1783 left France financially prostrate, while the British economy boomed thanks to the return of American business. The crisis ended after 1784 thanks to the King 's shrewdness in outwitting Charles James Fox (the leader of the Fox - North Coalition), and renewed confidence in the system engendered by the leadership of the new Prime Minister William Pitt. Historians conclude that loss of the American colonies enabled Britain to deal with the French Revolution with more unity and better organization than would otherwise have been the case. Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacific and later Africa with subsequent exploration leading to the rise of the Second British Empire.
Britain 's war against the Americans, French, and Spanish cost about £ 100 million. The Treasury borrowed 40 % of the money that it needed. Heavy spending brought France to the verge of bankruptcy and revolution, while the British had relatively little difficulty financing their war, keeping their suppliers and soldiers paid, and hiring tens of thousands of German soldiers.
Britain had a sophisticated financial system based on the wealth of thousands of landowners, who supported the government, together with banks and financiers in London. The British tax system collected about 12 percent of the GDP in taxes during the 1770s.
In sharp contrast, Congress and the American states had no end of difficulty financing the war. In 1775, there was at most 12 million dollars in gold in the colonies, not nearly enough to cover current transactions, let alone finance a major war. The British made the situation much worse by imposing a tight blockade on every American port, which cut off almost all imports and exports. One partial solution was to rely on volunteer support from militiamen and donations from patriotic citizens. Another was to delay actual payments, pay soldiers and suppliers in depreciated currency, and promise that it would be made good after the war. Indeed, the soldiers and officers were given land grants in 1783 to cover the wages that they had earned but had not been paid during the war. Not until 1781 did the national government have a strong leader in financial matters, when Robert Morris was named Superintendent of Finance of the United States.
Morris used a French loan in 1782 to set up the private Bank of North America to finance the war. Seeking greater efficiency, Morris reduced the civil list, saved money by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightened accounting procedures, and demanded the national government 's full share of money and supplies from the confederated states.
Congress used four main methods to cover the cost of the war, which cost about 66 million dollars in specie (gold and silver). Congress made two issues of paper money -- in 1775 -- 1780 and in 1780 -- 81. The first issue amounted to 242 million dollars. This paper money would supposedly be redeemed for state taxes, but the holders were eventually paid off in 1791 at the rate of one cent on the dollar. By 1780, the paper money was "not worth a Continental '', as people said.
The skyrocketing inflation was a hardship on the few people who had fixed incomes -- but 90 percent of the people were farmers, and were not directly affected by that inflation. Debtors benefited by paying off their debts with depreciated paper. The greatest burden was borne by the soldiers of the Continental Army, whose wages were usually in arrears and declined in value every month, weakening their morale and adding to the hardships of their families.
Beginning in 1777, Congress repeatedly asked the states to provide money. But the states had no system of taxation either, and were little help. By 1780, Congress was making requisitions for specific supplies of corn, beef, pork, and other necessities -- an inefficient system that kept the army barely alive.
Starting in 1776, the Congress sought to raise money by loans from wealthy individuals, promising to redeem the bonds after the war. The bonds were in fact redeemed in 1791 at face value, but the scheme raised little money because Americans had little specie, and many of the rich merchants were supporters of the Crown. Starting in 1776, the French secretly supplied the Americans with money, gunpowder, and munitions in order to weaken its arch enemy Great Britain. When France officially entered the war in 1778, the subsidies continued, and the French government, as well as bankers in Paris and Amsterdam, lent large sums to the American war effort. These loans were repaid in full in the 1790s.
The war finally ended in 1783 and was followed by a period of prosperity. The national government was still operating under the Articles of Confederation and was able to settle the issue of the western territories, which were ceded by the states to Congress. American settlers moved rapidly into those areas, with Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee becoming states in the 1790s.
However, the national government had no money to pay either the war debts owed to European nations and the private banks, or to pay Americans who had been given millions of dollars of promissory notes for supplies during the war. Nationalists led by Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other veterans feared that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even internal revolts such as the Shays ' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts.
Calling themselves "Federalists, '' the nationalists convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. It adopted a new Constitution that provided for a much stronger federal government, including an effective executive in a check - and - balance system with the judiciary and legislature. The Constitution was ratified in 1788, after a fierce debate in the states over the nature of the proposed new government. The new government under President George Washington took office in New York in March 1789. Amendments to the Constitution were spearheaded in Congress by James Madison as assurances to those who were cautious about federal power, guaranteeing many of the inalienable rights that formed a foundation for the revolution. The amendments were ratified by the states in 1791.
The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12 million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40 million and state governments owed $25 million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the revolutionary forces. There were also other debts that consisted of promissory notes issued during the Revolutionary War to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually.
The war expenses of the individual states added up to $114 million compared to $37 million by the central government. In 1790, Congress combined the remaining state debts with the foreign and domestic debts into one national debt totaling $80 million at the recommendation of first Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Everyone received face value for wartime certificates, so that the national honor would be sustained and the national credit established.
The population of the 13 Colonies was not homogeneous in their political views and attitudes. Loyalties and allegiances varied widely within regions and communities and even within families, and sometimes shifted during the course of the Revolution.
The American Enlightenment was a critical precursor of the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the concepts of Natural Law, Natural Rights, Consent of the Governed, Individualism, Property Rights, Self - Ownership, Self - Determination, liberalism, republicanism and fear of corruption. Collectively, the acceptance of these concepts by a growing number of American colonists began to foster an intellectual environment which would lead to a new sense of political and social identity.
John Locke 's (1632 -- 1704) ideas on liberty influenced the political thinking behind the revolution, especially through his indirect influence on English writers such as John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon, and Benjamin Hoadly, whose political ideas in turn had a strong influence on the American revolutionaries. Locke is often referred to as "the philosopher of the American Revolution '', and is credited with leading Americans to the critical concepts of social contract, natural rights, and "born free and equal. '' Locke 's Two Treatises of Government published in 1689 were especially influential. He argued that all humans were created equally free, and governments therefore needed the "consent of the governed. '' In late eighteenth - century America, belief was still widespread in "equality by creation '' and "rights by creation ''.
The theory of the "social contract '' influenced the belief among many of the Founders that among the "natural rights '' of man was the right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen. In terms of writing state and national constitutions, the Americans heavily used Montesquieu 's analysis of the wisdom of the "balanced '' British Constitution (mixed government).
A central motivating force behind the overthrow of monarchy and aristocracy was the American embrace of a political ideology called "republicanism '', which was dominant in the colonies by 1775 but of minor importance back in Great Britain. The republicanism was inspired by the "country party '' in Great Britain, whose critique of British government emphasized that corruption was a terrible reality in Great Britain. Americans feared that the corruption was crossing the Atlantic; the commitment of most Americans to republican values and to their rights energized the revolution, as Britain was increasingly seen as hopelessly corrupt and hostile to American interests. Britain seemed to threaten the established liberties that Americans enjoyed. The greatest threat to liberty was depicted as corruption -- not just in London but at home, as well. The colonists associated it with luxury, and especially with inherited aristocracy, which they condemned.
The Founding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, particularly Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, which required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men had a civic duty to be prepared and willing to fight for the rights and liberties of their countrymen. John Adams wrote to Mercy Otis Warren in 1776, agreeing with some classical Greek and Roman thinkers in that "Public Virtue can not exist without private, and public Virtue is the only Foundation of Republics. '' He continued:
There must be a positive Passion for the public good, the public Interest, Honour, Power, and Glory, established in the Minds of the People, or there can be no Republican Government, nor any real Liberty. And this public Passion must be Superior to all private Passions. Men must be ready, they must pride themselves, and be happy to sacrifice their private Pleasures, Passions, and Interests, nay their private Friendships and dearest connections, when they Stand in Competition with the Rights of society.
For women, "republican motherhood '' became the ideal, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation.
Some republics had emerged throughout history, such as the Roman Republic of the ancient world, but none ever existed that was based on liberal principles. Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense appeared in January 1776, after the Revolution had started. It was widely distributed and loaned, and often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly to spreading the ideas of republicanism and liberalism together, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Great Britain, and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army.
Paine provided a new and widely accepted argument for independence by advocating a complete break with history. Common Sense is oriented to the future in a way that compels the reader to make an immediate choice. It offered a solution for Americans disgusted and alarmed at the threat of tyranny.
Dissenting churches of the day (i.e., Protestant, non-Church of England) were, in the words of Patricia Bonomi, the "school of democracy. '' President John Witherspoon of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) wrote widely circulated sermons linking the American Revolution to the teachings of the Bible. Throughout the colonies, dissenting Protestant ministers (Congregationalist, Baptist, and Presbyterian) preached Revolutionary themes in their sermons, while most Church of England clergymen preached loyalty to the king, the titular head of the English state church. Religious motivation for fighting tyranny transcended socioeconomic lines to encompass rich and poor, men and women, frontiersmen and townsmen, farmers and merchants.
The Declaration also referred to the "Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God '' as justification for the Americans ' separation from the British monarchy. Most eighteenth - century Americans believed that nature, the entire universe, was God 's creation. Therefore, he was "Nature 's God. '' Everything, including man, was part of the "universal order of things '', which began with God and was pervaded and directed by his providence. Accordingly, the signers of the Declaration professed their "firm reliance on the Protection of divine Providence. '' And they appealed to "the Supreme Judge (God) for the rectitude of (their) intentions. '' Like most of his countrymen, George Washington was firmly convinced that he was an instrument of providence, to the benefit of the American people and of all humanity.
Historian Bernard Bailyn argues that the evangelicalism of the era challenged traditional notions of natural hierarchy by preaching that the Bible teaches that all men are equal, so that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not in his class. Kidd argues that religious disestablishment, belief in a God as the source of human rights, and shared convictions about sin, virtue, and divine providence worked together to unite rationalists and evangelicals and thus encouraged American defiance of the Empire. Bailyn, on the other hand, denies that religion played such a critical role. Alan Heimert argues that New Light antiauthoritarianism was essential to furthering democracy in colonial American society and set the stage for a confrontation with British monarchical and aristocratic rule.
Looking back, John Adams concluded in 1818:
The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people... This radical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affections of the people was the real American Revolution.
In terms of class, Loyalists tended to have longstanding social and economic connections to British merchants and government; for instance, prominent merchants in major port cities such as New York, Boston and Charleston tended to be Loyalists, as did men involved with the fur trade along the northern frontier. In addition, officials of colonial government and their staffs, those who had established positions and status to maintain, favored maintaining relations with Great Britain. They often were linked to British families in England by marriage as well.
By contrast, Patriots by number tended to be yeomen farmers, especially in the frontier areas of New York and the backcountry of Pennsylvania, Virginia and down the Appalachian mountains. They were craftsmen and small merchants. Leaders of both the Patriots and the Loyalists were men of educated, propertied classes. The Patriots included many prominent men of the planter class from Virginia and South Carolina, for instance, who became leaders during the Revolution, and formed the new government at the national and state levels.
To understand the opposing groups, historians have assessed evidence of their hearts and minds. In the mid-20th century, historian Leonard Woods Labaree identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative; opposite traits to those characteristic of the Patriots. Older and better established men, Loyalists tended to resist innovation. They thought resistance to the Crown -- which they insisted was the only legitimate government -- was morally wrong, while the Patriots thought morality was on their side.
Loyalists were alienated when the Patriots resorted to violence, such as burning houses and tarring and feathering. Loyalists wanted to take a centrist position and resisted the Patriots ' demand to declare their opposition to the Crown. Many Loyalists, especially merchants in the port cities, had maintained strong and long - standing relations with Britain (often with business and family links to other parts of the British Empire).
Many Loyalists realized that independence was bound to come eventually, but they were fearful that revolution might lead to anarchy, tyranny or mob rule. In contrast, the prevailing attitude among Patriots, who made systematic efforts to use mob violence in a controlled manner, was a desire to seize the initiative. Labaree also wrote that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the confidence in the future displayed by the Patriots.
Historians in the early 20th century, such as J. Franklin Jameson, examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, looking for evidence of a class war inside the revolution. In the last 50 years, historians have largely abandoned that interpretation, emphasizing instead the high level of ideological unity. Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a ' mixed lot ', with the richer and better educated more likely to become officers in the Army.
Ideological demands always came first: the Patriots viewed independence as a means to gain freedom from British oppression and taxation and, above all, to reassert what they considered to be their rights as English subjects. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen, and small merchants joined the Patriot cause to demand more political equality. They were especially successful in Pennsylvania but less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Thomas Paine 's Common Sense for the "absurd democratical notions '' it proposed.
The war became a personal issue for the king, fueled by his growing belief that British leniency would be taken as weakness by the Americans. The king also sincerely believed he was defending Britain 's constitution against usurpers, rather than opposing patriots fighting for their natural rights.
At the time, revolutionaries were called "Patriots '', "Whigs '', "Congress - men '', or "Americans ''. They included a full range of social and economic classes, but were unanimous regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in terms of rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue on the part of the citizens. Newspapers were strongholds of patriotism (although there were a few Loyalist papers), and printed many pamphlets, announcements, patriotic letters and pronouncements.
According to historian Robert Calhoon, the consensus of historians is that 40 -- 45 % of the white population in the Thirteen Colonies supported the Patriots ' cause, 15 -- 20 % supported the Loyalists, and the remainder were neutral or kept a low profile. Mark Lender explores why ordinary folk became insurgents against the British even though they were unfamiliar with the ideological rationales being offered. They held very strongly a sense of "rights '' that they felt the British were violating -- rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested in the British response to the Boston Tea Party. The arrival in Boston of the British Army heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge. They had faith that God was on their side.
The consensus of scholars is that about 15 -- 20 % of the white population remained loyal to the British Crown. Those who actively supported the king were known at the time as "Loyalists '', "Tories '', or "King 's men ''. The Loyalists never controlled territory unless the British Army occupied it. Loyalists were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, often connected to the Church of England, and included many established merchants with strong business connections across the Empire, as well as royal officials such as Thomas Hutchinson of Boston. There were 500 to 1000 black loyalists who were held as slaves by patriots, escaped to British lines and joined the British army. Most died of disease but Britain took the survivors to Canada as free men.
The revolution could divide families. The most dramatic example was when William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin and royal governor of the Province of New Jersey, remained loyal to the Crown throughout the war; they never spoke again. Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King, such as recent Scottish settlers in the back country; among the more striking examples of this, see Flora MacDonald.
After the war, the great majority of the 450,000 -- 500,000 Loyalists remained in America and resumed normal lives. Some, such as Samuel Seabury, became prominent American leaders. Estimates vary, but about 62,000 Loyalists relocated to Canada, and others to Britain (7,000) or to Florida or the West Indies (9,000). The exiles represented approximately 2 % of the total population of the colonies. Nearly all black loyalists left for Nova Scotia, Florida, or England, where they could remain free. When Loyalists left the South in 1783, they took thousands of their slaves with them to be slaves in the British West Indies.
A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile, but the Quakers, especially in Pennsylvania, were the most important group to speak out for neutrality. As Patriots declared independence, the Quakers, who continued to do business with the British, were attacked as supporters of British rule, "contrivers and authors of seditious publications '' critical of the revolutionary cause. Though the majority of Quakers attempted to remain neutral, a sizable number of Quakers in the American Revolution nevertheless participated to some degree.
Women contributed to the American Revolution in many ways, and were involved on both sides. While formal Revolutionary politics did not include women, ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as Patriot women confronted a war that permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. They participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and tending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and in a few cases like Deborah Samson, fighting disguised as men. Also, Mercy Otis Warren held meetings in her house and cleverly attacked Loyalists with her creative plays and histories. Above all, they continued the agricultural work at home to feed their families and the armies. They maintained their families during their husbands ' absences and sometimes after their deaths.
American women were integral to the success of the boycott of British goods, as the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. Women had to return to knitting goods, and to spinning and weaving their own cloth -- skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove 20,522 yards (18,765 m) of cloth.
A crisis of political loyalties could disrupt the fabric of colonial America women 's social worlds: whether a man did or did not renounce his allegiance to the King could dissolve ties of class, family, and friendship, isolating women from former connections. A woman 's loyalty to her husband, once a private commitment, could become a political act, especially for women in America committed to men who remained loyal to the King. Legal divorce, usually rare, was granted to Patriot women whose husbands supported the King.
In early 1776, France set up a major program of aid to the Americans, and the Spanish secretly added funds. Each country spent one million "livres tournaises '' to buy munitions. A dummy corporation run by Pierre Beaumarchais concealed their activities. American rebels obtained some munitions through the Dutch Republic as well as French and Spanish ports in the West Indies.
Spain did not officially recognize the U.S. but became an informal ally when it declared war on Britain on June 21, 1779. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, general of the Spanish forces in New Spain, also served as governor of Louisiana. He led an expedition of colonial troops to force the British out of Florida and keep open a vital conduit for supplies.
Most American Indians rejected pleas that they remain neutral and supported the British Crown, both because of trading relationships and Britain 's effort to establish an Indian reserve and prohibit Colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. The great majority of the 200,000 Indians east of the Mississippi distrusted the Colonists and supported the British cause, hoping to forestall continued colonial encroachment on their territories. Those tribes that were more closely involved in Colonial trade tended to side with the Colonists, although political factors were important, as well.
Most Indians did not participate directly in the war, except for warriors and bands associated with four of the Iroquois nations in New York and Pennsylvania which allied with the British. The British did have other allies, especially in the upper Midwest. They provided Indians with funding and weapons to attack American outposts. Some Indians tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in joining what they perceived to be a European conflict, and fearing reprisals from whichever side they opposed. The Oneida and Tuscarora among the Iroquois of central and western New York supported the American cause.
The British provided arms to Indians who were led by Loyalists in war parties to raid frontier settlements from the Carolinas to New York. They killed many settlers on the frontier, especially in Pennsylvania and New York 's Mohawk Valley.
In 1776, Cherokee war parties attacked American Colonists all along the southern frontier of the uplands throughout the Washington District, North Carolina (now Tennessee) and the Kentucky wilderness area. They would launch raids with roughly 200 warriors, as seen in the Cherokee -- American wars; they could not mobilize enough forces to invade Colonial areas without the help of allies, most often the Creek. The Chickamauga Cherokee under Dragging Canoe allied themselves closely with the British, and fought on for an additional decade after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.
Joseph Brant of the powerful Mohawk nation, part of the Iroquois Confederacy based in New York, was the most prominent Indian leader against the Colonial forces. In 1778 and 1780, he led 300 Iroquois warriors and 100 white Loyalists in multiple attacks on small frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania, killing many settlers and destroying villages, crops, and stores. The Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga of the Iroquois Confederacy also allied with the British against the Americans.
In 1779, the Colonists retaliated with an American army under John Sullivan which raided and destroyed 40 empty Iroquois villages in central and western New York. Sullivan 's forces systematically burned the villages and destroyed about 160,000 bushels of corn that composed the winter food supply. Facing starvation and homeless for the winter, the Iroquois fled to the Niagara Falls area and to Canada, mostly to what became Ontario. The British resettled them there after the war, providing land grants as compensation for some of their losses.
At the peace conference following the war, the British ceded lands which they did not really control, and did not consult their Indian allies. They transferred control to the United States of all the land east of the Mississippi and north of Florida. Calloway concludes:
Burned villages and crops, murdered chiefs, divided councils and civil wars, migrations, towns and forts choked with refugees, economic disruption, breaking of ancient traditions, losses in battle and to disease and hunger, betrayal to their enemies, all made the American Revolution one of the darkest periods in American Indian history.
The British did not give up their forts in the West until 1796 in what is now the eastern Midwest, stretching from Ohio to Wisconsin; they kept alive the dream of forming a satellite Indian nation there, which they called a Neutral Indian Zone. That goal was one of the causes of the War of 1812.
Free blacks in the North and South fought on both sides of the Revolution, but most fought for the Patriots. Gary Nash reports that there were about 9,000 black Patriots, counting the Continental Army and Navy, state militia units, privateers, wagoneers in the Army, servants to officers, and spies. Ray Raphael notes that thousands did join the Loyalist cause, but "a far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots. '' Crispus Attucks was shot dead by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre in 1770 and is an iconic martyr to Patriots. Both sides offered freedom and re-settlement to slaves who were willing to fight for them, recruiting slaves whose owners supported the opposing cause.
Many black slaves sided with the Loyalists. Tens of thousands in the South used the turmoil of war to escape, and the southern plantation economies of South Carolina and Georgia especially were disrupted. During the Revolution, the British tried to turn slavery against the Americans. Historian David Brion Davis explains the difficulties with a policy of wholesale arming of the slaves:
But England greatly feared the effects of any such move on its own West Indies, where Americans had already aroused alarm over a possible threat to incite slave insurrections. The British elites also understood that an all - out attack on one form of property could easily lead to an assault on all boundaries of privilege and social order, as envisioned by radical religious sects in Britain 's seventeenth - century civil wars.
Davis underscored the British dilemma: "Britain, when confronted by the rebellious American colonists, hoped to exploit their fear of slave revolts while also reassuring the large number of slave - holding Loyalists and wealthy Caribbean planters and merchants that their slave property would be secure ''. The Colonists, however, accused the British of encouraging slave revolts.
American advocates of independence were commonly lampooned in Britain for what was termed their hypocritical calls for freedom, at the same time that many of their leaders were planters who held hundreds of slaves. Samuel Johnson snapped, "how is it we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the (slave) drivers of the Negroes? '' Benjamin Franklin countered by criticizing the British self - congratulation about "the freeing of one Negro '' (Somersett) while they continued to permit the Slave Trade.
Phyllis Wheatley was a black poet who popularized the image of Columbia to represent America. She came to public attention when her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral appeared in 1773.
During the war, slaves escaped from New England and the mid-Atlantic area to British - occupied cities such as New York. The effects of the war were more dramatic in the South. In Virginia, royal governor Lord Dunmore recruited black men into the British forces with the promise of freedom, protection for their families, and land grants. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to British lines throughout the South, causing dramatic losses to slaveholders and disrupting cultivation and harvesting of crops. For instance, South Carolina was estimated to have lost about 25,000 slaves to flight, migration, or death -- amounting to one third of its slave population. From 1770 to 1790, the black proportion of the population (mostly slaves) in South Carolina dropped from 60.5 percent to 43.8 percent, and from 45.2 percent to 36.1 percent in Georgia.
British forces gave transportation to 10,000 slaves when they evacuated Savannah and Charleston, carrying through on their promise. They evacuated and resettled more than 3,000 Black Loyalists from New York to Nova Scotia, Upper Canada, and Lower Canada. Others sailed with the British to England or were resettled as freedmen in the West Indies of the Caribbean. But slaves who were carried to the Caribbean under control of Loyalist masters generally remained slaves until British abolition in its colonies in 1834. More than 1,200 of the Black Loyalists of Nova Scotia later resettled in the British colony of Sierra Leone, where they became leaders of the Krio ethnic group of Freetown and the later national government. Many of their descendants still live in Sierra Leone, as well as other African countries.
About 60,000 to 70,000 Loyalists left the newly founded republic; some migrated to Britain. The remainder, known as United Empire Loyalists, received land and subsidies for resettlement in British colonies in North America, especially Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. The new colonies of Upper Canada (now Ontario) and New Brunswick were expressly created by Britain for their benefit, where the Crown awarded land to Loyalists as compensation for losses in the United States. Britain wanted to develop the frontier of Upper Canada on a British colonial model. But about 80 % of the Loyalists stayed in the United States and became full, loyal citizens; some of the exiles later returned to the U.S.
Interpretations about the effect of the Revolution vary. Contemporary participants referred to the events as "the revolution ''. Greene argues that the events were not "revolutionary '', as the relationships and property rights of colonial society were not transformed: a distant government was simply replaced with a local one; the Revolution is still sometimes known outside the United States as the American War of Independence.
Historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan accept the contemporary view of the participants that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event that produced deep changes and had a profound effect on world affairs, based on an increasing belief in the principles of the Enlightenment, as reflected in how liberalism was understood during the period, and republicanism. These were demonstrated by a leadership and government that espoused protection of natural rights, and a system of laws chosen by the people. However, what was then considered "the people '' was still mostly restricted to free white males who were able to pass a property - qualification. Such a restriction made a significant gain of the revolution in the short term irrelevant to women, African Americans and slaves, poor white men, youth, and Native Americans. Only with the development of the American system over the following centuries would "a government by the people '', promised by the revolution, be won for a greater proportion of the population.
Morgan has argued that in terms of long - term impact on American society and values:
After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics became possible in the former colonies. The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Concepts of liberty, individual rights, equality among men and hostility toward corruption became incorporated as core values of liberal republicanism. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire, and the first successful establishment of a republican form of democratically elected government, provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self - governing nations with directly elected representative government.
The Dutch Republic, also at war with Britain, was the next country to sign a treaty with the United States, on October 8, 1782. On April 3, 1783, Ambassador Extraordinary Gustaf Philip Creutz, representing King Gustav III of Sweden, and Benjamin Franklin, signed a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the U.S.
The American Revolution was the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions: the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of independence. Aftershocks reached Ireland in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the Netherlands.
The Revolution had a strong, immediate influence in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish Whigs spoke in favor of the American cause. In Ireland, there was a profound impact; the Protestants who controlled Ireland were demanding more and more self - rule. Under the leadership of Henry Grattan, the so - called "Patriots '' forced the reversal of mercantilist prohibitions against trade with other British colonies. The King and his cabinet in London could not risk another rebellion on the American model, and made a series of concessions to the Patriot faction in Dublin. Armed Protestant volunteer units were set up to protect against an invasion from France. As in America, so too in Ireland the King no longer had a monopoly of lethal force.
The Revolution, along with the Dutch Revolt (end of the 16th century) and the 17th century English Civil War, was among the examples of overthrowing an old regime for many Europeans who later were active during the era of the French Revolution, such as Marquis de Lafayette. The American Declaration of Independence influenced the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789. The spirit of the Declaration of Independence led to laws ending slavery in all the Northern states and the Northwest Territory, with New Jersey the last in 1804. States such as New Jersey and New York adopted gradual emancipation, which kept some people as slaves for more than two decades longer.
The democratic ideals of the Revolution inspired changes in the roles of women.
The concept of republican motherhood was inspired by this period and reflects the importance of Republicanism as the dominant American ideology. It assumed that a successful republic rested upon the virtue of its citizens. Women were considered to have the essential role of instilling their children with values conducive to a healthy republic. During this period, the wife 's relationship with her husband also became more liberal, as love and affection instead of obedience and subservience began to characterize the ideal marital relationship. In addition, many women contributed to the war effort through fundraising and running family businesses in the absence of husbands.
The traditional constraints gave way to more liberal conditions for women. Patriarchy faded as an ideal; young people had more freedom to choose their spouses and more often used birth control to regulate the size of their families. Society emphasized the role of mothers in child rearing, especially the patriotic goal of raising republican children rather than those locked into aristocratic value systems. There was more permissiveness in child - rearing. Patriot women married to Loyalists who left the state could get a divorce and obtain control of the ex-husband's property. Whatever gains they had made, however, women still found themselves subordinated, legally and socially, to their husbands, disfranchised and usually with only the role of mother open to them. But, some women earned livelihoods as midwives and in other roles in the community, which were not originally recognized as significant by men.
Abigail Adams expressed to her husband, the president, the desire of women to have a place in the new republic:
I desire you would remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands.
Zagarri in 2007 argued that the American Revolution created a continuing debate on the rights of woman and an environment favorable to women 's participation in U.S. politics. She asserts that for a brief decade, a "comprehensive transformation in women 's rights, roles, and responsibilities seemed not only possible but perhaps inevitable. '' But, the changes also engendered a backlash that set back the cause of women 's rights and led to a greater rigidity that marginalized women from political life.
For more than thirty years, however, the 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants '' who had a certain level of wealth, including unmarried women and blacks (not married women because they could not own property separately from their husbands), until in 1807, when that state legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal white male suffrage, excluding paupers.
In the first two decades after the American Revolution, state legislatures and individuals took actions to free numerous slaves, in part based on revolutionary ideals. Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the 18th century to abolish slavery by a gradual method; in New York, the last slaves were freed in 1827.
While no southern state abolished slavery, for a period individual owners could free their slaves by personal decision, often providing for manumission in wills but sometimes filing deeds or court papers to free individuals. Numerous slaveholders who freed their slaves cited revolutionary ideals in their documents; others freed slaves as a reward for service. Records also suggest that some slaveholders were freeing their own mixed - race children, born into slavery to slave mothers.
The American Revolution has a central place in the American memory. As the founding story, it is covered in the schools, memorialized by a national holiday, and commemorated in innumerable monuments. Thus Independence Day (the "Fourth of July '') is a major national holiday celebrated annually. Besides local sites such as Bunker Hill, one of the first national pilgrimages for memorial tourists was Mount Vernon, George Washington 's estate (near Washington City), which attracted ten thousand visitors a year by the 1850s.
Crider points out that in the 1850s, editors and orators both North and South claimed their region was the true custodian of the legacy of 1776, as they used the Revolution symbolically in their rhetoric. Ryan, noting that the Bicentennial was celebrated a year after the United States ' humiliating 1975 withdrawal from Vietnam, says the Ford administration stressed the themes of renewal and rebirth based on a restoration of traditional values, and presented a nostalgic approach to 1776 that made it seem eternally young and fresh.
Albanese argues that the Revolution became the main source of the non-denominational "American civil religion '' that has shaped patriotism, and the memory and meaning of the nation 's birth ever since. She says that specific battles are not central (as they are for the Civil War) but rather certain events and people have been celebrated as icons of certain virtues (or vices). Thus she points out the Revolution produced a Moses - like leader (George Washington), prophets (Thomas Jefferson, Tom Paine), disciples (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison) and martyrs (Boston Massacre, Nathan Hale), as well as devils (Benedict Arnold), sacred places (Valley Forge, Bunker Hill), rituals (Boston Tea Party), emblems (the new flag), sacred holidays (Independence Day), and a holy scripture whose every sentence is carefully studied and applied in current law cases (The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights).
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who dropped out of america's got talent 2017 | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Mel B and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
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microsoft directx 8.1 runtime free download for windows 7 | DirectX - wikipedia
Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally, the names of these APIs all began with Direct, such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. The name DirectX was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the X standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection. When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the X was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology. The X initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite.
Direct3D (the 3D graphics API within DirectX) is widely used in the development of video games for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox line of consoles. Direct3D is also used by other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks such as CAD / CAM engineering. As Direct3D is the most widely publicized component of DirectX, it is common to see the names "DirectX '' and "Direct3D '' used interchangeably.
The DirectX software development kit (SDK) consists of runtime libraries in redistributable binary form, along with accompanying documentation and headers for use in coding. Originally, the runtimes were only installed by games or explicitly by the user. Windows 95 did not launch with DirectX, but DirectX was included with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2. Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 both shipped with DirectX, as has every version of Windows released since. The SDK is available as a free download. While the runtimes are proprietary, closed - source software, source code is provided for most of the SDK samples. Starting with the release of Windows 8 Developer Preview, DirectX SDK has been integrated into Windows SDK.
In late 1994, Microsoft was ready to release Windows 95, its next operating system. An important factor in the value consumers would place on it was the programs that would be able to run on it. Three Microsoft employees -- Craig Eisler, Alex St. John, and Eric Engstrom -- were concerned because programmers tended to see Microsoft 's previous operating system, MS - DOS, as a better platform for game programming, meaning few games would be developed for Windows 95 and the operating system would not be as much of a success. This was compounded by negative reception surrounding the Windows port of the video game The Lion King. The game used WinG, which crashed on Compaq Presarios that came shipped with it following a partnership between Compaq and Disney, as the Cirrus Logic display drivers used by the Presarios were not thoroughly tested with the API.
DOS allowed direct access to video cards, keyboards, mice, sound devices, and all other parts of the system, while Windows 95 -- with its protected memory model -- restricted access to all of these, working on a much more standardized model. Microsoft needed a quick solution for programmers; the operating system was only months away from being released. Eisler (development lead), St. John, and Engstrom (program manager) worked together to fix this problem, with a solution that they eventually named DirectX.
The first version of DirectX was released in September 1995 as the Windows Games SDK. It was the Win32 replacement for the DCI and WinG APIs for Windows 3.1. DirectX allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorporate high - performance multimedia. Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 in his blog.
DirectX 2.0 became a component of Windows itself with the releases of Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows NT 4.0 in mid-1996. Since Windows 95 was itself still new and few games had been released for it, Microsoft engaged in heavy promotion of DirectX to developers who were generally distrustful of Microsoft 's ability to build a gaming platform in Windows. Alex St. John, the evangelist for DirectX, staged an elaborate event at the 1996 Computer Game Developers Conference which game developer Jay Barnson described as a Roman theme, including real lions, togas, and something resembling an indoor carnival. It was at this event that Microsoft first introduced Direct3D and DirectPlay, and demonstrated multiplayer MechWarrior 2 being played over the Internet.
The DirectX team faced the challenging task of testing each DirectX release against an array of computer hardware and software. A variety of different graphics cards, audio cards, motherboards, CPUs, input devices, games, and other multimedia applications were tested with each beta and final release. The DirectX team also built and distributed tests that allowed the hardware industry to confirm that new hardware designs and driver releases would be compatible with DirectX.
Prior to DirectX, Microsoft had included OpenGL on their Windows NT platform. At the time, OpenGL required "high - end '' hardware and was focused on engineering and CAD uses. Direct3D was intended to be a Microsoft controlled alternative to OpenGL, focused initially on game use. As 3D gaming grew, OpenGL developed to include better support for programming techniques for interactive multimedia applications like games, giving developers choice between using OpenGL or Direct3D as the 3D graphics API for their applications. At that point a "battle '' began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows - only Direct3D. Incidentally, OpenGL was supported at Microsoft by the DirectX team. If a developer chose to use OpenGL 3D graphics API, the other APIs of DirectX are often combined with OpenGL in computer games because OpenGL does not include all of DirectX 's functionality (such as sound or joystick support).
In a console - specific version, DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft 's Xbox, Xbox 360 and Xbox One console API. The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and Nvidia, which developed the custom graphics hardware used by the original Xbox. The Xbox API was similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies. The Xbox was code named DirectXbox, but this was shortened to Xbox for its commercial name.
In 2002, Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0. Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing Shader Model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0 c, released in August 2004.
As of April 2005, DirectShow was removed from DirectX and moved to the Microsoft Platform SDK instead.
DirectX has been confirmed to be present in Microsoft 's Windows Phone 8.
Real - time raytracing was announced as DXR in 2018.
The original logo resembled a deformed radiation warning symbol. Controversially, the original name for the DirectX project was the "Manhattan Project '', a reference to the US nuclear weapons initiative. Alex St. John, head of Microsoft DirectX evangelism at the time, claims that the connotation of the ultimate outcome of the Manhattan Project (the nuclear bombing of Japan) is intentional, and that DirectX and its sister project, the Xbox (which shares a similar logo), were meant to displace Japanese videogame - makers from their dominance of the video - game industry. However, Microsoft publicly denies this account, instead claiming that the logo is merely an artistic design.
DirectX 1.0 -- 8.2
DirectX 9.0 -- 12
DirectX is composed of multiple APIs:
Microsoft has deprecated, but still supports, these DirectX components:
DirectX functionality is provided in the form of COM - style objects and interfaces. Additionally, while not DirectX components themselves, managed objects have been built on top of some parts of DirectX, such as Managed Direct3D and the XNA graphics library on top of Direct3D 9.
DirectX 9 was released in 2002 for Windows 98 through XP, and currently on or supported by all subsequent versions. Microsoft continues to make changes in DirectX 9c, causing support to be dropped for some of the aforementioned operating systems. As of January 2007, Windows 2000 or XP is required. This also introduced Pixel Shader 2.0.
A major update to DirectX API, DirectX 10 ships with and is only available with Windows Vista and later; previous versions of Windows such as Windows XP are not able to run DirectX 10 - exclusive applications. Rather, programs that are run on a Windows XP system with DirectX 10 hardware simply resort to the DirectX 9.0 c code path, the latest available for Windows XP computers.
Changes for DirectX 10 were extensive. Many former parts of DirectX API were deprecated in the latest DirectX SDK and are preserved for compatibility only: DirectInput was deprecated in favor of XInput, DirectSound was deprecated in favor of the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool system (XACT) and additionally lost support for hardware accelerated audio, since the Vista audio stack renders sound in software on the CPU. The DirectPlay DPLAY. DLL was also removed and was replaced with dplayx. dll; games that rely on this DLL must duplicate it and rename it to dplay. dll.
In order to achieve backwards compatibility, DirectX in Windows Vista contains several versions of Direct3D:
Direct3D 10.1 is an incremental update of Direct3D 10.0 which shipped with, and required, Windows Vista Service Pack 1. This release mainly sets a few more image quality standards for graphics vendors, while giving developers more control over image quality. It also adds support for cube map arrays, separate blend modes per - MRT, coverage mask export from a pixel shader, ability to run pixel shader per sample, access to multi-sampled depth buffers and requires that the video card supports Shader Model 4.1 or higher and 32 - bit floating - point operations. Direct3D 10.1 still fully supports Direct3D 10 hardware, but in order to utilize all of the new features, updated hardware is required.
Microsoft unveiled DirectX 11 at the Gamefest 08 event in Seattle, with the major scheduled features including GPGPU support (DirectCompute), and Direct3D 11 with tessellation support and improved multi-threading support to assist video game developers in developing games that better utilize multi-core processors. Direct3D 11 runs on Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 10. Parts of the new API such as multi-threaded resource handling can be supported on Direct3D 9 / 10 / 10.1 - class hardware. Hardware tessellation and Shader Model 5.0 require Direct3D 11 supporting hardware. Microsoft has since released the Direct3D 11 Technical Preview. Direct3D 11 is a strict superset of Direct3D 10.1 -- all hardware and API features of version 10.1 are retained, and new features are added only when necessary for exposing new functionality. This helps to keep backwards compatibility with previous versions of DirectX.
Microsoft released the Final Platform Update for Windows Vista on October 27, 2009, which was 5 days after the initial release of Windows 7 (launched with Direct3D 11 as a base standard).
Since then, four updates for DirectX 11 were released:
DirectX 12 was announced by Microsoft at GDC on March 20, 2014, and was officially launched alongside Windows 10 on July 29, 2015.
The primary feature highlight for the new release of DirectX was the introduction of advanced low - level programming APIs for Direct3D 12 which can reduce driver overhead. Developers are now able to implement their own command lists and buffers to the GPU, allowing for more efficient resource utilization through parallel computation. Lead developer Max McMullen stated that the main goal of Direct3D 12 is to achieve "console - level efficiency on phone, tablet and PC ''. The release of Direct3D 12 comes alongside other initiatives for low - overhead graphics APIs including AMD 's Mantle for AMD graphics cards, Apple 's Metal for iOS and macOS and Khronos Group 's cross-platform Vulkan.
Multiadapter support will feature in DirectX 12 allowing developers to utilize multiple GPUs on a system simultaneously; multi-GPU support was previously dependent on vendor implementations such as AMD CrossFireX or NVIDIA SLI.
DirectX 12 is supported on all Fermi and later Nvidia GPUs, on AMD 's GCN - based chips and on Intel 's Haswell and later processors ' graphics units.
At SIGGRAPH 2014, Intel released a demo showing a computer generated asteroid field, in which DirectX 12 was claimed to be 50 % - 70 % more efficient than DirectX 11 in rendering speed and CPU power consumption.
Ashes of the Singularity was the first publicly available game to utilize DirectX 12. Testing by Ars Technica in August 2015 revealed slight performance regressions in DirectX 12 over DirectX 11 mode for the Nvidia GeForce 980 Ti, whereas the AMD Radeon R9 290x achieved consistent performance improvements of up to 70 % under DirectX 12, in some scenarios the AMD outperformed the more powerful Nvidia under DirectX 12. The performance discrepancies may be due to poor Nvidia driver optimizations for DirectX 12, or even hardware limitations of the card which was optimized for DirectX 11 serial execution, however the exact cause remains unclear.
DirectX 12 APIs are also featured on the Xbox, however the DirectX 12 code is not directly portable between PC and Xbox One due to inherent differences between the two platforms. The performance improvements of DirectX 12 on the Xbox are not as substantial as on the PC.
In March 2018, DirectX Raytracing (DXR) was announced, capable of real - time ray - tracing on supported hardware, and the DXR API was added in Windows 10 October 2018 update.
The February 9, 2005 release is the first 64 - bit capable build. The last build for Windows 98SE / Me is the redistributable from December 13, 2006. The last build for Windows 2000 is the redistributable from February 5, 2010. April 2006 is the first official support to Windows Vista and August 2009 is the first official support to Windows 7 and DX11 update
The version number as reported by Microsoft 's DxDiag tool (version 4.09. 0000.0900 and higher) use the x. xx. xxxx. xxxx format for version numbers. However, the DirectX and Windows XP MSDN page claims that the registry always has been in the x. xx. xx. xxxx format. Put another way, when the above table lists a version as ' 4.09. 00.0904 ' Microsoft 's DxDiag tool may have it as ' 4.09. 0000.0904 '.
Various releases of Windows have included and supported various versions of DirectX, allowing newer versions of the operating system to continue running applications designed for earlier versions of DirectX until those versions can be gradually phased out in favor of newer APIs, drivers, and hardware.
APIs such as Direct3D and DirectSound need to interact with hardware, and they do this through a device driver. Hardware manufacturers have to write these drivers for a particular DirectX version 's device driver interface (or DDI), and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible. Some hardware devices have only DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, one must install DirectX in order to use that hardware). Early versions of DirectX included an up - to - date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available. This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web - based Windows Update driver - update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library.
Prior to DirectX 10, DirectX runtime was designed to be backward compatible with older drivers, meaning that newer versions of the APIs were designed to interoperate with older drivers written against a previous version 's DDI. The application programmer had to query the available hardware capabilities using a complex system of "cap bits '' each tied to a particular hardware feature. Direct3D 7 and earlier would work on any version of the DDI, Direct3D 8 requires a minimum DDI level of 6 and Direct3D 9 requires a minimum DDI level of 7. However, the Direct3D 10 runtime in Windows Vista can not run on older hardware drivers due to the significantly updated DDI, which requires a unified feature set and abandons the use of "cap bits ''.
Direct3D 10.1 introduces "feature levels '' 10_0 and 10_1, which allow use of only the hardware features defined in the specified version of Direct3D API. Direct3D 11 adds level 11_0 and "10 Level 9 '' - a subset of the Direct3D 10 API designed to run on Direct3D 9 hardware, which has three feature levels (9_1, 9_2 and 9_3) grouped by common capabilities of "low '', "med '' and "high - end '' video cards; the runtime directly uses Direct3D 9 DDI provided in all WDDM drivers. Feature level 11_1 has been introduced with Direct3D 11.1.
In 2002, Microsoft released a version of DirectX compatible with the Microsoft. NET Framework, thus allowing programmers to take advantage of DirectX functionality from within. NET applications using compatible languages such as managed C++ or the use of the C# programming language. This API was known as "Managed DirectX '' (or MDX for short), and claimed to operate at 98 % of performance of the underlying native DirectX APIs. In December 2005, February 2006, April 2006, and August 2006, Microsoft released successive updates to this library, culminating in a beta version called Managed DirectX 2.0. While Managed DirectX 2.0 consolidated functionality that had previously been scattered over multiple assemblies into a single assembly, thus simplifying dependencies on it for software developers, development on this version has subsequently been discontinued, and it is no longer supported. The Managed DirectX 2.0 library expired on October 5, 2006.
During the GDC 2006, Microsoft presented the XNA Framework, a new managed version of DirectX (similar but not identical to Managed DirectX) that is intended to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, High - Level Shader Language (HLSL) and other tools in one package. It also supports the execution of managed code on the Xbox 360. The XNA Game Studio Express RTM was made available on December 11, 2006, as a free download for Windows XP. Unlike the DirectX runtime, Managed DirectX, XNA Framework or the Xbox 360 APIs (XInput, XACT etc.) have not shipped as part of Windows. Developers are expected to redistribute the runtime components along with their games or applications.
No Microsoft product including the latest XNA releases provides DirectX 10 support for the. NET Framework.
The other approach for DirectX in managed languages is to use third - party libraries like:
There are alternatives to the DirectX family of APIs, with OpenGL, its successor Vulkan, Metal and Mantle having the most features comparable to Direct3D. Examples of other APIs include SDL, Allegro, OpenMAX, OpenML, OpenAL, OpenCL, FMOD, SFML etc. Many of these libraries are cross-platform or have open codebases. There are also alternative implementations that aim to provide the same API, such as the one in Wine. Furthermore, the developers of ReactOS are trying to reimplement DirectX under the name "ReactX ''.
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mortal kombat raiden big trouble in little china | Raiden (Mortal Kombat) - wikipedia
Raiden (also known as Lord Raiden, and sometimes spelled Rayden) is a video game character in the Mortal Kombat fighting game series by Midway Games. Making his official debut as one of the original seven playable characters in 1992 's Mortal Kombat, he is one of the central characters of the franchise. Based on the Japanese thunder god Raijin, and portrayed in the series canon as the thunder god and appointed protector of Earth, Raiden defends the planet from myriad otherworldly threats alongside his handpicked warriors. He commands many supernatural abilities such as teleportation, flight, and control of the elements.
A mainstay of the Mortal Kombat cast, Raiden is one of the series ' most recognizable characters. He has appeared as a playable character in every fighting installment with the exception of Mortal Kombat 3 and its upgrade, and was among the eleven characters to represent the franchise in the crossover title Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe. He was recently confirmed as one of the three DLC characters in Fighter Pack 2 for Injustice 2, with a new look that was designed by Comic Book artist, Jim Lee. He has featured extensively in other Mortal Kombat media such as the two feature films, the animated series Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm, the television series Mortal Kombat: Konquest, and the Mortal Kombat: Legacy web series, in addition to appearing on official series merchandise. General and critical reception to the character in regards to his design and gameplay has been positive, but mixed in terms of his alternate - media appearances.
When Earthrealm was young, Raiden was its protector. He fought the rogue Elder God Shinnok, who wished to overthrow his fellow gods, in a war that threatened to destroy Earthrealm itself. One of the casualties of the war was the Saurian civilization (of which Reptile is a descendant), forcing the remaining survivors to emigrate to another world, which they named Zaterra. With the aid of the Elder Gods, Raiden managed to defeat Shinnok, then banished him to the Netherealm and secured Shinnok 's amulet of power in a secret location -- a Temple of the Elements tucked away in the highest mountains of Nepal. Raiden charged four gods with guarding the amulet -- the gods of Wind (Fujin), Fire, Earth and Water. When the elder Sub-Zero stole Shinnok 's amulet from the temple for Quan Chi millions of years later, Raiden appeared before the Lin Kuei warrior and instructed him to enter the Netherealm and steal it back, lest Shinnok use it to free himself. Raiden could not retrieve it himself as his powers would dissipate in the Netherealm. Sub-Zero's mission into the Netherealm was a success and Shinnok was, for a time, no longer a threat. Though it was later revealed that the sorcerer Quan Chi had given Sub Zero a false amulet, Raiden never realized the counterfeit and Quan Chi would remain in possession of the true amulet for years.
In the original Mortal Kombat, Raiden was invited to compete in the Mortal Kombat tournament, by Shang Tsung himself. Raiden accepted the invitation and took human form to compete. In Mortal Kombat II, watching events unfold from high above, Raiden realizes the grim intentions of Shao Kahn. Raiden warns the last remaining members of the Shaolin tournament Liu Kang and Kung Lao of Shao Kahn 's threat. Raiden then disappears and ventures to Outworld alone. Despite Shao Kahn taking every soul on Earth as his own, Raiden was able to protect the souls of Liu Kang and other chosen warriors. At first unable to participate due to the merger of both realms, Raiden decided to sacrifice his own immortality in order to help his chances against Kahn after the Elder Gods refused to assist him in Mortal Kombat Trilogy. In the end, Kahn 's forces were defeated, repelling the invasion back into Outworld and restoring Earthrealm to its rightful state.
In Mortal Kombat 4, after the invasion was driven back into Outworld, Shinnok, with the aid of Quan Chi, again sought to rise from the Netherealm and conquer the realms. However, with Liu Kang again uniting Earthrealm 's warriors, Raiden 's Forces of Light emerged successful. Now granted the status of Elder God, he turned over his position as Earthrealm 's protector to Fujin. As an Elder God, Raiden could not interfere when Shang Tsung and Quan Chi killed Liu Kang. Disgusted at the fellow Elder Gods for their refusal to intervene, Raiden relinquished his position and gathered his trusted warriors to stop the Deadly Alliance. However, the Earthrealm warriors Jax Briggs, Sonya Blade, Johnny Cage, Kitana and Kung Lao were all soon slain. In a desperate measure, Raiden personally confronted Shang Tsung and Quan Chi in front of their Soulnado. When Onaga, the Dragon King, entered the chamber, Raiden momentarily putting his differences aside with Tsung and Quan Chi, and assisted them in their attempts to repel Onaga. When he saw that their attacks barely made an impact, Raiden released his godly essence, resulting in an enormous explosion that killed both members of the Deadly Alliance yet did little damage to Onaga. Raiden 's essence soon gathered again in the Earthrealm, but the essence came back corrupted and did not reform as an entirely new god, but a darker variant of himself. He had now become furious with the way Earthrealm 's inhabitants had treated their own realm and became even more enraged when he learned that Shujinko had foolishly unleashed the Dragon King. With his patience exhausted, Raiden decided he was going to take matters into his own hands. Removing Liu Kang 's body from its grave, Raiden took it to an underground temple that belonged to the Houan, an ancient sect of necromancers whom he had destroyed centuries earlier, where he revived his former ally. The corpse of Liu Kang was now the enforcer of Raiden 's will and he sent it on a mission to wreak havoc on those he believed did harm to Earthrealm. This caught the attention of Shinnok, who appeared before Raiden and offered him an alliance. Raiden was well aware of Shinnok 's deceptive nature, but he accepted the offer in an attempt to secretly uncover Shinnok 's plans. Raiden 's story is further expanded in the Konquest mode of Mortal Kombat: Armageddon, when Taven (the story mode 's main character) tells him that he had struck a deal with Shao Kahn, agreeing to let the Emperor conquer and rule all other realms, so long as Earthrealm was left alone. In return, Raiden agreed to hunt and eliminate Taven for Kahn, so that he could claim Blaze 's godlike power for himself. Raiden confronts Taven as Kahn, Onaga, Shang Tsung, and Quan Chi escape into a portal leading to Edenia. He is unsuccessful however, as he is defeated by Taven and left unconscious on the ground. Raiden would later fight against Shao Kahn when the two became the last surviving warriors. Shao Kahn emerged victorious, but Raiden was able to send a message to his past self before Kahn could finish him off.
Raiden returns in the crossover fighting game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe. He plays a significant role in the story mode for the game, being in part responsible for creating Dark Kahn (alongside his DC counterpart Superman), which in turn causes the Mortal Kombat and DC Universes to merge. He also comes into contact with Batman when he rescues Liu Kang from him after Batman detains him for questioning regarding the merging of the worlds. Raiden attempts to electrocute Batman but finds it has no effect due to his insulated body armor. After a brief skirmish, Raiden is able to teleport himself away from the UN Orbital Space Station with Kang in tow. He later challenges Sub-Zero into a fight and later the enraged Captain Marvel, who tells him to leave. After the large battle between the Mortal Kombat warriors and the DC heroes and villains, he defeats Shang Tsung and Kang. Realizing his mistake, he teams up with Superman to defeat Dark Kahn, and later imprisons Darkseid in the Netherrealm. In his endings, Raiden returns to his realm to find that exposure to his world 's sun has weakened him greatly. The sorcerer Quan Chi offers him a large jade amulet with unknown origins that would restore his powers. Raiden is given a choice between a life of servitude to the sorcerer, or mortality.
Raiden appears in the reboot game, titled Mortal Kombat. Taking place in the aftermath of the events of Armageddon, Raiden realizes that the world is in peril due to the course of events that began during the tenth Mortal Kombat tournament (the setting of the original Mortal Kombat). During a mortal battle with Shao Kahn, he transmits a message through time and space to himself at the time of the tournament. The Raiden of the past has been imbued with the knowledge of his future self and commits to using this information to alter the course of history to avert the disaster laid out in Mortal Kombat: Armageddon. Although he succeeds in fulfilling his vision and defeats Shao Kahn, his decision resulted in the death of nearly all of the Earthrealm Defenders, including Liu Kang.
Raiden appears in the latest installment, Mortal Kombat X. During the Neatherrealm war Raiden and Fujin team up to take down a horde of demons and come face to face with some of the Defenders Raiden lost in the previous game that are now under Quan Chi 's control. They manage to defeat Shinnok and lock him in an amulet thanks to Johnny Cage 's unlocked power. During a confrontation with Quan Chi in his fortress, he is not only able to resurrect a mortally wounded Johnny with Sonya 's help, but he is also able to resurrect Jax, Scorpion, and Sub-Zero by combining his magic with his, giving him hope that he can save the other fallen Earthrealm warriors. Years later he catches Kung Lao 's cousin Kung Jin stealing a statue from his temple given to him from Jin 's family. Raiden allows Jin to beat him in a fight to release his anger on Raiden for his involvement in Kung Lao 's death, and encourages the young warrior to join the Shaolin Monks. Another couple of years later, Raiden finds that Shinnok 's amulet has been stolen, and he and the new Earthrealm Defenders work to stop Shinnok from being freed. After conversing with Bo ' Rai Cho over his regret of losing Liu Kang and Kung Lao and reminiscing an older mission, he is attacked by Shinnok and his corrupted former allies. The revenants badly injure Raiden allowing Shinnok to hold him prisoner and take over the Jinsei Chamber. Shinnok is later stopped by Johnny 's daughter Cassie. After which, Raiden requests Kung Jin and Cassie to put him in the Jinsei Chamber, where he purifies it while drawing energy from Shinnok. In the epilogue, Raiden now appears in a darker form similar to his appearance in Deception and Armageddon and warns the new Neatherrealm rulers, Liu Kang and Kitana, that he will show no mercy to anyone who threatens Earthrealm, and gives them Shinnok 's decapitated but still living head to prove his point.
Raiden also appears as a secret character in NBA Jam Tournament Edition, NFL Blitz, and Unreal Championship 2: The Liandri Conflict.
Raiden is mentioned during a certain clash between Joker and Black Adam in Injustice 2. He was later announced as a playable DLC fighter for the game. For his single player ending, Raiden learns that Brainiac 's actions could tear the fabric of the universe apart. While he tended to the injured after the battle, he failed to save Doctor Fate 's life. Just before dying, Doctor Fate learns that the Lords of Order will bring Armageddon. To counteract this, the Justice League recruits a number of sorcerers including Raiden to preserve the balance of order and chaos.
In the Japanese religion Shinto, from which the character is derived, Raijin is usually portrayed as a small, red - skinned demon that beats a drum to create thunder. However, his appearance in the games resembles more of a Taoist thunder god presented in the Chinese temples, right down to his attire. Raiden 's name was spelled this way in all of the original arcade games and in every console game since Mortal Kombat 4. The console ports released up until Mortal Kombat 4, along with both movies, TV series ' and the comic book series, changed the name to "Rayden ''. Ed Boon personally hated that Acclaim spelled it with an Y.
The creators claimed they based Raiden 's character design on The Three Storms, Lo Pan 's three servants from the film Big Trouble in Little China. The third storm, Lightning, exhibited the ability to ride and control lightning, and wore a hat that closely resembles Raiden 's conical hat. In an interview featured in Deception, Ed Boon said that the hat that actor Carlos Pesina wore to portray the character in the earlier Mortal Kombat games was ruined as a result of Pesina repeatedly performing falls during production. In Mortal Kombat and Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance, it states that Raiden is seven feet tall but his sprite was the same height as the other fighters. His coolie hat is his most recognizable feature, and he occasionally wields a quarterstaff that holds the power of thunder and lightning. The Chinese character for thunder, 雷, is visible on most of his costumes. A saya (katana scabbard) appears on Raiden 's secondary costumes in Deadly Alliance, Deception, and Armageddon, but he is never seen actually using the sword. Raiden has electricity pulsating across his body in Mortal Kombat, Mortal Kombat 4, and Deadly Alliance. He has glowing white (occasionally blue) eyes, which glow red in Deception and Armageddon.
Raiden was voiced by Midway employee Jon Hey in the first two games. He became well known for yelling randomly while performing his "Torpedo '' move (aka "Superman move). Fans originally believed that he was yelling in Japanese, while others believed it to be mangled English phrases such as "Your momma 's from LA '', or "Get back in the car. '' John Tobias revealed that Raiden was merely speaking gibberish and not actual Japanese or English.
According to the Konquest mode in Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance, Raiden has mastered all of more than 750 documented varieties of jujutsu, which is his secondary fighting style. He is referred to as "Dark '' or "Evil Raiden '' in his alternate costume and concept renders found in Deception, while Liu Kang 's ending in Armageddon refers to him defeating a Raiden that had been "corrupted by his suicide '' to become Earthrealm 's protector god. Raiden 's behavior had become more erratic and uncharacteristic; he became increasingly aggressive in his protection of Earthrealm, going as far as to destroy all other realms to prevent them from being a danger to Earthrealm in his Armageddon ending. This new Raiden bore a similarity to the characterization of Raiden from the very first game as a god angered by mortals, participating in Mortal Kombat only to prove the gods are superior to humans in combat. In his ending in the original game, Raiden wins the tournament, but soon becomes bored with human competition and he invites other gods to participate in the tournament, which ends up destroying the planet.
Raiden 's Fatality in the original game, in which he obliterated his opponent 's head with a lightning strike, was drastically altered in the Super NES version due to Nintendo 's strict no - blood policy at the time. The decapitation was changed to the opponent 's simply turning into a gray pile of dust and a skull. In the same game, by using Raiden 's finishing move on the final opponent in the third Endurance match, Goro appeared with a glitchy body that was the same shade of gray as the ashes of Raiden 's defeated opponent.
Raiden was originally going to use his staff as a weapon already in Mortal Kombat II, but Midway was forced to omit it due to memory constraints. He was unplayable in all versions of Mortal Kombat 3 and briefly appeared only as part of Nightwolf 's Friendship, which saw him transform into Raiden while a Mortal Kombat II arcade cabinet appeared along with one of two quotes, "No, But I Can Do a Raiden Transformation '', or "I 've never seen a Kano transformation '', both of which were based on false reports that Kano was secretly playable in Mortal Kombat II and Raiden likewise in Mortal Kombat 3. The Friendship was changed in the Nintendo 64 version of Mortal Kombat Trilogy after Raiden became a playable character in that game.
Raiden appears in the Mortal Kombat comic books in his usual role as the guide and mentor of the Earthrealm warriors. He and Shang Tsung were often portrayed as bitter enemies, and he was forbidden from intervening in the mortals ' affairs, as shown when Johnny Cage was to answer one of the questions in the Tao Te Zhan. However, in a departure from the storyline of the first game, he was not allowed to participate in the tournament in the miniseries Blood & Thunder, due to his godly status.
Raiden co-starred in his own three - issue miniseries Rayden & Kano. In this miniseries, it is stated that, while his fellow gods remain out of mortal affairs, Raiden never remains silent, and always tries to give the good side an advantage in the eternal struggle. Raiden saved Kano 's life, and attempted to give him a sword called "Ebbonrule, '' which drew strength from an evil man who turned to the side of good. Raiden hoped Kano would slay Shao Kahn using the sword 's power, but Kano gave the sword to Shao Kahn instead in exchange for godlike powers, which left Raiden to realize that his actions would never tip the balance of good and evil. During the last Tournament Edition issue, Raiden commandeered the group of heroes in Shao Kahn 's tournament. He ultimately sacrificed himself to save the team from an ambush from Kano, Kintaro, Goro and Smoke. Raiden was depicted as having two female servants, named Wynd and Rayne.
In the first Mortal Kombat movie, Raiden, who is played by Christopher Lambert, is disallowed from participating in the tournament, but remains the guiding god of thunder, bent on doing all within his power to help Earth 's chosen warriors gain victory. His wardrobe consisted of a robe which hides his attire from the first game (his rain hat was worn only once in the beginning of the film). His eyes occasionally displayed his true nature and he was seen teleporting at least once. Raiden also possessed a sense of humor that was sometimes lost on the other characters, often prompting him to apologize after making dry remarks. According to the ' Making of Mortal Kombat ' published by New Line Cinema, Raiden 's role was "to protect the Earth Warriors and make sure Shang Tsung 's forces do n't cheat to win ''. On the ship taking all tournament contestants to Tsung 's island, Raiden informed the Earth warriors that he had looked into all their souls, and one of three would decide the outcome: Liu Kang, Johnny Cage or Sonya Blade. Raiden also appeared in the animated prequel Mortal Kombat: The Journey Begins as the guide of the protagonists.
Raiden was played by James Remar in the 1997 sequel, Mortal Kombat: Annihilation. He was depicted as the brother of Shao Kahn and the son of Shinnok in the film 's original storyline, which included both Raiden and Kahn sporting a dragon tattoo that was explained to be a family crest bestowed to his family 's bloodline, and allowed its bearers to travel safely between realms. A planned fight scene he was to have with Sheeva was included in the shooting script, but it was eventually cut from the film; Raiden instead fought a pair of Reptile clones while Sheeva died after being crushed by a falling cage. At the end, he became an Elder God in the place of his father.
Jeffrey Meek played Raiden in the live - action series Mortal Kombat: Konquest. Unlike his film and game incarnations, this Raiden is far more upbeat, with a sarcastic personality making him less aloof toward humans. He was Kung Lao 's mentor since childhood, and constantly reminds the young warrior of his duty to find new fighters to protect Earthrealm and to prepare for the next Mortal Kombat tournament.
Raiden was a regular in the 1996 animated series Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm and was voiced by Clancy Brown (who had risen to fame portraying Christopher Lambert 's nemesis in the 1986 movie Highlander). He was depicted in his Mortal Kombat II attire and retained the dry wit and sarcasm of his Konquest counterpart, clashing with Sonya and Jax in several episodes.
Raiden is one of the many re-imagined characters in Mortal Kombat: Legacy, featured in the sixth episode and portrayed by Ryan Robbins. He crashed landed to Earth to participate in the Mortal Kombat tournament, but he, unfortunately, landed within the bounds of a mental hospital. He is found by a young female patient named Blue, whom he befriends, and taken in by orderlies. After three months of therapy, his doctor believes that Raiden is still under the delusion that he is the God of Thunder, and constantly vomits a blue substance. He is swiftly lobotomized, but due to his supernatural abilities, recovers from it. He attempts to escape, but is lobotomized once again. Blue finds him and locks the door to the room, and Raiden tells her to stab him. After a tearful goodbye, Blue stabs him, causing him to disintegrate into lightning and smoke. Raiden reappears elsewhere and takes his signature hat from an old Chinese man. David Lee McInnis plays Raiden in the 2013 second series of Mortal Kombat Legacy.
Raiden is often included on the list of the top characters of the Mortal Kombat franchise. He was ranked as the 10th best character from the series by UGO.com, who praised him as one of the iconic characters from the franchise. He was sixth in Game Revolution 's ranking of top ten "old school '' Mortal Kombat characters, noting him for his gibberish and the Fergality. In 2011, GameRant placed Raiden as sixth "most awesome '' Mortal Kombat characters, commenting: "The starring role, coupled with fun moves (the torpedo and shocker) as well as a set of shocking fatalities, solidified Raiden 's place as one of the most memorable kombatants in the series. '' In UGO 's 2012 list of the top Mortal Kombat characters, Raiden placed fourth. The readers of Dorkly voted him the series ' third greatest character in a 2013 poll.
In 2011, UGO, Raiden ranked his hat as the 14th coolest headgear in video games and commented "Kung Lao 's got a slick topper that he can also use as a weapon, but Lord Raiden 's conical straw hat is untouchable. '' It was ranked as having the fourth best headwear in video gaming by GamePro in 2009. In 2010, UGO ranked "baby Raiden '' as the cutest Babality. In 2011, Paste listed Raiden 's Fatality in the 2011 Mortal Kombat game as the sixth best from that game, also ranking Raiden 's Fatality from the original Mortal Kombat as the second best from that game. WeDoTech.net ranked Raiden as fifth on their 2010 list of top fighting characters of all time, commenting that "his ability of flight and teleportation are also two skills designed perfectly for the combat arena. '' In 2012, Complex ranked him as the 32nd "most dominant '' fighting game character.
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who plays katie on wet hot american summer | Marguerite Moreau - wikipedia
Marguerite C. Moreau (born April 25, 1977) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Jesse Reeves in the fantasy horror film Queen of the Damned, Katie in the comedy Wet Hot American Summer, and her role in The Mighty Ducks series of films. She has also made appearances on the popular television series Smallville, Lost, Cupid and The O.C.
Moreau was born on April 25, 1977 in Riverside, California. Her first break - out role was playing the recurring part of Melanie on Blossom in 1994 and 1995. She guest starred in several TV series such as Boy Meets World and 3rd Rock from the Sun. As a child actress, she appeared in the Mighty Ducks films playing Connie Moreau. After graduating from Vassar College with her B.A. in political science in 1999, she landed some of her most prominent roles.
In 2001 she starred as Katie in Wet Hot American Summer. She reprised this role in an eight - part prequel series produced by Netflix, which debuted on July 31, 2015.
Moreau played the role of Jesse in the 2002 film Queen of the Damned, based on the Anne Rice novels. She played the lead role in the TV miniseries Firestarter 2: Rekindled, succeeding Drew Barrymore in the role of Charlie McGee. In 2003 's Runaway Jury she played opposite Gene Hackman. Moreau also starred in the 2003 independent film Easy, which has also been broadcast on the Showtime cable television network.
Returning to television, she starred as Susan Atkins in Helter Skelter, a television movie about Charles Manson, and had a regular role on the ABC network series Life As We Know It in the 2004 -- 2005 season. She played Monica Young, a high school teacher having an affair with one of her students.
Moreau appeared in a season two episode of Lost, playing Starla in "Everybody Hates Hugo '', as well as several episodes of The O.C., playing Reed Carlson. Originally, she was to have a regular role in the Fox show Killer Instinct, but her character was written out of the series after the first episode and was replaced by the character played by Kristin Lehman. She has also appeared as a recurring character on the ABC series What About Brian.
She also appeared in a season 2 episode of Mad Men as a charismatic call girl named Vicky.
In 2008, she was in The Uninvited as an agoraphobic woman whose house torments her with malevolent spirits.
In 2009, she guest starred in the pilot episode of the series Cupid where she helps an Irish man find his "love at first sight ''. She also made an appearance in the Monk episode "Mr. Monk and the Dog '', and episodes of Private Practice, HawthoRNe, and CSI: NY.
She also had a minor role in the 2008 comedy Beverly Hills Chihuahua.
In 2010, she guest starred in two episodes of Brothers & Sisters and had a recurring role on the first season of the NBC show Parenthood. Her last appearance in Parenthood was in episode 5 of season one after she dumped Crosby. The same year, she appeared in several webisodes of a Jersey Shore parody in the format of Masterpiece Theatre, alongside YouTube comedian Ceciley Jenkins. Titled Mashterpiece Theatre Presents Jersey Shore, the series presented verbatim dialogue re-enacted by Moreau, Jenkins and Lisa Nova in aristocratic English accents while taking tea.
In 2011, she guest starred in American series Shameless as Linda, and in "I 'm a Liver Not a Fighter '' (episode 47 or episode 7 of season 4) of In Plain Sight. In 2013, she guest starred on Grey 's Anatomy.
Moreau married actor Christopher Redman in May 2010. In July 2015 Moreau gave birth to a son, Casper Hayes Redman.
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